DESIGN OF METALLIC STRUCTURES

(Machined and Sheet metal) -

Intermediate

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 OBJECTIVE:

At the end of this course, participants will be able to,

1. Understand to apply grain direction Material selection, using existing shapes

in machine design
2. Understand to design Joggle, Beed and Cut-outs in Sheet metal design.

For re-cap, refer SKU - “Airframe structural Design Level 1”, Module –
“Design of Metallic Structures (Machined and Sheet Metal)” in NAD.

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 AGENDA:

Module 1: Design of Metallic Structures – Grain Direction

Module 2: Design of Metallic Structures – Material Selection

Module 3: Design of Metallic Structures – Machined - Using Existing Shapes / Sections

Module 4: Design of Metallic Structures – Sheet Metal

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 MODULE 1 : DESIGN OF METALLIC
STRUCTURES – GRAIN DIRECTION

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 GRAIN DIRECTION
The topic Grain direction study is common to both machine design and sheet metal
L Longitudinal, or parallel to direction metal was worked (grain direction) -
greatest strength direction

LT Long Transverse, or perpendicular to grain direction (in the long

transverse direction) - second greatest strength direction

ST Short Transverse, or perpendicular to grain direction (in the short

transverse direction) - weakest strength direction

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 The Impact of Grain in Metal Composition
Most metals, including aluminum, are typically found in a polycrystalline state.
Polycrystalline materials are solids comprised of a variety of differing crystallites,
which are also commonly referred to as the grain of the metal. These grains vary
in size and in orientation but are usually microscopic and their direction is
determined by the processing conditions.
The crystalline lattice structures form during the cooling of the metal from its
molten state and are held together by thin layers of amorphous solid. The
processing of the metal can include rolling slabs and blooms into various
transitional shapes such as plate, sheet, strip, coil, billets, bars and rods. This
processing impacts the alignment of the crystalline structure, resulting in texture
which can be thought of as the percentage of crystals having the preferred
orientation.

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 The Effect of Grain on Metal Strength

When polycrystalline materials are being bent a common way to prevent material
failure or cracking is by bending the metal against the grain or perpendicular to
the grain.
This is important to note, especially with aerospace and aviation applications
since bending with the grain, or parallel to the grain direction, can result in
material failure. This could be either problematic or catastrophic depending on
the application of the end-product. This occurs because bending along the grain
allows for separation of the grain boundaries.
A metal’s grain direction is usually only a factor when bending, however. This is
because sharper, or tighter, bends can be made across the grain without
cracking. In addition, the grain direction needs to be considered when the bend
radius is less than twice the thickness, depending on the material and its
hardness.

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 Working With Grain Direction
Forming with the grain requires less bending force because the
material’s ductility is readily stretched. But this stretching causes
the grains to spread, which manifests as cracking on the outside
bend radius. To prevent or at least reduce this cracking when
bending longitudinal to the grain direction, you may need to use a
larger bend radii. When bending transverse to the grain direction,
the reduced ductility will increase the required forming tonnage, but
it will be capable of accepting a much tighter inside bend radius
without destroying the outside surface of the bend

If a part is manufactured using this rolled plate,

the properties depend on the grain direction that
the critical part feature lies along. A common
example would be lugs or fittings machined from
this plate. Shown below is an extract from the
MMPDS document to understand the Grain
direction effect on material properties.

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 See notes for A-Basis & B-Basis materials.
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 DO's and DON'Ts of Grain Flow

DO’s:
Communicate during initial design stage with forger to optimize
properties/forging process in "hotspots". Designers should "do their
homework" in identifying highly stressed areas where grain flow is most
important.
Relate engineering specs, as well as special tooling requirements, to
purchasing personnel, so that critical performance is not sacrificed for lower
cost.
Review the design, material selection, forging sequence, tooling, etc. with
forgers to explore potential cost-saving measures.
On Dwg, show GRAIN DIRECTION for Aluminum part only.

