6.

976
High Speed Communication Circuits and Systems
Lecture 17
Advanced Frequency Synthesizers

Michael Perrott
Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Copyright © 2003 by Michael H. Perrott

 Bandwidth Constraints for Integer-N Synthesizers
Loop Filter
1/T Bandwidth << 1/T

ref(t) Loop out(t)

PFD
Filter
(1/T = 20 MHz)

Divider
N[k]

ƒ PFD output has a periodicity of 1/T

- 1/T = reference frequency
ƒ Loop filter must have a bandwidth << 1/T
- PFD output pulses must be filtered out and average value
extracted

Closed loop PLL bandwidth often chosen to be a

factor of ten lower than 1/T
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Bandwidth Versus Frequency Resolution
Loop Filter
1/T Bandwidth << 1/T

ref(t) Loop out(t)

PFD
Filter
(1/T = 20 MHz)

Divider
N[k]

Sout(f)
91
N[k] 1/T
90
out(t)
frequency resolution = 1/T GHz
1.80 1.82

ƒ Frequency resolution set by reference frequency (1/T)

- Higher resolution achieved by lowering 1/T
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Increasing Resolution in Integer-N Synthesizers
Loop Filter
1/T Bandwidth << 1/T

20 MHz
Loop out(t)
100 ref(t) PFD
Filter
(1/T = 200 kHz)

Divider
N[k]

Sout(f)
9001
N[k] 1/T
9000
out(t)
frequency resolution = 1/T GHz
1.80 1.8002

ƒ Use a reference divider to achieve lower 1/T

- Leads to a low PLL bandwidth ( < 20 kHz here )
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 The Issue of Noise
Loop Filter
1/T Bandwidth << 1/T

20 MHz
Loop out(t)
100 ref(t) PFD
Filter
(1/T = 200 kHz)

Divider
N[k]

Sout(f)
9001
N[k] 1/T
9000
out(t)
frequency resolution = 1/T GHz
1.80 1.8002

ƒ Lower 1/T leads to higher divide value

- Increases PFD noise at synthesizer output
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Modeling PFD Noise Multiplication
PFD-referred VCO-referred
Noise Noise 2
π
S En(f) S Φvn(f) α N S e n (f)

Radians2/Hz
-20 dB/dec
S Φvn(f)
f f
0 1/T 0
en(t) Φvn(t) f
0 (fo)opt
π 1-G(f)
fo α N G(f) fo
S Φnpfd(f)

Radians2/Hz
Φnpfd(t) Φnvco(t)
S Φnvco(f)
Φn(t)
Divider Control Φc(t) Φout(t)
of Frequency Setting
(assume noiseless for now) f
0 (fo)opt

ƒ Influence of PFD noise seen in model from Lecture 16

- PFD spectral density multiplied by N 2 before influencing PLL
output phase noise

High divide values high phase noise at low frequencies

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Dual-Loop Frequency Synthesizer

cos(w1t)
ref1 Loop
PFD sin(w1t)
Filter
VCO
Divider out

N
cos(w2t)
ref2 Loop
PFD sin(w2t)
Filter
VCO
Divider Single-sideband
Mixer
M
ƒ Overall synthesizer output

ƒ From trigonometry: cos(A-B) = cosAcosB+sinAsinB

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Advantage #1: Avoids Large Divide Values

cos(w1t)
ref1 Loop
PFD sin(w1t)
Filter
VCO
Divider out

N
cos(w2t)
ref2 Loop
PFD sin(w2t)
Filter
VCO
Divider Single-sideband
Mixer
M
ƒ Choose top synthesizer to provide coarse tuning and
bottom synthesizer to provide fine tuning
- Choose w to be high in frequency
1
ƒ Set ref to be high to avoid large N low resolution
- Choose w to be low in frequency
1

