Iso 2178 2012

5/25/2018 ISO 2178 Non-ma gnetic Coa ting on Ma gnetic Substra te s Thicke ss - slide pdf.c om
© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved
ISO/IEC TC 107/SC N
Date: 2012-10-11
ISO/IEC WD 2178
ISO/IEC TC 107/SC /WG
Secretariat: KATS
Non-magnetic coatings on magnetic substrates — Measurement of

coating thickness — Magnetic method
Revêtement métalliques sur métal de base magnétique — Mesurage de l'epaisseur du revêtement —
Méthode maguétique
Warning
This document is not an ISO International Standard. It is distributed for review and comment. It is subject to
change without notice and may not be referred to as an International Standard.
Recipients of this draft are invited to submit, with their comments, notification of any relevant patent rights of
which they are aware and to provide supporting documentation.
Document type: International Standard

Document subtype:
Document stage: (20) Preparatory
Document language: E
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ISO/IEC WD 2178
Copyright notice
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reproduction of working drafts or committee drafts in any form for use by participants in the ISO standards
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Violators may be prosecuted.
ii © ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Contents Page
Foreword .............................................................................................................................................................v
1 Scope ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Normative references ............................................................................................................................ 1
3 Terms and definitions ........................................................................................................................... 1
4 Principle of measurement..................................................................................................................... 2
4.1 Basic principle of all magnetic measurement methods .................................................................... 2
4.2 Magnetic pull-off method......................................................................................................................2
4.3 Magnetic inductive principle ................................................................................................................3
4.4 Magnetic-flux gauge .............................................................................................................................. 5
5 Factors affecting measurement accuracy .......................................................................................... 5

5.1 Basic influence of the coating thickness............................................................................................ 5
5.2 Magnetic properties of the base metal................................................................................................ 6
5.3 Electrical properties of the coating materials .................................................................................... 6
5.4 Geometry – base metal thickness ....................................................................................................... 6
5.5 Edge effects ........................................................................................................................................... 6
5.6 Geometry: surface curvature ............................................................................................................... 6
5.7 Surface roughness ................................................................................................................................ 7
5.8 Cleanliness: lift-off effect...................................................................................................................... 7
5.9 Probe pressure ...................................................................................................................................... 7
5.10 Probe tilt ................................................................................................................................................. 7
5.11 Temperature effects .............................................................................................................................. 7
5.12 External electromagnetic fields ........................................................................................................... 8
6 Calibration and adjustment of the instrument ................................................................................... 8
6.1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 8
6.2 Thickness reference standards ........................................................................................................... 8
6.3 Methods of adjustment .........................................................................................................................8
7 Measurement procedure and evaluation ............................................................................................ 9
7.1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 9
7.2 Number of measurements and evaluation .......................................................................................... 9
8 Uncertainty of the results ...................................................................................................................10
8.1 General remarks .................................................................................................................................. 10
8.2 Uncertainty of the calibration of the instrument .............................................................................. 10
8.3 Stochastic errors ................................................................................................................................. 11
8.4 Uncertainties caused by factors summarized in paragraph 5 ........................................................ 12
8.5 Combined uncertainty, expanded uncertainty and final result ......................................................12
9 Test report ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Annex A (informative) Basics principle of all measurement methods ........................................................ 14
Annex B (informative) ........................................................................................................................................16
Some basics for the calculation of the uncertainty of measuring results, according to ISO/IEC
Guide 98-3 ............................................................................................................................................ 16
Annex C (informative) Basic performance requirements for coating thickness gauges which are
based on the magnetic method described in this standard ........................................................... 18
C.1 Technical Specification.......................................................................................................................18
C.2 Check / Verification of instruments and probes prior to the supply, after repair and at
regular intervals after use ..................................................................................................................18
C.3 Check / Verification of instruments and probes performed on site ...............................................18
© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved iii


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Annex D (informative) Experimental estimation of factors affecting the measurement accuracy -

— examples ..........................................................................................................................................20
D.1 General..................................................................................................................................................20
D.2 Edge effect............................................................................................................................................20
D.3 Base metal thickness ..........................................................................................................................21
D.4 Surface curvature ................................................................................................................................22
D.5 Magnetic properties of the base metal ..............................................................................................23
Annex E (informative) Table of the student factor .........................................................................................25
Annex F (informative) Example of uncertainty estimation (see paragraph 8) ...........................................26
F.1 Sample to be measured ......................................................................................................................26
F.2 Steps to do ...........................................................................................................................................26
iv © ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies
(ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO
technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been
established has the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and
non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.
International Standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2.
The main task of technical committees is to prepare International Standards. Draft International Standards
adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting. Publication as an
International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of patent
rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
ISO/IEC 2178 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 107, Metallic and other inorganic coating ,
Subcommittee SC , .
This second/third/... edition cancels and replaces the first/second/... edition (ISO 2178:1975), [clause(s) /
subclause(s) / table(s) / figure(s) / annex(es)] of which [has / have] been technically revised.
© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved v


WORKING DRAFT ISO/IEC WD 2178
Non-magnetic coatings on magnetic substrates —

Measurement of coating thickness — Magnetic method
1 Scope
This International Standard describes a method for non-destructive measurements of the thickness of non-
magnetizable coatings on magnetizable base metals.
The measurements are tactile and non-destructive on typical coatings. The probe or an instrument with
integrated probe is placed directly on the coating to be measured. The coating thickness is displayed on the
instrument.
NOTE This method can also be applied to the measurement of magnetizable coatings on non-magnetizable base
metals or other materials (see ISO 2361).
2 Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated
references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced
document (including any amendments) applies.
ISO 99:2007, International vocabulary of metrology — Basic and general concepts and associated terms
(VIM)
ISO 2064, Metallic and other non-organic coatings - Definitions and conventions concerning the measurement
of thickness
ISO 2360, Non-conductive coatings on non-magnetic electrically conductive basis materials — Measurement
of coating thickness — Amplitude-sensitive eddy current method
ISO 2361, Electrodeposited nickel coatings on magnetic and non-magnetic substrates — Measurement of
coating thickness — Magnetic method
ISO 2808, Paints and varnishes — Determination of film thickness
ISO 4618, Paints and varnishes — Terms and definitions
ISO 21968, Non-magnetic metallic coatings on metallic and non-metallic basis materials — Measurement of
coating thickness — Phase-sensitive eddy-current method
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3, Uncertainty of measurement — Part 3: Guide to the expression of uncertainty in
measurement (GUM:1995)
3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO 2064 and ISO 4618 and the
following apply.
3.1
Adjustment of a measuring system
set of operations carried out on a measuring system so that it provides prescribed indications corresponding
to given values of a quantity to be measured
© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved 1


