WHY TO CONTROL INSECT PESTS?

Insect pests are controlled in a sense as they are posing the danger to human, nature & economy. Insect pests are
posing many threats to crops which meant in qualitative & quantitative losses of crops. If insect pests are not
controlled effectively than it will be very difficult for the farmers to obtain good yields from the crop production
activities. Insect pest control measures would provide the opportunity to the crop producers or farmers to control
the insect pests before they cause economic losses to the crop yields. Insect pests also need to be controlled
because they are the vectors of many crop diseases & helps in transferring diseases to distant areas by carrying
with them the disease symptoms. So if the insect pests are needed to be controlled for fulfilling the needs of
increasing food requirements of increasing population.

HOW TO CONTROL INSECT PESTS?

Insect pests should be controlled by different methods such as;

1. Natural or Cultural methods of pest control

2. Physical or Mechanical methods  of pest control

3. Biological methods of pest control

4. Chemical or modern methods of pest control

5. Integrated Pest Management or IPM measures of pest control

NATURAL OR CULTURAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL

These methods include the different practices followed at the farm which reduces the pest populations. These
methods include:

1. Crop rotation: By following crop rotation the insect pests which developed & flourished due to
monoculture are managed. For example, by changing the rice-wheat crop pattern in north India several
pests of rice-wheat can be effectively controlled.

2. Changing the planting & sowing time of crops:  The problem of insect pest can also be managed
effectively by changing the sowing dates of crops by few days. For example problem of aphids in
wheat crop in Indian sub-continent can be managed by late sowing of wheat by 10 -15 days than
normal dates of sowing.

3. By destroying the remaining debris & plant parts of harvested crops: As these plays the role of host
plants in the offseason for insect pests.

4. By using the insect pest resistant varieties of crops: which will helps in protecting the crops from
several loss causing pests.

5. By using the insect pest-free planting material: Sometimes insect pests pose the problem in crop fields
when the infected planting material or seedlings are used for sowing of the crop. For example when
infected bolls of cotton are preserved & used for planting in next year.

6. Use of trap crops: Trap crops are used for controlling the insect pests by planting it in the border rows
so as to trap the pests in these rows of trap crops. For example planting of mustard on border rows of
wheat crop for protecting wheat crop from damage due to aphids.

7. By burning or destroying of pest affected plant parts in the soil, so that they are not further transferred
to distant fields.

8. By application of water into the fields to kill the insect pests by drowning them in water.

9. By use of different tillage activities in fields at the preparation time i.e. planking, ploughing etc. to
destroy the eggs & pupa of different insect pests hibernating in the soil in off seasons.

10. By performing the mixed or intercropping activities, which will reduce the host plants providing food
for survival to pests & limits their number.
 11. By the destruction of the weed plants present near the fields as these will also act as host plants for
many harmful insect pests. For example weed plant of Parthenium hysterophorous or carrot weed
which provides food & shelter to different insect pests.

PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL METHODS OF CONTROL

These are the methods of pest control which are applied by using mechanical or physical means of energy.
These are:

1. Use of insect traps: by application of several trap instruments like mosquito trapping baits, fly screens,
trap cards & nets etc. in the fields for trapping of the insect’s males who performs breeding. These are
placed in fields and after collection pests are destroyed by killing them.

2. Handpicking or killing off insect pests manually after collecting them.

3. Use of synthetic or natural mulching materials such as paper or crop leaves & trashes for covering the
open soil in summer & do not allow the insect pests to hibernate or egg laying in soil.

4. By deep ploughing in summers for increasing the soil temperature up to 60 degrees Celcius for the
killing of the pest eggs laying in soil.

5. Good packaging & storing techniques such as control of humidity & temperature of the harvested
produce so that insect pests do not hibernate within the produce & pose problems.

