Jean-Paul Sartre - Wikipedia

26/06/2021 Jean-Paul Sartre - Wikipedia
Jean-Paul Sartre
Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (/ˈsɑːrtrə/, US also
Jean-Paul Sartre
/ˈsɑːrt/;[7] French: [saʁtʁ]; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a
French philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political
activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key
figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology,
and one of the leading figures in 20th-century French philosophy
and Marxism. His work has also influenced sociology, critical
theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues
to influence these disciplines.
Sartre was also noted for his open relationship with prominent
feminist and fellow existentialist philosopher and writer Simone
de Beauvoir. Together, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the
cultural and social assumptions and expectations of their
Sartre in March 1967
upbringings, which they considered bourgeois, in both lifestyles
and thought. The conflict between oppressive, spiritually Born Jean-Paul Charles
destructive conformity (mauvaise foi, literally, 'bad faith') and an Aymard Sartre
"authentic" way of "being" became the dominant theme of 21 June 1905
Sartre's early work, a theme embodied in his principal Paris, France

philosophical work Being and Nothingness (L'Être et le Néant,
Died 15 April 1980 (aged 74)
1943).[8] Sartre's introduction to his philosophy is his work

Existentialism Is a Humanism (L'existentialisme est un Paris, France
humanisme, 1946), originally presented as a lecture. Education École Normale
Supérieure, University
He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature despite of Paris[1] (B.A.; M.A.,
attempting to refuse it, saying that he always declined official
1928)
honors and that "a writer should not allow himself to be turned
into an institution."[9] Partner(s) Simone de Beauvoir
(1929–1980; his death)
Era 20th-century
Contents philosophy
Biography Region Western philosophy

Early life School Continental philosophy,
World War II existentialism,
Cold War politics and anticolonialism phenomenology,
Late life and death existential
phenomenology,[2]
Thought
hermeneutics,[2]
Career as public intellectual Western Marxism,
Literature anarchism (late)
Criticism Main Metaphysics,
interests epistemology, ethics,
Works
consciousness, self-
See also
consciousness,
References literature, political
Sources philosophy, ontology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre 1/23
Further reading Notable Bad faith, "existence

ideas precedes essence",
External links
By Sartre nothingness, "Hell is
On Sartre other people", situation,
transcendence of the
ego ("every positional
Biography consciousness of an
object is a non-
positional
Early life consciousness of
itself"),[3][4] Sartrean
Jean-Paul Sartre was born on 21 June 1905 in Paris as the only terminology
child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and
Anne-Marie (Schweitzer).[10] His mother was of Alsatian origin Influences
and the first cousin of Nobel Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer, Kierkegaard,[2] de Beauvoir,
whose father Louis Théophile was the younger brother of Anne- Flaubert, Hegel, Heidegger, Husserl,
Marie's father.[11]
When Sartre was two years old, his father died Bergson, Kojève, Wahl, Bachelard,
of an illness, which he most likely contracted in Indochina. Anne- Darwin, Freud, Marx, Stekel,
Marie moved back to her parents' house in Meudon, where she Merleau-Ponty, Nietzsche, Nizan,
raised Sartre with help from her father Charles Schweitzer, a Levinas, Proust, Céline, Lefebvre,[5]
teacher of German who taught Sartre mathematics and
Rousseau[6]
introduced him to classical literature at a very early age.[12] When
he was twelve, Sartre's mother remarried, and the family moved Influenced
to La Rochelle, where he was frequently bullied, in part due to the Aron, Badiou, Bourdieu, Butler,
wandering of his blind right eye (sensory exotropia).[13] Camus, de Beauvoir, Fanon,
Guevara, Laing, Goffman, Merleau-
As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to philosophy
Ponty, Gorz, Lukács, Debord,
upon reading Henri Bergson's essay Time and Free Will: An
Deleuze, Jeanson, Leibowitz,
Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness.[14] He attended
the Cours Hattemer, a private school in Paris.[15] He studied and Lacan, Pinter, Quito, Rancière, van
earned certificates in psychology, history of philosophy, logic, Fraassen
general philosophy, ethics and sociology, and physics, as well as Signature
his diplôme d'études supérieures (roughly equivalent to an MA
thesis) in Paris at the École Normale Supérieure, an institution of
higher education that was the alma mater for several prominent
French thinkers and intellectuals.[16] (His 1928 M.A. thesis under
the title "L'Image dans la vie psychologique: rôle et nature"
["Image in Psychological Life: Role and Nature"] was supervised by Henri Delacroix.)[16] It was at
ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimes fractious, friendship with Raymond Aron.[17] Perhaps
the most decisive influence on Sartre's philosophical development was his weekly attendance at
Alexandre Kojève's seminars, which continued for a number of years.[18]
From his first years in the École Normale, Sartre was one of its fiercest pranksters.[19][20] In 1927, his
antimilitarist satirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored with Georges Canguilhem,
particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson.[21] In the same year, with his comrades Nizan,
Larroutis, Baillou and Herland,[22] he organized a media prank following Charles Lindbergh's
successful New York City–Paris flight; Sartre & Co. called newspapers and informed them that
Lindbergh was going to be awarded an honorary École degree. Many newspapers, including Le Petit
Parisien, announced the event on 25 May. Thousands, including journalists and curious spectators,
showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-
alike.[21][23][24] The public's resultant outcry forced Lanson to resign.[21][25]
In 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who

studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to become a noted
philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two became inseparable
and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship,[26]
though they were not monogamous.[27] The first time Sartre took
the agrégation, he failed. He took it a second time and virtually
tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually
awarded first place, with Beauvoir second.[28][29]
From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycées of Le Havre

