CHAPTER 01

INTRODUCTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Concrete structural construction components are categorized as either reinforced concrete (RC)
or prestressed concrete (PSC). The structural design for these two types of concrete are covered
in the provisions in Chapter 4 “Structural Concrete” of the National Structural Code of the
Philippines (NSCP), Volume I, “Buildings, Towers and Other Vertical Structures”, 7 th Edition,
2015.

Reinforced concrete is made up of two materials: 1) concrete which is strong in compression but
very weak in tension and 2) steel which is strong in both tension and compression.

Concrete is composed of three materials, namely: cement, fine aggregates and coarse aggregates.
Water is added to the mixture and thoroughly mixed to create concrete. The amount, quality and
proportion of these component materials directly affect the strength of the concrete mix.

1.1 CEMENT

The word cement literally means a substance that can bind material together and can acquire
strength on hardening. Cement is a specialized building material which is a result of various
innovations over the past and is made in sophisticated manufacturing facilities.

Table 1-1: Different Types of Cement, Their Composition and Uses:

Types of Cement Composition Purpose
Attains high strength in a few days. It is
Rapid Hardening
Increased Lime content used in concrete where form works are
Cement
removed at an early stage.
Small percentage of aluminium
Used in works is to be completed in very
Quick setting sulphate as an accelerator and
short period and concreting in static and
cement reducing percentage of gypsum
running water
with fine grinding
Manufactured by reducing tri- It is used in massive concrete construction
Low Heat Cement
calcium aluminate like gravity dams
It is prepared by maintaining the It is used in construction exposed to severe
Sulphates resisting percentage of tricalcium aluminate sulphate action by water and soil in places
Cement below 6% which increases power like canals linings, culverts, retaining
against sulphates. walls, siphons etc.,
Blast Furnace Slag It is obtained by grinding the It can be used for works where economic
 clinkers with about 60% slag and
Cement resembles more or less the consideration is predominant.
properties of Portland cement.
It is obtained by melting mixture of
bauxite and lime and grinding with
It is used in works where concrete is
High Alumina the clinker it is rapid hardening
subjected to high temperatures, frost, and
Cement cement with initial and final setting
acidic action.
time of about 3.5 and 5 hours
respectively.
It is more costly and is used for
It is prepared from raw materials architectural purposes such as pre-cast
White Cement
free from Iron oxide. curtain wall and facing panels, terrazzo
surface etc.,
It is produced by mixing mineral They are widely used for decorative works
Coloured cement
pigments with ordinary cement. in floors
It is used in marine structures, sewage
It is prepared by grinding
works, sewage works and for laying
Pozzolanic Cement pozzolanic clinker with Portland
concrete under water such as bridges, piers,
cement.
dams etc.,
It is produced by adding indigenous This type of cement is especially suited to
Air Entraining air entraining agents such as resins, improve the workability with smaller water
Cement glues, sodium salts of sulphates etc. cement ratio and to improve frost
during the grinding of clinker. resistance of concrete.
Hydrographic It is prepared by mixing water This cement has high workability and
cement repelling chemicals strength

1.2 MIXING WATER

Water is an important component for mortar or concrete. When the water is mixed in mortar, it
reacts with cement and forms a binding paste which fills small voids in the sand. This creates a
close cohesion of sand particles and cement. In case of cement concrete the voids formed
between sand and coarse aggregate gets filled with the paste forming a cohesive
substance/concrete.

The quantity and quality of water have vital effect on the strength of the concrete mix. Too much
water will lessen the concrete strength while too little amount of water makes the workability of
the mix difficult.

Only the right amount of water should be used to prepare mortar or concrete. However, when not
properly supervised, workers tend to put in more water than is required to make the mix very
workable. This bad practice weakens the strength of the concrete mix since this will introduce an
inordinate amount of voids. Also, the moisture in the aggregates should be taken into account in
determining the amount of water to be introduced in the concrete mix. Only clean water can be
used in the concrete mix since impurities in dirty water generally has an adverse effect on the
concrete strength.

1.3 AGGREGATES

For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed
chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of
concrete. Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete, are
divided into two distinct categories: fine and coarse aggregates.

Fine aggregate is defined as material that will pass a No. 4 sieve and will, for the most part, be
retained on a No. 200 sieve. For increased workability and for economy as reflected by use of
less cement, the fine aggregate should have a rounded shape. The purpose of the fine aggregate is
to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent.