2
ƒ Allows ref2 to be low without large M high resolution
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Advantage #2: Provides Suppression of VCO Noise

cos(w1t)
ref1 Loop
PFD sin(w1t)
Filter
VCO
Divider out

N
cos(w2t)
ref2 Loop
PFD sin(w2t)
Filter
VCO
Divider Single-sideband
Mixer
M

ƒ Top VCO has much more phase noise than bottom VCO
due to its much higher operating frequency
- Suppress top VCO noise by choosing a high PLL
bandwidth for top synthesizer
ƒ High PLL bandwidth possible since ref1 is high
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Alternate Dual-Loop Architecture
out
cos(w1t)
ref1 Loop
PFD sin(w1t)
Filter
VCO
Divider y

N
cos(w2t)
ref2 Loop
PFD sin(w2t)
Filter
VCO
Divider Single-sideband
Mixer
M

ƒ Calculation of output frequency

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Advantage of Alternate Dual-Loop Architecture
out
cos(w1t)
ref1 Loop
PFD sin(w1t)
Filter
VCO
Divider y

N
cos(w2t)
ref2 Loop
PFD sin(w2t)
Filter
VCO
Divider Single-sideband
Mixer
M

ƒ Issue: a practical single-sideband mixer implementation

will produce a spur at frequency w1 + w2
ƒ PLL bandwidth of top synthesizer can be chosen low
enough to suppress the single-sideband spur
- Negative: lower suppression of top VCO noise
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Direct Digital Synthesis (DDS)

clk

out
Counter ROM DAC LPF

ƒ Encode sine-wave values in a ROM

ƒ Create sine-wave output by indexing through ROM
and feeding its output to a DAC and lowpass filter
- Speed at which you index through ROM sets frequency
of output sine-wave
ƒ Speed of indexing is set by increment value on counter
(which is easily adjustable in a digital manner)

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Pros and Cons of Direct Digital Synthesis

clk

out
Counter ROM DAC LPF

ƒ Advantages
- Very fast adjustment of frequency
- Very high resolution can be achieved
- Highly digital approach
ƒ Disadvantages
- Difficult to achieve high frequencies
- Difficult to achieve low noise
- Power hungry and complex
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Hybrid Approach

clk

ref Loop out

Counter ROM DAC LPF PFD
Filter
VCO
Divider

N
ƒ Use DDS to create a finely adjustable reference
frequency
ƒ Use integer-N synthesizer to multiply the DDS output
frequency to much higher values
ƒ Issues
- Noise of DDS is multiplied by N 2

- Complex and power hungry

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Fractional-N Frequency Synthesizers
out(t)
ref(t) PFD
Loop
(1/T = 20 MHz) Filter
91
90 Divider
Nsd[k] N[k]
Dithering
Modulator

Sout(f)
Nsd[k] 91 1/T
90
out(t)
frequency resolution << 1/T GHz
1.80 1.82

ƒ Break constraint that divide value be integer

- Dither divide value dynamically to achieve fractional values
- Frequency resolution is now arbitrary regardless of 1/T
ƒ Want high 1/T to allow a high PLL bandwidth
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Classical Fractional-N Synthesizer Architecture

e(t) Loop
ref(t) PFD out(t)
Filter

div(t) N/N+1

frac[k] 1-bit
Accumulator
carry_out[k]
Nsd[k] = N + frac[k]

ƒ Use an accumulator to perform dithering operation

- Fractional input value fed into accumulator
- Carry out bit of accumulator fed into divider
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Accumulator Operation

clk(t)

M-bit
frac[k] residue[k]
Accumulator
M-bit carry_out[k]
1-bit

residue[k]
frac[k] =.25

carry_out[k]

ƒ Carry out bit is asserted when accumulator residue

reaches or surpasses its full scale value
- Accumulator residue increments by input fractional
value each clock cycle

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Fractional-N Synthesizer Signals with N = 4.25

carry_out(t)

out(t)

div(t)

ref(t)

e(t)

phase error(t)

ƒ Divide value set at N = 4 most of the time

- Resulting frequency offset causes phase error to
accumulate
- Reset phase error by “swallowing” a VCO cycle
ƒ Achieved by dividing by 5 every 4 reference cycles
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 The Issue of Spurious Tones

e(t) Loop
ref(t) PFD out(t)
Filter

div(t) N/N+1

frac[k] 1-bit
Accumulator
carry_out[k]
Nsd[k] = N + frac[k]