(at the Lycée de Le Havre, the present-day Lycée François-Ier (Le
Havre), 1931–1936), Laon (at the Lycée de Laon, 1936–37), and,
finally, Paris (at the Lycée Pasteur, 1937–1939, and at the Lycée
Condorcet, 1941–1944;[30] see below).
Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul
In 1932, Sartre read Voyage au bout de la nuit by Louis- Sartre in Beijing, 1955
Ferdinand Céline, a book that had a remarkable influence on
him.[31]
In 1933–34, he succeeded Raymond Aron at the Institut français d'Allemagne in Berlin where he
studied Edmund Husserl's phenomenological philosophy. Aron had already advised him in 1930 to
read Emmanuel Levinas's Théorie de l'intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl (The Theory of
Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology).[32]
The neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hyppolite in the 1930s inspired a whole
generation of French thinkers, including Sartre, to discover Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit.[33]
World War II
In 1939 Sartre was drafted into the French army, where he served as a meteorologist.[34][35] He was
captured by German troops in 1940 in Padoux,[36] and he spent nine months as a prisoner of war—in
Nancy and finally in Stalag XII-D, Trier, where he wrote his first theatrical piece, Barionà, fils du
tonnerre, a drama concerning Christmas. It was during this period of confinement that Sartre read
Martin Heidegger's Sein und Zeit, later to become a major influence on his own essay on
phenomenological ontology. Because of poor health (he claimed that his poor eyesight and exotropia
affected his balance) Sartre was released in April 1941. According to other sources, he escaped after a
medical visit to the ophthalmologist.[37] Given civilian status, he recovered his teaching position at
Lycée Pasteur near Paris and settled at the Hotel Mistral. In October 1941 he was given a position,
previously held by a Jewish teacher who had been forbidden to teach by Vichy law, at Lycée
Condorcet in Paris.
After coming back to Paris in May 1941, he participated in the founding of the underground group
Socialisme et Liberté ("Socialism and Liberty") with other writers Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice
Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Toussaint Desanti, Dominique Desanti, Jean Kanapa, and École Normale
students. In spring of 1941, Sartre suggested with "cheerful ferocity" at a meeting that the Socialisme
et Liberté assassinate prominent war collaborators like Marcel Déat, but de Beauvoir noted his idea
was rejected as "none of us felt qualified to make bombs or hurl grenades".[38] The British historian
Ian Ousby observed that the French always had far more hatred for collaborators than they did for
the Germans, noting it was French people like Déat that Sartre wanted to assassinate rather than the
military governor of France, General Otto von Stülpnagel, and the popular slogan always was "Death
to Laval!" rather than "Death to Hitler!".[39] In August Sartre and de Beauvoir went to the French
Riviera seeking the support of André Gide and André Malraux. However, both Gide and Malraux
were undecided, and this may have been the cause of Sartre's disappointment and discouragement.
Socialisme et liberté soon dissolved and Sartre decided to write instead of being involved in active
resistance. He then wrote Being and Nothingness, The Flies, and

