CURRICULUM ESSENTIALS

Curriculum and the Teacher

Curriculum in Schools

 No formal, non-formal or informal education exists without a curriculum. Classrooms will be empty
with no curriculum. Teachers will have nothing to do, if there is no curriculum.
 Curriculum is the heart of teaching profession. Every teacher is guided by some sort of curriculum in
the classroom and in schools.
 In our current Philippine Educational System, different schools are established in different
educational levels which have corresponding recommended curricula.

The educational levels

1. Basic Education.

 Kindergarten

 Elementary – from Grade 1 to Grade 6

 Secondary – Grade 7 to Grade 10 for Junior High School Grades 11 and 12 for Senior High School

Each of the levels has its specific recommended curriculum. The new basic education levels are provided in
the K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of the Department of Education.

2. Technical-Vocational Education (Tech-Voc)

 This includes the Post-Secondary technical-vocational education and training taken care of by the
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA).

 For Tech-Voc Track, now the Technical-Vocational and Livelihood (TVL) in SHS of DepEd, DepEd and
TESDA work in close supervision.

3. Higher Education.

 This includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate Degrees (Master’s and
Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED).

Types of Curricula in Schools

1. Recommended Curriculum.

 Almost all curricula found in schools are recommended.

 For Basic Education, these are recommended by the DepEd,

 For Higher Education, by the CHED

 For Tech-Voc, by the TESDA.

  These three government agencies oversee and regulate the Philippine Education. The
recommendations come in the form of memoranda or policies, standards and guidelines.

2. Written Curriculum. 

 This includes documents based on the recommended curriculum. They come in the form of course
of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional guides. A packet of this written curriculum is the
teacher’s lesson plan.

 The most recent written curriculum is the K to 12 for the Philippine Basic Education.

3. Taught Curriculum.

 From what has been written or planned, the curriculum has to be implemented or taught.

 The teachers and the learners will put life to the written curriculum.

 The skill of the teacher to facilitate learning based on the written curriculum with the aid of
instructional materials and facilities will be necessary.

 The taught curriculum will depend largely on the teaching style of the teacher and the learning style
of the learners.

4. Supported Curriculum

 This is described as support materials that the teacher needs to make teaching and learning
meaningful. These include print materials like books, charts, posters, worksheets, or non-print
materials like Power point presentations, movies, slides, models, realias, mock-ups and other
electronic illustrations.

 Supported curriculum also includes facilities where learning occurs outside or inside the four-walled
building. These include the playground, science laboratory, audio-visual rooms, zoo, museum,
market or the plaza.

 These are the places where authentic learning through direct experience occur.

5. Assessed Curriculum.

 Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find out if the teacher has succeeded or not
in facilitating learning.

 In the process of teaching and at the end of every lesson or teaching episode, an assessment is
made. It can either be assessment for learning, assessment as learning or assessment of Learning.

 If the process is to find out the progress of learning, then the assessed curriculum is for learning, but
if it is to find out how much has been learned or mastered, then it is assessment of learning.

 Either way, such curriculum is the assessed curriculum.

6. Learned Curriculum.
  Question: How do we know if the student has learned?

 We always believe that if the student changed behaviour, he/she has learned. For example, from a
non-reader to a reader, or from not knowing to knowing, or from being disobedient to being
obedient.

 The positive outcome of teaching is an indicator of learning. These are measured by tools of
assessment, which can indicate the cognitive, affective and psychomotor outcomes.

 Learned curriculum will also demonstrate higher order and critical and lifelong skills.

7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum.

 This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a great impact on the behaviour of the learner.

 Peer influence, school environment, media, parental pressures, societal changes, cultural practices,
natural calamities are some factors that create the hidden curriculum.

 Teachers should be sensitive and aware of this hidden curriculum. Teachers must have good
foresight to include these in the written curriculum, in order to bring to the surface what are hidden.

In every teacher’s classroom, not all these curricula may be present at one time. Many of them are
deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught, supported, assessed and learned curricula.
However, a hidden curriculum is implied, and the teacher may or may not be able to predict its influence on
learning. All these have significant role on the life of the teacher as a facilitator of learning and have direct
implication to the life of the learners.

The Teacher as a Curricularist

 Teachers do a series of interrelated actions about curriculum, instruction, assessment, evaluation,

teaching and learning.

 A classroom teacher is involved with curriculum continuously all day, but very seldom has a teacher
been described as curricularist.

Curricularist

 A professional who is a curriculum specialist; a person who is involved in curriculum knowing,

writing, planning, implementing, evaluating, innovating, and initiating.

 A teacher’s role is broader and inclusive of other functions and so a teacher is a curricularist.

 Curriculum is the heart of schooling.

The teacher as a curricularist . . . .

1. knows the curriculum

 Learning begins with knowing.

  The teacher as a learner starts with knowing about the curriculum, the subject matter or the
content.

 As a teacher, one has to master what are included in the curriculum.

 It is acquiring academic knowledge both formal (disciplines, logic) or informal (derived from
experiences, vicarious, and involuntary).