ISO/IEC WD 2178
NOTE 1 adjustment of a measuring system can include zero adjustment, offset adjustment, and span adjustment
(sometimes called gain adjustment).
NOTE 2 Adjustment of a measuring system should not be confused with calibration, which is a prerequisite for
adjustment.
NOTE 3 After an adjustment of a measuring system, the measuring system must usually be recalibrated
[VIM, ISO 99:2007, 3.11]
NOTE 4 Colloquially the term calibration is frequently, but falsely used instead of the term adjustment. In the same
way, the terms verification or checking are often used instead of the correct term calibration.
3.2
Calibration
operation that, under specified conditions, in a frist step, establishes a relation between the quantity values
with measurement uncertainties provided by measurement standards and corresponding indications with
associated measurement uncertainties and, in a second step, uses this information to establish a relation to
obtain a measurement result from indication

NOTE 1 A calibration may be expressed by a statement, calibration function, calibration diagram, calibration curve, or
calibration table. In some cases, it may consist of an additive or multiplicative correction of the indication with associated
measurement uncertainty.
NOTE 2 Calibration should not be confused with adjustment of a measuring system, often mistakenly called "self-
calibration", nor with verification of calibration.
NOTE 3 Often, the first step alone in the above definition is perceived as being calibration.
[VIM, ISO 99:2007, 2.39]
4 Principle of measurement
4.1 Basic principle of all magnetic measurement methods
The magnetic flux density close to a magnetic field source (permanent magnet or electromagnet) depends on
the distance to a magnetizable base metal. This phenomenon is used to determine the thickness of a non-
magnetic coating applied to the base metal.
NOTE 1 Annex A describes the physical background of this effect in more details.
All methods covered by this standard evaluate the magnetic flux density to determine the thickness of the
coating. The strength of the magnetic flux density is converted into corresponding electrical currents, electrical
voltages, or mechanical forces depending on the method used. The values are either pre-processed by digital
means or are directly displayed on a usefully scaled gauge.
NOTE 2 The methods described in 4.3 and 4.4 can also be combined in one and the same probe with another method,
e.g. with the eddy current method according to ISO 2360 or ISO 21968.
4.2 Magnetic pull-off method
The magnetic flux density of a permanent magnet and thus the attraction force between a permanent magnet
and a magnetizable base metal decreases with increasing distance. In this way the attraction force is a direct
measure for the coating thickness of interest.
Instruments working with the magnetic pull-off method consist of at least three units: a permanent magnet, a
pull-off device with continuously increasing pull-off force, and a display or scale for the coating thickness,
which is calculated from the pull-off force.
The pull-off force can be generated by different types of springs or an electromagnetic device.
2 © ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Some instruments are able to compensate the influence of gravity and allow measurements in all positions.
All other instruments may only be used in the position specified by the manufacturer.
The location of measurement must be clean and free from liquid or pasty coatings. The permanent magnet
must be free from metallic particles.
Electrostatic charging can cause additional forces on the permanent magnet or the measuring system and is
thus to be avoided or shall be discharged before the measurement.
Key
1 base metal
2 coating
3 magnet
4 scale
5 spring
[Figure ISO 2808]
Figure 1 — Magnetic pull-off gauge
4.3 Magnetic inductive principle
The electrical inductivity of a coil changes, when an iron core is inserted into the coil or when an iron object,
e.g. a plate, approaches the coil. Therefore, the electrical inductivity can be used as a measure of the distance
between the coil and a ferromagnetic substrate or as a measure of the coating thickness, if the coil is placed
onto a coated magnetizable base metal.
There are many different electronic methods to evaluate changes of the electrical inductivity or the reaction of
a coil system to a ferromagnetic substrate. Magnetic induction probes for thickness measurements of coatings
on magnetizable materials can consist of one or more coils. Most often two coils are used (Fig. 2), the first
(primary coil) to generate a low frequency alternating magnetic field and the second (secondary coil) to
measure the resulting induced voltage U. If the probe is placed on a coated magnetizable material ( µ r > 1 )
the magnetic flux density (see Annex A) and the induced voltage of the secondary coil vary as a function of
the coating thickness. The function between the induced voltage and the coating thickness is nonlinear and
depends on the permeability µ r of the base metal. It is usually determined by a calibration. Calibration curves
which assign a coating thickness to the induced voltages can be stored in the gauge.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Different designs and geometries of this kind of probes are used. Very often both coils are employed together
with a highly magnetizable core in order to increase the sensitivity of the probes and to concentrate the field.
In this way both the coating area, which contributes to the thickness measurement, and the influence of the
geometry are reduced (see 5.5, 5.6).
On the contrary, a two pole probe (Fig. 3) has a wide and open field distribution. The two-pole probe has area
integrating properties, while a one-pole probe measures locally.
Usually the frequency of the generated field is below the kilohertz range, which avoids eddy current
generation if the coatings are conductive. Therefore both conductive and nonconductive coatings can be
measured by means of this principle.
Figure 2 — Schematic of the magnetic induction principle
Figure 3 — Schematic of a two pole probe


ISO/IEC WD 2178
4.4 Magnetic-flux gauge
The magnetic flux density close to a magnet depends on the magnetic properties of the substances in the
magnetic field. The magnetic flux density decreases if the fraction of non-magnetizable substances increases
relative to magnetizable substances. This fact is used in magnetic flux gauges (see Fig. 4). The coating (2) is
non-magnetizable; the base metal (1) is magnetizable. A magnet (4) creates a magnetic field. Its field lines
pass through both the coating and the base metal. A magnetic flux detector (3) placed close to the magnet
outputs electrical signals, which depends on the coating thickness.
NOTE 1 Magnetic flux detectors are Hall-sensors or magneto resistive sensors.
NOTE 2 The magnet can be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
Key
1 base metal
2 coating
3 Hall element as magnetic flux detector
4 magnet
U output voltage
I operating current for the Hall element
[Figure ISO 2808]
Figure 4 — Flux gauge using a Hall probe
The electric signals of the flux detector are further processed by electronic means. The function between flux
detector output and the coating thickness is nonlinear and depends on the permeability µ r of the base metal. It
is usually determined by calibration. Calibration curves which assign a coating thickness to the electric
detector output can be stored in the gauge.
5 Factors affecting measurement accuracy
5.1 Basic influence of the coating thickness
The sensitivity of a probe, i.e. the measurement effect, decreases with increasing thickness within the
measurement range of the probe. In the lower measurement range this measurement uncertainty (in absolute
terms) is constant, independent of the coating thickness. The absolute value of this uncertainty depends on
the properties of the probe system and the used sample materials, e.g. the homogeneity of the base metal
permeability, the base metal roughness and the sample surface roughness. In the upper measurement range
of the probe the uncertainty becomes relative to the thickness and is approximately a constant fraction of that
thickness.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
5.2 Magnetic properties of the base metal
The permeability of the base metal causes the measurement effect of this method.
The relationship between coating thickness and the measured value depends strongly on the permeability of
the base metal. Consequently calibration procedures and measurements shall be made on the same material.
Different materials with different permeabilities can cause more or less thickness errors as well as local
fluctuations of the permeability or variations between different samples can do.
NOTE 1 Examples of the initial permeability of typical steel used is in the range of 100 to 300.
NOTE 2 Residual magnetism of the base material can also affect the measurements considerably, especially when
static magnetic fields (4.2: Magnetic pull-off force or 4.4: Magnetic-flux gauge) are used.
NOTE 3 The base metal can be magnetized by repeated measurements on the same location if a measurement
method with a static magnetic field (4.2: Magnetic pull-off force or 4.4: Magnetic-flux gauge) is used. This may lead to
errors of the thickness readings.
5.3 Electrical properties of the coating materials

