Design Concept of Building Services (17CV743)

MODULE – 3

ELECTRICAL AND FIR FIGHTING SERVICES

3 (A) ELECTRICAL SERVICES

3.1 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Electricity is the movement of charge, which is considered by convention to be, from positive to
negative. No matter how the charge is created, chemically (like in batteries) or physically (friction from
socks and carpet), the movement of the discharge is electricity.
This flow of electrical charge is referred to as electric current. There are two types of current, direct
current (DC) and alternating current (AC). DC is current that flows in one direction with a constant
voltage polarity while AC is current that changes direction periodically along with its voltage polarity.
Thomas Edison and Alessandro Volta were pioneers in DC current and wrote much of electricity’s
history. But as societies grew the use of DC over long transmission distances became too inefficient.
With AC it is possible to produce the high voltages needed for long transmissions. Therefore today,
most portable devices use DC power while power plants produce AC.

Fig 3.1AC and DC current system

3.2 BASICS OF ELECTRICITY

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, so in order to make electrical energy we must get it by
converting it from another form of energy. Most power in the world is generated by converting hot
steam into movement, which can be made into electricity.
Most power generation in the world works similar, with some kind of turbine turning a shaft
connected to a generator. Batteries, photovoltaics and some other forms of power generation are
completely different.

 VOLTAGE is like the pressure that pushes water through the hose. It is measured in volts (V).
 CURRENT is like the diameter of the hose. The wider it is, the more water will flow through. It is
measured in amps (I or A).

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 RESISTANCE is like sand in the hose that slows down the water flow. It is measured in ohms (R
or Ω)
 POWER is like the volume of water that is flowing from the hose, given a specific pressure and
diameter. Electric power is measured in watts (W). And larger systems are measured in kilowatts (1
KW = 1000 watts) or megawatts (1 MW = 1,000,000 watts).
 ENERGY is like measuring the volume of water that has flowed through the hose over a period of
time, like filling a 5 gallon bucket in a minute. Electric energy is often confused with electric power
but they are two different things – power measures capacity and energy measures delivery. Electric
energy is measured in watt hours (wh) but most people are more familiar with the measurement on
their electric bills, kilowatt hours (1 kWh = 1,000 watt hours). Electric utilities work at a larger scale
and will commonly use megawatt hours (1 MWh = 1,000 kWh).

Fig 3.2 Use of AC and DC current system

3.3 WHAT IS PHASE IN ELECTRICITY?

Generally, the phase-in electricity is the current or the voltage among an existing wire as well as a
neutral cable. Phase means the distribution of load, if a single wire is used, an additional load will occur
on it & if three wires are used then loads will be separated between them. This can be called as less
power for 1-phase and more power for 3-phase.
If it is a 1-phase system, it includes two wires and when it is a 3-phase system, and then it consists
of either 3 wires (or) four wires. Both the power systems like single phase as well as three-phase use AC
power to refer units. Because the current flow using AC power is always in the direction of alternating.
The main difference between these two supplies is the reliability of delivery.
3.3.1 Single Phase Supply
In the entire electrical domain, 1 phase supply is the delivery of AC power by a system in which
there is a simultaneous change in all the supply voltages. This type of power supply sharing is utilized
when the loads (home appliances) are generally heat and lightning included with huge electric motors.
When a 1 phase supply is connected to an AC motor, it doesn’t generate a rotating magnetic field,
instead, single phase motors require additional circuits for the operation, but such electric motors are
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rare which have the power rating of nearly 10 kW. In each of the cycles, a 1 phase system voltage
achieves a peak-value two times; the direct power is not stable.
Benefits
The benefits of choosing a 1 phase supply are because of the following reasons.
 The design is less complex
 Design cost is less
 Enhanced efficiency which delivers AC power supply of nearly 1000 watts
 It holds the ability to deliver a maximum of 1000 watts power
 Employed in multiple kinds of industries and applications
Applications
The applications of single-phase supply include the following.
 This power supply is applicable for homes as well as businesses.
 Used to supply plenty of power for homes, as well as for non-industrial businesses.
 This power supply is sufficient to run the motors up to about 5 horsepower (hp).

Fig 3.3 Single phase system

3.3.2 Three Phase Supply

The three-phase power supply includes four wires which consist of one neutral along with three
conductor wires. The three conductors are away from phase & space and they have a phase angle of
120º from each other. 3 phase power supplies are utilized as a single-phase AC power supply.
For the operation of small load, 1-phase AC power supply, along with the neutral, can be chosen
from the 3-phase AC power supply system. This supply is constant and will not be dropped to zero
value. The power of this system can be illustrated in two configurations namely star connection (or)
delta connection. The connection of star configuration is used in long-distance communication as it
includes a neutral cable to the error current.
Benefits

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The advantages of three-phase supply over single phase are because of the following reasons:
 The 3 phase power supply needs less copper
 It shows the minimal risk for employees who are operating with this system
 It has a greater conductor efficiency
 Labor who are working in this system also receives wages
 It even holds the capability to function with an extended range of power loads

Three Phase Supply Applications

The applications of the three-phase supply include the following.
 These types of supplies are used in power grids, mobile towers, data centers, aircraft,
shipboard, unmanned systems, as well as other electronic loads larger than 1000 watts.
 It is applicable to industrial, manufacturing, and large businesses.
 These are used in power-hungry and high-density data centers too.

Fig 3.4 Three phase system

3.4 ELECTRICAL PROTECTIVE DEVICE

A device used to protect equipment, machinery, components and devices, in electrical and
electronic circuit, against short circuit, over current and earth fault, is called as protective devices.
a) Necessity of Protective Devices
Protective devices are necessary to protect electrical appliance or equipment against
 a) Short Circuit
 b) Abnormal variations in the supply voltage
 c) Overloading of equipment
 d) To protect operator against accidental contact with the faulty equipment, falling which
the operator may get a severe shock.
b) Types of Protective Device

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Different types of the protective device that are commonly used in electrical and electronic circuit
1. Fuse Wire or Fuse
2. MCB – Miniature Circuit Breaker
3. ELCB – Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
4. ELCB & MCB
5. Earthling or Grounding

1. Fuse:- Fuse generally means a fuse wire, placed in a fuse holder. It is a safety device, which
protects electrical and electronic circuit against over loads, short circuit and earth faults.
The fuse link or fuse wire is made of low resistivity material and low melting point.

Fig 3.5 Fuse

2. MCB – Miniature Circuit Breaker:- It is safety device which work magneto thermal
release principle. It is connected in the phase, between the supply and load. It is manufactured in
standard rating of 6A to 40 A. We can see it on the meter board of each and every house.
When the current drawn by load exceeds the rated value, it acts and trips the circuit, the
protecting the apparatus, operator and appliance.
Advantages of MCB
1. They act and open the circuit in less than 5 milli seconds
2. Automatic switch off under overload and short circuit condition
3. No fuse to replace or rewire.
4. It needs no repairs
5. Supply is restored by resetting it again

3. EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER

This is a domestic safety device, which trips the circuit when there is a small leakage to earth or
body of the appliance. Thus it protects the operator from shocks and accidents. This is connected in
the circuit of the appliance to be protected.

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There are two types of ELCB

1. Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
2. Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

4. MCB & ELCB

It is the combination of both MCB and ELCB placed in one unit. It acts on both the occasion of
earth leakage and overload and protect the circuit, appliance and the operator.

Fig 3.6 MCB & ELCB

5. EARTHING OR GROUNDING
Connecting the metal body of an electrical appliance, machinery or an electrical installation to
earth, through a low resistance wire, is called Earthing or Grounding.

Necessity of Earthing
Earthing is necessary for all domestic, commercial and industrial installation to safeguard
the operator, tall buildings and machinery against lightning.
Metal body of all the electrical appliances, equipment and machinery, the earth points of all three-
pin sockets and the body of the energy meter are connected to earth through a thick G.I. wire.
Whenever a live wire comes in contact with the body of the appliance, it is directly connected to
earth the grounding wire and hence the body voltage comes to zero. Therefore the operator does
not get any shock, when he comes in contact with body of the appliance.
The high voltage included during lightning is discharged to earth through grounding wire and
thereby building and machinery are protected.