 It is the mastery of the subject matter. (Knower)

The teacher as a curricularist . . . .

2. writes the curriculum

 A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge concepts, subject matter or content.

 These need to be written or preserved.

 The teacher writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides, and reference
materials in paper or electronic media as a curriculum writer or reviewer. (Writer)

The teacher as a curricularist . . . .

3. plans the curriculum

 A good curriculum has to be planned.

 It is the role of the teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum.

 This will serve as a guide in the implementation of the curriculum.

 The teacher takes into consideration several factors in planning the curriculum such as the learners,
the support material, time, subject matter or content, the desired outcomes, the context of the
learners among others. (Planner)

The teacher as a curricularist . . . .

4. initiates the curriculum

 In cases where the curriculum is recommended to the schools from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, or other
educational agencies for the improvement of quality of education, the teacher is obliged to
implement.

 Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open-mindedness of the teacher, and the full
belief that the curriculum will enhance learning.

 There will be many constraints or difficulties in doing things first, but, a transformative teacher will
never hesitate to try something novel and relevant. (Initiator)

The teacher as a curricularist . . . .

5. innovates the curriculum

 Creativity and innovations are hallmark of an excellent teacher.

  A curriculum is always dynamic, hence it keeps on changing.

 From the content, strategies, ways of doing, blocks of time, ways of evaluating, kinds of students
and skills of the teachers, one cannot find a single eternal curriculum that would perpetually fit.

 A good teacher, therefore, innovates the curriculum and thus become a curriculum innovator.
(Innovator)

The teacher as a curricularist . . . .

6. implements the curriculum

 The curriculum that remains recommended or written will never serve its purpose. Somebody has
to implement it.

 An implementor gives life to the curriculum plan. The teacher is at the height of an engagement
with the learners, with support materials in order to achieve the desired outcomes.

 It is where the teaching, guiding, and facilitating skills of the teacher is expected at the highest level.

 It is here where teaching as the science and art will be observed.

 It is here where all elements of the curriculum will come into play.

 The success of a recommended, well-written and planned curriculum depends on the

implementation.

 It is here where all elements of the curriculum will come into play.

 The success of a recommended, well-written and planned curriculum depends on the

implementation. (Implementor)

The teacher as a curricularist . . . .

7. evaluates the curriculum

 In evaluating the curriculum, the following are some of the considerations:

 Determine if the desired learning outcomes have been achieved

 Analyze if the curriculum is working in terms of desired result and achievements of the learners

 Find out if the curriculum is yet to be modified, continued and terminated.

THE TEACHER AS A KNOWER OF CURRICULUM

The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature and Scope

 Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated
through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the
 school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal social competence. (Daniel
Tunner, 1980)

 It is a written document that systematically describes goals, objectives, content, learning activities,
evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)

 The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning
outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform a society make up a
curriculum. (Schubert, 1987)

 A curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education
whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of
framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice”. (Hass, 1987)

 It is a program of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as
possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives. (Grundy, 1987)

 It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims
to bring about behaviour changes in students as a result of planned activities and includes all
learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school. (Goodland and Su, 1992)

Traditional Points Of View Of Curriculum

 Curriculum is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to
learn”. It was synonymous to the “course of study” and “syllabus”.

 Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where the rule of grammar, reading,
rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized.

 Arthur Bestor as an essentialist, believe that the mission of the school should be intellectual
training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar,
literature and writing. It should also include mathematics, science, history and foreign language.

 Joseph Schwab thinks that discipline is the sole source of curriculum. Thus in our education system,
curriculum is divided into chunks of knowledge we call subject areas in basic education such as
English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline may include
humanities, sciences, languages and many more.

 Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consists entirely of knowledge which comes from
various disciplines.

Progressive Points Of View Of Curriculum

 To a progressivist, a listing of school, subjects, syllabi, course of study, and list of courses or specific
discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the written materials are
actualized by the learner.

 Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual.
  John Dewey believes that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is
not derived from action but tested by application.

 Caswell and Campbell views curriculum as “all experiences children have under the guidance of
teachers”.

 Smith, Stanley and Shore define “curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in the
schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting”.

 Marsh and Willis view curriculum as all the “experiences in the classroom which are planned and
enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students.”

CURRICULUM is . . .

 what is taught in school, a set of subjects, a content, a program of studies, a set of materials, a
sequence of courses, a set of performance objectives, everything that goes within the school.

 what is taught inside and outside of school directed by the teacher, everything planned by school, a
series of experiences undergone by learners in school or what individual learner experiences as a
result of coming in the school.

 the total learning experiences of the learner, under the guidance of the teacher.

Approaches to School Curriculum

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

The focus is on the body of knowledge.

Criteria in the Selection of Content

1. Significance

 If content becomes the means of developing the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills
of the learner.

2. Validity

 The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity.

 Knowledge becomes obsolete with the fast changing times.

 Content which may be valid in its original form may not continue to be valid in the current
times.
 3. Utility

 Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are going to use
this.

 Utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in the past but may not be useful now
or in the future.

4. Learnability

 The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences of the learners.

 Appropriate organization and sequencing of contents are two basic considerations.

5. Feasibility

 Subject content can be learned within the time allowed, resources available, expertise of the
teachers and the nature of the learners.

6. Interest

 Interest is one of the driving forces for students to learn.

 Will the learners take interest in the content?

 What value will the contents have in the present and future life of the learners?

BASIC Principles of Curriculum Content

1. Balance

 Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth.

 Significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the contents needed
within the time allocation.

2. Articulation

 Seamless flow of the content vertically or horizontally in the curriculum.

3. Sequence

 The logical arrangement of the content.

 The pattern is from easy to complex, what is known to the unknown, what is current to
something in the future

4. Integration

 Contents should be integrated or infused in other fields or disciplines.

5. Continuity
  Enduring and perennial content, from past to future.

 It should continuously flow as it was before, to where it is now, and where

it will be in the future.

2. Curriculum as a Process

 It is not seen as a physical thing or noun, but as a verb or an action.

 It is the interaction among teachers, learners using the content.

 It happens in the classroom as the questions asked by the teacher and the learning activities
engaged in by the learners.

 It links to the content. While the content provides materials on what to teach, the process provides
curriculum on how to teach the content.

 An analogy, a recipe is the content, while the ways of cooking is the process.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM AS A PROCESS

1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies is a mean to achieve the end.

2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired learning
outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.

3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners’ desire to develop the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains in each individual.

4. In the choice of methods, learning and learning styles should be considered.

5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described as cognitive,
affective and psychomotor.

6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An effective process will always
result to learning outcomes.

7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the implementation of the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product

 Product is what the students desire to achieve as a learning outcomes.

 The real purpose of education is to bring about significant changes in students’ pattern of
behaviour.
 The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to
function effectively and efficiently.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

PROCESSES AND MODELS

Curriculum Development Process Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many

different people and procedures.

 Development connotes changes which is systematic.

 A change for the better means alteration, modification or improvement of the existing
condition.

Four Phases of Curriculum Development Process

1. Curriculum Planning
 considers the Planning school’s Vision, mission and goals
 it also includes the Philosophy or strong education belief of the
school
2. Curriculum designing
 is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and organization of
content
 the selection and Organization experiences activities Of learning and Designing Of the
Assessment procedures and tools to measure the achieved learning
outcomes.
 it also includes the resources to be utilized and the statement of the intended
learning outcomes.
3. Curriculum implementing
 is putting into action the Plan which is based on the curriculum design in the classroom or the
learning environment.
 it involves the activities That transpire in every teacher’s classroom where learning
becomes an active process.
4. Curriculum evaluating
 determines the extent to Which the desired learning outcomes have been achieved.
 is finding Evaluating out the Progress of learning and the mastery of learning
 determines the factors That have hindered or supported the implementation.
 points out where Improvements could be made and introduces corrective measures.

Curriculum Development Process Models

Ralph Tyler Model:

 alsfour Basic Principlesler’s Rationale which emphasizes the planning phase

 shows that in curriculum development, the following considerations should be made
Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic

 Purposes School Principles of the (What education purposes should school seek to attain?)
 Educational experiences related to the purpose (What educational experiences can be provided that
are likely to Attain these purposes?)
 Organization of the experiences (How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?)
 Evaluation of the experiences (How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or
not?)

Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

 teachers should participate in developing the curriculum

 believed that development should begin from the bottom, rather than from the top as what
Tyler proposed.
 presented six major steps to her model
 Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society
 Formulating of the learning objectives
 Selection of the learning contents
 Organization of the learning contents
 Selection of the learning experiences
 Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

 viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps

1. Goals, objectives and domains

 specifying of the major goals And specific objectives to be accomplished

 follows after appropriate learning opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is
provided.

2. Curriculum designing

 Question: Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic, or along the needs and
interests of the students?

3. Curriculum implementation

 the prepared instructional plans where objectives are specified and appropriate teaching
methods are utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes among students.
4. Evaluation

 determining whether or not the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have been met.
 A comprehensive evaluation should include the total educational program of the school and the
curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievements of the students.

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

1.Philosophical Foundations

 Educators, teachers, educational planners and philosophy makers must have a philosophy or strong
belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teacher’s classroom or
learning environment.

Philosophy of the curriculum answers the following questions:

What are schools for? What subjects are important? How should students learn? What
methods should be used? What outcomes should be achieved?

 The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy.
 John Dewey, a pragmatist, influenced the use of “learning by doing”.
 The focus on the fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic are essential subjects in the
curriculum, according to essentialists.