Coating thickness measurements can be affected if the probe is operated with an alternating magnetic field
(4.3: Magnetic inductive principle or 4.4: Magnetic flux gauge) due to eddy currents. These induced eddy
currents can counteract the measurement effect of the magnetic method. The induced eddy current density
increases with increasing conductivity and frequency.
NOTE Usually instruments using measurement methods 4.3 or 4.4 work within a frequency range below 1 kHz.
Therefore induced eddy currents affecting measurement results are only effective for thick coatings (thickness above 1
mm) with a high conductivity, e.g. copper.
5.4 Geometry – base metal thickness
The penetration of the magnetic field into the base metal is obstructed if the base metal thickness is too small.
This influence can only be neglected above a certain critical minimum base metal thickness.
Therefore the thickness of the base metal should always be higher than this critical minimum base metal
thickness. An adjustment of the instrument can compensate for errors caused by a too thin base metal
thickness. However any variation in thickness of the base metal can cause increased uncertainty and errors.
The critical minimum base metal thickness depends on both the probe system (field strength, geometry) and
the magnetic properties of the base metal. Its value should be determined experimentally, unless otherwise
specified by the manufacturer.
NOTE A simple experiment to estimate the critical minimum base metal thickness is given in annex D.3.
5.5 Edge effects
The expansion of the magnetic field is obstructed by geometric limitations of the base metal (e.g. edges, drills
and other). Therefore measurements made too near to an edge or corner may not be valid unless the
instrument has been specifically adjusted for such measurements. The necessary distance in order to avoid
an impact of the edge effect depends on the probe system (field distribution).
NOTE A simple experiment to estimate the edge effect is given in annex D.2.
5.6 Geometry: surface curvature
The propagation of the magnetic field is affected by the base metal surface curvature. This influence becomes
more pronounced
minimize withan
this influence decreasing
adjustmentradius
shouldofbethe curvature
performed on and decreasing
a base metal withcoating thickness.
the same In order to
geometry.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
The influence of surface curvature depends considerably on the probe geometry and can be reduced by
reducing the sensitive area of the probe. Probes with very small sensitive areas are often called microprobes.
NOTE A simple experiment to estimate the effect of surface curvature is given in annex D.4.
5.7 Surface roughness

Measurements are influenced by the surface topography of the base material and of the coating. Rough
surfaces can cause both systematic and random errors. Random errors can be reduced by making multiple
measurements, each measurement being made at a different location, and then calculating the average value
of that series of measurements.
In order to reduce the influence of roughness a calibration should be carried out with an uncoated base metal
with a roughness equivalent to the coated sample base metal.
NOTE If necessary the definition of the used average coating thickness should be stated between supplier and client.
5.8 Cleanliness: lift-off effect
If the probe is not placed directly down on to the coating, the gap between probe and coating (lift-off) will act
as an additional coating thickness and therefore affect the measurement. Lift-off can be produced
unintentionally due to the presence of small particles between probe and coating. The probe tip shall
frequently be checked for cleanliness.
5.9 Probe pressure
The pressure which the probe exerts to the test specimen can affect the instrument reading and shall always
be the same during adjustment and measurements.
The influence of the probe pressure is more pronounced in case of soft coatings because the probe tip can be
indented
available into the coating.
instruments are Therfore
equippedthe probe
with pressure
spring loadedshould
probesbeensuring
as small aasconstant
possible.pressure
Most commercially
during the
placement. A suitable auxiliary device should be used in case that the probe is not spring loaded.
NOTE 1 The contact pressure and the probe tip indentation depth can be reduced by reducing the applied load force or
by using a probe with a larger diameter of the probe tip.
NOTE 2 An indentation of the probe tip into soft coatings can be reduced by placing a protective foil with known
thickness onto the coated surface. In this case the coating thickness is the measured thickness minus the foil thickness.
5.10 Probe tilt
Unless otherwise instructed by the manufacturer, the probe should be applied perpendicularly to the coating
surface as tilting the probe away from the perpendicular can cause measurement errors.
The risk of inadvertent tilt can be minimised by probe design or by the use of a probe holding jig.
NOTE Most commercially available instruments are equipped with spring loaded probes which ensure a
perpendicular placement on the sample surface.
5.11 Temperature effects
As temperature changes affect the characteristics of the probe it should be used under approximately the
same temperature conditions as under calibration.
Note 1 The influence of temperature variations can be reduced by a temperature compensation of the probe. The
manufacturer`s specification has to be taken into account.
Note 2 Temperature differences between probe, electronics of the instrument, environment and sample can cause
strong thickness errors. One example is the thickness measurement of hot coatings.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
5.12 External electromagnetic fields
The measurement results can be influenced by strong electromagnetic interfering fields. In case of
unexpected results or a strong variation of results, which cannot be explained by other factors, this reason
should be taken into account. In this situation a comparison measurement should be carried out at a location
without interfering fields.
6 Calibration and adjustment of the instrument
6.1 General
Before usage every instrument must be calibrated or adjusted according to the instructions of the
manufacturer by means of suitable thickness reference standards and base metal. Material, geometry, and
surface properties of the base metal used for calibration or adjustment should comply with the test specimens
in order to avoid deviations caused by the factors described in clause 5. Otherwise these influences must be
considered in the estimation of the measurement uncertainty.
During calibration
temperature as theortest
adjustment the
specimens to instruments, the standards
minimize temperature anddifferences.
induced the base metal should have the same
In order to avoid the influence of instrument drifts periodic control measurements with reference standards or
control samples are recommended. If required, the instrument has to be re-adjusted.
NOTE Most instruments automatically adjust themselves during a function called "calibration", which is often not
obvious to the operator.
6.2 Thickness reference standards
Thickness reference standards for calibration and adjustment are either coated base metals or foils, which are
placed onto uncoated base metals.
Foils and coatings must be non-magnetizable. Thickness values of the reference standards and their
associated uncertainties must be known and unambiguously documented. The surface area for which these
values are valid must be marked. The thickness values should be traceable to certified reference standards.
NOTE 1 The uncertainties shall be documented with their confidence level, e.g. U(95 %), i.e. there is a 95 %
probability that the documented thickness value is within the reported uncertainty interval.
Prior to use foils and coatings are to be checked visually for damage or mechanical wear as this would cause
a wrong adjustment and thus systematic deviation of all measurement values.
NOTE 2 In most cases the foil material is plastics, but other materials, e.g. copper alloys can be used as well.
The use of foils compared to selected coated base metals as reference standards benefits from the possibility
to place the foils directly on each base metal thus matching each respective shape geometry exactly.
However, by placing the probe on foils elastic or plastic deformation may occur which can affect the
measuring result. Moreover, any gap between the pole of the probe, foil and base metal has to be avoided.
Especially on concave specimens or if the foil is wrinkled or bended the usually low pressure of the spring
loaded guiding sleeve of the probe may not be sufficient to ensure this.
6.3 Methods of adjustment
Adjustment of the coating thickness gauges is executed by placing the probes on uncoated and/or one or
more coated pieces of base metal with known coating thickness. Depending on the instrument types,
instructions of the manufacturer and on the functional range of the instrument under use, adjustments can be
carried out on
a) a piece of uncoated base metal;