Coarse aggregate is a material that will pass the 3-inch screen and will be retained on the No. 4
sieve. As with fine aggregate, for increased workability and economy as reflected by the use of
less cement, the coarse aggregate should have a rounded shape. Even though the definition seems
to limit the size of coarse aggregate, other considerations must be accounted for.

When properly proportioned and mixed with cement, these two groups yield an almost voidless
stone that is strong and durable. In strength and durability, aggregate must be equal to or better
than the hardened cement to withstand the designed loads and the effects of weathering.

Two characteristics of aggregates have an important influence on proportioning concrete

mixtures because they affect the workability of the fresh concrete. They are:

1. Grading (particle size and distribution)

2. Nature of particles (shape, porosity, surface texture)

1.4 CONCRETE ADDITIVES

Over the decades, attempts have been made to obtain concrete with certain desired characteristics
such as high compressive strength, high workability, and high performance and durability
parameters to meet the requirements of complex modern structures.

Admixtures provide enhanced concrete quality, improved durability and deliver cost-benefits to
both the producer and the user. The sustainability and environmental profile of concrete is also
enhanced by admixture use.

Below is a list of commonly used concrete admixtures.

1. Set Retarding
 These are used to delay the chemical reaction that takes place when the
concrete starts the setting process. This type of concrete admixture is commonly used
to reduce the effect of high temperatures that could produce a faster initial setting of
concrete. Also, this is a requisite for transporting ready-mix concrete (RMC) to delay
the setting while the mix is in transit.

2. Air-Entrainment
Air entrained concrete can increase the freeze-thaw durability of concrete.
This type of admixture produces a more workable concrete than non-entrained
concrete while reducing bleeding and segregation of fresh concrete.

3. Water-Reducing
Water-reducing admixtures are chemical products that when added to concrete
can create a desired slump at a lower water cement ratio than what is normally
designed. With this type of admixture, concrete properties are improved and help
place concrete under difficult conditions. Water reducers have been used primarily in
bridge decks, low-slump concrete overlays, and patching concrete. Recent
advancements in admixture technology have led to the development of mid-range
water reducers.

4. Accelerating
Accelerator concrete admixtures are used to increase the rate of concrete
strength development, or to reduce concrete setting time. Calcium chloride could be
named as the most common accelerator component; however, it could promote
corrosion activity of steel reinforcement. Accelerating admixtures are especially
useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold weather.

5. Shrinkage Reducing
Shrinkage reducing concrete admixture is added to concrete during initial
mixing. This type of admixture could reduce early and long term drying shrinkage.
Shrinkage reducing admixtures can be used in situations where shrinkage
cracking could lead to durability problems or where large numbers of shrinkage joints
are undesirable for economic or technical reasons.

6. Super plasticizers
The main purpose of using super plasticizers is to produce flowing
concrete with very high slump in the range of 7-9 inches to be used in heavily
reinforced structures and in placements where adequate consolidation by vibration
cannot be readily achieved. The other major application is the production of high-
strength concrete. It has been found that for most types of cement, super plasticizer
 improves the workability of concrete. Workability of the mix is maintained even with
a reduction in the amount of water. The reduction in the amount of water results into
a dramatic increase in the concrete strength.

7. Corrosion-inhibiting
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures fall into the specialty admixture category and
are used to slow corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. Corrosion inhibitors can
significantly reduce maintenance costs of reinforced concrete structures throughout a
typical service life of 30 to 40 years. Other specialty admixtures include shrinkage-
reducing admixtures and alkali-silica reactivity inhibitors. Corrosion inhibiting
admixtures have little effect on strength at later ages but may accelerate early strength
development. 

1.5 STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly low tensile strength, and as

such is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension. The elasticity of concrete is
relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as cracking
develop. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, and as it matures concrete
shrinks. All concrete structures will crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and tension. Concrete
which is subjected to long-duration compressive forces is prone to creep.
Tests can be made to ensure the properties of concrete correspond to specifications for the
application. The density of concrete varies, but is around 2,320 kilograms per cubic metre (22.8
kN/cu.m.) for normal weight concrete. Lightweight concrete can weigh up to less than 20% of
normal weight concrete. The unit weight of reinforced concrete used for load calculations can be
conservatively taken as 24 kN/cu.m.
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is an important material property. This is proportionate to
the square root of the concrete compressive strength. For normal weight concrete, the NSCP
2015 Code formula for concrete modulus of elasticity is
Ec = 4700Sfc' (in MPa for normal weight concrete) (NSCP Eqn. 419.2.2.1b)
where fc' = concrete compressive strength, MPa
The following are the important properties of concrete:

1. It possesses a high compressive strength.

2. It is a corrosion resistant material and atmospheric agents have no appreciable effect on
it.
3. It hardens with age and the process of hardening continues for a long time after the
concrete has attained sufficient strength. It is this property of cement concrete which
gives it a distinct place among building materials.
 4. It is more economical than steel.
5. It binds rapidly with steel and as it is weak in tension, the steel reinforcement is placed in
cement concrete at suitable places to take up the tensile stresses. This is termed as the
reinforced concrete or simply as R.C.
6. Under the following two conditions, it has a tendency to shrink:
a. There is initial shrinkage of cement concrete which is mainly due to the loss of
water through forms, absorption by surfaces of forms etc.
b. The shrinkage of cement concrete occurs as it hardens. This tendency of cement
concrete can be minimized by proper curing of concrete.
7. It has a tendency to be porous. This is due to the presence of voids which are formed
during and after its placement. The two precautions necessary to avoid this tendency are
as follows:
a. There should be proper grading and consolidating of the aggregates.
b. The minimum water-cement ratio should be adopted.
8. It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion.
9. It should be remembered that apart from other materials, the concrete comes to the site in
the form of raw materials only. Its final strength and quality depend entirely on local
conditions and persons handling it. However the materials which concrete is composed
may be subjected to rigid specifications.

The stress-strain diagram of concrete is shown below. After reaching the peak stress of f c', the
skin of the concrete cylinder sample will spall off and the force/stress will slightly decrease to a
stress of 0.85fc' before the sample crushes.

Figure 1.1 Concrete Stress-Strain Diagram

According to the NSCP 2015 (Art. 422.2.2.1), the maximum usable concrete strain is taken as
0.003.

Traditionally, the concrete grade commonly used has a strength of 21 MPa (3,000 psi). With the
advances in concrete technology, much higher concrete strengths are specified. Locally, concrete
ready-mix suppliers can provide strengths as high as 82 MPa (12,000 psi). High-rise structures in
the Philippines are usually constructed using concrete grades of 55 MPa (8,000 psi) to 69 MPa
(10,000 psi). Prestressed concrete members are designed using high concrete grades commonly
ranging from 35 MPa (5,000 psi) to 41 MPa (6,000 psi). The latest bridge code (DPWH Design
Guidelines, Criteria and Standards (DGCS), Vol. 5, Bridges) specifies a minimum concrete
strength of 28 MPa (4,000 psi).

The tensile strength of concrete is defined as the modulus of rupture, f r. Tests yield tensile
strengths of about 1.2Sfc’. However, the NSCP limits this to
fr = 0.62Sfc’ (NSCP Eqn. 419.2.3.1)
where = 1.0 for normal weight concrete

1.6 TYPES OF CONCRETE

1. Lightweight concrete
One of the main advantages of normal weight concrete is the heavy self-
weight of concrete. Density of normal concrete is of the order of 2200 to 2600 kg/m 3.
This self-weight will make it to some extent an uneconomical structural material.
Hence lightweight concrete can be a viable option since the self-weight is about 20%
lighter than normal weight concrete.

2. High density concrete

They are mainly used in the construction of radiation shields (medical or
nuclear). Offshore, heavyweight concrete is used for ballasting for pipelines and
similar structures.

3. Mass Concrete
Mass concreting practices were developed largely from concrete dam
construction, where temperature-related cracking was first identified. Temperature-
related cracking has also been experienced in other thick-section concrete structures,
including mat foundations, pile caps, bridge piers, thick walls, and tunnel linings.

4. Ready-mix concrete
 Ready-mix concrete is sometimes preferred over on-site concrete mixing
because of the precision of the mixture and reduced worksite confusion. However,
using a pre-determined concrete mixture reduces flexibility, both in the supply chain
and in the actual components of the concrete. 

5. Shotcrete
It is defined as a mortar conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected
at high velocity on to a surface. There are mainly two different methods namely wet
mix and dry mix process. In wet mix process the material is conveyed after mixing
with water.

1.7 REINFORCED CONCRETE

Since concrete is a brittle material strong in compression but weak in tension, reinforcing steel
bars are used inside concrete to provide the tensile resistance. The steel must have appropriate
deformations (lugs) to provide strong bond and interlocking of both materials. When completely
surrounded by the hardened concrete mass, it forms an integral part of the two materials, known
as "reinforced concrete".

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

1. Reinforced concrete has greater compressive strength as compared to most other

materials used for construction besides being good in tension.

