VIBRATION OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS

Introduction
Models of vibratory systems can be divided into two broad classes, lumped and
continuous, depending on the nature of the parameters. In the case of lumped systems, the
components are discrete, with the mass assumed to be rigid and concentrated at
individual points, and with the stiffness taking the form of massless springs connecting
the rigid masses. The masses and springs represent the system parameters, and we refer to
such models as discrete or lumped-parameter models. The motion of discrete systems is
governed by ordinary differential equations. Continuous systems, on the other hand,
differ from discrete systems in that the mass and elasticity are continuously distributed.
Such systems are also known as distributed-parameter systems, and examples include
strings, rods, beams, plates and shells. While discrete systems possess a finite number of
degrees of freedom, continuous systems have an infinite number of degrees of freedom
because we need an infinite number of coordinates to specify the displacement of every
point in an elastic body. The displacement in this case depends on two independent
variables, namely x and t. As a result, the motion of continuous systems is governed by
partial differential equations to be satisfied over the entire domain of the system, subject
to boundary conditions and initial conditions.

Although discrete systems and continuous system may appear entirely different in nature,
the difference is more in form than concept. As a matter of fact, a certain physical system
can be modeled either as discrete or as distributed, depending on the objectives of the
analysis. It turns out that discrete and continuous systems are indeed closely connected,
and thus it comes as no surprise that both systems possess natural frequencies and normal
modes of vibration.

In this topic we will study the free and forced vibration of continuous systems. Emphasis
will be placed on studying the vibration of taught strings, rods and beams. This covers a
broad class of engineering applications, as many practical systems can be modeled by one
or more of such elements in order to study the dynamic behavior

1
Vibration of Strings
The figure shows a fixed-fixed string of length L. The string is initially under tension T
and the aim is to study the transverse vibrations denoted by the displacement y(x,t),
measured from the equilibrium position. It is assumed that both displacement and slope
are small.
y
y(x,t) x

It is also assumed that the tension force in the string remains constant during vibration,
which follows from the previous assumptions of small displacements. As in all
continuous systems, the displacement variable depends on both the spatial (x) and
temporal (t) coordinates. A free body diagram of a string element is shown below.
Neglecting gravity effects, we can apply Newton’s second law on the string element to
obtain the governing equation of motion.

T
y  dy

 dx
y x
dx
 x
y
dx
T

x
x  dx

Applying  Fy  m  a y gives:

    y
2
T sin   dx   T sin    dx 2 (1)
 x  t
where  is the mass per unit length of the string. For small displacements, sin  ,
hence we obtain:
 2 y
T  2 (2)
x t

2
 y
But   hence:
x
2 y 2 y
T   (3)
x 2 t 2
which can be written as:
2 y 1 2 y
 (4)
x 2 c 2 t 2

T
which is known as the one-dimensional wave equation and c  is the velocity of

wave propagation along the string. The wave equation is a partial differential equation,
and the same form will be encountered in similar problems involving the dynamics of
distributed-parameter models. The equation must be satisfied over the entire domain and
is subject to boundary conditions as well as initial conditions. Accordingly, the
problem posed is both a boundary value problem (BVP) and an initial value problem
(IVP) from a mathematical point pf view.

We now seek the solution of the wave equation, which represents the variation of the
transverse displacement at any point along the string and at any time for an arbitrary
string that is set in motion by certain initial conditions and left to vibrate freely. This
solution is emulated by the using the principle of separation of variables. In this way, the
transverse displacement can be expressed as:

y( x, t )  Y ( x)  G(t ) (5)
It follows that:
 2 y d 2Y
 G (6)
x 2 dx 2
and
2 y d 2G
 Y  (7)
t 2 dt 2
Substitution into the equation of motion (4) yields:
d 2Y 1 d 2G
G 2Y 2 (8)
dx 2 c dt
which can also be written as:
1 d 2Y 1 1 d 2G
 (9)
Y dx 2 c 2 G dt 2
It is noted that the left-hand-side (LHS) of the above equation depends only on the spatial
variable x, whereas the RHS depends only on the temporal variable, t. In order to satisfy