No Exit, none of which were censored by the Germans, and also
contributed to both legal and illegal literary magazines.
In his essay "Paris under the Occupation", Sartre wrote that the
"correct" behaviour of the Germans had entrapped too many
Parisians into complicity with the occupation, accepting what
was unnatural as natural:
The Germans did not stride, revolver in hand, through Sartre (third from left) and other
the streets. They did not force civilians to make way French journalists visit General
for them on the pavement. They would offer seats to George C. Marshall in the
old ladies on the Metro. They showed great fondness Pentagon, 1945
for children and would pat them on the cheek. They
had been told to behave correctly and being well-
disciplined, they tried shyly and conscientiously to do
so. Some of them even displayed a naive kindness
which could find no practical expression.[40]
Sartre noted when Wehrmacht soldiers asked Parisians politely in their German-accented French for
directions, people usually felt embarrassed and ashamed as they tried their best to help out the
Wehrmacht which led Sartre to remark "We could not be natural".[41] French was a language widely
taught in German schools and most Germans could speak at least some French. Sartre himself always
found it difficult when a Wehrmacht soldier asked him for directions, usually saying he did not know
where it was that the soldier wanted to go, but still felt uncomfortable as the very act of speaking to
the Wehrmacht meant he had been complicit in the Occupation.[42] Ousby wrote: "But, in however
humble a fashion, everyone still had to decide how they were going to cope with life in a fragmenting
society ... So Sartre's worries ... about how to react when a German soldier stopped him in the street
and asked politely for directions were not as fussily inconsequential as they might sound at first. They
were emblematic of how the dilemmas of the Occupation presented themselves in daily life".[42]
Sartre wrote the very "correctness" of the Germans caused moral corruption in many people who
used the "correct" behavior of the Germans as an excuse for passivity, and the very act of simply
trying to live one's day-to-day existence without challenging the occupation aided the "New Order in
Europe", which depended upon the passivity of ordinary people to accomplish its goals.[40]
Throughout the occupation, it was German policy to plunder France, and food shortages were always
a major problem as the majority of food from the French countryside went to Germany.[43] Sartre
wrote about the "languid existence" of the Parisians as people waited obsessively for the one weekly
arrival of trucks bringing food from the countryside that the Germans allowed, writing: "Paris would
grow peaked and yawn with hunger under the empty sky. Cut off from the rest of the world, fed only
through the pity or some ulterior motive, the town led a purely abstract and symbolic life".[43] Sartre
himself lived on a diet of rabbits sent to him by a friend of de Beauvoir living in Anjou.[44] The rabbits
were usually in an advanced state of decay full of maggots, and despite being hungry, Sartre once
threw out one rabbit as uneatable, saying it had more maggots in it than meat.[44] Sartre also
remarked that conversations at the Café de Flore between intellectuals had changed, as the fear that
one of them might be a mouche (informer) or a writer of the corbeau (anonymous denunciatory
letters) meant that no one really said what they meant anymore, imposing self-censorship.[45] Sartre
and his friends at the Café de Flore had reasons for their fear; by September 1940, the Abwehr alone
had already recruited 32,000 French people to work as mouches while by 1942 the Paris
Kommandantur was receiving an average of 1,500 letters/per day sent by the corbeaux.[46]
Sartre wrote under the occupation Paris had become a "sham", resembling the empty wine bottles
displayed in shop windows as all of the wine had been exported to Germany, looking like the old
Paris, but hollowed out, as what had made Paris special was gone.[47] Paris had almost no cars on the
streets during the occupation as the oil went to Germany while the Germans imposed a nightly
curfew, which led Sartre to remark that Paris "was peopled by the absent".[48] Sartre also noted that
people began to disappear under the occupation, writing:
One day you might phone a friend and the phone would ring for a long time in an empty
flat. You would go round and ring the doorbell, but no-one would answer it. If the
concierge forced the door, you would find two chairs standing close together in the hall
with the fag-ends of German cigarettes on the floor between their legs. If the wife or
mother of the man who had vanished had been present at his arrest, she would tell you
that he had been taken away by very polite Germans, like those who asked the way in the
street. And when she went to ask what had happened to them at the offices in the Avenue
Foch or the Rue des Saussaies she would be politely received and sent away with
comforting words" [No. 11 Rue des Saussaies was the headquarters of the Gestapo in
Paris].[49]
Sartre wrote the feldgrau ("field grey") uniforms of the Wehrmacht and the green uniforms of the
Order Police which had seemed so alien in 1940 had become accepted, as people were numbed into
accepting what Sartre called "a pale, dull green, unobtrusive strain, which the eye almost expected to
find among the dark clothes of the civilians".[50] Under the occupation, the French often called the
Germans les autres ("the others"), which inspired Sartre's aphorism in his play Huis clos ("No Exit")
of "l'enfer, c'est les Autres" ("Hell is other people").[51] Sartre intended the line "l'enfer, c'est les
Autres" at least in part to be a dig at the German occupiers.[51]
Sartre was a very active contributor to Combat, a newspaper created during the clandestine period by
Albert Camus, a philosopher and author who held similar beliefs. Sartre and de Beauvoir remained
friends with Camus until 1951, with the publication of Camus's The Rebel. Sartre wrote extensively
post-war about neglected minority groups, namely French Jews and black people. In 1946, he
published Anti-Semite and Jew, after having published the first part of the essay, “Portrait de
l’antisémite,” the year before in Les Temps modernes, No. 3. In the essay, in the course of explaining
the etiology of "hate," he attacks antisemitism in France[52] during a time when the Jews who came
back from concentration camps were quickly abandoned.[53] In 1947, Sartre published several articles
concerning the condition of African Americans in the United States—specifically the racism and
discrimination against them in the country—in his second Situations collection. Then, in 1948, for the
introduction of Léopold Sédar Senghor’s l’Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache
(Anthology of New Negro and Malagasy Poetry), he wrote “Black Orpheus” (re-published in
Situations III), a critique of colonialism and racism in light of the philosophy Sartre developed in
Being and Nothingness. Later, while Sartre was labeled by some authors as a resistant, the French
philosopher and resistant Vladimir Jankelevitch criticized Sartre's lack of political commitment
during the German occupation, and interpreted his further struggles for liberty as an attempt to
redeem himself. According to Camus, Sartre was a writer who resisted; not a resister who wrote.
In 1945, after the war ended, Sartre moved to an apartment on the rue Bonaparte, where he was to
produce most of his subsequent work and where he lived until 1962. It was from there that he helped
establish a quarterly literary and political review, Les Temps modernes (Modern Times), in part to
popularize his thought.[54] He ceased teaching and devoted his time to writing and political activism.
He would draw on his war experiences for his great trilogy of novels, Les Chemins de la Liberté (The
Roads to Freedom) (1945–1949).
Cold War politics and anticolonialism