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3.5 EARTHING FOR SAFETY

The process of transferring an unintended electrical energy directly to the earth through a low
resistance wire is called electrical earthing. It refers to the connection of a noncurrent-carrying part
of the equipment or neutral of supply system to the ground, which represents the zero potential.
The leakage current chooses the simple low resistance path to flow. Thus, the electrical system and
equipment are protected from damage.
3.6 Types of Electrical Earthing
The electrical equipment has two non-current carrying parts such as neutral of the system and
frame of the equipment. Earthing system is also classified into two types.

1. Neutral Earthing
The process of connecting neutral of the system to the earth through a GI wire is known as Neutral
earthing or System earthing. It is used in star winding systems including generator, transformer, etc.

2. Equipment Earthing
When the metallic frame of the equipment is connected to the earth by the help of a
conducting wire then it is called Equipment earthing. In fault condition in the apparatus, the fault
current flows to the earth and the system is protected.

Need of Earthing
Earthing is needed for the following reasons −
1. To protect the user from electrical shock.
2. Earthing system shows the easiest path to the fault current even after the insulation failure.

3. It protects the electrical apparatus used in the circuit from short circuit current, high voltage
surges and lightning discharges.

Importance or purpose of earthing

1. To protect the workers who regularly come in contact with electrical devices that might give
them a shock.
2. To keep the voltage of the device constant in the healthy phase in case of single of single phase
to ground fault.
3. A good grounding path which has a low impedance value ensure that faults in the electrical
path are cleared quickly. If the faults stay within the system for a long time, they can pose a
serious threat to the stability of the system.
4. Many modern electronic devices generate a form of ‘electrical noise’ that can cause damage to
the device and reduce its efficiency, unless the device is property grounded.
5. Surge protection device function better with the help of proper grounding.

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6. Malfunctioning electric devices often leak electricity, which has the potential to start a fire if not
redirected safely.

Normal Condition
Earthing of a system is done in the installation to connect the respective parts with
electrical conductors or electrodes. The electrode is placed near the soil or below the ground level,
which has flat iron riser under the ground. The noncurrent-carrying parts are connected with the
flat iron.
The following figure shows the flow of fault current without earthing system −

Fig 3.7 Flow of fault current without earthing system

Fault Condition
In a fault condition, the fault current flows from the equipment to the earth through the
earthing system. Thus, the apparatus is protected from short circuit or fault current. At the fault
time, the voltage of the electrode increases and equals to the resistance of the electrode and the
ground fault. The following figure shows the flow of fault current with an earthing system −

Fig 3.8 Flow of fault current with earthing system

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3.7 ISI Specifications

3.7.1 For providing good earthing the following are recommended specifications as per
ISI (IS: 3043 – 1987, CODE OF PRACTICE FOR EARTHING)

1. The earthing electrode should be situated at a place at least 1.5 meters away from the building
(outside) whose installation system is being earthed.
2. The earth wire should be of same material as that of earth electrode used.
3. The minimum sectional area of earth lead wired should not be less than 0.02 sq. inch and not
more than 0.1 sq.inch.
4. As a general rule, the size of earth conductor should not be less than half of the section of the
line conductor.
5. The earth wire should be taken through G.I pipe of 1mm diameter for at least 32cm length
above and below ground surface to the earth electrode to safeguard against mechanical wear
and tear.
6. For effective earthing, loose earth and coal salt mixture should be filled around the earth
electrode
7. All the joints in the earth wire should be firmly done with nuts and bolts of the same material as
of earth wire.

3.8 Electrical Installation in Building

Electrical installation is the totality of low-voltage wires, fixing elements, supports, and
other constructions that constitute the lighting network, power system, or electric circuits of
control, signalization, and protective relaying. This chapter introduces the types of electrical
installation and general principles of wiring methods, as well as deals with the controversial issue of
the height for installing switches and sockets from the floor. Specific principles for selecting
conductors and apparatuses are discussed in previous chapters.

The type of electrical installation and wiring method depend on:

1. The place of installation, for example fire and explosion risk in rooms, buildings, zones;
2. Description of the walls or other parts to be built;
3. Accessibility of wiring to people and pets;
4. Voltage;
5. Expected electromechanical loads in case of short-circuit;
6. Other tensions, for example mechanical, thermal, or open flame related tensions that may affect
the wiring during installation or operation.

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Fig 3.9 Electrical

Installation in Building
1 – Outside wiring, 2 –Inside wiring, 3 – Socket, 4 – Lamp,
5 - Cooker hood 6 – Refrigerator, 7 - Dishwashing machine,
8 - TV set, 9 - Metering switchgear (lead switchgear) 10 - Main switchgear,
11 - Electrical installation
1 2 3
No. Room Sockets Lamps Sockets Lamps Sockets Lamps
1 ≤12 m2 3 1 5 2 7 3
>12 m2
2 Bedroom/living room ≤20 m2 4 1 7 2 9 3
3 >20 m2 5 2 9 3 11 4
4 Kitchen 7 2 9 3 11 3
5 Household room 4 1 7 2 9 3
6 Bathroom 3 2 4 3 5 3
7 WC 1 1 2 1 2 2
8 ≤2,5 m 1 1 1 2 1 3
9 Hallway >2,5 m 1 1 2 2 3 3
10 Balcony/loggia/ ≤3 m 1 1 1 1 2 1
11 terrace >3 m 1 1 2 1 3 2
12 Storage room 1 1 2 1 2 1
13 Basement 1 1 2 1 2 1
14 Lounge 3 1 5 2 7 2

Table 3.1 Number of sockets and lamps according to the accommodation type

1. — accommodation with minimum number of electrical installations, for example social house or summer
residence.
2. — standard accommodation with average number of electrical installations, for example a flat in a multi-family
building.
3. — accommodation with increased comfort, for example private house for a family or two.
4. — a double socket should be installed in the bedroom near bed. In the table, double socket is indicated as one
socket.
5. — the number of sockets in living room should be increased by 1.

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3.9 Wires and Cable

The terms wire and cable are often used as synonyms, but they actually have two different
meanings. A wire is a single flexible strand of metal. A cable is two or more wires or other
conductors grouped with sheathing or a jacket around them . In industry, wire is used to
support loads or to carry electricity and telecommunication signals. Several strands of wire twisted
together is referred to as wire rope. Wire rope is generally used for lifting and hoisting loads. This
article looks at the different types of wire used in electrical wiring, including wire harnesses, and
telecommunications.

3.9.1 Types of wires

1. Solid wire
2. Fuse Wire
3. Magnet Wire
4. Stranded wire
5. Litz Wire
6. Tinsel Wire
7. Braided wire

1) Solid wire
Solid wire, also known as solid-core or single-strand wire, is made up of one piece of metal wire,
usually surrounded by protective sheathing. It is often used for circuit breadboard wiring. Its
manufacture is less expensive than stranded wire. Solid wire is less susceptible to corrosion
because it has less surface area exposed to the environment. It is used when less flexible wire is
needed, such as building infrastructures, vehicle controls, and outdoor applications.
2) Fuse Wire
Fuse wire has a low resistance to allow normal current to pass safely through it, but if there is a
short circuit that causes a higher voltage current to pass through it, the fuse wire can’t withstand
the heat, so it melts and breaks the circuit. This breakage protects the other electrical devices from
the short circuit current. Electric fuse wire is a solid wire made of an alloy with a low melting
point.
3) Magnet Wire
Magnet wire, also known as enameled wire, is a solid wire, usually made of copper, which is
insulated with a very thin coating, rather than the thicker plastic or other insulation commonly
used on electrical wire, to allow it to be very tightly coiled. These tight coils are used for
applications such as inductors, transformers, motors, electromagnets, and speakers
4) Stranded wire
Stranded wire consists of multiple small wires bundled or wrapped together. Stranded wire is
more flexible and has a higher resistance to metal fatigue than solid wire. It is used for circuit
board connections in multi-printed-circuit-board devices because the rigidity of solid wire would
cause too much stress during assembly or servicing. Stranded wire is also used for AC line cords,