DON'Ts:
Over-specify aluminum alloy grain-flow requirements, or impose impossible
restrictions, such as "no end grain permitted”.
Design aluminum alloy parts with end-grain orientation in attachment points
that may be prone to environmental corrosion.
Overlook the value-added performance advantages of forgings because of
slightly higher initial cost. Longer service life often translates into better
economics vs. lower-performance alternatives.
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 MODULE 2 : DESIGN OF METALLIC STRUCTURES –
MATERIAL SELECTION

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 MATERIAL SELECTION

Material for Airframe

Material for Engine
Selection of material depends on Design Constraint
Design constraint define the following requirement
– Mechanical
– Chemical
– Thermal
Typical Design Constrain are
– Weight
– Stiffness
– Strength
– Fatigue performance (high/low cycle)
– Corrosion resistance
– cost

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 Material selection chart

Major Design Constraint

Specific Stiffness to Specific Strength
Specific stiffness : Stiffness to density ratio E /
Specific strength : Strength to weight ratio
The broad aim for aircraft design is to maximise payload in relation to
cost. By increasing specific stiffness and strength, the weight of a
given component can be decreased and fuel consumption and
running costs decreased.
For example when a fully loaded aircraft takes off, 20% of the weight
is payload, 40% is aircraft structural weight and 40% is fuel.
Therefore, a saving in aircraft weight can increase the possible
payload or decrease the power required for a given payload.

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 Aircraft classification & its Requirement

Classification Requirement Material used

Light aircraft Cost should be Aluminum alloy &
minimum steel
Business jet Higher performance Carbon fiber
composite
Civil transport Light weight & cost Aluminum &
should be minimum composite
Military Higher performance composite

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 Airframe
Purpose of Airframe
• Resist applied load
• Provide an Aerodynamic shape
• Protect passengers, payload & equipment from external
environment condition
Airframe consists of components such as
• Wing upper
• Wing lower
• Fuselage
• Spars
• Frames
• Ribs
• Landing gear and
• Control surfaces.
Each component has different specific constraints, resulting in different
material selection criteria for each component.

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 Specific Constraint - Wing

Wing upper
– Compressive load
– To resist applied stress and minimize weight it require
High ratio of stiffness to density.
High ratio of yield strength (compression) to density.
Good resistance to stress corrosion cracking fracture.
Wing lower
– Tensile load
– To resist applied stress and minimize weight it require
High ratio of stiffness to density.
High ratio of yield strength to density.
Good resistance to stress corrosion cracking fracture.
Good corrosion resistance.
Due to tensile force, it require additionally
– Good fatigue strength
– Low fatigue crack growth rate

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 Specific Constrain - Fuselage

Carries the whole payload and thereby it has

– Tension
– Compression
– Torsion
– Bending
– Pressurisation force
Summation of all force place the fuselage into tensile and
it require
– High ratio of stiffness to density.
– High ratio of yield strength to density.
– Good corrosion resistance.
– Due to tensile force, it require additionally
– Good fatigue strength
– Low fatigue crack growth rate

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 Specific Constrain – Landing Gear
High static and cyclic loads and it require
– Stiffness
– Yield strength
– Acceptable fatigue
– Fracture resistance
– Stress corrosion cracking
– Volume constrains

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 Material in Airframe

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 Airframe – 2XXX series Plate & Sheet Aluminum alloy

2024 (Al-Cu-Mg alloy)

Available
– Bare & Alclad sheet & plate with
Annealed condition
Mostly T3, T4, T8 Temper condition
Application
– Fuselage structural's,
– Wing tension members
– Shear webs and ribs and
– Structural areas where stiffness, fatigue performance and good strength are
required
– Sheet products, usually alclad, are used extensively in commercial and
military aircraft for fuselage skins, wing skins and engine areas where
elevated temperatures to 250°F (121°C) are often encountered

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 Airframe – 2XXX series Plate & Sheet Aluminum alloy

2090 (Al-Cu-Li alloy)

Low density
Weight saving benefit
Available
Mostly T83 Temper condition
Application
– Aircraft floor bulkhead stiffeners to take advantage of the high
strength and lower density to achieve a substantial weight
reduction.
– Initial uses include wing leading and trailing edges, fuselage
bulkhead webs and internal framework parts. Alloy 2090 is also
being considered for many applications in advanced aircraft
including wing structures.

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 Airframe – 2XXX series Plate & Sheet Aluminum alloy

2124
Elevated temperature application up to177°C
Available
Mostly T851 Temper condition.
Replaces 2024 T851
Application
– Alloy 2124-T851 is recommended for moderately elevated
temperature applications (250-350°F, 121-177°C) requiring
better short-transverse ductility and fracture toughness
guarantees than are available with 2024-T851 plate.
– The primary use is machined fuselage bulkheads and wing
skins in high-performance military aircraft.