The first period of Sartre's career, defined in large part by Being

and Nothingness (1943), gave way to a second period—when the
world was perceived as split into communist and capitalist blocs
—of highly publicized political involvement. Sartre tended to
glorify the Resistance after the war as the uncompromising
expression of morality in action, and recalled that the résistants
were a "band of brothers" who had enjoyed "real freedom" in a
way that did not exist before nor after the war.[55] Sartre was Jean-Paul Sartre (middle) and
"merciless" in attacking anyone who had collaborated or Simone de Beauvoir (left) meeting
remained passive during the German occupation; for instance, with Che Guevara (right) in Cuba,
criticizing Camus for signing an appeal to spare the 1960
collaborationist writer Robert Brasillach from being executed. [55]
His 1948 play Les mains sales (Dirty Hands) in particular
explored the problem of being a politically "engaged" intellectual. He embraced Marxism but did not
join the Communist Party. For a time in the late 1940s, Sartre described French nationalism as
"provincial" and in a 1949 essay called for a "United States of Europe".[56] In an essay published in
the June 1949 edition of the journal Politique étrangère, Sartre wrote:
If we want French civilization to survive, it must be fitted into the framework of a great
European civilization. Why? I have said that civilization is the reflection on a shared
situation. In Italy, in France, in Benelux, in Sweden, in Norway, in Germany, in Greece, in
Austria, everywhere we find the same problems and the same dangers ... But this cultural
polity has prospects only as elements of a policy which defends Europe's cultural
autonomy vis-à-vis America and the Soviet Union, but also its political and economic
autonomy, with the aim of making Europe a single force between the blocs, not a third
bloc, but an autonomous force which will refuse to allow itself to be torn into shreds
between American optimism and Russian scientificism.[57]
About the Korean War, Sartre wrote: "I have no doubt that the South Korean feudalists and the
American imperialists have promoted this war. But I do not doubt either that it was begun by the
North Koreans".[58] In July 1950, Sartre wrote in Les Temps Modernes about his and de Beauvoir's
attitude to the Soviet Union:
As we were neither members of the [Communist] party nor its avowed sympathizers, it
was not our duty to write about Soviet labor camps; we were free to remain aloof from the
quarrel over the nature of this system, provided that no events of sociological significance
had occurred.[59]
Sartre held that the Soviet Union was a "revolutionary" state working for the betterment of humanity
and could be criticized only for failing to live up to its own ideals, but that critics had to take in mind
that the Soviet state needed to defend itself against a hostile world; by contrast Sartre held that the
failures of "bourgeois" states were due to their innate shortcomings.[55] The Swiss journalist François
Bondy wrote that, based on a reading of Sartre's numerous essays, speeches and interviews "a simple
basic pattern never fails to emerge: social change must be comprehensive and revolutionary" and the
parties that promote the revolutionary charges "may be criticized, but only by those who completely
identify themselves with its purpose, its struggle and its road to power", deeming Sartre's position to
be "existentialist".[55]
Sartre believed at this time in the moral superiority of the Eastern Bloc in spite of its human rights
violations, arguing that this belief was necessary "to keep hope alive"[60] and opposed any criticism of
Soviet Union[61] to the extent that Maurice Merleau-Ponty called him an "ultra-Bolshevik".[62]
Sartre's expression "workers of Billancourt must not be deprived of their hopes"[62] (Fr. "il ne faut
pas désespérer Billancourt"), became a catchphrase meaning communist activists should not tell the
whole truth to the workers in order to avoid decline in their revolutionary enthusiasm.[63]
In 1954, just after Stalin's death, Sartre visited the Soviet Union, which he stated he found a
"complete freedom of criticism" while condemning the United States for sinking into
"prefascism".[64] Sartre wrote about those Soviet writers expelled from the Soviet Writers' Union
"still had the opportunity of rehabilitating themselves by writing better books".[65] Sartre's comments
on Hungarian revolution of 1956 are quite representative to his frequently contradictory and
changing views. On one hand, Sartre saw in Hungary a true reunification between intellectuals and
workers[66] only to criticize it for "losing socialist base".[67] He condemned the Soviet invasion of
Hungary in November 1956.[68]
In 1964 Sartre attacked Khrushchev's "Secret Speech" which condemned the Stalinist repressions and
purges. Sartre argued that "the masses were not ready to receive the truth".[69]
In 1973 he argued that "revolutionary authority always needs to get rid of some people that threaten
it, and their death is the only way".[70] A number of people, starting from Frank Gibney in 1961,
classified Sartre as a "useful idiot" due to his uncritical position.[71]
Sartre came to admire the Polish leader Władysław Gomułka, a man who favored a "Polish road to
socialism" and wanted more independence for Poland, but was loyal to the Soviet Union because of
the Oder-Neisse line issue.[72] Sartre's newspaper Les Temps Modernes devoted a number of special
issues in 1957 and 1958 to Poland under Gomułka, praising him for his reforms.[72] Bondy wrote of
the notable contradiction between Sarte's "ultra Bolshevism" as he expressed admiration for the
Chinese leader Mao Zedong as the man who led the oppressed masses of the Third World into
revolution while also praising more moderate Communist leaders like Gomułka.[72]
As an anti-colonialist, Sartre took a prominent role in the struggle against French rule in Algeria, and
the use of torture and concentration camps by the French in Algeria. He became an eminent
supporter of the FLN in the Algerian War and was one of the signatories of the Manifeste des 121.
Consequently, Sartre became a domestic target of the paramilitary Organisation armée secrète (OAS),
escaping two bomb attacks in the early '60s.[73] He later argued in 1959 that each French person was
responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of Independence.[74] (He had an
Algerian mistress, Arlette Elkaïm, who became his adopted daughter in 1965.) He opposed U.S.
involvement in the Vietnam War and, along with Bertrand Russell and others, organized a tribunal
intended to expose U.S. war crimes, which became known as the Russell Tribunal in 1967.
His work after Stalin's death, the Critique de la raison dialectique (Critique of Dialectical Reason),
appeared in 1960 (a second volume appearing posthumously). In the Critique Sartre set out to give
Marxism a more vigorous intellectual defense than it had received until then; he ended by concluding
that Marx's notion of "class" as an objective entity was fallacious. Sartre's emphasis on the humanist
values in the early works of Marx led to a dispute with a leading leftist intellectual in France in the
1960s, Louis Althusser, who claimed that the ideas of the young Marx were decisively superseded by
the "scientific" system of the later Marx. In the late 1950s, Sartre began to argue that the European
working classes were too apolitical to carry out the revolution predicated by Marx, and influenced by
Frantz Fanon stated to argue it was the impoverished masses of the Third World, the "real damned of
the earth", who would carry out the revolution.[75] A major theme of Sarte's political essays in the
1960s was of his disgust with the "Americanization" of the French working class who would much
rather watch American TV shows dubbed into French than agitate for a revolution.[55]
Sartre went to Cuba in the 1960s to meet Fidel Castro and spoke with Ernesto "Che" Guevara. After
Guevara's death, Sartre would declare him to be "not only an intellectual but also the most complete
human being of our age"[76] and the "era's most perfect man".[77] Sartre would also compliment
Guevara by professing that "he lived his words, spoke his own actions and his story and the story of
the world ran parallel".[78] However he stood against the persecution

of gays by Castro's government, which he compared to Nazi
persecution of the Jews, and said: "In Cuba there are no Jews, but
there are homosexuals".[79]
During a collective hunger strike in 1974, Sartre visited Red Army

Faction member Andreas Baader in Stammheim Prison and criticized
the harsh conditions of imprisonment.[80]
Towards the end of his life, Sartre began to describe himself as a

"special kind" of anarchist.[81]
Late life and death
Sketch of Sartre for the New In 1964 Sartre renounced