Some Philosophies of Education

A. Perennialism

 Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect

 Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking, HOTS)
 Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis. (Curriculum is enduring)
 Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and Liberal Arts

B. Essentialism

 Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent

 Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area
 Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects
  Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy

C. Progressivism

 Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent

 Role: Teachers lead for growth and development of lifelong learners
 Focus: Inter-disciplinary subjects, Learner-centered, Outcomes-based
 Trends: Equal Opportunities for all, contextualized curriculum, humanistic education

D. Reconstructionism

 Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change

 Role: Teachers act as agents of change and reforms

 Focus: Present and future educational landscape

 Trends: School and curricular reform, Global Education, Collaboration and Convergence Standards
and Competencies

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS

1. FRANKLIN BOBBIT 1876-1956

 He started the curriculum development movement.

 Curriculum is a science that emphasizes students’ needs.

 Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.

 Objectives and activities should group together when tasks are clarified.

2. WERRET CHARTERS
1875-1952
 Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is a science and emphasizes students’ needs.
 Objectives and activities should match.
 Subject matter or content relates to objectives.

WILLIAM KILPATRICK
1875-1952

 Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered.

 The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth.

 He introduced this project method where the teacher and the learners plan the activities.

 Curriculum develops social relationships and small group interaction.

 HAROLD RUGG
1886-1960

 Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered.

 With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should produce
outcomes.

 Emphasized social studies and suggested that the teachers plan curriculum in advance

HOLLIS CASWELL
1901-1989

 Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and learner’s
interest.

 Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated.

 Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners’
interests

RALPH TYLER
1902-1994

 Curriculum is a science and extension of school philosophy. It is based on students’ needs and
interests.

 Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills
and values.

 The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists.

HILDA TABA
1902-1967

 She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundation of concepts development and critical
thinking in social studies curriculum.

 She helped lay the foundation for diverse student population.

PETER OLIVA
1992-2012

 He described how curriculum change is a cooperative endeavour.

 Teachers and curriculum specialists constitute the professional core of planners.

 Significant improvement is achieved through group activity.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF CURRICULUM

IVAN PAVLOV
1849-1936

 He is the father of the Classical Conditioning Theory, the S-R Theory

 The key to learning in early years of life is to train them you want them to become.

 S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination.

EDWARD THORDIKE

1874-1949

 He championed the Connectionism Theory

 He proposed the three laws of Learning:

 Law of Readiness

 Law of Exercise

 Law of Effect

ROBERT GAGNE

1916-2002

 He proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory. Learning follows a hierarchy.

 Behavior is based on pre-requisite conditions.

 He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.

JEAN PIAGET

1896-1980

 Theories of Learning

 Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity.

 Sensory motor stage (0-2)

 Pre-operational stage (2-7)

  Concrete operations stage (7-11)

 Formal operations stage (11- onwards)

 Keys to Learning

 Assimilation (incorporation of new experiences)

 Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)

 Equilibration ( balance between previous and current learning)

LEV VYGOTSKY

 1896-1934 Theories of Learning

 Cultural transmission and development

 Children could, as a result of their interaction with society, actually perform certain cognitive
actions prior to arriving at developmental stage.

 Socio-cultural development theory

 Keys to Learning

 Pedagogy creates learning process that lead to development.

 The child is an active agent in his or her educational process.

HOWARD GARDNER

 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

 Humans have several ways of processing information and these ways are relatively independent of
one another.

 There are eight multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily
kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic.

DANIEL GOLEMAN

 Emotion contains the power to affect action. (Emotional Quotient

HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

GESTALT

 Gestalt Theory

 Learning is explained in terms of “wholeness” of the problem.

 Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an organization or pattern of stimuli.

 Keys to Learning 

 Learning is complex and abstract.

 Learners analyse the problem, discriminate between essential and non-essential data, and
perceive relationships.

 Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole. What/How they perceive is
related to their previous experiences.

ABRAHAM MASLOW

1908-1970

 He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory and classic theory of human needs.

 A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in acquiring knowledge of the world.

 He put importance to human emotions, based on love and trust.

 Key to Learning

 Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow and actualize his or he
human self.

CARL ROGERS

1902-1987

 Non-Directive and Therapeutic Learning

 He established counselling procedures and methods for facilitating learning.

 Children’s perceptions, which are highly individualistic, influence their learning and
behaviour in the class.

 Key to Learning

 Curriculum is concerned with process, not product, personal needs, not subject matter,
psychological meaning, not cognitive scores.
SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

SCHOOLS AND SOCIETY

JOHN DEWEY 1859-1952

 Considered two fundamental elements – schools and civil society – to be the major topics needing
attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality.

ALVIN TOFFLER

 Wrote the book Future Shock.

 Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future.
 Foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively and independent of their age.

Crafting the The Curriculum a Curriculum Designer Fundamentals of Curriculum Designing

Crafting the

 The Teacher as a Curriculum Designer

 Fundamentals of Curriculum Designing

 Every curriculum designer, implementer or evaluator should take in mind the following general
axioms as guide in curriculum development.

Crafting the Curriculum

 PETER OLIVA’S 10 AXIOMS FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary and desirable.

 Teachers should respond to the changes that occur in schools and in its context.
 Societal development and knowledge revolution come so fast that the need to address the changing
condition requires new curriculum designs.