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musical instrument cables, welding electrode cables, and computer mouse cables among other
applications.
5) Litz wire
Litz wire is a type of stranded wire used in electronics to carry alternating current (AC) at radio
frequencies. It is comprised of many thin wire strands, individually insulated and twisted together,
often involving several levels. Litz wire is used for radio transmitters and receivers operating at low
frequencies, induction heating equipment, and switching power supplies. The name “litz” is
from the German word “Litzendraht” for braided/stranded wire or woven wire.
6) Tinsel Wire
Tinsel wire is a type of electrical wire that is far more resistant to metal fatigue than solid wire or
other kinds of stranded wire. It is used for applications that require high mechanical flexibility but
low current-carrying capacities, such as cords of telephones, headphones, and small electrical
appliances. It is made up of several strands of thin metal foil wrapped around a flexible nylon
or textile core. Multiple tinsel wires are usually jacketed with an insulating layer to form one
conductor. Several conductors form a cord in either a round profile or a flat cable.
7) Braided wire
Braided wire is composed of multiple small strands of wire that are braided together. Like
stranded wires, braided wires are better conductors than solid wires. They don’t easily break when
flexed. Braided wires are often used as an electromagnetic shield in noise-reduction cables.

3.9.2 Wiring system and their choice

Before wiring a building, it is necessary one makes the right choice when it comes to the
type of wiring, the size and position of fans, light points. When making choice for any wiring
system for a particular installation, your choice should be based on technical and economic
factors.

3.9.3 Factors to be considered for the choice of the wiring system for the building

1. Cost of wiring: The initial cost of the wiring system to be chosen or selected is one of the
paramount factors to be considered. It should be economical and safe.
2. Durability: When making choices for wiring system, the wiring type should be durable (long
lasting) and should also be of proper specifications and in accordance with assessed life and type
of building to be wired. You should not carry out cleat wiring for a permanent building because
cleat wiring is suitable for temporary buildings only. Any wiring should withstand wear and tear
that may result due to unfavorable weather. The cables used should be able to carry maximum
current without overheating.
3. Permanency: The wiring should not deteriorate by the action of weather, fumes, dampness etc.
the cables should be resistant to harsh weather and chemical attacks.

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4. Accessibility: Facilities used in the wiring should be available (within range) and accessible
when the need for alteration, extension or renewal arises.
5. Appearance: The wiring should provide a good look after its installation. If cleat or casing –
capping wiring is used in a modern building, it will spoil the outlook of that building. Conduit
wiring is preferred mostly for modern buildings except that it’s expensive. PVC wiring system is
also good for modern buildings. PVC wiring is very popular.
6. Mechanical Protection: The wiring should be protected from mechanical damage during its
use.
7. Safety: When it comes to wiring, safety is one of the most paramount factors to be considered
because electrocution is one thing you won’t have the time to give it a second thought. Where
there is possibility of fire hazard, conduit wiring should be used.
8. Maintenance Cost: Wiring system employed should have low maintenance cost.
9. Load: The types of loads consuming the electrical energy in a building will determine the kinds
of cables to be used. You cannot use a cable with small diameter for heavy loads. The cables will
damage. Voltage to be employed and fire hazard and insurance standards should also be kept in
mind in case of large factories.

Fig 3.10 Inside view of Wire / cable

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3.9.4 Electrical wiring plan for building

The electrical plan is sometimes called as electrical drawing or wiring diagram. It is a type of
technical drawing that delivers visual representation and describes circuits and electrical
systems. It consists of symbols and lines that showcase the engineer's electrical design to its
clients. In short, an electrical plan describes the position of all the electrical apparatus.
An electrical drawing may include all of these essential details described below:
1. Interconnection of electrical wires and other parts of the system
2. Connection of different components and fixtures to the system
3. Power lines with details such as size, voltage, rating, and capacity
4. Power transformers and also their winding connections
5. The main switches, tiebreaker, and fused switches
6. Other essential equipment such as solar panels, batteries, generators, air conditioning, and so on
3.9.5 Purposes of Electrical Plan
Why is there a need to have an electrical plan or drawing? You must be thinking why to splurge on
a precise electrical plan. The purposes of an electrical plan are as follows:

1. These drawings are vital for documenting, communicating information, and troubleshooting
your power systems on-site.
2. Accurate and updated drawings keep your building in compliance with all the code regulations.
3. A plan encompasses all aspects. It focuses on areas such as lighting, electronics, appliances, etc.
4. It also considers the structure of the building. For example, if a building has railings, stairs, or
any other components, modifications will be made accordingly.
5. It is a thorough planning tool because it gives an in-depth view of your building's electrical and
wiring system.
6. It helps to distribute power to various appliances and equipment through accurate operation and
installation of elements.
3.9.6 Benefits of Electrical Plan
1. A plan highlights all the potential risks to make amendments quickly before the occurrence of
any substantial damage.

2. It helps to ensure that your system runs safely, efficiently, and smoothly.

3. An electrical plan saves time by avoiding delays and problems. A draft pinpoints everything to
prevent hazardous situations; thereby, it helps professionals to complete their work on time.

4. It also saves money because nobody feels like spending more money than they already have. A
draft includes all the details like wire's length, type of cables, and other parts you will need to
complete your project. Thus, you do not have to spend a considerable amount of money on
unnecessary things.

5. An electrical plan prevents injury because it pinpoints all the building's anticipated areas that may
harm a technician.

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Example of Plan showing the power supply to a residential building

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Example of Plan showing the power supply to a residential building

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Example of Plan showing the power supply to a residential building

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Fig. 3.10: Electrical lighting layout design (Ground Floor)

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Fig. 3.11: Electrical power layout design (First Floor)

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3 (B) FIRE FIGHTING SERVICES

3.9.7 CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDING BASED ON OCCUPANCY
A building may be classified based on different parameters like occupancy, load transfer in the structure,
materials used, degree of fire resistance, etc. The National Building Code of India Part IV – 2005, classifies
the buildings in the following nine groups based on occupancy:
1. Residential
2. Educational
3. Institutional
4. Assembly
5. Business
6. Mercantile
7. Industrial
8. Storage
9. Hazardous
The above classification is briefly explained in this chapter. Minor occupancy incidental to operations in
another type shall be classified under the relevant main occupancy group.

GROUP – A: RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS:

The buildings in which sleeping accommodation is provided for normal residential purposes, with or
without cooking or dining or both facilities are grouped as residential buildings. However, the buildings
classified under institutional group are excluded from this group. Apart from detached houses, semi-
detached houses, chawls, duplex type and flats, lodging and hotels are also considered residential
buildings with the following definitions:
D - 1: Lodging: These are the buildings in which under the same management, separate sleeping
accommodation for a total of not more than 40 persons is provided. The accommodation may be on
transit or permanent basis and it may be with or without dining facilities. However, there should not be
cooking facility on individual basis.
D – 2: Hotels: These are the buildings under single management in which sleeping accommodation
with or without dining facility is provided for more than 15 persons who are primarily transient.
Examples of such buildings are hotels, inns, clubs and hotels.
D – 3: Buildings without a stage having accommodation for 300 or more persons but without
permanent seating arrangements: This subdivision of assembly buildings includes assembly
buildings without theatrical stage, cinematographic accessories and permanent seating arrangements.
The capacity of the building may be for accommodating more than 300 people. Examples of such
buildings are dance halls, nightclubs, halls for drama, incidental picture show, or educational
presentations, art galleries, and museums. Passenger terminals and buildings used for educational
purposes for less than 8 hours per week also fall under this subdivision of buildings.