York Times by Reginald literature in a witty and sardonic
Gray, 1965 account of the first ten years of his
life, Les Mots (The Words). The
book is an ironic counterblast to
Marcel Proust, whose reputation had unexpectedly eclipsed that
of André Gide (who had provided the model of littérature
engagée for Sartre's generation). Literature, Sartre concluded,
Hélène de Beauvoir's house in
functioned ultimately as a bourgeois substitute for real
Goxwiller, where Sartre tried to hide
commitment in the world. In October 1964, Sartre was awarded
from the media after being awarded
the Nobel Prize in Literature but he declined it. He was the first
the Nobel Prize
Nobel laureate to voluntarily decline the prize,[82] and remains
one of only two laureates to do so.[83] According to Lars
Gyllensten, in the book Minnen, bara minnen ("Memories, Only Memories") published in 2000,
Sartre himself or someone close to him got in touch with the Swedish Academy in 1975 with a request
for the prize money, but was refused.[84] In 1945, he had refused the Légion d'honneur.[85] The Nobel
prize was announced on 22 October 1964; on 14 October, Sartre had written a letter to the Nobel
Institute, asking to be removed from the list of nominees, and warning that he would not accept the
prize if awarded, but the letter went unread;[86] on 23 October, Le Figaro published a statement by
Sartre explaining his refusal. He said he did not wish to be "transformed" by such an award, and did
not want to take sides in an East vs. West cultural struggle by accepting an award from a prominent
Western cultural institution.[86] Nevertheless, he was that year's prizewinner.[87] After being awarded
the prize he tried to escape the media by hiding in the house of Simone's sister Hélène de Beauvoir in
Goxwiller, Alsace.
Though his name was then a household word (as was

"existentialism" during the tumultuous 1960s), Sartre remained a
simple man with few possessions, actively committed to causes
until the end of his life, such as the May 1968 strikes in Paris
during the summer of 1968 during which he was arrested for civil
disobedience. President Charles de Gaulle intervened and
pardoned him, commenting that "you don't arrest Voltaire".[88]
In 1975, when asked how he would like to be remembered, Sartre

replied:
Jean-Paul Sartre in Venice in 1967
I would like [people] to remember Nausea, [my plays]

No Exit and The Devil and the Good Lord, and then
my two philosophical works, more particularly the
second one, Critique of Dialectical Reason. Then my

essay on Genet, Saint Genet. ... If these are
remembered, that would be quite an achievement,
and I don't ask for more. As a man, if a certain Jean-
Paul Sartre is remembered, I would like people to
remember the milieu or historical situation in which I
lived, ... how I lived in it, in terms of all the
aspirations which I tried to gather up within
myself.[89]
Sartre's physical condition deteriorated, partially because of the

merciless pace of work (and the use of amphetamine)[90] he put
himself through during the writing of the Critique and a massive
analytical biography of Gustave Flaubert (The Family Idiot), both
of which remained unfinished. He suffered from
hypertension, [91] and became almost completely blind in 1973. Sartre's and de Beauvoir's grave in
Sartre was a notorious chain smoker, which could also have the cimetière du Montparnasse
contributed to the deterioration of his health.[92]
Sartre died on 15 April 1980 in Paris from edema of the lung. He

had not wanted to be buried at Père-Lachaise Cemetery between
his mother and stepfather, so it was arranged that he be buried at
Montparnasse Cemetery. At his funeral on Saturday, 19 April,
50,000 Parisians descended onto boulevard du Montparnasse to
accompany Sartre's cortege.[93][94] The funeral started at "the
hospital at 2:00 p.m., then filed through the fourteenth
arrondissement, past all Sartre's haunts, and entered the
cemetery through the gate on the Boulevard Edgar Quinet".
Sartre was initially buried in a temporary grave to the left of the
cemetery gate.[95] Four days later the body was disinterred for
cremation at Père-Lachaise Cemetery, and his ashes were
reburied at the permanent site in Montparnasse Cemetery, to the
right of the cemetery gate.[96]
Thought Sartre's and de Beauvoir's grave in

2016, with a new gravestone. Note
Sartre's primary idea is that people, as humans, are "condemned the Metro tickets left by visitors.
to be free".[97] "This may seem paradoxical because
condemnation is normally an external judgment which
constitutes the conclusion of a judgment. Here, it is not the human who has chosen to be like this.
There is a contingency of human existence. It is a condemnation of their being. Their being is not
determined, so it is up to everyone to create their own existence, for which they are then responsible.
They cannot not be free, there is a form of necessity for freedom, which can never be given up."[98]
This theory relies upon his position that there is no creator, and is illustrated using the example of the
paper cutter. Sartre says that if one considered a paper cutter, one would assume that the creator
would have had a plan for it: an essence. Sartre said that human beings have no essence before their
existence because there is no Creator. Thus: "existence precedes essence".[97] This forms the basis for
his assertion that because one cannot explain one's own actions and behavior by referring to any
specific human nature, they are necessarily fully responsible for those actions. "We are left alone,
without excuse." "We can act without being determined by our past which is always separated from
us."[99]
Sartre maintained that the concepts of authenticity and individuality have to be earned but not
learned. We need to experience "death consciousness" so as to wake up ourselves as to what is really
important; the authentic in our lives which is life experience, not knowledge.[100] Death draws the
final point when we as beings cease to live for ourselves and permanently become objects that exist
only for the outside world.[101] In this way death emphasizes the burden of our free, individual
existence. "We can oppose authenticity to an inauthentic way of being. Authenticity consists in
experiencing the indeterminate character of existence in anguish. It is also to know how to face it by
giving meaning to our actions and by recognizing ourselves as the author of this meaning. On the
other hand, an inauthentic way of being consists in running away, in lying to oneself in order to
escape this anguish and the responsibility for one’s own existence."[98]
As a junior lecturer at the Lycée du Havre in 1938, Sartre wrote the novel La Nausée (Nausea), which
serves in some ways as a manifesto of existentialism and remains one of his most famous books.
Taking a page from the German phenomenological movement, he believed that our ideas are the
product of experiences of real-life situations, and that novels and plays can well describe such
fundamental experiences, having equal value to discursive essays for the elaboration of philosophical
theories such as existentialism. With such purpose, this novel concerns a dejected researcher
(Roquentin) in a town similar to Le Havre who becomes starkly conscious of the fact that inanimate
objects and situations remain absolutely indifferent to his existence. As such, they show themselves to
be resistant to whatever significance human consciousness might perceive in them.
He also took inspiration from phenomenologist epistemology, explained by Franz Adler in this way:
"Man chooses and makes himself by acting. Any action implies the judgment that he is right under
the circumstances not only for the actor, but also for everybody else in similar circumstances."[102]
This indifference of "things in themselves" (closely linked with the later notion of "being-in-itself" in
his Being and Nothingness) has the effect of highlighting all the more the freedom Roquentin has to
perceive and act in the world; everywhere he looks, he finds situations imbued with meanings which
bear the stamp of his existence. Hence the "nausea" referred to in the title of the book; all that he
encounters in his everyday life is suffused with a pervasive, even horrible, taste—specifically, his
freedom. The book takes the term from Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra, where it is
used in the context of the often nauseating quality of existence. No matter how much Roquentin longs
for something else or something different, he cannot get away from this harrowing evidence of his
engagement with the world.
The novel also acts as a terrifying realization of some of Immanuel Kant's fundamental ideas about
freedom; Sartre uses the idea of the autonomy of the will (that morality is derived from our ability to
choose in reality; the ability to choose being derived from human freedom; embodied in the famous
saying "Condemned to be free") as a way to show the world's indifference to the individual. The
freedom that Kant exposed is here a strong burden, for the freedom to act towards objects is
ultimately useless, and the practical application of Kant's ideas proves to be bitterly rejected.
Also important is Sartre's analysis of psychological concepts, including his suggestion that
consciousness exists as something other than itself, and that the conscious awareness of things is not
limited to their knowledge: for Sartre intentionality applies to the emotions as well as to cognitions,
to desires as well as to perceptions.[103] "When an external object is perceived, consciousness is also
conscious of itself, even if consciousness is not its own object: it is a non-positional consciousness of
itself."[104]
Career as public intellectual