6. Use of attractants for pest control to manage their population.

BIOLOGICAL METHODS OF PEST CONTROL

These are the methods which use the predators or parasites or pathogens which are the natural enemies of insect
pests & do not allow them to survive in the crop fields if applied in sufficient number. These are the methods of
pest control which are environment preservative & ecosystem friendly. These are:

Lady
bird beetle

1. Predators:  These are the free-living organisms which eat the organisms smaller than these. These are
excellent means of pest control for example; Ladybird beetles which are an excellent control of
sugarcane pyrilla & wheat aphid if applied in quantitative numbers & also the introduction of Ladybird
beetle in the USA in the 19th century for controlling the citrus insect pests.

2. Parasites: These are organisms which lay their eggs on the body of host insect but also obtain nutrition
from its body without killing him. For example, different wasps which are parasites of whitefly of
 cotton causing white sooty moulds & Trichogramma chilonesis against the sugarcane pests like Pyrilla
etc.

3. Different microorganisms like bacteria, fungi & viruses which kill the many different insect pests by
their poisonous actions over pests. For example, bacteria named Bacillus thuringiensis possess the
killing properties of different bollworm pests of cotton due to the resistant gene. Several fungi like
Beauveria bassiana acts as entomopathogenic fungi against different pests like those of weevils,
whiteflies, aphids etc. & Trichoderma species are also used against different pests of sugarcane.
Viruses are used in controlling the mammalian pests of crops.

CHEMICAL METHODS OF INSECT PEST CONTROL

The chemical methods of insect pest are also known as modern methods of pest control as these use chemicals
which are invented in the modern world. These are the most expensive & skill requiring methods of pest
control.  These chemicals are having different formulations such as:

1. Granules (G)

2. Pellets(P)

3. Dust(D)

4. Soluble Powders (SP)

5. Wettable Powders (WP)

6. Aerosols (A)

7. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC)

These can be divided into the following categories:

1. On the basis of mode or site of action:

1. Systemic insecticides: These are the insecticides which act on the stomach of the insect pests & kill
them. These insecticides are translocated in the inside tissues of the pests by translocation action.

2. Contact insecticides: These are the insecticides which are effective when they come in contact with the
insect through their outer body parts.

3. Fumigants: these are the chemicals which are used for controlling the stored grain pests by the release
of toxic gases in the storage houses.

1. On the basis of different chemical groups:

1. Organophosphates

2. Organochlorine

3. Pyrethroids

4. Carbamates

5. Sulphonyl urease

6. Biopesticides

General Approaches to Insect Control

There are several general approaches to insect pest
management. When developing an overall pest management
strategy it is helpful to consider all of the available options.
Most specific insect control methods can be classified into the
following major categories: cultural control, host resistance,
physical control, mechanical control, biological control, and
chemical control. Not all are appropriate or useful in the home
garden.

Cultural Control
These methods involve modification of standard farming or
gardening practices to avoid pests or to make the environment
less favorable for them. There are several types of cultural
controls; the following are a few examples of commonly used
methods.

A western corn rootworm, an insect that can be controlled by

crop rotation. Photo by USDA-ARS.
Crop rotation replaces a crop that is susceptible to a serious
pest with another crop that is not susceptible, on a rotating
basis. For example, corn rootworm larvae can be starved out
by following corn with one to two years of a non-host crop such
as soybeans, alfalfa, oats, or other crops. Crop rotation works
best in larger areas where the insects can not readily move
from the old crop location to the new, therefore, this technique
has limited applicability to garden insect pests.
Sanitation refers to keeping the area clean of plants or
materials that may harbor pests. Examples include removal of
weeds in greenhouses that may harbor mites, aphids, or
whiteflies; destruction of crop residues such as corn stubble,
squash vines, or fallen apples that may be overwintering sites
for pests; cleaning of equipment that can spread pests from
one area to another. Trap cropping is the provision of a pest
insect’s preferred food near the crop to be protected; the
insects are attracted to the trap crop which is then destroyed.
For example, pickleworms will concentrate in squash planted
near cucumbers, and the squash plants can be destroyed. A
carefully considered time of planting will help avoid some pest
problems such as seed corn maggot.

Host Resistance

Some apple varieties are resistant to one or more pests.