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D – 4: Buildings without a stage having accommodation for less than 300 persons: These are the
buildings described in subdivision 3 but with accommodation for less than 300 persons.

D – 5:. All other assembly buildings not covered in the above four subdivisions: Examples of
such buildings are grandstands, amusement park structures, circus tents, etc.

GROUP – E: BUSINESS BUILDINGS These are the buildings which are used for transaction of
business, for keeping of accounts and records. The buildings used for professional establishments,
service facilities, etc., also come under this class of buildings. City halls, town halls, court houses and
libraries are also classified in this group so far as the principal function of these is transaction of public
business and keeping of books and records. The following are the subdivisions of business buildings:
E–1: Offices, banks, professional establishments, like offices of engineers, architects, doctors, lawyers,
etc., belong to this subdivision.
E–2: Laboratories, research establishments and test houses belong to this subdivision.
E–3: Computer installations belong to this subdivision.

GROUP – F: MERCANTILE BUILDINGS These are the buildings used as shops, stores for
display and sale of merchandise either wholesale or retail. Such buildings are further sub classified as:
F–1: Shops, stores, markets with area of 500 m 2 belong to this subdivision.
F–2: Underground shopping centers, departmental stores with area more than 500 m 2 belong to this
subdivision.

GROUP – G: INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS Any building or its part in which products or materials
of all kinds are fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed. Examples of such buildings are dry-
cleaning plants, power plants, pumping stations, gas plants, dairies and sawmills. On the basis of degree
of hazard, industrial buildings are subdivided. The hazard of occupancy shall be the relative danger of
start and spread of fire, the danger of smoke or gases generated the danger of explosion or other
occurrences potentially endangering lives of the occupants of the buildings. Where different degrees of
hazard of occupancy exist in different parts, the most hazardous of those shall govern the classification.

FIRE:-
“A process in which substances combine chemically with oxygen from the air and typically give out
bright light, heat, and smoke; combustion or burning”

Fire Triangle.- The starting of a fire involves three elements - fuel, oxygen, and ignition
temperatures. These elements may be compared to the three legs of a triangle (fig. 1), for fire cannot
occur until all three are brought together.

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Fig.3.9.7 Fire Triangle

1) CHARACTERISTICS OF FIRE:
In order to protect yourself from fire, it is important to understand the basic characteristics of fires. A fire
has many characteristics and some of them are listed below:
1. A fire can occur at any time.
2. Short circuit is one of the leading causes of fire.
3. In just two minutes, a residence can be engulfed in flames.
4. The water is the best medium to fight fires except electrical and oil fires.
5. Most deaths due to fire occur at night when people are sleeping.
6. Fire produces gases that make you drowsy.
7. Smoke and poisonous gases are the primary killer in fires
8. Instead of being awakened by fire, you may fall into a deeper sleep.
9. Asphyxiation is the leading cause of fire deaths exceeding burns.
10. Heat and smoke from fire can be more dangerous than the flames.
11. Inhaling the super hot air can sear your lungs.
12. Pouring water on electrical or oil fires will be dangerous.

2) CAUSES OF FIRE
The four most common causes of accidental fires in non-dwelling properties were:
1. Faulty appliances and leads
2. Faulty fuel supply
3. Misuse of equipment or appliances
4. Placing articles too close to heat

 FAULTY APPLIANCES AND LEADS

Examples of this most common cause of fire include:
1.Frayed wiring
2.Overloaded sockets
3.Old appliances
4.Damaged plugs
5.Faulty appliances

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PREVENTION TIPS
Damaged wiring can overheat and cause sparks. If you spot frayed wiring or overloaded sockets, these
need to be replaced/removed. It’s important that appliances are regularly checked by an electrician.
Annual portable appliance testing (PAT) needs to be done. Replace any faulty equipment and keep an
eye out for any product recalls.

 FAULTY FUEL SUPPLY

Examples include:
1. Gas leaks
2. Electrical supply problem
3. Defective fuel supply to an electrical appliance
4. Leaking fuel e.g. petrol in a garage

PREVENTION TIPS
Regular servicing of all electricity and gas appliances is essential. Make sure everything works
correctly, and if not you’ll need to replace with new and safe appliances. Make sure any repair work is
carried out by a qualified heating engineer or electrician.
Any spills must be cleaned thoroughly, particularly if hot work takes place in your workplace.

 MISUSE OF EQUIPMENT OR APPLIANCES

Examples of this include:

1. Spills on electrical equipment

2. Phones left to charge too long
3. Portable heaters left on
4. Dirty ovens and microwaves
5. Lint tray in tumble dryer

PREVENTION TIPS

Switch off electrical equipment when not in use, at the wall if possible. Unplug if you can. Don’t
put something hot near something that can catch fire and keep drinks away from electrical equipment
to avoid dangerous spills.
In the kitchen, make sure cooking is never left unattended. Keep ovens and microwaves clean, as
grease and dirt can cause fires. Toasters often set off the fire alarm unnecessarily so keep these on a
low browning setting and regularly empty the crumb tray.
Make sure appliances are regularly checked and serviced. Tumble dryers are a common source of fire,
so clean the lint tray daily.

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 PLACING ARTICLES TOO CLOSE TO HEAT

Examples include:

1. Tea towel near cooking appliances

2. Candles knocked over
3. Tin foil at bottom of oven
4. Clothes on heater

PREVENTION TIPS

Keep in mind that it’s not just heaters and ovens that generate heat, electrical equipment does too.
Ensure paper is placed or stored away from anything that generates heat. Don’t put clothes on heating
devices. Avoid using tin foil on or near the bottom of the oven as this can ignite. Common sense is all
you need for this one, if it’s something that gets hot, store anything flammable away from it.

3) SPREAD OF FIRE:

DIRECT CONTACT
Initially, this is how fires normally spread until the heat builds up. Fire will either travel along or
through any combustible or flammable material it comes in contact with. For example, a stack of
cardboard boxes will enable a fire to quickly spread and build.

RADIATION
As a fire increases in intensity, it will give off more heat. Heat can transfer through
electromagnetic waves. This is what makes us feel hot when we stand outside in the sun. From a fire,
this can cause nearby objects to catch alight if enough radiated heat reaches it. This is why you should
never place combustible materials near a radiator or build a bonfire near a fence or shed.

CONDUCTION
This is another way which a fire can spread via heat transfer. Any materials, such as metals, which
can absorb and transfer heat are thermal conductors. An example of this is when your saucepan
handle gets hot. This allows a fire to spread through walls or steelwork. And if there is a flammable
material on the other side, it can heat up and cause a fire to spread into a neighbouring room or
building.

CONVECTION
When trying to escape a fire, you should always stay as low as possible. This is because hot gas
and smoke rise above any cold air. Ceilings then trap and prevent it moving any higher, which then
causes everything to build up. Not only is this dangerous if breathed in, but this too can cause a fire to
spread. If enough heat, fuel and oxygen build up in this area, it will create its own fire away from the
original. Once this happens, the fire will quickly engulf a whole room in seconds.

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FLASHOVER
When convection has caused a hot layer of gas to establish, it will then begin to radiate the heat
downwards. The temperature in the room will continue to rise to around 500oC. Breathing in the air
at this temperature will quickly scorch your lungs. At these temperatures, any combustible materials in
the room, such as furniture, will start to give off flammable gases. A near simultaneous ignition can
then begin and change a ‘fire in a room’ to a ‘room on fire’.

BACKDRAUGHT
A well-established fire has plenty of heat and fuel, but will often lack oxygen if there is no
ventilation. This causes the fire to begin to ‘die’ and fill a room of partially burnt particles in the form
of soot. But if a door opens or a window breaks, air will rush into the room. This can then re-ignite
the fire, gases and soot with an explosive force. This will send the fire out of the door or window and
cause its spread. It is for this reason then, that no-one should ever go back into a burning building.
And if you ever suspect a fire on the other side of a door, don’t open it. Instead, find an alternative
means of exit.