While the broad focus of Sartre's life revolved around the notion of human freedom, he began a
sustained intellectual participation in more public matters towards the end of the Second World War,
around 1944–1945.[105] Before World War II, he was content with the role of an apolitical liberal
intellectual: "Now teaching at a lycée in Laon ... Sartre made his

headquarters the Dome café at the crossing of Montparnasse and
Raspail boulevards. He attended plays, read novels, and dined [with]
women. He wrote. And he was published."[106] Sartre and his lifelong
companion, de Beauvoir, existed, in her words, where "the world about
us was a mere backdrop against which our private lives were played
out".[107]
Sartre portrayed his own pre-war situation in the character Mathieu,

chief protagonist in The Age of Reason, which was completed during
Sartre's first year as a soldier in the Second World War. By forging
Mathieu as an absolute rationalist, analyzing every situation, and
functioning entirely on reason, he removed any strands of authentic
content from his character and as a result, Mathieu could "recognize no
allegiance except to [him]self",[108] though he realized that without
"responsibility for my own existence, it would seem utterly absurd to go Jean-Paul Sartre and
Simone de Beauvoir at the
on existing".[109] Mathieu's commitment was only to himself, never to
Balzac Memorial
the outside world. Mathieu was restrained from action each time
because he had no reasons for acting. Sartre then, for these reasons, was
not compelled to participate in the Spanish Civil War, and it took the
invasion of his own country to motivate him into action and to provide a crystallization of these ideas.
It was the war that gave him a purpose beyond himself, and the atrocities of the war can be seen as
the turning point in his public stance.
The war opened Sartre's eyes to a political reality he had not yet understood until forced into
continual engagement with it: "the world itself destroyed Sartre's illusions about isolated self-
determining individuals and made clear his own personal stake in the events of the time."[110]
Returning to Paris in 1941 he formed the "Socialisme et Liberté" resistance group. In 1943, after the
group disbanded, Sartre joined a writers' Resistance group,[111] in which he remained an active
participant until the end of the war. He continued to write ferociously, and it was due to this "crucial
experience of war and captivity that Sartre began to try to build up a positive moral system and to
express it through literature".[112]
The symbolic initiation of this new phase in Sartre's work is packaged in the introduction he wrote for
a new journal, Les Temps modernes, in October 1945. Here he aligned the journal, and thus himself,
with the Left and called for writers to express their political commitment.[113] Yet, this alignment was
indefinite, directed more to the concept of the Left than a specific party of the Left.
Sartre's philosophy lent itself to his being a public intellectual. He envisaged culture as a very fluid
concept; neither pre-determined, nor definitely finished; instead, in true existential fashion, "culture
was always conceived as a process of continual invention and re-invention." This marks Sartre, the
intellectual, as a pragmatist, willing to move and shift stance along with events. He did not
dogmatically follow a cause other than the belief in human freedom, preferring to retain a pacifist's
objectivity. It is this overarching theme of freedom that means his work "subverts the bases for
distinctions among the disciplines".[114] Therefore, he was able to hold knowledge across a vast array
of subjects: "the international world order, the political and economic organisation of contemporary
society, especially France, the institutional and legal frameworks that regulate the lives of ordinary
citizens, the educational system, the media networks that control and disseminate information.
Sartre systematically refused to keep quiet about what he saw as inequalities and injustices in the
world."[115]
Sartre always sympathized with the Left, and supported the French Communist Party (PCF) until the
1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary. Following the Liberation the PCF were infuriated by Sartre's
philosophy, which appeared to lure young French men and women away from the ideology of
communism and into Sartre's own existentialism.[116] From 1956 onwards Sartre rejected the claims
of the PCF to represent the French working classes, objecting to its "authoritarian tendencies". In the
late 1960s Sartre supported the Maoists, a movement that rejected the authority of established
communist parties.[2] However, despite aligning with the Maoists, Sartre said after the May events:
"If one rereads all my books, one will realize that I have not changed profoundly, and that I have
always remained an anarchist."[117] He would later explicitly allow himself to be called an
anarchist.[118][119]
In the aftermath of a war that had for the first time properly engaged Sartre in political matters, he
set forth a body of work which "reflected on virtually every important theme of his early thought and
began to explore alternative solutions to the problems posed there".[120] The greatest difficulties that
he and all public intellectuals of the time faced were the increasing technological aspects of the world
that were outdating the printed word as a form of expression. In Sartre's opinion, the "traditional
bourgeois literary forms remain innately superior", but there is "a recognition that the new
technological 'mass media' forms must be embraced" if Sartre's ethical and political goals as an
authentic, committed intellectual are to be achieved: the demystification of bourgeois political
practices and the raising of the consciousness, both political and cultural, of the working class.[121]
The struggle for Sartre was against the monopolising moguls who were beginning to take over the
media and destroy the role of the intellectual. His attempts to reach a public were mediated by these
powers, and it was often these powers he had to campaign against. He was skilled enough, however,
to circumvent some of these issues by his interactive approach to the various forms of media,
advertising his radio interviews in a newspaper column for example, and vice versa.[122]
Sartre's role as a public intellectual occasionally put him in physical danger, such as in June 1961,
when a plastic bomb exploded in the entrance of his apartment building. His public support of
Algerian self-determination at the time had led Sartre to become a target of the campaign of terror
that mounted as the colonists' position deteriorated. A similar occurrence took place the next year
and he had begun to receive threatening letters from Oran, Algeria.[123]
Literature
Sartre wrote successfully in a number of literary modes and made major contributions to literary
criticism and literary biography. His plays are richly symbolic and serve as a means of conveying his
philosophy. The best-known, Huis-clos (No Exit), contains the famous line "L'enfer, c'est les autres",
usually translated as "Hell is other people."[124] Aside from the impact of Nausea, Sartre's major work
of fiction was The Roads to Freedom trilogy which charts the progression of how World War II
affected Sartre's ideas. In this way, Roads to Freedom presents a less theoretical and more practical
approach to existentialism.
John Huston got Sartre to script his film Freud: The Secret Passion.[125] However it was too long and
Sartre withdrew his name from the film's credits.[126] Nevertheless, many key elements from Sartre's
script survive in the finished film.[127]
Despite their similarities as polemicists, novelists, adapters, and playwrights, Sartre's literary work
has been counterposed, often pejoratively, to that of Camus in the popular imagination. In 1948 the
Roman Catholic Church placed Sartre's œuvre on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of
Prohibited Books).
Criticism
Some philosophers argue that Sartre's thought is contradictory. Specifically, they believe that Sartre
makes metaphysical arguments despite his claim that his philosophical views ignore metaphysics.
Herbert Marcuse criticized Being and Nothingness for projecting anxiety and meaninglessness onto
the nature of existence itself: "Insofar as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an