ISO/IEC WD 2178
b) a piece of uncoated base metal and a piece of coated base metal with defined coating thickness;
c) a piece of uncoated base metal and several pieces of coated base metal with defined but different coating
thickness;
d) several pieces of coated base metal with defined but different coating thickness.
The stated adjustment methods may lead to different accuracies of the measuring results. Thus, a method
should be used, which fits best the given application and leads to the desired accuracy. The measuring
uncertainty which can be achieved by the different adjustment methods depends on the evaluation algorithm
of the gauges as well as on the material, geometry and surface condition of the standards and of the base
metals to be measured. If the desired accuracy is not achieved by one method, a different adjustment method
may lead to better results. In general, the measuring uncertainty can be reduced by increasing the number of
adjustment points and the better and closer the adjustment points cover the expected thickness interval of the
coating to be measured.
NOTE 1 The process which is used to adapt the probe to the given base metal by placing the probe onto the
uncoated base metal, is often called "zeroing" or "zero point calibration". However, even this procedure is an “adjustment”
or part of an adjustment process as defined by this standard.
NOTE 2 Depending on how many pieces of coated and uncoated base metals are used to adjust the instrument the
corresponding adjustment method is often called single-point, two-point or multiple-point adjustment.
NOTE 3 The measurement uncertainty resulting from an adjustment of the instrument cannot be generalized to all
subsequent measurements. In each case all specific and additional influencing factors need to be considered in detail, see
section 5 and appendix D.
NOTE 4 Some types of gauges permit to reset the instrument to an original adjustment of the manufacturer. This
adjustment is valid for the manufacturer´s uncoated or coated reference standards only. If these standards or the same
types of standards are used to check the instrument after a period of use, any deterioration of gauge and probes, e.g.
wear of the probe by abrasion of the contact pole, can be recognized by observing deviations of the measuring results.
7 Measurement procedure and evaluation
7.1 General
Every instrument shall be operated according to the manufacturer’s instructions especially considering the
factors affecting measurement accuracy discussed in section 5.
Before using the instrument and after changes affecting the measurement accuracy (see section 5) the
adjustment of the instrument shall be checked.
To ensure that the instrument measures exactly it shall be calibrated with valid standards at the place of
inspection each time the instrument is put into operation, material and geometry of the test specimens are
changed, or other conditions of the inspection have changed (e.g. temperature) whose effects are not known.
As not all changes of measurement conditions and their influences on the measurement accuracy can be
immediately recognized (e.g. drift, wear of the probe) the instrument should be calibrated at regular time
intervals while in use.
7.2 Number of measurements and evaluation
The coating thickness should be determined as the arithmetic mean of several single values, which are
measured in a defined area of the coating surface. Additionally to the mean the standard deviation should be
reported (see Annex B). The random part of the measurement uncertainty can be reduced by increasing the
number of measurements. If not otherwise specified or agreed upon, it is recommended to measure at least
five single values (depending on the application).
NOTE 1 From the standard deviation a variation coefficient V can be calculated. V corresponds to the relative standard
deviation (e.g. in percent) and enables a direct comparison of the standard deviation for different thicknesses.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
NOTE 2 The total scatter of the measurement is composed of the scatter of the instrument itself and the scatter caused
by the test specimen. The standard deviation of operator and probe in the measured thickness range is determined by
repeated measurements at the same location, if required with the help of an auxiliary device for placing the probe.
NOTE 3 When measuring on rough coating surfaces or on test specimens with known large thickness gradients (e.g.
due to their size and/or their shape) the reason for deviations between the single measurements should be determined by
a series of measurements.
8 Uncertainty of the results
8.1 General remarks
A complete evaluation of the uncertainty of the measured thickness shall be carried out in accordance with
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3. Details of the background of the expression of the uncertainty are summarized in
Annex B.
Uncertainty of the thickness measuring result is a combination of uncertainties from a number of different
sources. Important sources which should be considered can be the following:
a) Uncertainty of the calibration of the instrument;
b) Stochastic influences affecting the measurement;
c) Uncertainties caused by factors summarized in paragraph 5;
d) Further influences, drifts, digitalization effects and other.
All uncertainty components must be estimated and summarized to the combined standard uncertainty as
described in Annex B.
A possible 8.2
(paragraph procedure
to 8.5). of the estimation of the uncertainty is given in the following simplified approach
NOTE 1 The single uncertainty components of the listed sources are dependent on the respective measurements, the
properties of the samples measured, the instrument, the environmental condition etc. and can show large differences for
different applications. Therefore the single uncertainty components must be estimated for each measurement in all detail.
The quality of the uncertainty is determined by the quality of the estimation of all uncertainty components. Missing
components result in wrong uncertainty estimations and consequently in wrong thickness results.
NOTE 2 Especially the factors listed in paragraph 5 can result in large uncertainty values and should be minimized by
an adjustment if possible.
NOTE 3 Beside the demand to express the uncertainty in the result the analysis of possible uncertainty components
gives detailed information in order to improve the measurement.
8.2 Uncertainty of the calibration of the instrument
If no other information is given the current uncertainty of an instrument can be estimated within a limited
thickness range by realization of n repeated measurements on a given reference standard with known
thickness tr and uncertainty Ur (k=2). The measurement result is the arithmetic mean value t m of the
measured thickness values with the standard deviation s(t m). The quality of the calibration is determined by
the ratio E of the resulting difference t m − t r and the combined uncertainty of the verification measurement.
This uncertainty (denominator of E, k=2) is considered to be caused by the stochastic error of the
measurement with n repeats (compare paragraph 8.3) and the given reference standard uncertainty U r . In
case of E ≤ 1 the calibration is valid and cannot be further improved by means of this reference standard, i.e.
the difference cannot be distinguished from the uncertainty. Therefore the standard uncertainty of the
calibration ucal (k=1) is given by the combined uncertainty of the verification measurement but with respect to
the 1 sigma level (k=1).