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 Airframe – 7XXX series Plate & Sheet Aluminum alloy

7050
Aluminum alloy 7050 is the premier choice for aerospace applications requiring the
best combination of strength, stress corrosion cracking (SCC) resistance and
toughness.
Alloy 7050 exhibits better toughness/corrosion resistance characteristics than alloy
7075.
7050 retains its strength properties in thicker sections while maintaining good stress
corrosion cracking resistance and fracture toughness levels.
Aluminum alloy 7050 plate is available in two tempers: T7651 combines the highest
strength and average SCC resistance; and T7451 (formerly T73651) provides better
SCC resistance
Aluminum alloy 7050 sheet is available bare and Alclad in the T76 temper.
Application
– Typical applications for alloy 7050 plate include fuselage frames and bulkheads
where section thicknesses are 2 to 6 inches (50.8 to 152.40mm).
– Typical applications for alloy 7050 sheet include wing skins.
– The major usage is in plate applications requiring thicknesses over 2 inches
(50.8mm) where 7050 has superior properties.

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 Airframe – 7XXX series Plate & Sheet Aluminum alloy
7050 T7751 plate
This alloy was specifically developed for use in compression-dominated
structures and provides advantages over alloy 7150 in compressive and
tensile strengths while maintaining other important properties such as
fracture toughness and corrosion resistance.
Application
– Aluminum alloy 7055 in the -T77 temper is best suited for applications
where compressive strength is the critical design criteria such as upper
wing structures, horizontal stabilizer, and keel beams.
– Other potential applications include seat and cargo tracks.
– When compared to 7150-T651 or -T7751, 7055-T77 typically provides a 7
to 10% increase in specific minimum compressive and tensile yield
strength.
– The advantage of increased compressive strength of alloy 7055 permits
significant weight savings when compared to alloy 7150.

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 2XXX & 7XXX series alloys in Airframe

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 Airframe material - Composite

Composites consist of two or more materials combined to give a material

with properties distinct from the original constituents.
Composites can be designed to produce a material with desired
combinations of properties such as stiffness, strength and density.
Typically, composites consist of a matrix material and a reinforcing material.
The matrix and fibre materials may be metals, ceramics or polymers, but the
composites used in airframe construction are fibre reinforced polymer matrix
composites.
These have the advantages of:
1) high specific strength and stiffness
2) tailored directional properties
3) non-corroding in salt environments
4) excellent fatigue resistance
5) dimensional stability
6) reduced number of parts required (compared to metal components)
But they are susceptible to impact damage, moisture pick-up and lightning
strikes, have a relatively high cost, do not yield plastically in regions of high
stress concentration and are subject to random property variation due to the
nature of composite manufacturing.
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 Composite - Fiber

The fibers provide virtually all the load carrying

characteristics of the composite, most
importantly strength and stiffness.
Different type of fiber are
– E-glass
– Aramid (eg., Kevlar)
– Carbon
– Alumina
– Silicon carbide and
– boron.

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 Composite - Matrix

The purpose of the matrix is to support the fibers in the required position,
transfer load between the fibers, increase the toughness of the composite
and protect the fibers from damage.
While the longitudinal tensile properties are dominated by the fibers, the
properties of shear, compression and transverse tension are dominated by
the matrix properties.
Matrix polymers can be thermoplastics or thermosetting.
The most common polymer matrix employed in airframe construction is
thermosetting epoxy resin.
Epoxy resin is used because it has good adhesion to fibers, good resistance
to water and high mechanical properties.

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 Composite application in Boeing 767

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 Composite application in Boeing 737 - 600

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 Composite application in Boeing 757

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 Airframe material - Titanium
Density – 4.5g/cm3
Titanium alloys are strong, stiff, corrosion resistant.
Titanium alloys are stronger and stiffer than aluminium alloys and thus
titanium components can be smaller in size than a comparable aluminium
component. Thus, they are used in applications where volume is important,
such as landing gears and attachment points.
Titanium alloys can also be used in applications where the temperature is
too high for aluminium, such as near the engine or in high speed aircraft.
The biggest restrictions on titanium are its higher density than Al, and high
cost (approximately seven times that of aluminium or steel).
The most common titanium alloy in airframe construction is Ti-6Al-4V,
This alloy is a two phase ( and ) alloy, and provides a good combination of
strength, ductility, toughness and creep resistance.

