Chapter 1

Introduction to Sets and Logic

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 Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction to Set Theory
1.2 Subsets and Set Operations
1.3 Statements and Quantifiers
1.4 Truth Tables

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 Section 1.3
Statements and Quantifiers

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 Concepts

1. Recognizing Statements
2. Classifying Statements as Simple or
Compound
3. Understanding Quantified Statements and
Negations
4. Write Statements Symbolically and
Translate Statements From Symbols to
Words

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 Concept 1

Recognizing Statements

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 Statements
A statement is a declarative sentence that can be
objectively determined to be true or false, but not
both.
For example:
Radioactive spiders can make you a superhero. (false)
2 + 10 = 12 (true)
The following sentences, however, are not statements:
Give me onion rings with my order. (This is a command.)
What operating system are you running? (This is a question.)
Sweet! (This is an exclamation.)
The guy sitting next to me is kind of goofy. (“goofy” is subjective.)

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EXAMPLE 1 Recognizing Statements (1 of 2)
Decide which of the following are statements and
which are not.
(a) Most scientists agree that global warming is a
threat to the environment.
(b) Is that your laptop?
(c) Man, that hurts!
(d) 432 + 8 ÷ 1.3 =
(e) This book is about database management.
(f) Watching reality shows turns your brain to
mush.
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EXAMPLE 1 Recognizing Statements (2 of 2)
SOLUTION
Parts (a), (d), and (e) are statements because they can be
judged as true or false in a nonsubjective manner.

Part (b) is not a statement because it is a question.

Part (c) is not a statement because it is an exclamation.

Part (f ) is not a statement because it requires an opinion.

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 Simple Statements
A simple statement contains only one idea.

Examples:
Your jeans are torn.
My dorm room has a pile of dirty socks in it.
Daytona Beach is in Florida.

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 Compound Statements
A compound statement is formed by joining two
or more simple statements with a connective.

Examples:

John studied for 5 hours, and he got an A.

Luisa will run in a mini triathlon or she will play in the

campus tournament.

If I get 80% of the questions on the LSAT right, then I

will get into law school.

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 Connectives
The basic connectives are: and, or, if…then, and
if and only if.

Each of the connectives has a formal name:

Formal Name Connective

Conjunction And
Disjunction Or
Conditional If … then
Biconditional If and only if

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 Concept 2

Classifying Statements as
Simple or Compound

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EXAMPLE 2 Classifying Statements as
Simple or Compound (1 of 2)
Classify each statement as simple or compound. If
it is compound, state the name of the connective
used.
(a) Our school mascot is a moose.
(b) If you register for Wi-Fi service, you will get 3
days of free access.
(c) Tomorrow is the last day to register for classes.
(d) In the interest of saving the planet, I will buy
either a hybrid or a motorcycle.

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EXAMPLE 2 Classifying Statements as
Simple or Compound (2 of 2)
SOLUTION
(a) There are no connectives involved, so this is a simple
statement.
(b) This if . . . then statement is compound and uses a
conditional connective.
(c) This is a simple statement.
(d) Ultimately, this statement could be restated as “I will buy
a hybrid, or I will buy a motorcycle”, which makes it a
compound statement: specifically, a disjunction.

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 Concept 3

Understanding Quantified
Statements and Negations

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 Quantified Statements (1 of 2)
Quantified statements involve terms such as all,
each, every, no, none, some, there exists, and at
least one.
The first five (all, each, every, no, none) are called
universal quantifiers because they either include
or exclude every element of the universal set.
The latter three (some, there exists, at least one)
are called existential quantifiers because they
claim the existence of something, but do not
include the entire universal set.

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 Quantified Statements (2 of 2)
Here are some examples of quantified statements:

Every student taking Math for Liberal Arts this semester will
pass.

No nursing student is also majoring in criminal justice.

Some people who are Miami Hurricane fans are also Miami
Dolphin fans.

There is at least one professor in this school who does not

have brown eyes.

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 Negations (1 of 2)
The negation of a statement is a corresponding
statement with the opposite truth value.

The typical way to negate a simple statement is by

adding the word not. If the statement already
includes the word not, then remove it to form the
negation.

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 Negations (2 of 2)
Here are some examples of negations:

Statement Negation
Auburn will win Saturday. Auburn will not win Saturday.
I took a shower today. I did not take a shower today.
My car is not clean. My car is clean.

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Negations of Quantified Statements (1 of 2)
We can summarize the negation of quantified
statements as follows:
Statement contains… Negation
All do Some do not, or not all do
Some do None do, or all do not
Some do not All do
None do Some do

(In this setting, we define the word some to mean

at least one.)

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Negations of Quantified Statements (2 of 2)
This diagram should help you remember the
negations for quantified statements. The
statements diagonally opposite each other are
negations.

