EM 1110-1-1904

30 Sep 90

APPENDIX D
ELASTIC PARAMETERS

D-1. General. The magnitudes of soil elastic distortion or immediate settle-

ment for practical applications are evaluated from the elastic soil parameters
Young’s modulus Es , shear modulus Gs and Poisson’s ratio ν s . For most
practical applications the foundation soil is heterogeneous or multilayered in
which the elastic parameters can vary significantly from layer to layer.

D-2. Elastic Young’s Modulus. Young’s elastic modulus is commonly used for
estimation of settlement from static loads. Suitable values of the elastic
modulus Es as a function of depth may be estimated from empirical correla-
tions, results of laboratory tests on undisturbed specimens and results of
field tests.

a. Definition. Materials that are truly elastic obey Hooke’s law in

which each equal increment of applied uniaxial stress σz causes a propor-
tionate increase in strain ε z

(D-1)

where E is Young’s modulus of elasticity, Table D-1. Figure D-1 illustrates

the stress path for the uniaxial (UT) and other test methods. An elastic ma-
terial regains its initial dimensions following removal of the applied stress.

(1) Application to soil. Hooke’s law, which is applicable to homoge-

neous and isotropic materials, was originally developed from the observed
elastic behavior of metal bars in tension. Soil is sometimes assumed to be-
have linearly elastic under relatively small loads. A partially elastic mate-
rial obeys Hooke’s law during loading, but this material will not gain its
initial dimensions following removal of the applied stress. These materials
are nonlinear and include most soils, especially foundation soil supporting
heavy structures that apply their weight only once.

(2) Assumption of Young’s elastic modulus. Soils tested in a conven-

tional triaxial compression (CTCT) device under constant lateral stress will
yield a tangent elastic modulus Et equivalent with Young’s modulus. The
soil modulus Es is assumed approximately equal to Young’s modulus in practi-
cal applications of the theory of elasticity for computation of settlement.

(3) Relationship with other elastic parameters. Table D-2 relates the
elastic modulus E with the shear modulus G , bulk modulus K and con-
strained modulus Ed . These parameters are defined in Table D-1.

b. Empirical Correlations. The elastic undrained modulus Es for clay

may be estimated from the undrained shear strength Cu by
(D-2)

where

Es = Young’s soil modulus, tsf

Kc = correlation factor, Figure D-2
Cu = undrained shear strength, tsf

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Figure D-1. Examples of stress paths for different tests

(Refer to Table D-1 for descriptions of tests)

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Table D-2

Relationships Between Elastic Parameters

Parameter Relationship

Shear modulus G , tsf

Bulk Modulus K , tsf

Constrained modulus Ed , tsf

Figure D-2. Chart for estimating constant Kc to determine

the elastic modulus Es = KcCu from the undrained shear
strength (after Figure 3-20, TM 5-818-1)

The values of Kc as a function of the overconsolidation ratio and plasticity

index PI have been determined from field measurements and are therefore not
affected by soil disturbance compared with measurements on undisturbed soil
samples. Table D-3 illustrates some typical values for the elastic modulus.

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Table D-3

Typical Elastic Moduli

E , tsf
Soil s
Clay
Very soft clay 5 - 50
Soft clay 50 - 200
Medium clay 200 - 500
Stiff clay, silty clay 500 - 1000
Sandy clay 250 - 2000
Clay shale 1000 - 2000

Sand
Loose sand 100 - 250
Dense sand 250 - 1000
Dense sand and gravel 1000 - 2000
Silty sand 250 - 2000

c. Laboratory Tests on Cohesive Soil. The elastic modulus is sensitive

to soil disturbance which may increase pore water pressure and, therefore, de-
crease the effective stress in the specimen and reduce the stiffness and
strength. Fissures, which may have little influence on field settlement, may
reduce the measured modulus compared with the in situ modulus if confining
pressures are not applied to the soil specimen.

(1) Initial hyperbolic tangent modulus. Triaxial unconsolidated un-

drained (Q or UU) compression tests may be performed on the best available un-
disturbed specimens at confining pressures equal to the total vertical over-
burden pressure σo for that specimen when in the field using the Q test
procedure described in EM 1110-2-1906, Laboratory Soils Testing. An appropri-
ate measure of Es is the initial tangent modulus Eti = 1/a where a is the
intercept of a plot of strain/deviator stress versus strain, Figure D-3 (item
14).