Airframe material – Steel

Like titanium, steels are stronger and stiffer than aluminium alloys and thus
are used in applications where volume is important, such as landing gears,
attachment points, gears and bearings .
They are used in parts where the required tensile strength is greater than
can be supplied by Ti-alloys.
The most commonly used steels are ultra high strength low alloy steels,
maraging steels and precipitation hardening (PH) steels.
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 Module 3: Design of Metallic
Structures – Machined - Using
Existing Shapes / Sections

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 Consider using standard sections and forms:
Preformed sections and forms should be used whenever possible. Specifying
standard sections for welding is usually cheaper than welding many individual
parts. In particular, specifying bent components is preferable to making welded
corners.
The form and size are based on judgment. The smallest practicable cross-
section may be used, but it may be checked that the stresses induced in the
designed cross-section are reasonably safe. In order to design any machine
part for form and size, it is necessary to know the forces which the part must
sustain. It is also important to anticipate any suddenly applied or impact load
which may cause failure
Determine cross-section dimensions by using the basic design equations, the
size and the cross section area of different components of the machine have to
be chosen.

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 Different commonly Different properties
used cross-section of Cross-Sections
1.Circle 1. Area of Cross-section
2.Hallow Circle 2. Moment of Inertia
3.Rectangle 3. Polar moment of Inertia
4.Triangle 4. Section Modulus
5.Trapezoidal 5. Radius of Gyration
6.I-Section
7.T- Section
8.H-Section

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 CASTINGS

Castings fulfill an important function in the construction of aircraft. They are used for aircraft
parts which require intricate shapes, and where manufacture of the parts by machining from
a solid or fabricated by welding would not be economical, or even possible.
Due to the potential problem of castings having internal flaws (e.g., porosity and shrinkage
cracks), castings require additional weight and bulk in their design (i.e., casting factor),
together with rigid inspection, to ensure their reliability.
For the preceding reasons, castings have not been used in primary structure or flight
control system application. However, in recent aircraft design, castings have been approved
for primary structure applications by a number of aircraft companies.
Where the designer determines that a casting would be appropriate for a specific
application, the following guidelines for design approval must be followed:
a. Stress, Materials and Processes / Materials Technology, and Engineering Standards
departments shall be consulted.
b. A complete design review to cover all aspects of the application shall be carried out.
c. Testing and certification of the casting design shall be conducted by Bombardier
Aerospace.
Where castings are specified, they should be designed as close to net shape as practicable
in order to minimize machining.

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 FORGINGS
This Practice applies to the design of rough forgings which are subject to final
machining overall, and to items forged to near net shape condition and intended for
use with a minimum of machining.

The common forging processes are:

a. Hand or open die forging
b. Die or closed die forging
c. Upset forging
d. Roll forging
e. Swaging

FIGURE – GRAIN FLOW LINES FROM VARIOUS PARTING LINE LOCATIONS

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 Effect On Forged Part From Various Parting Line Locations

Moving the parting line location on a channel section will affect the grain flow-lines.
The following paragraphs refer to the elements of Figure in previous slide.
a. Grain flow-lines are ruptured. The exposed grain ends are more susceptible
to stress, corrosion, and cracking than the rest of the forging.
b. Grain flow-lines are ruptured and also may have unfilled sections (unsuitable
from a forging viewpoint).
c. This example is most economical, as all the impression is in one die. This
arrangement is suitable only for aluminum alloy forgings.
d. The parting line should not be above the centerline of the bottom web. This
arrangement is suitable for both aluminum and ferrous forgings.
e. The parting line is at the end of the rib, Good grain structure results, as the
grain flow-lines are smooth at stressed locations. This arrangement is suitable
only for aluminum alloy forgings.

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 FORGING SHAPE CLASSES

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 WEBS
The minimum web thickness depends mostly on the forging alloy and the forging
size, expressed either as area of the web at the parting line or the average width
of web at the parting line.
Punch-out holes are not included in the plane area when determining the
minimum web thickness.