ƒ PFD error is periodic

- Note that actual PFD waveform is series of pulses – the
sawtooth waveform represents pulse width values over time
ƒ Periodic error signal creates spurious tones in synthesizer
output
-
M.H. Perrott
Ruins noise performance of synthesizer
MIT OCW
 The Phase Interpolation Technique

e(t)
ref(t) Loop out(t)
PFD
Filter

div(t) N/N+1
α

D/A

frac[k] M-bit
Accumulator residue[k] 1-bit
M-bit
carry_out[k]

ƒ Phase error due to fractional technique is predicted

by the instantaneous residue of the accumulator
- Cancel out phase error based on accumulator residue
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 The Problem With Phase Interpolation

e(t)
ref(t) Loop out(t)
PFD
Filter

div(t) N/N+1
α

D/A

frac[k] M-bit
Accumulator residue[k] 1-bit
M-bit
carry_out[k]

ƒ Gain matching between PFD error and scaled D/A

output must be extremely precise
- Any mismatch will lead to spurious tones at PLL output
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
Is There a Better Way?
 A Better Dithering Method: Sigma-Delta Modulation

Time Domain

M-bit Input 1-bit Analog Output

Digital Σ−∆
D/A
Modulator

Frequency Domain
Digital Input Quantization Analog Output
Spectrum Noise Spectrum

Input

Σ−∆
ƒ Sigma-Delta dithers in a manner such that resulting
quantization noise is “shaped” to high frequencies
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Linearized Model of Sigma-Delta Modulator

r[k] S r(ej2πfT)= 1
12

NTF Hn(z)
z=ej2πfT
1
STF q[k]
x[k] y[k] x[k] y[k]
Hs(z)
Σ−∆
z=ej2πfT

S q(ej2πfT)= 1 |H n(ej2πfT)| 2
12

ƒ Composed of two transfer functions relating input and

noise to output
- Signal transfer function (STF)
ƒ Filters input (generally undesirable)
- Noise transfer function (NTF)
ƒ Filters (i.e., shapes) noise that is assumed to be white
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Example: Cutler Sigma-Delta Topology

x[k] u[k] y[k]

H(z) - 1 e[k]

ƒ Output is quantized in a multi-level fashion

ƒ Error signal, e[k], represents the quantization error
ƒ Filtered version of quantization error is fed back to
input
- H(z) is typically a highpass filter whose first tap value is 1
ƒ i.e., H(z) = 1 + a z + a z L
-1 -2

- H(z) – 1 therefore has a first tap value of 0

1 2

ƒ Feedback needs to have delay to be realizable

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Linearized Model of Cutler Topology
r[k]
x[k] u[k] y[k] x[k] u[k] y[k]

H(z) - 1 e[k] H(z) - 1 e[k]

ƒ Represent quantizer block as a summing junction in

which r[k] represents quantization error
- Note:

ƒ It is assumed that r[k] has statistics similar to white

noise
- This is a key assumption for modeling – often not true!
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Calculation of Signal and Noise Transfer Functions
r[k]
x[k] u[k] y[k] x[k] u[k] y[k]

H(z) - 1 e[k] H(z) - 1 e[k]

ƒ Calculate using Z-transform of signals in linearized

model

- NTF: Hn(z) = H(z)

- STF: Hs(z) = 1
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 A Common Choice for H(z)

7 m=3

5
Magnitude

4 m=2

m=1
2

0
0 1/(2T)
Frequency (Hz)
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Example: First Order Sigma-Delta Modulator

ƒ Choose NTF to be
x[k] u[k] y[k]

H(z) - 1 e[k]

ƒ Plot of output in time and frequency domains with

input of

Magnitude (dB)
Amplitude

0
0 Sample Number 200 0 Frequency (Hz) 1/(2T)
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Example: Second Order Sigma-Delta Modulator

ƒ Choose NTF to be
x[k] u[k] y[k]