idealistic doctrine: it hypostatizes specific historical conditions of human existence into ontological
and metaphysical characteristics. Existentialism thus becomes part of the very ideology which it
attacks, and its radicalism is illusory."[128] In Letter on Humanism, Heidegger criticized Sartre's
existentialism:
Existentialism says existence precedes essence. In this statement he is taking existentia

and essentia according to their metaphysical meaning, which, from Plato's time on, has
said that essentia precedes existentia. Sartre reverses this statement. But the reversal of a
metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement. With it, he stays with
metaphysics, in oblivion of the truth of Being.[129]
The philosophers Richard Wollheim and Thomas Baldwin have argued that Sartre's attempt to show
that Sigmund Freud's theory of the unconscious is mistaken was based on a misinterpretation of
Freud.[130][131] Richard Webster considers Sartre one of many modern thinkers who have
reconstructed Christian orthodoxies in secular form.[132]
Brian C. Anderson denounced Sartre as an apologist for tyranny and terror and a supporter of
Stalinism, Maoism, and Castro's rule over Cuba.[133] The historian Paul Johnson asserted that
Sartre's ideas had inspired the Khmer Rouge leadership: "The events in Cambodia in the 1970s, in
which between one-fifth and one-third of the nation was starved to death or murdered, were entirely
the work of a group of intellectuals, who were for the most part pupils and admirers of Jean-Paul
Sartre – 'Sartre's Children' as I call them."[134] Sartre's philosophy, and his actions in the world, were
opposed by a group of French literati dubbed the Hussards.
Sartre, who stated in his preface to Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth that, "To shoot down a
European is to kill two birds with one stone, to destroy an oppressor and the man he oppresses at the
same time: there remains a dead man and a free man", has been criticized by Anderson and Michael
Walzer for supporting the killing of European civilians by the FLN during the Algerian War. Walzer
suggests that Sartre, a European, was a hypocrite for not volunteering to be killed.[133][135]
Sartre's preface is omitted from all editions of The Wretched of the Earth printed from 1967 onward.
The reason for this is for his public support for Israel in the Six-Day War. Fanon's widow, Josie
considered Sartre's pro-Israel stance as inconsistent with the anti-colonialist position of the book so
she omitted the preface.[136] When interviewed at Howard University in 1978, she explained "when
Israel declared war on the Arab countries, there was a great pro-Zionist movement in favor of Israel
among western (French) intellectuals. Sartre took part in this movement. He signed petitions
favoring Israel. I felt that his pro-Zionist attitudes were incompatible with Fanon's work".[136]
The critic, poet, essayist and philosopher Clive James excoriated Sartre in his book of mini
biographies Cultural Amnesia (2007). James attacks Sartre's philosophy as being "all a pose".[137]
Works
Plays, screenplays, novels, Philosophic essays Critical essays
and short stories
The Transcendence of the Anti-Semite and Jew /
Nausea / La nausée (1938) Ego / La transcendance de Réflexions sur la question
The Wall / Le mur (1939) l'égo (1936) juive (wr. 1944, pub. 1946)
Bariona / Bariona, ou le fils Imagination: A Psychological Baudelaire (1946)
du tonnerre (1940) Critique / L'imagination Situations I: Literary Critiques
(1936) / Critiques littéraires
The Flies / Les mouches Sketch for a Theory of the (1947)[138]