Minimum Rib Thickness

The minimum thickness of a rib depends only on its height and the type of alloy
used

Rib Or Flange End Radii For Aluminum And Ferrous Alloy Forgings
Flange or rib end radii should be larger than corner radii in order to aid in the filling
of the die cavity.

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 FILLET RADII
Fillet radii shall be as large as possible for the following reasons:
a. Large fillet radii produce a positive flow of metal which prevents defects such
as unfilled sections, laps, and cold-shuts.
b. Large fillet radii improve die life.
c. Large fillet radii prevent "flow-through" when the web is enclosed by ribs and
either web or ribs are excessively thin, and also when the width between ribs is
over ten times the rib height.

Notes for Aluminum Alloy Forgings

a. When opposing ribs confine metal flow, use fillet radius RFC (radius for
confined fillets) as shown in Figure in next slide.
b. When metal flow from webs is not confined, use fillet radius RFU (radius for
non-confined fillets).
c. An area may be considered non-confined if its periphery is confined to less
than 50 percent of the total periphery. (See Figure in next slide)
Revisions may be published without notice. Verification that copies are the latest
version is the responsibility of the user.

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 FIGURE – CONFINED AND NONCONFINED FILLETS

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 EXTRUSIONS
An extrusion may be defined as a structural shape (excluding tube, rod, and bar),
long in relation to its cross-sectional dimension, produced by extruding metal
through a die at elevated temperatures.
Extruded sections for aircraft use are grouped into two categories:
Structural - used as stringers, longerons, attachment brackets, etc.
Nonstructural, Appearance - used for interior trim, door, and panel edgings, etc.

Advantages Of Extrusions

a. A large variety of shapes, exhibiting high strength and low weight

characteristics, can be economically produced.
b. Extrusions provide excellent longitudinal mechanical properties.
c. A single extrusion can often reduce the total number of required parts.

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 Disadvantages Of Extrusions

a. Extruded parts tend to have high internal residual stresses. Parts do not remain
dimensionally stable, and can result in high fit up stresses on assembly.
b. Grain direction is parallel to the extruding direction; therefore, elongation and
ductility are lower in the direction perpendicular to the extruding direction.
c. Extrusions of steel and titanium are quite expensive. The surface of steel and
titanium extrusions must be machined all over (i.e., surfaces are too rough to be
used in the as extruded condition).

EXTRUSION MATERIALS

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 BASIC EXTRUDED SHAPES

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 DIMENSIONAL RATIOS

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 Extruded Shape Selection

a. Consider reworking an existing extrusion or sheet metal section, prior to

designing an entirely new extrusion, when the required part lengths are
small (e.g., less than 6 inches per unit).
b. Trimming/bending the legs of an existing shape for small brackets and
clips is usually more economical than designing a new shape.
c. The major factors which contribute to the cost of extrusions are tolerance,
leg thickness, metal alloy, cross-sectional shape required, and diameter
of the circumscribing circle.

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 MODULE 4 : DESIGN OF METALLIC
STRUCTURES – SHEET METAL DESIGN

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 TOPICS COVERED:

JOGGLE DESIGN
BEAD DESIGN
CUTOUT DESIGN
CORNER RELIEFS
SHEET METAL PROCESS SELECTION

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 JOGGLE DESIGN

A joggle is a design feature in which a step is molded into a flange or a web in

order to suit thickness of a mating part or multiple parts stack. See Figure in next
slide for Joggle Configuration and Terms. "Joggle" or "offset" is incorporated in a
part when it is necessary for the part that forms a lap joint to be in a flat plane.
Joggling is generally done on a punch press using universal dies that
accommodate commonly used sections from .040 to .250 inch thickness, and
maximum section depths of 2.56 inches. These will form joggles to depths that do
not exceed .312 inch. Deeper joggles or sections require special dies.