H(z) - 1 e[k]

ƒ Plot of output in time and frequency domains with

input of

1 Magnitude (dB)
Amplitude

-1
0 Sample Number 200 0 Frequency (Hz) 1/(2T)
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Example: Third Order Sigma-Delta Modulator

ƒ Choose NTF to be
x[k] u[k] y[k]

H(z) - 1 e[k]

ƒ Plot of output in time and frequency domains with

input of

4
3
2 Magnitude (dB)
Amplitude

1
0
-1
-2
-3
0 Sample Number 200 0 Frequency (Hz) 1/(2T)
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Observations

ƒ Low order Sigma-Delta modulators do not appear to

produce “shaped” noise very well
- Reason: low order feedback does not properly
“scramble” relationship between input and quantization
noise
ƒ Quantization noise, r[k], fails to be white
ƒ Higher order Sigma-Delta modulators provide much
better noise shaping with fewer spurs
- Reason: higher order feedback filter provides a much
more complex interaction between input and
quantization noise

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Warning: Higher Order Modulators May Still Have Tones

ƒ Quantization noise, r[k], is best whitened when a

“sufficiently exciting” input is applied to the modulator
- Varying input and high order helps to “scramble”
interaction between input and quantization noise
ƒ Worst input for tone generation are DC signals that are
rational with a low valued denominator
- Examples (third order modulator):
x[k] = 0.1 x[k] = 0.1 + 1/1024
Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB)

0 Frequency (Hz) 1/(2T) 0 Frequency (Hz) 1/(2T)

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Cascaded Sigma-Delta Modulator Topologies

x[k] q1[k] q2[k]

Σ∆M1[k] M
Σ∆M2[k] 1
Σ∆M3[k] 1

y1[k] y2[k] y3[k]

y[k]
Digital Cancellation Logic
Multibit
output

ƒ Achieve higher order shaping by cascading low order

sections and properly combining their outputs
ƒ Advantage over single loop approach
- Allows pipelining to be applied to implementation
ƒ High speed or low power applications benefit
ƒ Disadvantages
- Relies on precise matching requirements when combining
outputs (not a problem for digital implementations)
- Requires multi-bit quantizer (single loop does not)
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 MASH topology

x[k] r1[k] r2[k]

Σ∆M1[k] M
Σ∆M2[k] 1
Σ∆M3[k] 1

y1[k] y2[k] y3[k]

1-z-1 (1-z-1)2
u[k] y[k]

ƒ Cascade first order sections

ƒ Combine their outputs after they have passed through
digital differentiators

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Calculation of STF and NTF for MASH topology (Step 1)

x[k] r1[k] r2[k]

Σ∆M1[k] M
Σ∆M2[k] 1
Σ∆M3[k] 1

y1[k] y2[k] y3[k]

1-z-1 (1-z-1)2
u[k] y[k]

ƒ Individual output signals of each first order modulator

ƒ Addition of filtered outputs

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Calculation of STF and NTF for MASH topology (Step 1)

x[k] r1[k] r2[k]

Σ∆M1[k] M
Σ∆M2[k] 1
Σ∆M3[k] 1

y1[k] y2[k] y3[k]

1-z-1 (1-z-1)2
u[k] y[k]

ƒ Overall modulator behavior

- STF: H (z) = 1
- NTF: H (z) = (1 – z )
s
-1 3
n

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Sigma-Delta Frequency Synthesizers
Fref Fout = M.F Fref

ref(t) e(t) Charge v(t) out(t)

Loop
PFD
Pump Filter
VCO

div(t) Divider Riley et. al.,

JSSC, May 1993
Nsd[m] Σ−∆ N[m] M+1
Modulator M
Σ−∆
Quantization
Noise
f
ƒ Use Sigma-Delta modulator rather than accumulator
to perform dithering operation
- Achieves much better spurious performance than
classical fractional-N approach
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Background: The Need for A Better PLL Model
PFD-referred VCO-referred
Noise Noise
S En(f) S Φvn(f)
-20 dB/dec

f f
0 1/T 0
en(t) Φvn(t)
Φref [k] α e(t) v(t) KV Φout(t)
Icp H(f)
π jf
Charge Loop
VCO
PFD Pump Divider Filter
Φdiv[k]
1
N
N[k]