Photo by USDA-ARS
Host resistance, or plant resistance, has been used
effectively for decades to reduce the impact of pests. Some
plants have physical and chemical adaptations that allow
them to repel, tolerate, or even kill pests. Plant breeders
attempt to use these characteristics and even improve them
to develop crops that are resistant. Many varieties of
important crops grown today, such as wheat, rice, alfalfa,
corn, and apples are resistant to one or more pests.
Historically, the development of resistant varieties was often
tedious and lengthy, requiring many generations of plant
hybridization. Although such traditional techniques will
 continue, it is likely that modern methods of biotechnology
will also provide pest-resistant crops.

Physical Controls

Floating row covers keep insects out

These are methods that physically keep insect pests from
reaching their hosts. Barriers include window screens for
keeping health and nuisance pests out of buildings and plant
pests out of greenhouses, floating row covers for many
horticultural crops, and plant collars to keep cutworms from
attacking plants such as tomatoes. Various types of traps can
be used for monitoring and/or control, such as glueboard traps
in homes or red sphere traps for apple maggots. Codling moth
larvae can be trapped under cardboard bands wrapped around
apple trees; the bands are removed and destroyed. Some
pests, such as earwigs and slugs, can be lured to their death in
sunken traps filled with beer. In some cases, chemical lures
(containing pheromones or other chemical attractants) are
available to increase trap effectiveness. Trapping must be
evaluated for each pest situation. In some cases, traps can
lead to increased damage, such as pheromone-baited traps for
Japanese beetles.
 Various types
of traps can be used for specific insects.

Mechanical Control
Mechanical control methods directly remove or kill pests. They
can be rapid and effective, and many are well suited for small
acute pest problems, and are popular with gardeners and
homeowners. Importantly, mechanical controls have relatively
little impact on the beneficial natural enemies of pests and
other non-target organisms, and are therefore well suited for
use with biological control in an integrated pest management
approach (see below).

Large insects, such as this Colorado potato beetle, can be

hand-picked from plants. Photo by USDA-ARS.
Hand-picking can be used for large or brightly colored foliage
feeders such as Colorado potato beetle, Mexican bean beetle,
and tomato hornworm. Some insects will defensively drop from
plants if disturbed, and can be knocked into a container of
soapy water. Shaking plants will dislodge many pests. For
example, plum curculio beetles can be removed from fruit trees
by diligently banging tree limbs with a padded stick and
collecting the adult weevils on a white sheet as they fall out of
the trees. A strong spray of water will dislodge aphids and
mites from greenhouse, garden, and house plants. Fly swatters
and mouse traps are forms of mechanical control. Cultivation or
tillage exposes many soil insects to desiccation or predation by
birds.
 

Biological Control
This is the use of beneficial organisms to control pests. Many
centuries ago, Chinese farmers observed that ants were
helping to control insect pests in their citrus orchards by feeding
on caterpillars, beetles, and leaf-feeding bugs. The farmers
discovered that by collecting the papery nests of a specific type
of ant from trees in the countryside and moving them into their
orchards, they got better control of some pests. They also
provided aerial bamboo runways among the citrus trees to help
the ants move easily from tree to tree. These efforts to increase
the numbers of ants in the orchard and to heighten their
efficiency as predators is the first recorded occurrence of
biological control of insects, which is the intentional
manipulation of populations of living beneficial organisms,
called natural enemies, in order to reduce the numbers of pests
or amount of damage.
Vedalia beetle. Photo by USDA-ARS.
In the mid-1880s, southern California’s developing citrus
industry experienced devastating losses from an introduced
pest, cottony cushion scale. Growers tried every available
chemical control known at the time, even fumigation with
hydrogen cyanide, but nothing provided sufficient control; many
growers removed their citrus groves because the damage was
so serious. After determining that the scale insect was native to
Australia and New Zealand, the U.S.D.A. sent an entomologist
to that area to look for effective natural enemies. The
entomologist found a small lady beetle, the vedalia beetle,
which he sent to California. It rapidly reproduced in infested
citrus groves and brought the cottony cushion scale under
complete and lasting control. This was the first highly
successful case of controlling an alien pest by introducing its
natural enemies from a foreign land, a technique now known as
classical biological control.
Agents of biological control (natural enemies) of insects include
predators, parasitic insects, and insect pathogens. Predators
may be insects or other insectivorous animals, each of which
consumes many insect prey during its lifetime. Predators are
often large, active, and/or conspicuous in their behavior, and
are therefore more readily recognized than are parasites and
pathogens.