4) STANDARD FIRE:

1) House Fire:

 Damage or destruction caused due to its own fermentation,

 Damage or destruction caused due to natural heating
 Damage or destruction caused due to spontaneous combustion.
 Damage or destruction caused due to any heating or drying process.

2) Lightning:
This is the damage caused to the property due to lightning. Striking of a lightning can cause fire in the
building.
3) Explosion/Implosion:
A vessel can explode when its inside pressure reaches to or is more than the atmospheric pressure
outside. Whereas, an implosion occurs when the external pressure is more than the internal pressure.
Both these phenomena can result in a fire..
4) Riot, Strike, Malicious Damage:
This is the damage or destruction to the property caused by external violent means. Riot, strike and
malicious damage are caused with an intention of causing disturbance to the public peace.
5) Storm, Cyclone, Typhoon and Flood:
The damage caused due to storm, cyclone, typhoon and flood can result in fire caused by leakage of
electricity .
6) Missile Testing Operations:
This is the damage or loss to the property due to any kind of missile testing operation.

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7) Bush Fire:
This is the damage caused due to the burning of bushes and jungles by fire.

3.10. FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

All extinguishers of a portable type act as a "first-aid" appliance for extinguishing fires in their incipient
stage, and they cannot be expected to be effective after a fire has spread to involve a large amount of
combustible material. The action of all extinguishers is by cooling the burning substance below its
ignition temperature and by excluding the air supply (blanketing out the oxygen), or by a combination
of these methods. Also, some types tend to inhibit oxidation by chemical action.

1) FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPEMENTS

GENERAL FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT
Fire fighting systems and equipment vary depending on the age, size, use and type of building
construction. A building may contain some or all of the following features:
 ABE Dry Powder
 Water
 Foam (AFFF)
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
 Wet Chemical
 Fire Blanket
 Fire hose reels
 Fire hydrant systems
 Automatic sprinkler systems
3.10.1) ABE DRY POWDER
 Excellent extinguisher for most types of fires and a very good extinguisher for novice users.
 Dry Powder is ABE Rated and the extinguishers themselves are cheap to purchase and lightweight
to operate, as well as achieving very good Fire Kill ratings compared to most other extinguishers
because of a very quick knockdown effect.
 The only downside to Dry Powder is that it is very messy and the powder (typically Ammonium
Phosphate) is mildly corrosive, affecting printed circuitry such as electronic equipment particularly.
ABE Dry Powder must never be used in the vicinity of aircraft, as it would be necessary to pull
apart the affected area rivet by rivet, piece by piece in order to clean it and prevent corrosion.
3.10.2) WATER
 A very effective extinguishing for solely Class A (timber/paper/textile) fires with excellent cooling
effect. Water requires little clean-up, it is cheap to refill and is favored by areas which are likely to
have malicious discharge of extinguishers regularly for both reasons.

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 Water however very negative effect on all other fires has and suffers from being bulky and awkward
to handle as an extinguisher. It is dangerous to use on flammable liquid fires (causing nasty
eruptions), cooking media such as deep fryers (causing dangerous explosions) and energized
electrical equipment (able to conduct electricity back to the operator) and must never be used in
these situations.

3.10.3) FOAM (AFFF)

 Foam is a very good smothering agent and works well to control open flammable liquid fires if you
have time to work the blanketing effect required, but does not have a fast knock-down like Dry
Powder.
 Foam is also very effective against Class A (timber/paper/textile) fires and achieves a better effect
than water because of a higher surface tension. Although some AFFF extinguishers achieved a
laboratory test of electrical non-conductivity of the spray, Foam Extinguishers must never be used
on Energised Electrical equipment as this will pool on the floor and remain conductive.

3.10.4) CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

 Carbon Dioxide is a specialised extinguishing service for use on electrical equipment.
 Being a gas, it seeks its way into equipment and will get at a fire in cabinets of equipment and
switchboards. Being a gas, there is no clean up after use and is the only choice for server rooms,
switchboards and computer suites.
 CO2 achieves a very light flammable liquids rating, but will not extinguish a Class A fire as it only
displaces the oxygen while it is being operated. Once the flow stops burning timber, paper or
textiles will re-ignite.

3.10.5) WET CHEMICAL

 All fire extinguishers work by removing one or more of the 3 key elements that are required for a
fire to flourish.
 Wet chemical fire extinguishers are filled with potassium, which cools and lowers the
temperature of the fire, therefore stopping the fire from spreading.
 When the fire extinguisher is used, the potassium sprays out in a fine mist which then reacts with
the fats and oils in the fire (class F fire). This creates a soapy layer on the surface which smothers,
cools and extinguishes the fire.
 It is advised that Wet chemical fire extinguishers, foam extinguishers and water extinguishers
should never be used on fires that involve electrical appliances and equipment (class E fire.)

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3.10.6) FIRE BLANKET

 A fire blanket is a safety device designed to extinguish incipient (starting) fires. It consists of a sheet
of a fire retardant material which is placed over a fire in order to smother it.
 Small fire blankets, such as for use in kitchens and around the home are usually made of glass
fiber and sometimes kevlar, and are folded into a quick-release contraption for ease of storage.
 Fire blankets, along with fire extinguishers, are fire safety items that can be useful in case of a fire.
These nonflammable blankets are helpful in temperatures up to 900 degrees[quantify][citation
needed] and are useful in smothering fires by not allowing any oxygen to the fire. Due to its
simplicity, a fire blanket may be more helpful for someone who is inexperienced with fire
extinguishers.
 Larger fire blankets, for use in laboratory and industrial situations, are often made
of wool (sometimes treated with a flame retardant fluid). These blankets are usually mounted in
vertical quick-release container so that they can be easily pulled out and wrapped round a person
whose clothes are on fire.

3.10.7) FIRE HOSE REELS

Fire hose reels are provided for use by occupants as a 'first attack' fire fighting measure but may, in
some instances, also be used by firefighters.
When stowing a fire hose reel, it is important to first attach the nozzle end to the hose reel valve, then
close the hose reel valve, then open the nozzle to relieve any pressure in the wound hose, then close
the nozzle. This achieves two principle objectives:
 A depressurised hose and hose reel seal will last longer than if permanently pressurised.
 When the hose reel is next used, the operator will be forced to turn on the isolating valve, thus
charging the hose reel with pressurised water supply, before being able to drag the hose to the fire.
A potential danger exists if the operator reaches the fire and finds no water is available because the
hose reel valve is still closed.
Because hose reels are generally located next to an exit, in an emergency it is possible to reach a safe
place simply by following the hose

3.10.8) FIRE HYDRANT SYSTEMS

 Fire hydrant systems are installed in buildings to help firefighters quickly attack the fire. Essentially,
a hydrant system is a water reticulation system used to transport water in order to limit the amount
of hose that firefighters have to lay, thus speeding up the fire fighting process.
 Fire hydrants are for the sole use of trained firefighters (which includes factory fire fighting teams).
Because of the high pressures available serious injury can occur if untrained persons attempt to
operate the equipment connected to such installations.

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 Fire hydrant systems sometimes include ancillary parts essential to their effective operation such as
pumps, tanks and fire service booster connections. These systems must be maintained and regularly
tested if they are to be effective when needed.