ƒ Classical PLL model

- Predicts impact of PFD and VCO referred noise sources
- Does not allow straightforward modeling of impact due
to divide value variations
ƒ This is a problem when using fractional-N approach
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 A PLL Model Accommodating Divide Value Variations
PFD-referred VCO-referred
Noise Noise
S En(f) S Φvn(f)
-20 dB/dec

f f
0 1/T 0
Tristate: α=1
PFD XOR: α =2 en(t) Loop Φvn(t)
C.P. Filter VCO
Φref [k] T e(t) v(t) KV Φout(t)
α Icp H(f)
2π jf

Divider
Φdiv[k]
1 1
Nnom T

Φd [k]
-1
2π z
n[k]
1 - z-1 j2πfT
z=e

ƒ See derivation in Perrott et. al., “A Modeling Approach

for Sigma-Delta Fractional-N Frequency Synthesizers
…”, JSSC, Aug 2002
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Parameterized Version of New Model
PFD-referred VCO-referred
Noise Noise
S En(f) S Φvn(f)
Φjit[k] -20 dB/dec
αT
π
f f
0 1/T 0
espur(t) en(t) Φvn(t)
Noise

Ιcpn(t) π 1-G(f)
1 fo α NnomG(f) fo
Ι
Φnpfd(t) Φnvco(t)

Φn(t)
T G(f)
n[k] z-1
Φ (t)
d Φc(t) Φout(t)
2π
Divide 1 - z-1 fo

value z=ej2πfT
variation Alternate Representation
G(f)
n[k] Fc(t) 1 Φc(t)
fo jf
D/A and Filter Freq. Phase
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Spectral Density Calculations

x(t) y(t)
case (a): CT CT H(f)

x[k] y[k]
case (b): DT DT j2πfT
H(e )

x[k] y(t)
case (c): DT CT H(f)

ƒ Case (a):

ƒ Case (b):

ƒ Case (c):
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Example: Calculate Impact of Ref/Divider Jitter (Step 1)

Div(t) S Φjit(e j2πfT)

T
π 2 2
β
t T f
0
(∆tjit)rms= β sec.

∆tjit[k] π Φjit[k]
T

ƒ Assume jitter is white

- i.e., each jitter value independent of values at other time
instants
ƒ Calculate spectra for discrete-time input and output
- Apply case (b) calculation

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Example: Calculate Impact of Ref/Divider Jitter (Step 2)

Div(t) S Φjit(e j2πfT) SΦn(f)

T 1 2 π 2
π 2 2 T Nnom β2
β T T
t T f
0 f
(∆tjit)rms= β sec. 0 fo

T NnomG(f)
∆tjit[k] π Φjit[k] Φjit[k] Φn (t)
T fo

ƒ Compute impact on output phase noise of synthesizer

- We now apply case (c) calculation

- Note that G(f) = 1 at DC

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Now Consider Impact of Divide Value Variations
PFD-referred VCO-referred
Noise Noise
S En(f) S Φvn(f)
Φjit[k] -20 dB/dec
αT
π
f f
0 1/T 0
espur(t) en(t) Φvn(t)
Noise

Ιcpn(t) π 1-G(f)
1 fo α NnomG(f) fo
Ι
Φnpfd(t) Φnvco(t)

Φn(t)
T G(f)
n[k] z-1
Φ (t)
d Φc(t) Φout(t)
2π
Divide 1 - z-1 fo

value z=ej2πfT
variation Alternate Representation
G(f)
n[k] Fc(t) 1 Φc(t)
fo jf
D/A and Filter Freq. Phase
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Divider Impact For Classical Vs Fractional-N Approaches
Classical Synthesizer