2. Curriculum is a product of its time.

 A relevant curriculum should respond to changes brought about by current social forces,
philosophical positions, psychological principles, new knowledge and educational reforms.

 This is also called timeliness.

3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes.

 A revision in a curriculum starts and ends slowly.

 More often, curriculum is gradually phased in and phased out, thus the changes that occur can
coexist and oftentimes overlap for long periods of time.

4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change.

 Teachers who will implement the curriculum should be involved in its development, hence should
know how to design it.

 It is best that they should design and own the changes to ensure an effective and long lasting
change.

5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity.

 Group decisions, consultations with stakeholders when possible, and participation of learners to some
aspects of curriculum designing are suggested to gain support and understanding that will add to a sense of
ownership.

6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of alternatives.

 A curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents to teach, philosophy or point of view
to support, how to provide for multicultural groups, what methods or strategies, and what type or
evaluation to use.

7. Curriculum development is an on-going process.

 As needs of learners change, as society changes, and as new knowledge and technology appear, the
curriculum must change.

 Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation, and improvement are to be considered.

8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather than a

“piecemeal”.

 It should be based on a careful plan; clearly establish intended outcomes, support resources and
needed time available, and should equip teaching staff pedagogically.

9.Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process.

 It is composed of outcomes, subject matter content complemented with reference, set of
procedures, needed materials and resources, and evaluation procedure.

10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is.

 Curriculum planners should begin with existing curriculum.

 An existing design is a good starting point for any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a
curriculum.

For most curricula, the major components or elements are answers to the following questions.

 What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended Learning Outcomes)

 What content should be included to achieve the learning outcomes? (Subject Matter)

 What learning experiences and resources should be employed? (Teaching-Learning Methods)

 How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured? (Assessment of Achieved Learning
Outcomes)

ELEMENTS OR COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM DESIGN

A Lesson Plan as a miniscule curriculum includes:

 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcomes (DLO) formerly known as the
Behavioral Objectives

 Subject Matter or Content (complemented with reference)

 Teaching and Learning Methods

 Assessment and Evaluation

1.Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

-these are the desired learning outcomes to be accomplished in a particular learning episode, engaged
in by the learners under the guidance of the teacher.

-these are expressed in action words (verbs)

-the statement should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-Oriented and Time-Bounded)

-is used to refer to the anticipated results after completing the planned activity or lesson.

 In framing learning outcomes, it is good to practice to:

 Express each outcome in terms of what successful students must be able to do.
  For example, rather than stating, “Students will be able to explain the reason why…it should be
“Students must have explained the reason why…”

 This helps the students to focus on what they have to achieve as learning.

 Include different kinds of outcomes.

 Cognitive objectives, (for learning facts, theories, principles, formulae, etc.)

 Performance objectives (for learning how to carry out procedures, calculations and processes)

 Affective objectives (for developing attitudes and values, those required as person or professionals)

2. Content or Subject Matter

- it should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum.

- (purposive)- clearly focused on the planned learning outcomes)

- -it should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit

- (progressive- leading students towards connecting to previous lessons;

- contents which are too basic or too advanced for the development levels of learners make the
students either bored and confused, and affect their motivation to learn.)

- -it should be up-to-date (should reflect current knowledge and concepts)

2.1 References

- -it follows the content; it tells where the content or subject matter has been taken

- -it may be a book, a module or any publication

- Examples of references

 Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary Conservation and

Environmental Education Program. Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda, MD

3. Teaching and Learning Methods

 -these are the activities where the students derive experiences

 -it is always good to keep in mind the teaching strategies that students will experience (lectures,
laboratory classes, fieldwork, etc.)

 -should allow cooperation, competition as well as individualism or independent learning among the
learners

Cooperative Learning activities:

 allow the students to work together

  students are guided to learn on their own to find solutions to their problems

 students learn from each other in group ways

 democratic process is encouraged, and each one contributes to the success of learning

 the role of the teacher is to guide the learners

 group projects and activities enhance the curriculum or lesson

Independent Learning Activities:

 allow the learners to develop personal responsibility

 the degree of independence to learn is enhanced

 the strategy is more appropriate for fast learners

 Competitive Activities:

-the students test their competencies against another in a healthy manner

 On-line learning and similar modes are necessary also.

4.Assessment/ Evaluation

 learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedbacks

 when they receive information on what they have already (and have not yet) learned

 it involves three (3) main forms: self-assessment, through which the students learn to monitor and
evaluate their own learning;

 peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on other’s learning, and

 teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives feedback on
student’s performance.

 assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more)

 summative (expressing a judgement on the student’s achievement with reference to stated criteria)

THE CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

1.1.Individual Subject Design

 -this is the oldest and the most familiar design for teachers, parents and other laymen.
 -this is the traditional approach to teaching and learning
  -the teacher becomes the dispenser of knowledge and the learners are simply the receiver of
information from the teacher
 -in the Philippines, the number of subject in elementary education is fewer than the in the
secondary level
 -in college, the number of subjects also differs according to the degree program being pursued

1.2 Specific Discipline Design

 -curriculum design model which is used in college, but not in elementary and secondary levels
 -curriculum moves higher to a discipline when students are more mature and are already moving
towards their career path

1.3 Correlation Design (Combination of Subjects)

 -links separate subjects which are related to one another in order to avoid fragmentation

1.4 Broad field Design/ Interdisciplinary Design

 -is used to integrate the subjects which are related to each other.