3.10.9) AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

 Time is essential in the control of fire. Automatic sprinkler systems are one of the most reliable
methods available for controlling fires. Today's automatic fire sprinkler systems offer state of the
art protection of life and property from the effects of fire. Sprinkler heads are now available which
are twenty times more sensitive to fire than they were ten years ago.
 A sprinkler head is really an automatic (open once only) tap. The sprinkler head is connected to a
pressurised water system. When the fire heats up the sprinkler head, it opens at a pre-set
temperature, thus allowing pressurised water to be sprayed both down onto the fire and also up to
cool the hot smoky layer and the building structure above the fire. This spray also wets combustible
material in the vicinity of the fire, making it difficult to ignite, thereby slowing down or preventing
fire spread and growth.
 When a sprinkler head operates, the water pressure in the system drops, activating an alarm which
often automatically calls the fire service via a telephone connection.
 Some people say sprinklers cause a lot of water damage. As has been explained, only those sprinkler
heads heated by the fire operate; all sprinklers in a building do not operate at once. Usually non-fire
water damage only occurs if the occupants carelessly damage the system. Firefighters use much
more water than a sprinkler system. The combined damage from a fire and the water used by
firefighters dramatically exceeds that likely from a properly installed sprinkler system.

3.10.1) FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

 Fire extinguishers are provided for a 'first attack' fire fighting measure, generally undertaken by the
occupants of the building before the fire service arrives. It is important that occupants are familiar
with which extinguisher type to use on which fire.
 Most fires start as a small fire and may be extinguished if the correct type and amount of
extinguishing agent is applied whilst the fire is small and controllable.

2) FIRE SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

 Don't overload outlets with multiple outlet cords or plugs. If additional outlets are required, use an
IS marked multi-outlet "power strip" with its own built-in circuit breaker.
 Careless smoking, use of candles and incense, and unattended cooking appliances remain major
causes of fatal fires in residential buildings. Use of fire crackers, hot work, and open fire is
prohibited in all buildings.
 Keep walkways, stairwells and exits free from obstructions at all times.

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 Report immediately if you observe/noticed damaged fire equipment and other fire hazards to
Campus security and Fire Safety wing.
 Do not open fire hydrant/hose reel water for unnecessarily use.
 Do not misuse of Fire Extinguisher.

3) FIRE PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS OF THE MULTI STORIED BUILDING:

1.1) STRUCTURE
13. The structural framework can be in R.C.C or steel. In case of steel structure, it will be necessary to
encase the structural components by tiles, concrete or bricks.
14. The fire resistance of load bearing walls, columns and beams should not be less than two hours
1.2) INTERNAL WALLS & PARTITIONS
1. Internal walls could be in brick, hollow concrete blocks, tiles or timber.
2. The materials of the wall should, however, be treated in such a manner that they should have fire
resistance of not less than one hour.
1.3) STAIRCASE
1. The enclosing walls of the main staircase should have a fire resistance of not less than one hour.
2. The staircase enclosure should be of self contained type with one side preferably being adjacent to an
external wall.
3. Staircase should not be arranged around the lift shaft.
4. Access to the staircase should be through doors having fire resistance of at least half-an-hour. The
doors should be of swing type opening in the direction of the escape.
5. The door of the staircase enclosure at ground floor should open out into an open space.
6. Adequate number of staircases should be provided to meet the travel distance requirements of the type
of building.
1.4) FIRE ESCAPE OR EXTERNAL STAIRS
1. In addition to the main staircase it is necessary to make suitable provision of fire escape in the form of
external stairs.
2. All fire escapes should be directly connected to ground floor and their entrance should be away from
the internal staircase of the building.
1.5) BASEMENTS
1. The basement should be properly ventilated.
2. The main staircase of the building should preferably terminate at ground floor and as far as possible
the access to basement should be through a separate staircase.
3. The staircase of basement should be of enclosed type and should have fire resistance of not less than
two hours.
4. In case the basement is to be used for car parking, installation of electric sub-station, storage of
combustible material, etc it is necessary to install sprinkler system for extinguishing fire.

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1.6) WATER STORAGE TANK

1. There should be a provision of an underground water storage tank of 100,000 to 200,000 liters capacity
exclusively meant for firefighting purposes.
2. The tank should have arrangement of replenishment of the water either by municipal means or by tube
well.
1.7) FIRE DETECTION AND EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM
1. All multi storied buildings should have adequate provision for fire detection and fire extinguishing
system.

4) DIFFERENT METHODS OF FIRE FIGHTING SERVICES

(FIRE FIGHTING TECHNIQUES)

3.1) FOG ATTACK

The hose uses a fog setting to extinguish a fire – ideal for closed compartment fires where there is no
wind. This is used by fire brigades across the country and is lauded for its effectiveness in combating fire.
This technique is used particularly in closed compartment fires, and it works by using the fog nozzle of
the hose, rather than a jet to extinguish the fire. This technique can be very effective in non-ventilated
spaces, but where there is wind; its effectiveness is greatly reduced.

3.2) INDIRECT ATTACK

Aimed at the ceiling, the water drops down and extinguishes the fire from above.
Like the fog attack, this method is most effective in closed compartment fires, such as high rise
environments. Instead of aiming the stream of water directly at the fire, it is aimed at the ceiling or wall
above the flames, allowing the water to drop down and extinguish the blaze.

3.3) DIRECT ATTACK

Perhaps the most widely known technique – this suffocates the flames as the water is aimed at the base
of the fire.
Aiming the stream of water at the base of the fire, this technique works best using a concentrated,
powerful jet of water that suffocates the flames. In order for this to work effectively, the firefighters
must have a clear and direct line of sight to the fire. If this method is used on a fire in a non-vented area,
then there will be less steam and the fire will be extinguished faster.

3.4) COMBINATION ATTACK

This uses both indirect and direct attacks to combat the overhead gases and the flames simultaneously.
This method consists of using both indirect and direct methods. One of the main benefits of this

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technique is that it simultaneously combats the overhead gases, as the indirect method does, whilst
directly attacking the fire itself, extinguishing it quickly and minimising the risk of it spreading

3.5) THE ‘TWO LINES IN’ METHOD

This uses two hoses and two teams, combining a fog nozzle and a solid stream of water – used only for
fires that are subject to high winds.

This technique is used only for fires in high energy (wind driven) situations. The technique requires two teams
of two, with each team operating a different kind of hose. One team operates a low pressure/high fog nozzle,
and the other uses a nozzle with a solid, concentrated stream. As long as the two teams work in tandem and
communicate well, this method can be very effective. One team should focus on attacking the flame directly,
while the other should concentrate on preventing any advancing flame from spreading.

5) Means of Escape:-
A “means of escape” can be defined as the structural means whereby a safe route is provided for
people to travel from any location in a building or structure to a place of safety without the need of
outside assistance. Each workplace should have an emergency plan which all employees and visitors
must be made aware of.
The principle on which means of escape provisions are based is that the time available for
escape (an assessment of the length of time between the fire starting and it making the means of escape
from the workplace unsafe) is greater than the time needed for escape (the length of time it will take
everyone to evacuate once a fire has been discovered and warning given).
• A means of escape shall be a continuous and unobstructed way of exit travel from any point in a
building to a street, the roof of a building or a designated area of refuge.
• The path of travel along a means of escape may consist of three parts :
(a) The Exit Access: That portion of the means of escape which leads to the entrance of an
exit and is included in the measure of travel distance to reach an exit shall be termed the
exit access;
(b) The Exit: The exit itself shall be considered to be that portion of the means of escape
which is protected from the area of incidence and provides a safe path to the exit
discharge; and
(c) The Exit Discharge: The exit discharge shall comprise any portion of the travel between
the termination of exit and the exterior or the area of refuge.

No. of Occupants = Total gross floor area in Sq.Mtr

10

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 The occupant load calculated as above need not exceed one person per 0.3m 2 of usable floor space.
 Minimum width of the corridors and passageways:
a) 1.1 m = 43.31 inch where serving an occupant load of more than 50.
b) 0.9 m = 36 inch where serving an occupant load of 50 or less.
 The minimum clear height of the corridors and passageways shall not be less than 2.4 m.