(2) Reload modulus. A triaxial consolidated undrained (R or CU) com-

pression test may be performed on the best available undisturbed specimens.
The specimen is initially fully consolidated to an isotropic confining pres-
sure equal to the vertical overburden pressure σo for that specimen in the
field. The R test procedure described in EM 1110-2-1906 may be used except
as follows: stress is increased to the magnitude estimated for the field load-
ing condition. The axial stress may then be reduced to zero and the cycle re-
peated until the reload curve shows no further increase in slope. The tangent
modulus at 1/2 of the maximum applied stress is determined for each loading
cycle and plotted versus the number of cycles, Figure D-4. An appropriate
measure of Es is the reload tangent modulus that approaches the asymptotic
value at large cycles.

d. Field Tests. The elastic modulus may be estimated from empirical and
semiempirical relationships based on results of field soil tests. Refer to

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Figure D-3. Hyperbolic simulation of stress-strain relationships

EM 1110-1-1804, Geotechnical Investigations, for more information on in situ

tests.

(1) Plate load test. The plate load test performed in accordance with
ASTM Standard Test Method D 1194, "Bearing Capacity of Soil for Static Loads
on Spread Footings" is used to determine the relationship between settlement
and plate pressure qp , Figure D-5. The elastic modulus Es is found from
the slope of the curve ∆ρ/∆qp

(D-3)

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Figure D-4. Elastic modulus from cyclic load tests

where

Es = Young’s soil modulus, psi

νs = Poisson’s ratio, 0.4

= slope of settlement versus plate pressure, inches/psi

Bp = diameter of plate, inches
Iw = influence factor, π/4 for circular plates

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Figure D-5. Graphical solution of soil elastic modulus Es

from the plate load test. Iw = π/4 for circular rigid plate
of diameter Bp . ν s = Poisson’s ratio

This elastic modulus is representative of soil within a depth of 2Bp beneath

the plate.

(2) Cone penetration test (CPT). The constrained modulus Ed has been
empirically related with the cone tip bearing resistance by

(D-4)

where

Ed = Constrained modulus, tsf

αc = correlation factor depending on soil type and the cone bearing
resistance, Table D-4
qc = cone tip bearing resistance, tsf

A typical value for sands is αc = 3 , but can increase substantially for over-
consolidated sand. A typical value for clays is αc = 10 when used with the
net cone resistance qc - σo where σo is the total overburden pressure. The
undrained shear strength Cu is related to qc by

(D-5)

where

Cu = undrained shear strength, tsf

qc = cone tip resistance, tsf
σo = total overburden pressure, tsf
Nk = cone factor

The cone factor often varies from 10 to 20 and can be greater.

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Table D-4

Correlation Factor αc (Data from Item 44)

Resistance qc , tsf Water αc

Soil Content, percent

Lean clay (CL) <7 3 to 8

7 to 20 2 to 5
>20 1 to 2.5
Silt (ML) <20 3 to 6
>20 1 to 3
Plastic silt <20 2 to 6
clay (CH,MH)
Organic silt <12 2 to 8
Organic clay <7 50 to 100 1.5 to 4
peat 100 to 200 1 to 1.5
>200 0.4 to 1
Sand <50 2 to 4
>100 1.5
1 + D2r
Clayey sand 3 to 6
Silty sand 1 to 2
Chalk 20 to 30 2 to 4

*
Note: Dr = relative density, fraction

(3) Standard penetration test (SPT). The elastic modulus in sand may be
estimated directly from the blow count by (item 60)

(D-6)

where

Es = Young’s soil modulus, tsf

N = average blow count per foot in the stratum, number of blows of a
140 pound hammer falling 30 inches to drive a standard sampler
(1.42" ID, 2.00" OD) one foot. Sampler is driven 18 inches and
blows counted the last 12 inches.
B = width of footing, ft
D = depth of embedment of footing, ft

Equation D-6 was developed from information in the literature and original
settlement observations without consideration of the energy of the hammer. An
alternative method of estimating the elastic modulus for footing foundations
on clean sand or sand and gravel is (after item 12)

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Preloaded sand: Em = 420 + 10Nave (D-7a)