Parasites lay their eggs in or on their host. Photo by USDA-

ARS.
Parasites (also called parasitoids) of insects are other insects
which lay their eggs in or on the host insect. When the parasite
egg hatches, the young parasite larva feeds on the host (the
pest) and kills it. Usually that one host is sufficient to feed the
immature parasite until it becomes an adult. Many parasites are
very specific to the type of host insect they can attack, and they
are not harmful to humans. Although insect parasites are very
common, they are not well known because of their small size.
One of the smallest, Trichogramma, is only about the size of
the period at the end of this sentence.

Caterpill
ar killed by Bt (dark insect) and not infected (light insect).
Insects, like other animals, are subject to attack by disease
organisms. Microbial control is a form of biological control that
uses insect pathogens to control pests. Insect pathogens
include viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and other
microorganisms that cause insect diseases. Disease epidemics
among insects are not commonly encountered in nature except
when insect populations are very large or when environmental
conditions favor the growth of the disease organism.
Nevertheless, insect pathogens are very important in the
constant suppression of pest populations. Also, certain insect
pathogens have been very successfully manipulated to achieve
biological control of specific pests. For example, different
strains of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, commonly
known as “Bt”, are marketed to control many insects including
various caterpillars such as cabbage loopers and gypsy moth
larvae, mosquitoes, and Colorado potato beetles. Many insect
pathogens attack only one species or a limited group of insects
and therefore are unlikely to harm non-target species such as
beneficial insects, humans, livestock, wildlife, or plants.
There are three broad approaches to biological control.
Importation of natural enemies is conducted by federal and
state agencies to find better beneficial natural enemies and
permanently establish them into new areas. Conservation of
natural enemies improves the effectiveness of natural enemies
through farming and gardening practices that provide
necessary resources for their survival and protect them from
toxins and other adverse conditions. Augmentation of natural
enemies temporarily increases the numbers of natural enemies
through periodic releases, thereby increasing the overall
numbers of natural enemies and improving biological control.

Chemical Control
This involves the use of chemicals to kill pests or to inhibit their
feeding, mating, or other essential behaviors. The chemicals
used in chemical control can be natural products, synthesized
mimics of natural products, or completely synthetic materials.
Repellants, confusants, and irritants are not usually toxic to
insects, but interfere with their normal behavior and thereby
keep the insects from causing damage. Mothballs and
mosquito repellants are familiar examples. Widescale use of
synthetic sex pheromones may confuse insects sufficiently that
they are unable to mate and produce offspring – using insect
pheromones in this manner is called mating disruption. This is
one method the WDNR has used to slow the spread of gypsy
moth in Wisconsin, dropping pheromone flakes from airplanes
in order to treat large acreages. A few such products are
commercially available for other insects, such as for codling
moth control in apples. This practice works best in large
commercial plantings where it is less likely that mated females
will move into the planting from outside of the treated area.
Many of these types of behavioral chemicals break down or
wash away quickly, and must be reapplied frequently, used in
an enclosed area, or formulated to release slowly over a long
period.
Insecticides and miticides include many types of commercially
available toxins, some naturally-derived, others synthesized,
that are used for killing insects and mites.

Chemical controls, particularly synthetic organic insecticides,

have been developed for nearly every insect pest. They are
widely used in industrialized nations for several reasons:
they are highly effective – one product often controls several
different pests; there is relatively low cost for product or
labor; and generally their effects are predictable and reliable.
Chemical insecticides have allowed management of larger
acreages by fewer individuals because of the reduced labor
needed for physical and mechanical controls. Besides their
use in agriculture, chemical insecticides have been very
important in the battle against disease-carrying insects, such
as mosquitoes that carry malaria.
However, chemical controls have many disadvantages: most
have biological activity against many forms of life and
therefore can affect non-target organisms; for the same
 reason, they present various levels of hazard to humans,
especially pesticide applicators and other farm workers; most
are highly toxic to beneficial insects, such as pollinators and
predatory and parasitic natural enemies; both target and
non-target insects can develop resistance to insecticides,
sometimes very rapidly. Over-reliance on chemicals and
diminished use of other control methods have helped push
agriculture away from a more natural, balanced state.