1 1/T

G(f)
n(t) 1 n[k] Fout(t)
T fo

D/A and Filter

Fractional-N Synthesizer

1 1/T

G(f)
nsd(t) nsd[k] n[k] Fout(t)
1 Dithering
T Modulator fo

D/A and Filter

ƒ Note: 1/T block represents sampler (to go from CT to DT)

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Focus on Sigma-Delta Frequency Synthesizer

n[k] Fout(t)

nsd[k]
1 1/T

G(f)
nsd(t) 1
nsd[k] n[k] Fout(t)
T
Σ−∆ fo

D/A and Filter

freq=1/T

ƒ Divide value can take on fractional values

- Virtually arbitrary resolution is possible
ƒ PLL dynamics act like lowpass filter to remove much
of the quantization noise

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Quantifying the Quantization Noise Impact
PFD-referred VCO-referred
Noise Noise
S En(f) S Φvn(f)
-20 dB/dec

Σ−∆ f f
0 1/T 0
S r(e )= 1
j2πfT Quantization
En(t) Φvn(t)
12 Noise
r[k] S q(ej2πfT)
π 1-G(f)
fo α NnomG(f) fo
NTF Hn(z)
f
0
STF q[k] T G(f) Φtn,pll(t)
nsd[k] n[k] -1 Φ [k] Φdiv(t) Φout(t)
2π z -1
n
Hs(z) fo
1-z
z=ej2πfT
z=ej2πfT

Σ−∆

ƒ Calculate by simply attaching Sigma-Delta model

- We see that quantization noise is integrated and then
lowpass filtered before impacting PLL output
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 A Well Designed Sigma-Delta Synthesizer
fo = 84 kHz
-60
-70 PFD-referred
Spectral Density (dBc/Hz)

-80
noise
SΦ (f)
out,En
-90
-100
-110 VCO-referred
Σ−∆ noise
-120
noise SΦ (f)
-130 SΦ (f) out,vn
out,∆Σ
-140
-150
-160
10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz
Frequency
f0 1/T

ƒ Order of G(f) is set to equal to the Sigma-Delta order

- Sigma-Delta noise falls at -20 dB/dec above G(f) bandwidth
ƒ Bandwidth of G(f) is set low enough such that synthesizer
noise is dominated by intrinsic PFD and VCO noise
M.H. Perrott MIT OCW
 Impact of Increased PLL Bandwidth
fo = 84 kHz fo = 160 kHz
-60 -60
-70 PFD-referred -70 PFD-referred

Spectral Density (dBc/Hz)

noise
Spectral Density (dBc/Hz)

-80
noise -80
SΦ (f) SΦ (f)
out,En out,En
-90 -90
Σ−∆
-100 -100 noise
SΦ (f)
-110 VCO-referred -110 out,∆Σ
Σ−∆ noise VCO-referred
-120 -120
noise SΦ (f) noise
-130 SΦ (f) out,vn -130 SΦ (f)
out,∆Σ out,vn
-140 -140
-150 -150
-160 -160
10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz
Frequency Frequency
f0 1/T f0 1/T

ƒ Allows more PFD noise to pass through

ƒ Allows more Sigma-Delta noise to pass through
ƒ Increases suppression of VCO noise

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW

 Impact of Increased Sigma-Delta Order
m=2 m=3
-60 -60
-70 PFD-referred -70 PFD-referred
Spectral Density (dBc/Hz)

noise noise

Spectral Density (dBc/Hz)

-80 -80
SΦ (f) SΦ (f)
out,En out,En
-90 -90
-100 -100 VCO-referred
-110 -110 noise
VCO-referred SΦ (f)
Σ−∆ noise Σ−∆ out,vn
-120 -120
noise SΦ (f) noise
-130 SΦ (f) out,vn -130 SΦ (f)
out,∆Σ out,∆Σ
-140 -140
-150 -150
-160 -160
10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz
Frequency Frequency
f0 1/T f0 1/T

ƒ PFD and VCO noise unaffected

ƒ Sigma-Delta noise no longer attenuated by G(f) such
that a -20 dB/dec slope is achieved above its bandwidth

M.H. Perrott MIT OCW