6) Fire Alarms :-
 A fire alarm system has a number of devices working together to detect and warn people through visual
and audio appliances when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or other emergencies are present.
 These alarms may be activated automatically from smoke detectors, and heat detectors or may also be
activated via manual fire alarm activation devices such as manual call points or pull stations. Alarms can
be either motorized bells or wall mountable sounders or horns.
 They can also be speaker strobes which sound an alarm, followed by a voice evacuation message which
warns people inside the building not to use the elevators.
 Fire alarm sounders can be set to certain frequencies and different tones including low, medium and
high, depending on the country and manufacturer of the device.

Figure 3.12 Fire Alarm

7) Combustibility of Materials :-
 Flammable and combustible materials differ based on the temperatures they must be exposed to in
order to catch fire. Specifically, flammables will ignite at lower temperatures than combustibles when
exposed to an ignition source. This specific temperature, also known as a flash point, is what separates
flammables and combustibles.
 The flash point is the lowest temperature at which hazardous materials will generate vapours and ignite
if exposed to an ignition source.
 These temperatures vary from material to material, but there are certain flash point thresholds that
separate flammables from combustibles.
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 Flammable and combustible materials will generate vapours when exposed to a temperature at, or
above, its flash point, which can easily ignite when exposed to an ignition source. Therefore, the lower
the flash point of a material, the higher the risk is.
 This is because the temperature of most workplaces will not be above the lowest combustible flash
point (37.8 ºC), which means that combustibles won’t start to form vapours in a normal working
environment. Oppositely, flammables are more likely to form vapours in normal work environments,
because their flash points are lower.

Flammable materials Combustible materials

A material is
A material is considered combustible if
considered flammable if it has a
it has a flash point higher than 37.8
flash point of any temperature
ºC and below 93.3 ºC.
below 37.8 ºC.

8) Fire Resistance :-
 Fire-resistant of a structural element : so resistant to fire that for a specified time and under conditions
of a standard heat intensity it will not fail structurally or allow transit of heat and will not permit the
side away from the fire to become hotter than a specified temperature
 The ability of a component or a building to satisfy, for a stated period of time, some or all of the
appropriate criteria given in the relevant standard.'
 Fire resistance is measured in minutes. This relates to time elapsed in a standard test and should not be
confused with real time.
 Performance in terms of the fire resistance to be achieved by elements of structure, doors and
other forms of construction is classified in accordance with BS EN 13501.
 Fire resistance is a measure of one or more of the following:
o Resistance to collapse (load bearing capacity), which applies to load bearing elements only,
denoted R in the European classification of the resistance to fire performance.
o Resistance to fire penetration (integrity), denoted E in the European classification of the
resistance to fire performance.
o Resistance to the transfer of excessive heat (insulation), denoted I in the
European classification of the resistance to fire performance.

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9) Fire Escape Routes and Elements :-

The following points / elements are to be taken in to consideration for the Fire escape of
building.
1) Smoke Alarms. There should be a smoke alarm in each sleeping area of your home, and one in the
area just outside the sleeping rooms, as well as having smoke alarms on each level of the home.
There should also be smoke alarms in the stairways between levels, and one in any room that is
regularly closed off while being used, such as an office or media room. Smoke alarms should be
tested once per month to assure that their batteries are good. Direct-wired alarms are not
recommended, as an electrical fire can render them useless.
2) Floor Plan. Take the time to create a floor plan, map, or grid of your home. Study it together as a
family, so that everyone knows escape routes from each room in case a fire separates family
members.
3) Clear Escape Routes. Make sure that all escape routes to windows and doors are free of
blockages at all times.
4) Alternate Route Plans. Your escape plan should include two routes out of each room, in order to
assure that no one is trapped if a fire blocks a primary exit.
5) Outside Meeting Place. Designate a meeting place outside the home, for everyone to gather after
escaping the home.
6) Practice. Assemble your family once per month to practice your escape plan. Keeping the
practices short, and assuming the fire starts in a different room for each practice, on a rotating basis
from month to month, is a good idea.
7) Hot Doors. The plan should stress that a hot door should never be opened during a fire event.
Hot doors mean fire is on the other side.
8) Once Out, Stay Out. Once you or a family member has escaped the home, it should never be re-
entered. Gather in your outside meeting place, and if anyone is missing, one member can run
around the outside of the house, pounding on walls and shouting to get the attention of anyone left
inside.
9) No Elevators. If you live in a multi-story building, never use elevators in order to escape during a
fire event. Elevators are a trap if the power is lost.
10) Sleepovers. If your child asks to stay overnight at a friend’s house, always speak to the parents of
the friend, to assure yourself that they also have smoke alarms and an escape plan, before giving
answer. Also, the parents should be willing to include your child in an escape practice before the
sleepover proceeds. The same, of course, should be done when your child has a friend in your
home for an overnight stay.

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10) Planning and Design of Fire Escapes

1) Fire Escape:
• A special kind of emergency exit.
• Provides a method of escape
• Often found on multiple- story residential buildings
• They have fallen out of common use
2) General Exit Requirements
 An exit may be a doorway; corridor; passageway(s) to an internal staircase, or external

staircase, or to a VERANDAH or terrace(s), which have access to the street, or to the roof of
a building or a refuge area. A exit may also include a horizontal exit leading to an adjoining
building at the same level.
 Every exit, exit access or exit discharge shall be continuously maintained free of all

obstructions or impediments to full use in the case of fire or other emergency

 Lifts and escalators shall not be considered as exits.

 The floors of areas covered for the means of exit shall be illuminated to values not less than 1
ft candle (10 lux) at floor level. In auditoriums, theatres, concert halls and such other places of
assembly, the illumination of floor exit/access may be reduced during period of performances
to values not less than 1/5 ft candle (2 lux)
 Exits shall be clearly visible and the route to reach the exits shall be clearly marked and signs

posted to guide the occupants of the floor concerned. Signs shall be illuminated and wired to
an independent electrical circuit on an alternative source of supply. The sizes and colours of
the exit signs shall be in accordance with good practice . The colour of the exit signs shall be
green.
 No building shall be so altered as to reduce the number, width or protection of exits to less

than that required.

 In every building or structure, exits shall comply with the minimum requirements of this part,
except those not accessible for general public use.
 Every building meant for human occupancy shall be provided with exits sufficient to permit
safe escape of occupants, in case of fire or other emergency.
3) ESCAPE ROUTES:
 There must be at least one escape route from
a. The main entrance door of every flat
B. The door of every communal room
C. From every plant room.
 An escape route must lead to a place of safety

a. Directly
B. By way of a protected zone
C. By way of an access deck or access balcony
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11) WET RISERS

1) Wet rising mains are fitted in tall buildings due to the excessive pressures required to pump
water to high levels. A Wet riser is a supply system intended to distribute water to multiple levels
or compartments of a building, as a component of its fire fighting systems.
They are advantageous to the fire service in two respects. Firstly they provide a fixed distribution
system within the building that requires no fire service resources or equipment. Secondly it is
designed as part of, and to maintain, the compartment of the building.
2) The designers or architects may opt for the superior protection of wet risers. Wet risers are a
UK building regulations requirement in buildings over 50M ( over 60M up until 2006)
3) Wet rising mains consist of vertical pipes similar to the dry rising main system with landing
valves at each floor except the ground. The pipe system is connected to a permanent water
supply normally a tank fed from the town mains. Duplicate automatic pumps, one duty and one
standby supply this water to the pipe system.

12) DRY RISERS

1) A dry riser is a normally empty pipe that can be externally connected by firefighters to a
pressurized water source. It is a vertical pipe intended to distribute water to multiple levels of a
building or structure as a component of the fire suppression systems.
2) Most buildings have a "wet riser" or "wet standpipe" system where the pipes are kept full of
water for manual or automatic fire fighting operations. Dry risers are used when the water
pressure of a building wouldn't be enough for fire suppression and in unheated buildings where
the pipes could freeze. Dry risers in occupied buildings must be within a fire-resistant shaft,
usually one of a building's fire escape staircase enclosures. The riser is also where the gauges,
valves, and alarm devices are located.
3) Depending on regional nomenclature, the term "dry riser" may refer to a standpipe, intended to
provide water to fire hose connections, or a vertical main pipe in an automatic dry pipe fire
sprinkler system. A dry standpipe has an external fire department connection at ground level,
such as a coupling, through which water can be pumped from the fire engine pump to the fire
hose attachments on each floor. A dry pipe fire sprinkler system is a network of pipes connected
to fixed sprinklers inside a building, which is full of air until one of the sprinklers is triggered.