Normally loaded
sand or sand Em = 194 + 8Nave (D-7b)
and gravel:

where

Em = deformation modulus,

Nave = average measured blow count in depth H = B below footing,

blows/ft

(4) Pressuremeter test (PMT). The preboring pressuremeter consists of a

cylindrical probe of radius Ro containing an inflatable balloon lowered into
a borehole to a given depth. The pressure required to inflate the balloon and
probe against the side of the borehole and the volume change of the probe are
recorded. The self-boring pressuremeter includes cutting blades at the head
of the device with provision to permit drilling fluids to circulate and carry
cuttings up to the surface. The self-boring pressuremeter should in theory
lead to a less disturbed hole than the preboring pressuremeter. The pressure
and volume change measurements are corrected for membrane resistance and vol-
ume losses leading to the corrected pressuremeter curve, Figure D-6. The
preboring pressuremeter curve indicates a pressuremeter modulus Ei that
initially increases with increasing radial dimensional change, ∆R/Ro , as
shown in Figure D-6. The self-boring pressuremeter curve is characteristic of

Figure D-6. Example corrected preboring pressuremeter curve

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an initially high pressuremeter modulus Ei that decreases with increasing

volume change without the initial increasing modulus shown in the figure. The
pressuremeter modulus is a measure of twice the shear modulus. If the soil is
perfectly elastic in unloading, characteristic of a sufficiently small unload-
reload cycle, the gradient will be 2GUR (item 23). The unload-reload modu-
lus should be determined on the plastic portion of the pressuremeter curve.
The pressuremeter modulus may be evaluated from the gradient of the unload-
reload cycle by (ASTM 4719)

(D-8)
where

νs = soil Poisson’s ratio, 0.33

∆P = change in pressure measured by the pressuremeter, tsf
Rpo = radius of probe, inches
∆Rpm = change in radius from Rpo at midpoint of straight portion of the
pressuremeter curve, inches
∆Rp = change in radius between selected straight portions of the pres-
suremeter curve, inches

e. Equivalent Elastic Modulus. The following two methods are recommend-

ed for calculating an equivalent elastic modulus of cohesive soil for estimat-
ing settlement of mats and footings.

(1) Kay and Cavagnaro approximation. The equivalent elastic modulus

E*s may be calculated by (item 31)

(D-9)

where

E*s = equivalent elastic modulus, tsf

q = bearing pressure, tsf
R = equivalent mat radius,
L = length of mat, ft
B = width of mat, ft
ρc = center settlement from the Kay and Cavagnaro method, Figure 3-10, ft

(2) Semiempirical method. The equivalent elastic modulus of a soil with

elastic modulus increasing linearly with depth may be estimated by

(D-10)

where

k = constant relating soil elastic modulus Es with depth z

Es = Eo + kz, tons/ft3
D = depth of foundation below ground surface, ft
n = kR/(Eo + kDb)
Eo = elastic soil modulus at the ground surface, tsf

Equation D-10 was developed from results of a parametric study using Equation
D-9 (item 29).

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(3) Gibson model. The equivalent modulus of a soil with elastic modulus
increasing linearly with depth and Eo = 0 is (item 19)

(D-11)

where B is the minimum width of the foundation, ft.

D-3. Shear Modulus. The shear modulus G may be used for analysis of set-
tlement from dynamic loads.

a. Definition. Shear stresses applied to an elastic soil will cause a

shear distortion illustrated by the simple shear test (SST), Table D-1.

b. Evaluation by Dynamic Tests. The shear modulus may be evaluated from

dynamic tests after methodology of Chapter 17, TM 5-818-1, Procedures for
Foundation Design of Buildings and Other Structures (Except Hydraulic Struc-
tures).

c. Relationships with Other Parameters. Table D-2 illustrates the rela-

tionship of the shear modulus with Young’s elastic E and bulk modulus K .

D-4. Poisson’s Ratio. A standard procedure for evaluation of Poisson’s ratio

for soil does not exist. Poisson’s ratio ν s for soil usually varies from
0.25 to 0.49 with saturated soils approaching 0.49. Poisson’s ratio for un-
saturated soils usually vary from 0.25 to 0.40. A reasonable overall value
for ν s is 0.40. Normal variations in elastic modulus of foundation soils at
a site are more significant in settlement calculations than errors in Poisso-
n’s ratio.

D-12