ISO/IEC WD 2178
However in case E > 1 a significant deviation of the calibration within the uncertainty is detected and an
adjustment of the instrument should be carried out in order to improve the calibration accuracy.
t r − t m
E = (1)
 s(t m )2 2
2 ⋅ t (68,27%, n − 1) ⋅  + [0.5 ⋅ U r ]
 n 
2
 s(t ) 
u cal = t (68,27%, n − 1) ⋅ m  + [0.5 ⋅ U r ]2 (2)
 n 
NOTE 1 In case the tolerance T of the reference standard is given (tr ± T) instead of Ur the respective uncertainty
T
Ur (k=2) can be calculated: U r (k = 2) = 1.653 ⋅
3
NOTE 2 The calibration uncertainty ucal is only valid in a small thickness range around t r . In case of a larger thickness
range of interest, the uncertainty ucal should be estimated on both sites of the thickness range and a linear interpolation
between both values gives the uncertainty of interest as a function of the thickness.
NOTE 3 Very often the accuracy of the calibration is limited by the given uncertainty of the reference standard, as the
uncertainty of the calibration cannot be smaller than the uncertainty of the reference standard used. In order to improve
the calibration a reference standard with a smaller uncertainty is necessary.
NOTE 4 Usually a normalization or zeroing on an uncoated base metal is recommended by the manufacturer at the
beginning of a measurement. The resulting uncertainty of this normalization is considered to be already included in ucal.
NOTE 5 t ( 68,27 %, n − 1) : student factor (degrees of freedom f = n − 1 and level of confidence with p = 68
.27% ).
Respective values are summarized in Annex E.
8.3 Stochastic errors
General repeated measurements are recommended in order to improve the accuracy of the arithmetic mean
value t of the thickness values measured (see paragraph 7.2.), i.e. to reduce the uncertainty of the thickness
result. In case of n repeated measurements the standard uncertainty u sto (k=1) of the arithmetic mean t can
estimated by (Type A):
s(t )
u sto = t (68.27%,
n − 1) ⋅ (3)
n
The standard uncertainty usto is a measure of all errors arising from unpredictable or stochastic temporal and
spatial variations of influence quantities.
NOTE 1 The standard uncertainty usto can be reduced by increasing the number of repeated measurements. This can
be important e.g. in case of rough sample surfaces.
NOTE 2 Not all contributions to the uncertainty usto are of random nature (Type A). This depends on the design of
experiment. E.g. the measured thickness of a larger sample with a thickness gradient results in a high uncertainty u sto
because of the systematic thickness variation. In case of a reduced measurement area u sto is reduced and the arithmetic
mean value t gives a better description of the local thickness.
NOTE 3 Care should be taken to the risk that Type B standard uncertainties (see e.g. paragraph 8.4.) which might
contribute to Type A standard uncertainties are counted twice.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
8.4 Uncertainties caused by factors summarized in paragraph 5
The influence of the factors summarized in paragraph 5 should be minimized by means of a calibration
whenever this is possible. Very often however these influences can only be estimated and the resulting
uncertainty must be considered as a component of the combined uncertainty of the measurement. Simple
experiments to estimate the uncertainty of some of these factors are given in Annex D. Usually the influence
of these factors and therefore the resulting uncertainties are a function of thickness. Consequently in order to
estimate the uncertainty for a given thickness or at least a small thickness range the experiments must be
carried out with samples with the thickness of interest.
As an example the variation of the magnetic properties of the base metal is considered (permeability
variation). As described in Annex D.5 the expected variation should be estimated for the thickness of interest.
The resulting thickness variation with respect to the selected reference base metal should
be ∆t bm = abs(t min − t r ) = abs
(t max − t r ) . This gives the standard uncertainty caused by the variation of the
base metal properties ubm(k=1):

∆t bm
u = (4)
bm 3
The same estimation of the standard uncertainty shall be carried out for all relevant factors listed in paragraph
5. For example in case of an expected variation of the surface curvature resulting in ∆t cs with respect to the
procedure D.4 the standard uncertainty can be estimated as u cs(k=1):

∆t cs
u cs = (5)
3
NOTE 1 In case the influence of a factor is minimized by a calibration the remaining uncertainty of this calibration must
be considered.
NOTE 2 Some of these factors influencing the accuracy can be minimized by means of flexible foils as reference
standards, e.g. base metal properties (5.4.) or surface curvature (5.6.), if the calibration is carried out with foils on the base
metal with identical material and curvature properties as the sample of interest shows. In this case only expected
variations of the sample properties must be considered.
8.5 Combined uncertainty, expanded uncertainty and final result
The combined uncertainty summarizes all standard uncertainty components (8.2., 8.3, 8.4 and possibly other).
In the described simplified approach to estimate the uncertainties only for a given thickness or a very small
thickness range the sensitivity coefficients can be considered to be equal to 1 (see Annex B). This results in
the combined uncertainty uc:
uc = 2 + u sto
u cal 2 + u bml
2 + u cs
2 + ... (6)
As the final result the expanded uncertainty U(k=2) is calculated (2-sigma level, 95.45%):
U ( k = 2) = 2u c (7)
And the complete result of the measurement with the thickness value t :

t = t ± U ( k = 2) (8)
9 Test report
The test report shall include the following information:


ISO/IEC WD 2178
e) all information necessary for the identification of the test specimen;
f) a reference to this International Standard, including its year of publication, i.e. ISO 2178:20xx;
2
g) the sizes of the test areas over with the measurements were made in square millimetres (mm );
NOTE Other units of measurement may be used, with agreement between supplier and client.
h) the location(s) of the test area(s) on each specimen;
i) the number of test specimens measured;
j) an identification of the instrument, probe and standards used for the test, including reference to any
validation certification of the equipment;
k) the results of the test, reported as the measured thicknesses, in micrometres, at each area at which the
test was carried out, including the results of the individual determinations and their mean for each
reported measurement;
l) the name of the operator and testing organisation;
m) any unusual features observed and any circumstances or conditions though likely to affect the results or
their validity;
n) any deviation from the method specified;
o) any unusual features (anomalies) observed during the test;
p) date of the test.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Annex A
(informative)
Basics principle of all measurement methods
Figure A.1 shows a ferrous ring coil with a small gap.
Key
I electric current through a coil

n number of windings in the coil
r radius of the ferrous ring
x length of the air gap
H C magnetic field strength in the ferrous ring
H G magnetic field strength in the gap
Figure A.1 — Set-up with a ferrous ring having a gap
The magnetic flux density of a ferrous ring coil (see Figure A.1) with a small gap is calculated from the
equation
n ⋅ I ⋅ µ 0 ⋅ µ r

B = (A.1)
2 ⋅ π ⋅ r − x + µ r ⋅ x
where
B is the magnetic flux density;
n is the number of windings;
I is the path of the closed loop;
µ r is the relative magnetic value of the used ferrous material;
µ 0 is the magnetic constant;
r is the radius of the ferrous ring;
x is the length of the air gap.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
If the gap length x is zero equation (1) becomes
n ⋅ I ⋅ µ 0 ⋅ µ r

B = (A.2)
2 ⋅ π ⋅ r
Equation (2) is identical to the formula describing a pure ferrous ring coil.
Considering the other extreme, the gap length becomes identical to the coil length ( x = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r ) and
equation (1) describes an air ring coil
n ⋅ I ⋅ µ 0
B = (A.3)
2 ⋅ π ⋅ r
The result of the comparison of equation (2) to equation (3) is: The magnetic flux density in the air gap
decreases by the factor µ r if the ferrous metal is completely replaced by air.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Annex B
(informative)
Basics of the determination of the uncertainty of a measurement of the used

measurement method corresponding to ISO/IEC Guide 98-3
Coating thicknesses are generally determined as mean value of several single measurements which were
carried out at a fixed section of the layer's surface.
On the basis of these measurements a mean value is allocated to the measurand "coating thickness". That
one is assigned an uncertainty value which informs about reliability of the allocation of the value.
The analysis is carried out progressively and begins by drawing up a model equation which shows the
functional correlation between the indicated output value t and all the relevant influence quantities H i.
t = F ( H 0 , H 1, H 2 ,... H n )

H i ... [B 1]
To every influence quantity belongs a sensitivity coefficient c i, which indicates how strong a
modification ∆Hi effects the result t.
When the function F is given as analytic expression the sensitivity coefficients may be calculated by partial
derivation.
δ t
ci = [B 2]
δ H i
If there is no knowledge about the kind of the functional correlation, an approximation by means of polynomial
functions is recommended.
In many practical cases this formulation is expressed by a linear dependence i. e. the sensitivity coefficients
become one. There is this situation, for example in sections of limited coating thickness.
As the uncertainties of various fault influences must be summarized appropriately, all single uncertainty
components must refer to a level of confidence of 68,27 %, the so called standard uncertainty.
Referred to the calculation of the uncertainty of a measurement to be carried out there are two types of
uncertainties. (Type A und Type B):
Typ A)
The standard uncertainty of typ A is a measure of all random errors arising from unpredictable or
stochastic temporal and spatial variations of influence quantities.
The standard uncertainty corresponds to the point of confidence of the mean value.
s(t )
u sto = t ( 68.27%,
n − 1) ⋅ [B 3]
n
Whereas s is the empirical standard deviation of the repetition measurement n.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
n
∑ (v − x j )2
j =1
s = [B.4]
( n − 1)
and t (68,27 %, n − 1) student factor (degrees of freedom f = n − 1 and level of confidence with p = 68.27% .
Respective values are summarized in Annex E.
Typ B)
Many influencing factors or faults are not to be described by Type A, e.g. influencing factors of clause 5.
In order to realize a balanced combination of those fault influences with the faults of Type A, those ad-
hoc probability factors are allocated. In many practical case, the influencing factors treated here, are to
be described by a uniform distribution (rectangle distribution).
If an influence quantity may fluctuate within a section ΔHi , the resulting uncertainty may be calculated as
follows:
t min − t max
u B ) = [B.5]
12
These fluctuation sections generally must be estimated or determined experimentally (see

Annex D).
Partially, at uncertainty analysis already known uncertainties are used e.g. when it comes to the statement
of the uncertainty of reference standards. In this case it must be taken into consideration that these
statements of uncertainty must be converted into the standard uncertainty e. g. for U(k=2) follows the
standard uncertainty:
U (95,45%)
%) =
u(68,27 B6]
2
In order to summarize all investigated uncertainties the so called combined uncertainty is to be calculated.
Therefore the fractions of the standard uncertainty are multiplied by their sensitivity coefficients and added
up squared. In a simplified case the sensitivity coefficients are equally one.
u= ∑ (ei u i ) 2 [B 7]
i
By the multiplication with a coverage factor k ≥ 2 to be indicated, you get the expanded uncertainty to
be calculated which should be indicated in the actual result.
U = k ⋅ u [B 8]


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Annex C
(informative)
Basic performance requirements for coating thickness gauges which are
based on the magnetic method described in this standard
C.1 Technical Specification
The manufacturer´s technical specification should at least provide the following technical information for
instruments and probes:
a) principle of measurement;
b) measuring range;
c) basic information on measuring uncertainty or permissible error of measurement if measuring is carried

out under conditions specified by the manufacturer;
d) information on how measuring results are influenced by the material, curvature and thickness of the base
metal and by the edge effect (measurements close to an edge);
e) battery operating time;
f) function of an undervoltage monitor and automatic undervoltage switch-off;
g) permissible operating temperature;
h) permissible storage temperature;
i) available methods for calibration and adjustment;
j) contact force of probes with spring loaded guiding sleeves;
k) availability of temperature compensation;
l) measuring rate;
m) data memory (design, capacity, data communication);
n) size and weight of instrument (with batteries) und probes.
C.2 Check / Verification of instruments and probes prior to the supply, after repair
and at regular intervals after use
After instrument and probe have been adjusted according to the manufacturer´s instructions, the measuring
accuracy has to be checked and verified by using a plane and uncoated base metal and a representative
number of coated calibration standards or calibration foils, whose coating or foil thicknesses should be equally
distributed within the measuring range of the respective probe.
Measurement errors must not exceed the manufacturer´s technical specification.
C.3 Check / Verification of instruments and probes performed on site
The accuracy of instrument and probe should be verified daily. After the instrument has been adjusted
according to the manufacturer`s instruction, verification shall be made with an appropriate number of coated