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 JOGGLE CONFIGURATION AND TERMS

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 Types of Joggles

Two basic types of joggles are used; full-section and crushed.

a. Full-Section Joggling - Generally applied to extruded sections and roll-formed
sections of .040 gauge and above. (Figure B in next slide)
b. Crush Joggling - A joggle in which only one surface of the cross-section is
inwardly displaced. Applied to roll-formed sheet metal sections of .071 gauges and
under. Crush joggling should be restricted to sectional areas where one edge is
non-restricted or loose, as opposed to restricted edge joggling. (Figure A below )

FIGURE A – CRUSH JOGGLING (TYPICAL)

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 FIGURE B - FULL-SECTION JOGGLING (EXAMPLES)

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 Fastener Distance
Ensure the distance between fasteners is equal to or less than six times the
fastener diameter (Figure B in previous slide) otherwise, add a second joggle or
use a larger diameter fastener.

Joggle Angle
Joggles should be perpendicular to the adjacent web, as shown in Figure in
slide 52, in which case the angle need not be specified. Joggle angles
specified at values, other than 90° degrees should be kept to a minimum
otherwise special tool are required. Preferred angles other than 90° are 75°,
60°, 45°, 30°, and 15°, in that order, except for standard rolled-hat sections.
Joggles in standard "Yoder-rolled" hat sections and extruded hats should be
designed straight across the hat as shown in Figure next slide .
Standard rolled hat sections may be joggled 12° left or right of the
perpendicular in 4-degree increments, using standard tooling.

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 JOGGLE IN STANDARD YODER-ROLLED HAT SECTIONS (TYPICAL)

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 Design Criteria
a. Where possible, design joggles so that standard tools can be used.
b. Where a section is to be joggled over two members, use a double or stepped
joggle instead of a single joggle and packing piece (Figure B in slide 54).
c. Do not locate joggles in areas where the structural member the joggle mates
with is tapered in section.
d. Specify the depth of the joggle on the drawing. Do not specify trimming of
parts after joggling. Avoid the use of trim angles other than 30, 45, 60, and 90
degrees.
e. Generally, joggles of less than .025 inch deep are not used for assembly. If
external flushness is critical, .010-inch deep (minimum) joggles are possible.
f. Provide clearance between the adjoining part and the joggle radius.
g. Joggle line must not be within a distance of .250’’ of pilot holes to avoid
stretching of the hole.
h. Aluminum alloy 7075-T6 or T7 (including variants of these tempers) requires
hot joggling. As hot joggling is more expensive than cold joggling. Do not use
7075 alloy where joggling is required unless for high strength requirements.
i. The capacity for joggling is shown in Figure next slide.

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 CAPACITY FOR JOGGLING

Joggled Extrusions
For extrusions of 7075 aluminum alloy, the standard length is 8 times the joggle
depth (if performed at room temperature). Where the part is not contoured
within 4 inches of the joggle, the joggle shall be made at elevated temperature,
allowing a joggle length of 4 times the depth.
Extrusions of 7075 aluminum alloy that have been machined to reduce the
thickness of the joggled flange can only be joggled with a length equal to or
greater than eight times the depth, regardless of temper or forming
temperature.

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 Joggle Tolerance
The important joggle dimensions are
shown in Figure aside. In the
absence of specific tolerances for
joggles by a general or flag note on
the face of the Engineering Drawing,
Joggle tolerances shall be as
follows in next slides:

JOGGLE DIMENSIONS (EXAMPLE)

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 Joggle Displacement
Unless interference occurs at later assembly, the absence of a dimension on the
Engineering Drawing to establish, specifically, the height of a sheet metal hat or zee
section or channel in the area of the joggle shall permit the joggle to be displaced
through the entire height of section or to be impressed in only a single flange, at the
discretion of the manufacturing department. Extending the joggle across the sheet
metal section or joggling one side only is optional (Below figure. Where a specific
result is required, specify the appropriate note, e.g.:

JOGGLE EXTENSION (EXAMPLES )

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 Joggle in Hydro-Pressed Parts
If a joggle in a flange is not normal to the Some flanges will also have a double
area adjacent to that flange, extend the joggled area. In these cases, material will
beginning and the end of the joggle be displaced when forming thus increasing
length lines to .38 inch into the area the flange width. To eliminate this extra
adjacent to the flange at all joggles. material, the flat pattern again needs
modifications in the joggle area

JOGGLE NOT NORMAL TO AREA

ADJACENT TO FLANGE
JOGGLE NOT ADJACENT TO THE END
(EXAMPLE)
OF PART (TYPICAL )