Methods of insect control

Non-Chemical Methods

Many natural controls act to keep insects in balance:

• Weather factors like temperature and rainfall can restrict the distribution of an insect species. For
example, mites and leafhoppers are usually more prevalent under dry conditions.

• Geographic barriers like large bodies of water, mountains, and deserts can also limit insect distribution.

• Frogs, toads, lizards, moles, and birds are some of the many animals that feed largely on insects.

• Beneficial predator insects like ladybugs feed on aphids, while others like the braconid wasp and
tachnid fly lay eggs on or in certain pests which are killed by the developing larvae. Some predator insects
like the praying mantis eat beneficial insects as well, however. Insects are also attacked by viruses, fungi,
and bacteria which help keep populations down.

As agricultural activities have increased, many of these natural balances have been upset and can no
longer be relied upon to keep harmful insects under control. Monoculture and the existence of vast areas
under cropping have led to marked increases in a number of insect pests. Indiscriminate use of pesticides
has actually resulted in buildup of harmful insects in some cases. Many of the traditional crop varieties,
despite their lower productivity, have better insect resistance than some of the improved varieties.

Biological Control

Biological control is the purposeful introduction of predators, parasites or diseases to combat a harmful
insect species. About 120 different insects have been partially or completely controlled by this method in
various parts of the world. Microbial insecticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis (effective against a few
types of caterpillars) are now commonly used by farmers and gardeners in many areas. Unfortunately,
biological control measures are presently effective against a very small portion of harmful insect species.

Cultural controls

Cultural controls such as crop rotation, intercropping, burying crop residues, timing the crop calendar to
avoid certain insects, and controlling weeds and natural vegetation that harbor insects are all effective
control methods for some insects. In most cases, however, cultural controls need to be supplemented by
other methods.

Varietal Resistance

Crop varieties differ considerably in their resistance to certain insects. For example, maize varieties with
long, tight husks show good resistance to earworms and weevils. Researchers at CIAT have found that
some bean varieties are relatively unaffected by leafhopper damage during the wet season, while others
suffer yield losses of up to 40 percent. Screening for insect resistance is an important part of crop
breeding programs.

"Organic" Controls

"Organic" control refers to non-chemical methods in general. These include the application of homemade
"natural" sprays made from garlic, pepper, onions, soap, salt, etc., and the use of materials like beer to
kill slugs and wood ashes to deter cutworms and other insects. Some of these "alternative" insecticides
are slightly to fairly effective on small areas like home gardens and where insect populations are
relatively low. They are seldom feasible or effective on larger plots, especially under tropical conditions
that favor insect buildup.

Chemical Control

Chemical control refers to the use of commercial insecticides in the form of sprays, dusts, granules, baits,
fumigants, and seed treatments. While some of these insecticides like rotenone and pyrethrin, are
naturally derived, most are synthetic organic compounds that have been developed through research.

Advantages of Insecticides:

• They act rapidly.

• They are the only practical means of control once an insect population reaches the economic threshold
of damage on a commercial-size plot.

• They are available with a wide range of properties, species effectiveness, and application methods.

• They are relatively inexpensive, and their proper usage can often return $4.00 5.00 for every $1.00
spent.

Disadvantages of Insecticides:

• Insect resistance to pesticides: This is a growing problem. By 1961, 60-70 species had developed
resistance to certain products, and the number had increased to around 200 by the mid-1970's.

• Outbreaks of secondary pests: Few insecticides kill all types of insects, and some actually promote the
increase of certain pests. For example, continual use of Sevin (carbaryl) in the same field may increase
problems with some types of aphids which it does not control well.