2. Learner-Centered Design

 -the learner is the center of the educative process

 -grouped into three examples namely, child-centered design, experience-centered design and
humanistic design

3. Problem-Centered Design

 -draws on social problems, life problems, areas of living, and many others (needs, interests and
abilities of the learners)
 -grouped into two examples namely, life-situation design and core problem design

Approaches to Curriculum Design

1.Child or Learner-Centered Approach

 -constructed based on the needs, interests, purposes and abilities of the learners
 -built upon the learners’ knowledge, skills, previous learning and potentials

Principles:

- Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child

- Consider the uniqueness of every learner in the multicultural classroom

2. Subject-Centered Approach
  -prescribes separate distinct subjects for every educational level: basic education, higher or
Technical-vocational education

2. Subject-Centered Approach Principles:

- The primary focus is the subject matter

- Learning means accumulation of content or knowledge
- Teacher’s role is to dispense the content
 -is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of the curriculum
 -has variations which are focused on the individual subject, specific discipline and a combination of
subjects, broad field or interdisciplinary

3. Problem-Centered Approach

 -assumes that in the process of living, children experiences problems

 -enables the learners to become increasingly able to achieve complete or total development as
individuals

Elements of Curriculum Design

Prepared by: Pasno, Jess Christine L.

Martinez, Rose Ann Bacatan, Redintor

What is Curriculum Design?

It is the planning period when instructors organize the instructional units for their course.

It is involves planning activities, readings, lessons, and assessments that achieve educational goals.

It is also presented as a sequential process, but is also creative.

Ten Elements of Curriculum Design

Real-world o Applied Learning

Subject teaching that is rich in real-world examples, learning, context-based research projects and
opportunities to see how the subject and its methods are applied in different external
contexts.
Active Teaching Methods

This may include problem solving; discussions/debate; team activities; real-world activities.

It is opportunities for students to create, competitions, the pitching of ideas etc.

In short, active teaching methods are any choice of pedagogies that increase active, rather than passive, learning in
students.

Skills and Attributes

Through the choice of learning, teaching and assessment methods, provision of a curriculum that
enhances students’ non-technical skills and attributes in a coherent and developmental way.

Employer and Alumni Engagement

Diverse and involvement with regular employers and alumni – not . guest speakers or solely as providers
of placements but also to help inform the curriculum, get involved with student assessment, provide case studies and
project ideas, to act as mentors etc.

Career Management Skills and Insights

Planned space within the curriculum for students to gain career management skills and insights and to be
encouraged to engage in timely career planning.

Enterprise and Educational Mindset

Enterprise education and building an enterprising mindset for all students, not just those that wish to . set up their
own business.

Enterprise activities allow all students to develop creativity, leadership, innovation, negotiation,
and confidence; all of these attributes are highly valued in various work contexts.

Work Experience

Opportunities for, and active encouragement of, work experience – developing students’ expertise and
attributes, and where possible building links with the rest of the curriculum.
Reflection

Regular opportunities for students to reflect on and articulate their learning and development, and
to plan further growth and learning opportunities.

Explicit recognition and valuing of employability across the curriculum

Explicit recognition and valuing of employability across the curriculum - employability-relevant through
learning outcomes and highlighting and assessment; encouraging students to recognize the skills being
developed; encouragement to engage with curricular, co- and extra-curricular development
opportunities

Student Support System

A student support system that is motivating and supportive in the way that: personal and professional
development is handled; career discussions are enabled; and further opportunities and services
promoted and signposted.

𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒎?

𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈?

-is a standards-based sequence of planned experiences where students practice and achieve

proficiency in content and applied learning skills.

-is the central guide for all educators as to what is essential for teaching and learning, so that
every student has access to rigorous academic experiences.

PLANNING

is the process of thinking about the activities required to achieve a desired goal. It is the first
and foremost activity to achieve desired results. It involves the creation and maintenance of
a plan, such as psychological aspects that require conceptual skills.
𝑾𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒔 ℂ𝕦𝕣𝕣𝕚𝕔𝕦𝕝𝕦𝕞 ℙ𝕝𝕒𝕟𝕟𝕚𝕟𝕘?

-is a complex process where faculty define

intended learning outcomes, assessments,
content and pedagogic requirements necessary
for student success across an entire curriculum.

-a syllabus for each subject to be

used as reference by individual
schools.

-The process concerned with making decisions

about what to learn, why, and how to organize the
teaching and learning process taking into account
existing curriculum requirements and the resources
available.

-Is the advance arrangement of

learning opportunities for a
particular population of learners.

-At the school level, it involves developing course and

assessment plans for different subjects. At the classroom
level, it involves developing more detailed plans for
learning units, individual lessons and lesson sequences.