3
the equation, both sides of equation (9) must be equal to a constant. Let this constant be

  c  . A negative constant was conveniently selected because this choice leads to an

oscillatory motion. The choice of a zero or positive constant does not yield a vibratory
motion, and therefore must be excluded. For example, if a zero constant was chosen, this
leads to:
1 1 d 2G
0
c 2 G dt 2
or
d 2G
0
dt 2
whose solution is given by:
G  c1t  c2
which is rejected because it indicates a solution that increases linearly with time. It can be
shown that the choice of a positive constant gives rise to two terms; one exponentially
increasing and the other exponentially decreasing.
Adopting the negative constant choice, and substituting into the equation of motion gives:
1 d 2Y
   c 
2
2
(10)
Y dx
which can be written as:
d 2Y
  c  Y  0
2
2
(11)
dx
Furthermore,
1 1 d 2G
   c 
2
2 2
(12)
c G dt
which can similarly be expressed as:
d 2G
2
  2G  0 (13)
dt
These have the general solutions:
Y ( x)  A sin  c  x  B cos  c  x (14)

And
G(t )  C sin t  D cos t (15)

4
The 4 constants A, B, C and D are to be determined from the boundary conditions (BC’s)
and initial conditions (IC’s). It also worthy to note that equation (14) defines the
deformation shape, whereas equation (15) defines the motion to be harmonic in time. It
becomes appropriate now to define the unknown constant  as the natural frequency of
the system, and  c  as the wave number or spatial frequency. The general solution

may then be expressed as:

Alternatively, and after some algebraic manipulation, the above solution may also be
written as:
y( x, t )  a1 sin  ( c) x  t   a2 cos  ( c) x  t  
(17)
a3 sin  ( c) x  t   a4 cos  ( c) x  t 

Once again, the solution must contain 4 unknown constants.

Example: Fixed-fixed string

y
y(x,t) x

The imposed boundary conditions indicate that the string displacement at both ends must
be equal to zero, or:
y(0, t )  0 and y(L, t )  0 . The general solution is:
y ( x, t )  Y ( x)  G(t )
  A sin( c) x  B cos( c) x    C sin t  D cos t 

Substitution of the first BC into the general solution gives:

which implies B  0 . The general solution hence becomes:

5
y ( x, t )   A sin( c) x    C sin t  D cos t 

Substitution of the second BC into the solution gives:

which implies:
sin( L c)  0
hence
 L c  n , n  1, 2,3,
The above equation is termed the frequency equation or characteristic equation of the
system, as it gives values of the system natural frequencies. Clearly, the system possesses
an infinite number of natural frequencies, as suggested earlier. Having obtained the
natural frequencies, the solution at any frequency or mode is expressed by:
yn ( x, t )   An sin(n x L)  Cn sin nt  Dn cos nt 
 Yn ( x)  Gn (t )

Therefore, at each natural frequency, there corresponds a certain mode shape or an

where each “n” represents a normal mode vibration with a natural frequency
n c
n 
L
and mode shape
Yn ( x)  An sin  n x L 

where An are arbitrary constants. The figure below shows the first few modes of the
string, as obtained from the above analysis.

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 n=1 n=2

n=3 n=4

The general solution is given by:

where the terms in the first bracket define the displacement pattern at mode “n”, and the
terms on the last bracket define a harmonic motion at the corresponding natural
frequency. The free vibration solution is finally obtained as the sum of all modes of
vibration, or:

y( x, t )    Cn sin nt  Dn cos nt  sin(n x L)
n 1

where Cn , Dn are constants to be determined from the IC’s.

For a fixed-fixed string, this becomes:

7
Example:

Solution:

‫ﺧﻄﺄ‬

Note : fundamental frequency means w = w1 and hence n = 1.