ISO/IEC WD 2178
calibration standards made from the same base metal as the items to be measured or by means of calibration
foils put onto the base metal to be measured. Their thicknesses should cover the expected coating thickness
range. If curved coated items shall be measured verification needs to be executed on items of the same base
metal, geometry and curvature as the items to be measured.
Measurement errors must not exceed the manufacturer´s technical specification.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Annex D
(informative)
Experimental estimation of factors affecting the measurement accuracy -

— examples
D.1 General
Factors affecting the measurement accuracy are summarized and described in paragraph 5. In practical
measurements it is important to estimate the influence of these factors or the resulting uncertainty. Therefore
some examples of simple experiments are given in order to show how the influence of these factors can be
estimated. These experiments are also the basis to estimate the respective uncertainty.
NOTE The following factors can cause differently pronounced influences in case of an instrument working with
combined measuring principles in one probe. Consequently the factors should be estimated separately for each combined
measuring principle.
D.2 Edge effect
A simple edge effect test, to assess the effect of the proximity of an edge, consists in using a clean, uncoated
and even sample of the base metal as follows. The procedure is illustrated in figure D.1.
Step 1
Place the probe on the sample, sufficiently away from the edge.
Step 2
Adjust the instrument to read zero.
Step 3
Progressively bring the probe towards the edge and note where a change of the instrument reading occurs
with respect to the expected uncertainty or to the given thickness tolerance.
Step 4
Measure the distance, d, from the probe to the edge (see figure D.1).
The instrument may be used without correction provided that the probe is further from the edge than the
distance as measured above. If the probe is used closer to the edge, a special adjustment or calibration
correction is required or the additional resulting uncertainty for the used distance must be considered. If
necessary, refer to the manufacturer’s instructions.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Key
d distance from the probe to the edge
Figure D.1 — Schematic representation of the test for edge effect
D.3 Base metal thickness
A simple test to prove that the metal base thickness t0 is larger than the critical minimum base metal thickness
crit
t0 , consists in using two (or more) clean, uncoated and even samples of the base metal with the thickness of
interest. The procedure is illustrated in figure D.2.
Step 1
Place the probe on the first sample. It should be proven that the reading is not affected by the edges of the
sample (see D.2)
Step 2
Step 3
Place the second sample beneath the first one, place the probe on top of this stack and check the instrument
reading. In case the instrument reading is still zero with respect to the expected uncertainty the base metal
crit
thickness t0 is larger than the critical minimum base metal thickness t0 and no additional uncertainty must be
considered. In case of a changed negative instrument reading with respect to the expected uncertainty t0 is
smaller than t0crit, i.e. the measurement is affected by the too small base metal thickness.
Step 4
crit
In case t0 is smaller than the t 0 place a third sample beneath the stack of step 3, place the probe on top of
this stack and check the instrument reading. If the instrument reading is still the same as in step 3 with respect
crit
to the uncertainty the critical minimum base metal thickness lies within t 0< t0 <2t0. In case the instrument
crit
reading shows a larger negative value than in step 3 than two times of th 0 is still smaller than t 0 . Go ahead
crit
and stack further samples in order to estimate t0 .
crit
The instrument may be used without correction provided that the base metal thickness th 0 is larger than t0 . If
crit
t0 is smaller than t0 a special calibration correction is required and it must be considered that possible base
metal variations cause an increase of the respective thickness uncertainty.
crit
The experimentally determined critical minimum base metal thickness t 0 can be used to estimate the
resulting uncertainty.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
crit
In order to improve the accuracy of the estimation of t0 samples with smaller thickness than th 0 should be
used.
Figure D.2 — Schematic representation of the test for base metal thickness
NOTE 1 The procedure to stack several samples in order to simulate an increase of the base metal thickness allows
only a rough estimation of t 0crit because the air gap between the samples causes a change of the magnetic properties of
the sample stack in comparison to the respective homogeneous material. However this simplified procedure can easier be
carried out instead of producing base metals with variable thickness.
NOTE 2 In case that the instrument does not display negative values, it is recommended to use a thin foil (e.g. 10 µm)
between probe and base metal to observe the decrease of the thickness.
D.4 Surface curvature
A simple test, to assess the effect of the influence of the sample surface curvature, consists in using a clean
uncoated sample of the base metal with different curvature diameters (e.g. cylinder) as follows. All used
samples should provide the same material properties as the base metal. The procedure is illustrated in figure
D.3 using the example of a convex curvature.

Step 1
Place the probe on an even sample (no curvature). It should be proven that the reading is not affected by the
edges of the sample (see D.2) and that the base metal thickness of the sample is larger than the critical
minimum base metal thickness (see D.3)
Step 2
Step 3
Place the probe on each sample starting with the largest available diameter and then continue the test with
decreasing sample diameters and note the diameter where a change of the instrument reading (positive
increase) occurs with respect to the expected uncertainty or to the given thickness tolerance.
The instrument may be used without correction provided that the sample of interest shows a larger diameter
than the noted one. If the diameter is smaller, an adjustment or special calibration correction is required or the
additional resulting uncertainty for the used distance must be considered. If necessary, refer to the
manufacturer’s instructions.
In practical situations the diameter of the samples of interest varies very often. In such a situation the smallest
and the largest diameter expected should be estimated and the instrument should be adjusted on an uncoated
sample close to the average diameter. In this situation the measured deviation for the smallest and largest
diameter can be estimated from the described procedure and used to estimate the uncertainty which must be
taken into account during the measurement.