-Is the process of preparing for the duties of teaching,

deciding upon goals and emphases, determining
curriculum content, selecting learning resources and
classroom procedures, evaluating progress, and
looking toward next steps.

𝑾𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆

🄴🄻🄴🄼🄴🄽🅃🅂
𝒐𝒇 ℂ𝕦𝕣𝕣𝕚𝕔𝕦𝕝𝕦𝕞 ℙ𝕝𝕒𝕟𝕟𝕚𝕟𝕘?

1. Situation AL analysis

-means the analysis of different conditions such as emotional, political, cultural, religious and
geographical condition of a country.

-is the systematic process of analyzing the situation before the curriculum is developed
effectively.

However, Hilda Taba (1962) describes situational analysis as a diagnosis of needs. In this simpler
form, we can define situational analysis as the process of examining factors that exist in the
environment or society where the curriculum is going to be implemented.

-This will help the curriculum planners in the selection of objectives, selection of organization
of learning materials and in suggesting appropriate evaluation procedure.

2. objectives
In formulating objectives, we are trying to address a fundamental question: What is the purpose
of teaching this course? In other words, what should our students achieve as a result of taking
it?

Educational literature abounds with terms like aims, goals, specific objectives, criteria,
standards and so on. All refer to expressions of purpose and intention.

There are four main factors for formulating

the objectives of education. These are:
1. The society
2. The knowledge
3. The learner
4. The learning process
All of these factors are to be considered while selecting and formulating the educational
objectives.

3. content
Having decided on the desired outcome of the course and stipulated this in the form of clear
statements of objectives describing in precise terms expected student behaviour at the end of
the course, we need to ask how these objectives will be fulfilled.
In other words, what learning experiences must our students go through for our objectives to
be
achieved? This calls for content derivation.

One of the important elements is the selection of content for a subject. At the time of subject
matter selection, the following factors are to be  kept in mind:

1. Available sources and resource

2. Demand of the society
3. International needs
4.Level and age of the learner or student
5. Methods of content organization
6.Number of courses offered
7.Quantity and qualification of teaching staff
8. Scope of subject matter
9. System of examination
10. Type of society and culture

4. Strategies / Methods of Teaching 𝐨𝐟

The task of course design involves more than just stating objectives and selecting and ordering
topics to be learned.

It also involves selecting the teaching methods and instructional media to be used.
In making decisions about how the course objectives will be achieved, we have to decide on
what teaching-learning methods and educational media we will use.

-selection of teaching and learning methods depends on objectives.

5. Evaluation
In course design, evaluation is important for two reasons:
1. it enables us to determine the extent to which course objectives have been achieved by our
students;
2. it provides us with feedback information on the basis of which we can improve our course.

-Evaluation is one of the -It is a broader term dynamic process, which being used to make needs
a continuous judgment about the worth research and evaluation and effectiveness of it.  for its
betterment in order to cope with the With the help of variable demands of the evaluation phase
experts society and bring about can modify the desirable changes. curriculum by bringing
Curriculum evaluation is about desirable changes not a student evaluation.

CURRICULUM DESIGN
WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
A curriculum is a programme of study undertaken by students in schools that
encompasses their entire learning package, resulting in their final grades;
different countries follow different models but all culminate in final
examinations or assessments.

WHAT IS CURRICULUM DESIGN?

Curriculum design is the planning period when instructors organize the
instructional units for their course. Curriculum design involves planning
activities, readings, lessons, and assessments that achieve educational
goals.

Curriculum design can be segmented into three forms. These include

subject-centered design, learner-centered design and problem-centered
design. Subject-centered design focuses on a specific discipline while
learner-centered design focuses on students’ own interests and goals.
Problem-centered design focuses on specific issues and how to source
solutions.
Defining Curriculum Design
Curriculum design is operationally defined for this chapter as the intentional
planning, organization, and design of learning strategies, processes, materials,
and experiences towards defined learning and/or performance outcomes.
Curriculum design is concerned with much more than learning materials. In
one sense, curriculum design is creating a holistic plan for the environments
where learning happens. This includes considering the physical, digital, social,
and psychological factors that define the spaces and places where people
learn (American Educational Research Association, n.d.).

Curriculum Design Tips

The following curriculum design tips can help educators manage each stage
of the curriculum design process.

 Identify the needs of stakeholders (i.e., students) early on in the

curriculum design process. This can be done through needs analysis,
which involves the collection and analysis of data related to the learner.
This data might include what learners already know and what they
need to know to be proficient in a particular area or skill. It may also
include information about learner perceptions, strengths, and
weaknesses.

 Create a clear list of learning goals and outcomes. This will help
you to focus on the intended purpose of the curriculum and allow you
to plan instruction that can achieve the desired results. Learning goals
are the things teachers want students to achieve in the course.
Learning outcomes are the measurable knowledge, skills, and attitudes
that students should have achieved in the course.