All are None are

Some are Some are not

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EXAMPLE 3 Writing Negations (1 of 2)

Write the negation of each of the following

quantified statements.
(a) Every student taking Math for Liberal Arts this
semester will pass.
(b) Some people who are Miami Hurricane fans
are also Miami Dolphin fans.
(c) There is at least one professor in this school
who does not have brown eyes.
(d) No nursing student is also majoring in criminal
justice.
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EXAMPLE 3 Writing Negations (2 of 2)

SOLUTION
(a) Some student taking Math for Liberal Arts this
semester will not pass (or, not every student taking
Math for Liberal Arts this semester will pass).
(b) No people who are Miami Hurricane fans are also
Miami Dolphin fans.
(c) All professors in this school have brown eyes.
(d) At least one nursing students is also majoring in
criminal justice.

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 Concept 4

Write Statements Symbolically

and Translate Statements From
Symbols to Words

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 Symbolic Notation
Symbolic logic uses letters to represent statements
and special symbols to represent words like and,
or, and not.

Use of this symbolic notation in place of the

statements themselves allows us to analytically
evaluate the validity of the logic behind an
argument without letting bias and emotion cloud
our judgment.

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 Symbols for the Connectives

Name Connective Symbol

Conjunction And ∧
Disjunction Or ∨
Conditional If … then →
Biconditional If and only if ↔

We often use parentheses in logical statements

when more than one connective is involved in
order to specify an order.

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 Letters for Simple Statements
Simple statements in logic are usually denoted
with lowercase letters like p, q, and r.

For example:
We could use p to represent the statement “I get paid
Friday” and q to represent the statement “I will go out this
weekend.”
Then the conditional statement “If I get paid Friday, then I
will go out this weekend” can be written in symbols as
p → q.

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 Symbol for a Negation
The symbol ~ (tilde) represents a negation.

For example, if p represents “I get paid Friday,” then ~p

represents “I do not get paid Friday.”

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EXAMPLE 4 Studying Order in Logical
Connectives (1 of 3)
Let’s use the symbol p to represent the statement
“Large Coney is a dog,” and q to represent the
statement “Guinness is a cat.”
(a) What does the statement (∼p) ∧ q mean?
(b) What does the statement ∼(p ∧ q) mean?
(c) Do these two statements say the same thing?

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EXAMPLE 4 Studying Order in Logical
Connectives (2 of 3)
SOLUTION
(a) The parentheses tell us that the first thing we should do
is negate statement p. Since p = Large Coney is a dog,
∼p = Large Coney is not a dog. So (∼p) ∧ q would be
translated into words as “Large Coney is not a dog and
Guinness is a cat.”
(b) This time, the parentheses tell us to first form the
conjunction of p and q. This is “Large Coney is a dog
and Guinness is a cat.” Then we need to negate this
statement, giving us ∼(p ∧ q) = It is not the case that
Large Coney is a dog and Guinness is a cat.

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EXAMPLE 4 Studying Order in Logical
Connectives (3 of 3)
SOLUTION continued
(c) These two statements don’t say the same thing. The
first clearly says that Large Coney is not a dog. But the
second one says it’s not true that BOTH Large Coney is
a dog and Guinness is a cat. So that statement could be
true if Large Coney is a dog, but Guinness is not a cat.

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EXAMPLE 5 Writing Statements Symbolically
(1 of 3)
Let p represent the statement “It is cloudy” and q
represent the statement “I will go to the beach.”
Write each statement in symbols.
(a) I will not go to the beach.
(b) It is cloudy, and I will go to the beach.
(c) If it is cloudy, then I will not go to the beach.
(d) I will go to the beach if and only if it is not
cloudy.

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EXAMPLE 5 Writing Statements Symbolically
(2 of 3)
SOLUTION
p = “It is cloudy.” q = “I will go to the beach.”
First Identify the connector and or keyword in each statement,
then rewrite using the appropriate symbol.
(a) I will not go to the beach.
This is the negation of statement q, which we write as ~q.
(b) It is cloudy, and I will go to the beach.
This is the conjunction of p and q, written as p ∧ q.

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EXAMPLE 5 Writing Statements Symbolically
(3 of 3)
SOLUTION continued
(c) If it is cloudy, then I will not go to the beach.
This is the conditional of p and the negation of q: p → ~q.
(d) I will go to the beach if and only if it is not cloudy.
This is the biconditional of q and not p: q ↔ ~p.

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EXAMPLE 6 Translating Statements from
Symbols to Words (1 of 2)
Write each statement in words. Let p = “My dog is
a golden retriever” and q = “My dog is fuzzy.”

(a) ~p
(b) p∨q
(c) ~p → q
(d) q↔p
(e) q∧p

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EXAMPLE 6 Translating Statements from
Symbols to Words (2 of 2)
SOLUTION
p = “My dog is a golden retriever” q = “My dog is fuzzy”

(a) ~p : My dog is not a golden retriever.

(b) p ∨ q : My dog is a golden retriever or my dog is fuzzy.

(c) ~p → q : If my dog is not a golden retriever, then my

dog is fuzzy.

(d) q ↔ p : My dog is fuzzy if and only if my dog is a

golden retriever.

(e) q ∧ p : My dog is fuzzy, and my dog is a golden

retriever.
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