2. The concrete cover provides better resistance to fire than steel structural members.
Thus, reinforced concrete structures are capable of resisting fire for a longer time.

3. Has long service life with low maintenance cost

4. Most economical structural material in some types of structures, such as dams, piers
and footings.

5. Can be cast to take the shape required, making it widely used in pre-cast structural
components

6. Yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection

7. Yield strength of steel is about 15 times the compressive strength of structural

concrete and well over 100 times its tensile strength

8. By using steel, cross sectional dimensions of structural members can be reduced e.g
in lower floor columns
 9. Less skilled labor is required for erection of structures as compared to other materials
such as structural steel.

Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

1. It needs mixing, casting and curing, all of which affect the final strength of concrete.

2. The cost of the forms used to cast concrete is relatively high.

3. It has low compressive strength as compared to steel which leads to large sections in
columns/beams of multi-story buildings. Cracks develop in concrete due to shrinkage
and the application of live loads

1.8 STEEL REINFORCEMENTS

Rebar (short for reinforcing bar), also known as reinforcing steel, is a steel bar or mesh of steel
wires used primarily as a tension device in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures
to strengthen and hold the concrete in tension. In some instances, rebars are also used as
compression reinforcements.
The reinforcing steel allowed by the NSCP (Art. 403.6.3.1) to be used as tension reinforcements
for concrete are those satisfying the specifications of carbon steel ASTM A615M, low-alloy steel
ASTM A706M, stainless steel ASTM A955M and rail steel ASTM A966M. Caution must be
observed if quenched tempered thermi-mechanically treated (QT/TMT) reinforcing bars are used
in structures located in areas of high seismicity.
Steel has high tensile and compressive strengths. A very important property of steel is its high
ductility wherein it can withstand extensive elongation before it ruptures.
The stress-strain diagram of reinforcing steel is shown below to understand and appreciate the
mechanical properties of this material.
The important properties of reinforcing steel include the tensile strength and yield strength. This
is because the NSCP has a minimum requirement for the T.S./Y.S. ratio.

fs

Tensile Strength, T.S. = fu

Yield Strength, Y.S. = fy

c
y
Figure 1.2 Steel Stress-Strain Diagram
For structural analysis and design purposes, the stress-strain diagram is simplified to an idealized
elasto-plastic material with a stress-strain plot as shown in the diagram below.

fs

Yield Strength, Y.S. = fy

c
y
 Figure 1.3 Idealized Steel Stress-Strain Diagram

1.10 BASIC LOAD COMBINATIONS (From NSCP 2015, Art. 203.3.1)

Where load and resistance factor design is used, structures and all portions thereof shall resist the
most critical effects from the following combinations of factored loads:

1.4 ( D+ F )

1.2 ( D+ F +T )+ 1.6 ( L+ H ) + 0.5( Lr∨R)

1.2 D+ 1.6 ( Lr∨R ) +( f 1 L∨0.5W )

1.2 D+ 1.0W + f 1 L+ 0.5(Lr ∨R)

1.2 D± 1.0E+ f 1 L

0.9 D+1.0 W +1.6 H

0.9 D ±1.0E+1.6 H

where:

D = dead load

E = earthquake load

F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights

H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil

L = live load, except roof live load, including any permitted live load reductions

Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction

P = ponding load

R = rain load on the undeflected roof

 T = self-straining force and effects arising from contraction or expansion resulting
from temperature change, shrinkage, moisture change, creep in component
materials, movement due to differential settlement, or combinations thereof

W = load due to wind pressure

f1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live loads in excess of 4.8 kPa,
and for garage live load

= 0.5 for other live loads

The common load combinations for most applications are the following:

1.2D + 1.6L (1)

1.2D + f1 L ± 1.0W (2)

1.2D + f1 L ± 1.0E (3)

0.9D ± 1.0W (4)

0.9D ± 1.0E (5)

Note that in equations (2) and (3) the maximum wind and earthquake forces are not applied
simultaneously since both are extreme events and the statistical probability of these two
occurring simultaneously is nil. Also, the normal live load is assumed during these extreme
events and thus a lower f1 live load factor representing normal loading is applied.

The latter two load combinations are applied for tall structures and retaining walls to ensure
stability against overturning.

Examples are provided below to illustrate how the load factors are applied.