 Identify constraints that will impact your curriculum design. For

example, time is a common constraint that must be considered. There
are only so many hours, days, weeks or months in the term. If there
isn't enough time to deliver all of the instruction that has been planned,
it will impact learning outcomes.

 Consider creating a curriculum map (also known as a curriculum

matrix) so that you can properly evaluate the sequence and
coherence of instruction. Curriculum mapping provides visual
diagrams or indexes of a curriculum. Analyzing a visual representation
of the curriculum is a good way to quickly and easily identify potential
gaps, redundancies or alignment issues in the sequencing of
instruction. Curriculum maps can be created on paper or with software
programs or online services designed specifically for this purpose.

 Identify the instructional methods that will be used throughout the

course and consider how they will work with student learning
styles. If the instructional methods are not conducive to the curriculum,
the instructional design or the curriculum design will need to be altered
accordingly.

 Establish evaluation methods that will be used at the end and

during the school year to assess learners, instructors, and the
curriculum. Evaluation will help you determine if the curriculum design
is working or if it is failing. Examples of things that should be evaluated
include the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum and
achievement rates related to learning outcomes. The most effective
evaluation is ongoing and summative.

 Remember that curriculum design is not a one-step process;

continuous improvement is a necessity. The design of the curriculum
should be assessed periodically and refined based on assessment
data. This may involve making alterations to the design partway
through the course to ensure that learning outcomes or a certain level
of proficiency will be achieved at the end of the course.

Curriculum Design in the Classroom

 Teachers create the conditions necessary for curriculum to be enacted
effectively in a variety of different learning environments.
 Teachers attend to the social aspects of learning while creating
environments that encourage students to take risks and express different
viewpoints/perspectives.
 Teachers make professional judgments about curriculum design in order
to be responsive to students’ needs, interests, background, curiosities,
and passions.
 Teachers ensure that learning experiences are meaningful and relevant.
Teachers understand the progression of learning in order to make effective
decisions, bridge transitions, scaffold and support each student toward
success.
 Teachers craft learning intentions incorporating student voice, choice and
flexibility.
 Teachers allow students to access curriculum through independent, small
group, large group and flexible groupings.
 Teachers use curriculum planning to structure appropriate levels of
challenge and multiple entry points which allow all students to develop
their skills, understandings and knowledge.
 Teachers co-construct curriculum with students and colleagues, working
collaboratively to maximize expertise.

Six Steps of Curriculum Design

Step 1: Principles and purpose – Set out the intent of your curriculum
Begin the design process by establishing your curriculum principles. The
curriculum principles should reflect your school’s values, context, pedagogical
approaches and needs. You should be able to explain the purpose or intent of
your curriculum.
Tip: Hold plenty of discussions to define and share your curriculum principles,
vision and intentions with stakeholders.

Step 2: Entitlement and enrichment – Develop your pupil entitlement

After clarifying your principles and purpose, you should set out your pupil
entitlement (sometimes known as pupil offer). The pupil entitlement should
explain how you intend to enrich the curriculum with educational visits,
extracurricular activities and specific experiences.
Tip: Consider what pupils will experience as they move through school and
map these out for each year group. Link your entitlement to your curriculum
principles, where possible.

Step 3: Breadth and balance – Develop the content of your curriculum

You will need to arrange your curriculum content into a range
of engaging themes and projects. Make strategic decisions about what your
curriculum covers, how it interconnects, and in how much depth lessons
are taught to achieve both breadth and balance within and across subjects.
These choices and decisions create your school’s curriculum structure or long
term plan.
Tip: Underpin your curriculum with a clear skills and knowledge framework for
progression that provides subject endpoints. Keep a close eye on coverage of
national curriculum objectives, key subject aspects and larger concepts.

Step 4: Teaching narrative – Plan the delivery of your curriculum

After organising your long term plans, your teachers need to
plan the detail of how they will deliver each project. A teaching narrative
should be clearly sequenced, cohesive and based on sound pedagogical
practice. It should detail the starting point for each project and explain how it
will develop. Planning should show how subject objectives will be taught,
revisited and met, and outline the desired outcomes. This process creates
a medium term plan that can be elaborated on for short term plans if
required.
Tip: Make the planning process easy, so that teachers can create, adapt and
share plans with others. Ideally, this stage should be supported by integrated,
quick assessment for learning tools.

Step 5: Resources – Source high quality resources to deliver your curriculum

You now need to identify the resources required to bring your curriculum to
life and enhance its coherence. A good curriculum needs high quality
resources. These include human resources, practical equipment, community
partners, environments and teaching resources.
Tip: Create or source high quality resources to support the lessons, rather
than the other way around. Keep a school wide overview of resources to
avoid unnecessary repetition and ensure that content builds in complexity.

Step 6: Review and evaluate – Decide what works well and where there is room for
improvement
You now have an established curriculum. The next step is to regularly review
its impact on teaching and learning and to make any adaptations or changes.
It will help to consider your original curriculum principles and purposes
when reviewing and focus on areas for development in school. At this stage,
you may identify Continued Professional Development (CPD)
and curriculum support needs for staff.