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 Joggle In Flange Only
By careful selection of bend radii, certain sheet metal shapes can be joggled in
the flanges only, without displacing the entire width of the section. This is useful
where the top of a hat section is required to be straight (without joggle) and the
flanges are to be joggled over intersecting stringers. The hat is first brake-formed
with a large bend radius “R”

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 Joggle-In-Flange Distortion
When a flange which includes a joggle 3.00 inches or less from the end of the part is
rubber-formed, the joggle will distort the end of the flange. The distortion usually
results in marginal or insufficient fastener edge distance at the end of the flange and
the displaced flange material may require trimming on assembly.
To eliminate or reduce this type of flange distortion, modify the flat pattern by tapering
the top edge of flange in the joggle area. This adds material to the end of the flange
and tapers to the top edge of the flange in the joggle area.

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 BEADS
Beads shall apply to all sheet metal parts for new design. Stiffening beads are used
to provide added stiffening and reduce effective panel size. The use of beads is
lower in cost than beam reinforced with vertical stiffener. Beads can be introduced
into sheet metal as either raised or depressed shapes. Raised beads are formed
over a raised portion of the form block and protrude in a direction opposite to the
flange. Depressed beads, on the other hand, are formed into a recess in the top of
the form block; they protrude in the same direction as the flange. Note that
depressed beads cannot be formed as deeply as raised beads, but are easier to
form.

Edge Distance of Beads

When placing the end of the bead near a free edge, limit the minimum edge
distance to .50 inch. The end of a bead can be placed at the bend line of a flange.

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 LIGHTENING HOLES
Lightening holes (or flanged holes) shall apply to all sheet metal parts for new design.
A lightening hole is designed into a sheet metal part not only to make the part lighter,
but the flange around the hole also stiffens the part and stabilizes the face under load
against buckling. Flanged holes palliate the stress concentration and the fatigue
strength in the cutout area.
The choice of a particular lightening hole will depend on the material, gauge, loads on
the part, heat treatment condition, and dimensional constraints. For light gauge
materials requiring a greater degree of stiffness, return lip flanged holes are
recommended. Lightening holes that cannot be formed at the same time, as the detail
part forming operation should be avoided as they result in additional cost.
Note: Lightening holes can be formed on the hydro-press in final condition, but have
to be analyzed, case-by-case, by Methods.

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 Lightening Hole Shapes
Lightening holes can be made in various shapes but the conventional shape is about a 45
degrees flanged hole. The flange in lightening holes can either be a simple annular flange or
the flange may incorporate a return lip. These two types are illustrated in below Figure 1.
Elongated holes (below Figure 2) also called Flanged Cutout are used for crawl holes and for
lightly or moderately loaded rib webs in wing and empennage applications..

FIGURE 1

FIGURE 2 - ELONGATED LIGHTENING HOLE

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 STIFFENING EDGE FEATURES
Rolled Edges
Sheet metal edges can be curled for stiffness or safety reasons. Rolled length is
limited by standard tooling to 96 inches, which also standardizes the angle of bend
to 270 degrees. As a rough guideline, the inside bend radius is approximately 1.5
times the standard bend radius for the material.

Edge Crimp
Crimping the edge may stiffen flat sheet. When edge crimping is used for stiffening
flat sheet, the following types are to be used as per below Figure: Type A for doors,
skins, etc., which are inside the mold line of the airplane, otherwise use Type B.

EDGE CRIMP (TYPICAL)

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 Edge Condition Tolerance Criteria
Broken edges tolerance is .005-.015 inch unless otherwise specified on the
Engineering Drawing.

Stiffener and Stringer Cut-offs

For stress, weight or clearance purposes, it is frequently necessary to have an
angular cut-offs. Standard cut-offs that may be specified require a local note:
“30° CUT-OFF” or “15° CUT-OFF”, whichever is applicable (Figure 55 and
Figure 56).

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 THINNING
Thinning of sheet metal parts shall be limited to 5 % (maximum). Add a note on
the engineering drawing in a case where thinning must be restricted to less
than 5 %, or where more thinning is allowable. Typical thinning data is
illustrated in next slide.
Standard Tolerances Criteria is up to 5% reduction of nominal thickness except
for spinning and super-plastic forming where final thickness shall be specified
on the Engineering Drawing.

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 SHEET METAL THINNING - MATERIAL LOST % (TYPICAL EXAMPLE)

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