• Damage to non-target species: These include beneficial predators such as bees and wildlife.

• Residue hazards: Some chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds like DDT, Aldrin, Endrin, Dieldrin, and
Heptachlor are highly persistent in the environment and may accumulate in the fatty tissues of wildlife,
livestock, and humans. Many other insecticides are broken down into harmless compounds fairly rapidly.

• Immediate toxicity: Some insecticides are extremely toxic in small amounts to humans and animals.
Again, it is important to realize that insecticides vary greatly in their toxicity.

Current Status of Insecticide Use in the Reference Crops

At the present time and for the immediate future, insecticide usage will often be an essential part of any
package of improved practices for the reference crops. For this reason, all extension workers must learn
the basic principles of safe and effective insecticide application. Some extension workers may be
personally opposed to the use of these chemicals, but it is a fact that farmers throughout the developing
world are using them, often in an unsafe and indiscriminate manner due to the lack of proper instruction.
Most developing countries have few, if any, pesticide regulations or restrictions on environmentally
harmful products like Aldrin or highly toxic ones like Parathion. By instructing farmers in safety
precautions and in the appropriate choice and use of insecticides, the incidence of human poisoning and
possible environmental damage can be greatly reduced.

Integrated Pest Control

The disadvantages of total reliance on insecticides have given rise to integrated pest control or pest
management which involves the judicious use of these chemicals based on the following guidelines and
principles:

• The development and use of cultural and other nonchemical control methods to avoid or reduce insect
problems.

• Determining crop tolerance to pest damage based on the principle that complete freedom from pests is
seldom necessary for high yields. Nearly all plants can tolerate a surprising amount of leaf loss before
yields are seriously affected.

• The appropriate timing and frequency of treatments to replace routine, preventative spraying.
Treatments are not initiated before the particular insect has reached the economic damage threshold,
which will vary considerably with the species. Insect scoutinglooking for related kinds and number of
insects and their density and population counts-is an essential part of this system.

The advent of integrated pest control dates back to the early 1970's, and most of the efforts have been
directed at cotton where insecticides frequently account for up to 80 percent of total production costs.
Some remarkable successes have been achieved with other crops as well. For the reference crops,
integrated pest control is still in the very early stage, especially in developing countries.

USING INSECTICIDES SAFELY

Insecticide safety guidelines, toxicity data, and first aid measures are covered in Appendix J, which
should be referred to before working with insecticides

Insect control

Some Important Facts on Insects

Insects can often be identified by the type of damage they cause:

• Chewing and Boring Insects

Caterpillars are the larvae of moths. They damage plants by feeding on leaves and making holes in them
or by boring into stalks, pods, and maize ears. The cutworm caterpillar is unusual in that it lives in the
soil and emerges at night to cut off plant stems near ground level.

Bettles feed on plant leaves and chew holes in them. Some beetles of the weevil family bore into pods and
seeds and deposit eggs inside. Certain beetles can also transmit bacterial and viral diseases.

Beetle larvae like white grubs, wireworms, and rootworms live in the soil and damage roots and the
underground portion of the stem by chewing or boring.

• Sucking Insects

Aphids, leafhoppers, stinkbugs, harlequin bugs, whiteflies, and mites have piercing and sucking
mouthparts and feed on plant sap from leaves, pods, and stems. They transmit a number of plant
diseases, especially viruses. Sucking insects do not make holes in the leaves, but usually cause leaf
yellowing, curling or crinkling.

Insect Life Cycles

A general understanding of insect life cycles is useful in identifying insect problems in the field. Beetles
and moths go through a complete metamorphosis (change in form) consisting of four stages, while aphids,
leafhoppers, whiteflies and other sucking insects go through only three stages.

(Adult stage)

MOTH à EGG à
(Does no damage.)

CATERPILLAR à PUPA

(Usually feeds on leaves.)   (Dormant stage; turns into a moth.)

(Adult stage)

BEETLE à EGG

(Feeds on leaves,pods)

LARVA à PUPA

(Grubs, wireworms, rootworms, etc. Feed on plant roots.)   (Dormant stage turns into a
beetle.)