ISO/IEC WD 2178
In case of larger variations the selected sample should be used as a reference base metal and the estimated
deviation of the readings of the described procedure can be used to estimate the uncertainty which must be
taken into account during the measurements.
Figure D.4 — Schematic representation of the test for base metal permeability test


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Annex E
(informative)
Table of the student factor
Number of Fraction p in percent

measurements
n 68,27% 95,45%
2 1,84 13,97
3 1,32 4,53
4 1,20 3,31
5 1,14 2,87
6 1,11 2,65
7 1,09 2,52
8 1,08 2,43
9 1,07 2,37
10 1,06 2,32
11 1,05 2,28
12 1,05 2,25
13 1,04 2,23
14 1,04 2,21
15 1,04 2,20
16 1,03 2,18
17 1,03 2,17
18 1,03 2,16
19 1,03 2,15
20 1,03 2,14
∞ 1,00 2,00


ISO/IEC WD 2178
Annex F
(informative)
Example of uncertainty estimation (see paragraph 8)
F.1 Sample to be measured
a) paint/steel (part of a car body)
b) expected thickness: around 25 µm
c) base metal is not accessible, but possible thickness variations caused by the used car body steel charges
(permeability variations) have been determined by an experiment (see D.5): measurement of uncoated
steel parts from car body production representing the variability of used steel from different suppliers,
charges etc., resulting complete thickness variation range at t = 25 µ m : ∆ t bm = ± 1.2µ m
F.2 Steps to do
1) verification of the probe calibration
 10 repeated measurements with a reference foil of t r = 25

.2µ m on base metal (including zeroing
on base metal)
 given tolerance of the reference foil: T = ± 0.5 µ m

used base metal : selected reference base metal (see D.5)
 result ( n = 1) : t = 24.06 µ m and s(t ) = 0.11µ m
 calculation of uncertainty and E (see 8.2.):
T 0.5 µm
 standard uncertainty of reference foil : ur = = = 0.29 µm
3 3
 standard uncertainty ofverification measurement (only stochastic component is

s(t ) 0.11 µm
considered): u sto = t (68.27%, n − 1) ⋅ = 1.06 ⋅ = 0.04 µm
n 10
 combined uncertainty: uc = (0.04 µm )2 (0.29 µm )2

+ = 0
.29µm
 expanded uncertainty: U cal ( k = 2) = 2 ⋅ uc = 0.58 µm
t − t r 1.14 µm
 E = = = 1.96
U cal (k = 2) 0.58 µm
 calibration is not correct. A significant deviation has been detected, because E = 1.96
> 1 , i.e.
the difference between the measured value t and the given reference foil value t − t r is larger


ISO/IEC WD 2178
than U cal ( k = 2) = 0.58µ m ; consequently the calibration accuracy can be improved by means of
this reference foil
2) adjustment of the instrument with the reference foil
3) verification of the improved probe calibration
 10 repeated measurements (repeat of step 1)
 result ( n = 1 ) : t = 24.87 µ m and s(t ) = 0.11µ m
 calibration is o.k., because E = 0.56

< 1, i.e. the difference t − t r is smaller than
U cal ( k = 2 ) = 0.58 µm no significant deviation can be proven now
,
4) uncertainty of probe calibration (result of step 3):

uc = (0.03 µm )2 (0.29 µm )2
+ = .29µm
0
: u cal = 0 .29µ m
5) measurement of the sample
 7 repeated measurements within the given measurement area of the sample
 result ( n = 7 ) : t = 22.8 µ m and s(t ) = 0.76 µ m
6) calculation of all measurement uncertainty components and combined uncertainty
 stochastic uncertainty: u sto = t (68.27%, n − 1) ⋅ s (t ) = 1.09 ⋅ 0.76 µm = 0.31 µm u sto = 0 .31µ m (see
n 7
8.3)
 standard uncertainty caused by possible base metal deviation from calibration (expected
) = ±1.2µ m : u bm = 0 .69 µ m (see 8.4)
thickness variation range ∆t bm ( 25µ m
 combined uncertainty: uc =

2
u cal + u sto
2
+ u bm
2
= (0.29 µm
)
2
+

(0.31 µm )2 (0.69 µm )2
+ = 0.81µm

u c = 0 .81µ m (see 8.5)
7) calculation of the expanded uncertainty and expression of the result
 expanded uncertainty: U ( k = 2) = 2 ⋅ u c = 1.6 µm (see 8.5)
 final result of the measurement: t = 23 µ m

± 1.6 µ m
NOTE 1 All other possible factors affecting the measurement accuracy are considered to be negligible in this example
(edge effect, base metal thickness, curvature, temperature drift etc.)
NOTE 2 Further conclusions: it is obvious that the resulting uncertainty is limited by the largest uncertainty component,
in this case the possible base metal property variation (permeability variation). Therefore an increase of the number of
repeated measurements would reduce u sto, however the combined uncertainty wouldn’t be strongly affected in this way


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ISO/IEC TC 107/SC /WG

Non-magnetic coatings on magnetic substrates — Measurement of

Document type: International Standard

X:\TA3\TG3-1\NA 062\DIN\NA 062-01 FB\NA 062-01-61 AA\Sekretariatsbereich\Ad-hoc-ISO 2178\ISO

Violators may be prosecuted.

ii © ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved

5 Factors affecting measurement accuracy .......................................................................................... 5

© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved iii

Annex D (informative) Experimental estimation of factors affecting the measurement accuracy -

iv © ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved

© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved v

WORKING DRAFT ISO/IEC WD 2178

Non-magnetic coatings on magnetic substrates —

ISO 2808, Paints and varnishes — Determination of film thickness

ISO 4618, Paints and varnishes — Terms and definitions

3 Terms and definitions

© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved 1

[VIM, ISO 99:2007, 3.11]

obtain a measurement result from indication

[VIM, ISO 99:2007, 2.39]

4.2 Magnetic pull-off method

2 © ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved

[Figure ISO 2808]

Figure 1 — Magnetic pull-off gauge

4.3 Magnetic inductive principle

© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved 3

Figure 2 — Schematic of the magnetic induction principle

Figure 3 — Schematic of a two pole probe

4 © ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved

4.4 Magnetic-flux gauge

NOTE 1 Magnetic flux detectors are Hall-sensors or magneto resistive sensors.

NOTE 2 The magnet can be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.

[Figure ISO 2808]

Figure 4 — Flux gauge using a Hall probe

5 Factors affecting measurement accuracy

5.1 Basic influence of the coating thickness

© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved 5

5.2 Magnetic properties of the base metal

5.3 Electrical properties of the coating materials

5.4 Geometry – base metal thickness

5.5 Edge effects

5.6 Geometry: surface curvature

6 © ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved

5.7 Surface roughness

5.8 Cleanliness: lift-off effect

5.9 Probe pressure

5.10 Probe tilt

5.11 Temperature effects

© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved 7

5.12 External electromagnetic fields

6 Calibration and adjustment of the instrument

6.2 Thickness reference standards

6.3 Methods of adjustment

a) a piece of uncoated base metal;

8 © ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved

7 Measurement procedure and evaluation

7.2 Number of measurements and evaluation

© ISO/IEC 2012 – All rights reserved 9