Example 1.1 Determine the design moment for the beam shown below with a dead load of 35
kN/m and a live load of 15 kN/m. The beam span length is 7.4m.
w

Solution:

Ordinarily, the factored distributed load wu is computed directly. Since the loads are dead
loads and live loads only, Equation (1) shall be used.

wu = 1.2wD + 1.6wL = 1.2*35 + 1.6*15 = 66 kN/m

 For a simply supported, uniformly loaded beam, the maximum moment is

wu L2 66∗7.4 2
Mu = = =451.77kN-m
8 8

In some complicated situations, it is easier to determine the design moments from the
service (unfactored) loads separately and combine these later with their corresponding
load factors following the Principle of Superposition.

w D L2 35∗7.42
MD = = =239.575 kN −m
8 8

w L L2 15∗7.42
ML = = =102.675 kN −m
8 8

Mu = 1.2MD + 1.6ML = 1.2*239.575 + 1.6*102.675 = 451.77 kN-m

Example 1.2 Determine the design moment for the beams and columns shown below with a
dead load of 25 kN/m, a live load of 10 kN/m and a wind load of 60 kN. The beam span lengths
are 6.8m and the column height is 4.2m. Use f1 = 0.5.

FW
B C B Columns are 400mm x 400mm
with heights of 4m and the
beams are 300mm x 600mm
with lengths of 10m.
A D A

Solution:

There are three load combinations that will have to be evaluated using combinations (1),
(2) and (4). However, as mentioned above, load combination (4) is usually required for
tall structures and therefore can be omitted in this analysis. Nevertheless, the results for
combination (4) will be included to illustrate the point that this will not be critical.

For Load Combination (1), the factored distributed load is

wu = 1.2wD + 1.6wL = 1.2*25 + 1.6*10 = 46 kN/m

The resulting beam forces from frame analysis are:

3∗63
10
DF BC = =¿ 0.50311
3∗63 44
+
10 4

DF BA=1−0.50311=¿ 0.49689
 MBC = 190.48 kN-m and MCB = 479.76 kN-m.

The maximum positive moment in span BC is, Mpos = 248.98 kN-m

The exterior column forces are:

Axial, Pu = 201.07 kN

Moment at the top of the column, Mu = 190.48 kN-m

Moment at the bottom of the column, Mu = 95.238 kN-m

The interior column forces are:

Axial, Pu = 517.86 kN

Moment at the top and bottom of the column, Mu = 0.0 kN-m

For Load Combination (2), the factored distributed load is

wu = 1.2wD + 0.5wL = 1.2*25 + 0.5*10 = 35 kN/m

The beam and column forces can be determined proportionately from the reduced load.

MBC = 190.48 * (35/46) = 144.93 kN-m

MCB = 479.76 * (35/46) = 365.04 kN-m.

The exterior column forces are:

Axial, Pu = 201.07 * (35/46) = 152.99 kN

Moment at the top of the column, Mu = 190.48 * (35/46) = 144.93 kN-m

Moment at the bottom of the column, Mu = 95.238 * (35/46) = 72.464 kN-m

The interior column forces are:

Axial, Pu = 517.86 * (35/46) = 394.02 kN

Moment at the top and bottom of the column, Mu = 0.0 * (35/46) = 0.0 kN-m

Portal Method was used for the lateral analysis for the wind loads. The results for a
lateral wind force of 1.0FW = 1.0*60 = 60 kN are shown below.

Column and beam end moments, M = E30 kN-m

The final beam forces from Load Combination (2) are as follows:
 MBC = 144.93 + 30 = 174.93 kN-m and MBC = 144.93 - 30 = 114.93 kN-m

MCB = 365.04 + 30 = 395.04 kN-m and MCB = 365.04 - 30 = 335.49 04-m

The maximum positive moments from the reversing wind forces for Beam BC are
determined using a uniform load of wu = 35 kN/m.

With the wind force going to the right, the beam forces are:

MBC = 114.93 kN-m

MCB = 395.04 kN-m

Mpos = 193.72 kN-m.

However, with the wind force reversing in direction and now going to the left, the forces
are
MBC = 174.93 kN-m

MCB = 335.04 kN-m

Mpos = 186.18 kN-m.

The final column forces for Load Combination (2) are as follows:

Exterior column forces

Axial, Pu = 152.99 F 6.0 = 146.99 kN or 158.99 kN
Top of the column, Mu = 144.93 F 30 = 114.93 kN-m or 174.93 kN-m
Bottom of the column, Mu = 72.464 F 30 = 42.464 kN-m or 102.464 kN-m
Interior column forces
Axial, Pu = 394.02 E 0.0 = 394.02 kN
Top and bottom of the column, Mu = 0.0 E 60.0 = E60.0 kN-m

Similarly, the beam and design forces for Load Combination (4) can be determined.

wu = 0.9wD = 0.9*25 = 22.5 kN/m

The beam and column forces can be determined proportionately from the reduced load.