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13) SPRINKLERS:

1) A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection method, consisting of a water supply system,
providing adequate pressure and flow rate to a water distribution piping system, onto which fire
sprinklers are connected. Although historically only used in factories and large commercial
buildings, systems for homes and small buildings are now available at a cost-effective price. Fire
sprinkler systems are extensively used worldwide, with over 40 million sprinkler heads fitted
each year. In buildings completely protected by fire sprinkler systems, over 96% of fires were
controlled by fire sprinklers alone.

Figure 3.13 Working principle of Sprinklers

The Working Principle behind Sprinkler system

 The Wood's metal version works in a slightly different way.
o The array of sprinklers is fed by water pipes in the ceiling (1).
o Each sprinkler has two spring-like metal arms (2)
o Held together by a slug of the Wood's metal (3).
o When the Wood's metal is intact, the spring arms are locked together and clamp the
water pipe closed so no water can escape. Directly beneath each sprinkler, you'll
notice there's a flower-shaped piece of metal called a deflector (4),
 But it doesn't do anything useful at this stage.
o If a fire breaks out beneath a sprinkler (5),
o Hot gases swirl upward toward the ceiling (6).
o When the temperature reaches about 70°C (160°F), the Wood's metal melts, allowing
the two metal arms to spring open (7).

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o Water can now escape from the pipe just as it does from an open faucet. It pours
down from the pipe in the ceiling, hits the flower-shaped deflector head directly
beneath, and falls to the ground in a gentle spray (8)
o Hopefully extinguishing the fire. If the fire is small, only the sprinkler directly above
it will trigger and other nearby sprinklers will remain switched off to limit water
damage (9).
 However, if the fire spreads, nearby sprinklers will soon be triggered as well until either the fire
goes out or the firefighters show up to help out. According to the Home Fire Sprinkler
Coalition, sprinklers can extinguish small fires in as little as 90 seconds using less than one tenth
as much water as a fire hose, greatly limiting water damage.

1) Types of Sprinklers
2) Wet-pipe system
3) Dry-pipe system,
4) Deluge systems
5) Pre-action systems
6) Foam water sprinkler systems
7) Water spray systems
8) Water mist systems

 Wet pipe systems: - Wet pipe systems are definitely the most commonly used fire sprinkler
systems. Because it is very reliable and, at the same time, simple. Basically it works this way: in
the event of a fire, water is provided to the piping via the sprinklers heads by an automatic
water supply.
 Dry pipe systems: - These are the second most popular fire sprinkler system type. They are
usually installed in unheated buildings (like parking garages for example). Here the low ambient
temperature may freeze the water in an ordinary wet pipe system, making it useless.
 Therefore, in this kind of sprinkler system, the water in the piping is replaced by air at a
pressure below the water supply pressure. When one or more of the automatic sprinkler heads
is activated, it opens so the air in the piping can come out from that sprinkler. The drop of the
air pressure in the piping allows water to vent and control the fire.
 Deluge systems: - In this type of system all the sprinklers connected to the water piping are
open in order to provide a simultaneous jet of water over the entire environment in case of fire.
Indeed, they are usually installed in locations where the risk of rapid fire spread is high. In the
event of fire, an alarm activates. This signals the deluge valve to open allowing water to flow
from the piping system.
 Pre-action systems: - Pre-action systems are used in places where accidental activation of the
fire sprinklers should be avoided (like museums or Data Centres, for example). There are two

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types of pre-action systems: single interlock and double interlock. The first is similar to dry pipe
systems in the way they operate but in this case the vent of water is preceded by a prior fire
detection event (the activation of a smoke detector for example). The system is converted from
a dry to a wet system, in order to reduce the delay of water distribution to the piping that
usually happens in dry systems.
 Foam water sprinkler systems: - This special kind of sprinkler system discharges a mixture of
water and foam concentrate if activated. They are generally used in case of high challenge fires,
such as in the presence of flammable liquids. The foam can be inserted in any of the systems
described above.
 Water spray systems: - Water spray systems are identical to deluge systems but, unlike the
latter, the first are designed to safeguard a uniquely configured hazard (so they don’t cover all
the horizontal floor area of a space). Electrical transformers, for example, are usually protected
by a water spray system.
 Water mist systems: - This kind of system is typically used in conditions where water may
damage things or in case of minimal water supplies. They are provided with a heat absorbent
vapour and operate as a wet pipe, deluge, dry pipe or pre-action system. In this case a
compressed gas is used to atomize the water, so it turns into a mist.

14) Heat Detector

 A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the convected thermal
energy of a fire increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element. The thermal mass and
conductivity of the element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element. All heat detectors
have this thermal lag. Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation, "rate-of-rise"
and "fixed temperature". The heat detector is used to help in the reduction of property damage.

Heat detector selection

 Heat detectors commonly have a label on them that reads "Not a life safety device". That is
because heat detectors are not meant to replace smoke detectors in the bedrooms or in the
hallway outside of the bedrooms.
 A heat detector will nonetheless notify of a fire in a kitchen or utility area, e.g., laundry room,
garage, or attic, where smoke detectors should not be installed as dust or other particles would
affect the smoke detector and cause false alarms. This will allow extra time to evacuate the
building or to put out the fire, if possible.
 Mechanical heat detectors are independent fire warning stations that — unlike smoke
detectors — can be installed in any area of a home.
 Portability, ease of installation, and excellent performance and reliability make this a good
choice for residential fire protection when combined with the required smoke detectors.

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Because the detectors are not interconnected, heat activation identifies the location of the fire,
facilitating evacuation from the home.

15) Smoke Detector

 A smoke detector is a device that senses smoke, typically as an indicator of fire. Commercial
smoke detectors issue a signal to a fire alarm control panel as part of a fire alarm system, while
household smoke detectors, also known as smoke alarms, generally issue an audible or
visual alarm from the detector itself or several detectors if there are multiple smoke detectors
interlinked.
 Smoke detectors are housed in plastic enclosures, typically shaped like a disk about 150
millimetres (6 in) in diameter and 25 millimetres (1 in) thick, but shape and size vary. Smoke
can be detected either optically (photoelectric) or by physical process (ionization). Detectors
may use one of the two, or both sensing methods. Sensitive alarms can be used to detect, and
deter, people smoking in areas where smoking is banned. Smoke detectors in large commercial
and industrial buildings are usually connected to a central fire alarm system. Domestic smoke
detectors range from individual battery powered units to several interlinked units with battery
backup. With interlinked units, if any of them detect smoke, all of the alarms will trigger even if
household power has gone out.

16) Fire Dampers

 Fire dampers are passive fire protection products used in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) ducts to prevent the spread of fire inside the ductwork through fire-
resistance rated walls and floors.
 Fire/smoke dampers are similar to fire dampers in fire resistance rating, and also prevent the
spread of smoke inside the ducts.
 When a rise in temperature occurs, the fire damper closes, usually activated by a thermal
element which melts at temperatures higher than ambient but low enough to indicate the
presence of a fire, allowing springs to close the damper blades.
 Fire dampers can also close of an electrical signal from a fire alarm system utilizing detectors
remote from the damper, indicating the sensing of heat or smoke in the building occupied
spaces or in the HVAC duct system.

17) Fire Doorways

 The width of a doorway shall not be less than 1 m (39.37 inch) and the height not less than 2 m (78.74
inch).
 No sliding or hanging door shall be used as a means of exit.
 All exit access doors shall be of a side-swinging type.
 All exit doors shall be open able from the side they serve without the use of a key.

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