How to Identify Insects and Their Damage

BE OBSERVANT! Troubleshooting takes practice, and a sharp eye is essential. When walking through a
field, closely examine the plants for insects or their damage symptoms. Check both sides of the leaves
since many insects prefer the undersides of leaves. A magnifying glass can be very helpful.

Identifying Insect Damage: Often it is possible to identify insects by the damage they cause.

• Holes in leaves: Caused by caterpillars, beetles, crickets, snails, and slugs. (Snails and slugs are not
insects but do attack plant foliage.)

• Wilting: Usually caused by soil insects like white grubs and wireworms. If root feeding or tunneling of
the underground portion of tile stem has been serious it could be due to stem borers. Remember that
wilting can be caused by other factors, too: dry soil, very high temperatures, root rots, bacterial and
fungal wilts, and nematodes.

To determine if insects are the cause of wilting, dig up the affected plants. Check the root system and
underground portion of the stem for insect and disease damage, also look for soil insects. Slit the stem
lengthwise with a pocket knife and check for borers or rotted tissue.

• Leaf curling, crinkling or yellowing: Caused by sucking insects, especially aphids, leafhoppers, and
mites. Viruses and some nutrient deficiencies also produce these symptoms. Nematodes and poor
drainage cause yellowing too.

Identifying Insects: Spend time with locally experienced exten ion workers in the field and have them
point out the prevalent crop insect pests (and beneficial predator insects) in the work area. Seek out host
country or regional insect guides such as extension bulletins. The publications listed in the bibliography
are also very useful.

Organic Pest Control Method

When it comes to limit the damage caused by insects and small animals, many people go for natural methods to
target only pests and not harming other plants or animals in the process. In this way, potent and efficient
predator traps and baits are used to kill pests. Sodium fluoroacetate (FCH₂CO₂Na) is a biodegradable poison
mixed into baits to eradicate a range of pests. It is the most cost-effective method of providing pest control over
difficult territory. Other products used in organic pest control are oil sprays, parasitic nematodes, floating row
covers, insecticidal soap, etc.
Biological Control

This technique is mainly used in greenhouses but can be practiced outdoors too. In order to control pests
biologically, natural enemies of the pest such as predators, parasites, pathogens are introduced which
geographically interfere with their ability to breed and infect the pests with a fatal bacterial disease. Certain
beneficial insects feed on larvae of pests reducing their further growth. This method is environmentally safe for
your plants, your family, and natural wildlife as compared to the potential hazards of pesticides. However, the
success of this process depends on the correct use of appropriate species under proper conditions.

Chemical Pesticides

There are thousands of chemical pesticides used today in homes, offices, stores, farms and many other
places. Pesticides are hazardous, and they contaminate land, air, food, and water. Sometimes they are too
dangerous for the people using them and other living organisms nearby too. Pesticides are available in solid,
liquid and aerosol form, grouped according to the type of pest they kill such as insecticides are to kill insects,
bactericides for bacteria, herbicides for plants. Pesticides can kill a detrimental animal through oral entry
(through the mouth), respiratory entry (through breath) and dermal entry (through the skin). Before using a
spray by yourself, always remember to read the label on a pesticide, and avoid contaminating uncovered food,
drinks, utensils and other usable items lying around. If you find difficulty in handling pesticides by yourself, call
pest control service providers to help you do the task.

Hygiene Control

There are fewer pests found where places are found clean, therefore, leave no venue and food for pests to grow
on and reproduce. Control pests at home and offices by practicing good hygiene. Always clean up after meals,
throw leftover food and residue in the trash bin secured in wraps. Wash and dry the dishes after use, keep all
cupboards, floors, stoves and other household items clean. Always keep your food in a lid fitted container, flush
the toilet after each use, seal all the septic tanks, drains and holes around pipes, make sure communities are
disposing of all trash and burying it regularly or recycling it, clear weeds and debris from a garden, use fresh
mulch and natural fertilizers. There will be far less chance of using pesticides if relevant hygiene factor is
address properly.