MBC = 190.48 * (22.5/46) = 93.168 kN-m

MCB = 479.76 * (22.5/46) = 234.67 kN-m.

The exterior column forces are:

Axial, Pu = 201.07 * (22.5/46) = 98.350 kN

Moment at the top of the column, Mu = 190.48 * (22.5/46) = 93.168 kN-m

 Moment at the bottom of the column, Mu = 95.238 * (22.5/46) = 46.584 kN-m

The interior column forces are:

Axial, Pu = 517.86 * (22.5/46) = 253.30 kN

Moment at the top and bottom of the column, Mu = 0.0 * (22.5/46) = 0.0 kN-m

With the forces determined from the wind portal frame analysis the same as before, the
final beam forces from Load Combination (4) are as follows:

MBC = 93.168 + 30.0 = 123.17 kN-m and MBC = 93.168 - 30.0 = 63.168 kN-m

MCB = 113.14 + 30.0 = 143.14 kN-m and MCB = 113.14 - 30.0 = 83.14 kN-m

And the end and maximum positive moments with the wind force going to the right are

MBC = 63.168 kN-m

MCB = 143.14 kN-m

Mpos = 179.52 kN-m.

With the wind force to the left, the moments are

MBC = 123.17 kN-m

MCB = 83.14 kN-m

Mpos = 178.45 kN-m.

The final column forces for Load Combination (4) are as follows:

Exterior column forces

Axial, Pu = 98.35 F 6.0 = 92.35 kN or 104.35 kN
Top of the column, Mu = 93.168 F 30 = 63.168 kN-m or 123.17 kN-m
Bottom of the column, Mu = 46.584 F 30 = 16.584 kN-m or 76.584 kN-m
Interior column forces
Axial, Pu = 253.30 E 0.0 = 253.30 kN
Top and bottom of the column, Mu = 0.0 E 60 = E60 kN-m
The summary of the design (maximum) forces is tabulated below.

MAXIMUM BEAM FORCES

Type Magnitude Load Combination
MBC 190.48 kN-m (2) 1.2D + f1L + 1.0W
MCB 479.76 kN-m (2) 1.2D + f1L + 1.0W
Mpos 248.98 kN-m (2) 1.2D + f1L + 1.0W
From the above table, Load Combination (4) is not critical in any of the moments listed.
It is noteworthy however to consider that the minimum end moments for the beams (MBC
= 63.168 kN-m and MCB = 83.14 kN-m) are from Load Combination (4). Moment
reversal (positive moment) can occur for these beam end moments if the lateral load
(from wind or seismic forces) is much higher together with the light gravity loads from
this Load Combination (4). This is also a major concern for tall buildings.

The column forces from Load Combinations (1), (2) and (4) are presented below.

MAXIMUM EXTERIOR COLUMN FORCES

Load Case Axial Force Top Moment Bottom Moment
(1) 1.2D + 1.6L 201.07 kN 190.48 kN-m 95.238 kN-m
(2) 1.2D + f1L - 1.0W 146.99 kN 114.93 kN-m 42.464 kN-m
(2) 1.2D + f1L + 1.0W 158.99 kN 174.93 kN-m 102.46 kN-m
(4) 0.9D - 1.0W 92.35 kN 63.168 kN-m 16.584 kN-m
(4) 0.9D + 1.0W 104.35 kN 123.17 kN-m 76.584 kN-m

MAXIMUM INTERIOR COLUMN FORCES

Load Case Axial Force Top Moment Bottom Moment
(1) 1.2D + 1.6L 517.86 kN 0.0 kN-m 0.0 kN-m
(2) 1.2D + f1L - 1.0W 394.02 kN 60.0 kN-m 60.0 kN-m
(2) 1.2D + f1L + 1.0W 394.02 kN 60.0 kN-m 60.0 kN-m
(4) 0.9D - 1.0W 253.30 kN 60.0 kN-m 60.0 kN-m
(4) 0.9D + 1.0W 253.30 kN 60.0 kN-m 60.0 kN-m

The minimum axial force also comes from Load Combination (4) especially for the
exterior columns. Also, for very large lateral forces (wind or seismic), especially for tall
buildings, the direction of the axial force can reverse. In this case, the foundation shall be
anchored to withstand expected tension forces from the columns.