(1943) Emotions / Esquisse d'une Situations II: What Is
No Exit / Huis clos (1944) théorie des émotions (1939) Literature? / Qu'est-ce que la
Typhus, wr. '44, pub. '07; The Imaginary / L'imaginaire littérature ? (1947)
adapted as The Proud and (1940) "Black Orpheus" / "Orphée
the Beautiful Being and Nothingness / noir" (1948)
The Age of Reason / L'âge L'être et le néant (1943) Situations III (1949)
de raison (1945) Existentialism Is a Humanism Saint Genet, Actor and
The Reprieve / Le sursis / L'existentialisme est un Martyr / S.G., comédien et
(1945) humanisme (1946) martyr (1952)[139]
The Respectful Prostitute / La Existentialism and Human The Henri Martin Affair /
putain respectueuse (1946) Emotions / Existentialisme et L'affaire Henri Martin (1953)
The Victors (Men Without émotions humaines (1957)
Situations IV: Portraits (1964)
Shadows) / Morts sans Search for a Method /
Question de méthode (1957) Situations V: Colonialism and
sépulture (1946) Neocolonialism (1964)
The Chips Are Down / Les Critique of Dialectical Reason
Situations VI: Problems of
jeux sont faits (screenplay, / Critique de la raison
dialectique (1960, 1985) Marxism, Part 1 (1966)
dir. Jean Delannoy; 1947)
Notebooks for an Ethics / Situations VII: Problems of
In the Mesh / L'engrénage Marxism, Part 2 (1967)
(1948) Cahiers pour une morale
(1983) The Family Idiot / L'idiot de la
Dirty Hands / Les mains famille (1971–72)
sales (1948) Truth and Existence / Vérité
et existence (1989) Situations VIII: Autour de
Troubled Sleep (London ed. 1968 (1972)
(Hamilton) has title: Iron in
the soul) / La mort dans l'âme Situations IX: Mélanges
(1949) (1972)
Situations X: Life/Situations:
Intimacy (1949)
Essays Written and Spoken /
The Devil and the Good Lord Politique et Autobiographie
/ Le diable et le bon dieu (1976)
(1951)
Kean (1953)
Nekrassov (1955)
The Crucible (screenplay,
1957; dir. Raymond Rouleau)
The Condemned of Altona /
Les séquestrés d'Altona
(1959)
Hurricane over Cuba / written
and printed in 1961 in Brazil,
along with Rubem Braga and
Fernando Sabino (1961)
Freud: The Secret Passion
(screenplay, 1962; dir. John
Huston)
The Trojan Women / Les
Troyennes (1965)
The Freud Scenario / Le
scénario Freud (1984)
Autobiographical
Sartre By Himself / Sartre par lui-mème (1959)

The Words / Les Mots (1964)[139]
Witness to My Life & Quiet Moments in a War / Lettres au Castor et à quelques autres (1983)
War Diaries: Notebooks from a Phony War / Les carnets de la drole de guerre (1984)
See also
Sartre's Roads to Freedom Trilogy
Situation (Sartre)
Place Jean-Paul-Sartre-et-Simone-de-Beauvoir
1964 Nobel Prize in Literature
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dreamed: a contact between intellectual circles and broadly based mass movements, an activism
shared by intellectuals and workers, revolution as an explosion of spontaneity. Reading Sartre's
reply to Camus after fourteen years, we are struck by the mixture of dishonesty and bubbling
verve with which Sartre indulges in misquotation in order to ridicule his opponents with the quick
wit of the experience playwright."
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Sources
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de Beauvoir, Simone (1984). Adieux: A Farewell to Sartre (https://archive.org/details/adieuxfarew
ellto00beaurich). Translated by Patrick O'Brian. New York: Pantheon Books.
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Northwestern University Press.
Gerassi, John (1989). Jean-Paul Sartre: Hated Conscience of His Century. Volume 1: Protestant
or Protester? (https://archive.org/details/jeanpaulsartreha00gera). Chicago: University of Chicago
Press. ISBN 978-0-226-28797-3.
Hayman, Ronald (1992). Sartre: A Biography. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 978-0-
881-84875-5. (Detailed chronology of Sartre's life on pages 485–510.)
Kirsner, Douglas (2003). The Schizoid World of Jean-Paul Sartre and R.D. Laing. New York:
Karnac.
Malinge, Yoann (2013). "Does our past have a motivational effect? Our reasons for acting:
Sartre's philosophy of action" (https://www.academia.edu/8181406). 4 (2). Ethics in Progress.
pp. 46–53.
Malinge, Yoann (2016). "Sartre, " The Transcendance of the Ego " " (https://www.academia.edu/3
Malinge, Yoann (2021). "Sartre, "Existentialism is a humanism" " (https://www.academia.edu/4886
Ousby, Ian (2000). Occupation: The Ordeal of France, 1940–1944. New York: Cooper Square
Press.
Scriven, Michael (1993). Sartre and the Media. London: MacMillan Press Ltd.
Scriven, Michael (1999). Jean-Paul Sartre: Politics and Culture in Postwar France. London:
MacMillan Press Ltd.
Thody, Philip (1964). Jean-Paul Sartre. London: Hamish Hamilton.
Further reading
Allen, James Sloan, "Condemned to Be Free", Worldly Wisdom: Great Books and the Meanings
of Life, Savannah: Frederic C. Beil, 2008. ISBN 978-1-929490-35-6.
Joseph S. Catalano, A Commentary on Jean-Paul Sartre's Critique of Dialectical Reason,
University of Chicago Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-226-09701-5.
L.S. Cattarini, Beyond Sartre and Sterility: Surviving Existentialism (Montreal, 2018: contact
argobookshop.ca) ISBN 978-0-9739986-1-0
Steven Churchill and Jack Reynolds (eds.), Jean-Paul Sartre: Key Concepts, London/New York:
Routledge, 2014.
Wilfrid Desan, The Tragic Finale: An Essay on the philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre (1954).
Robert Doran, "Sartre's Critique of Dialectical Reason and the Debate with Lévi-Strauss", Yale
French Studies 123 (2013): 41–62.
Thomas Flynn, Sartre and Marxist Existentialism: The Test Case of Collective Responsibility,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
Judaken, Jonathan (2006) Jean-Paul Sartre and the Jewish Question: Anti-antisemitism and the
Politics of the French Intellectual. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
R. D. Laing and D. G. Cooper, Reason and Violence: A Decade of Sartre's Philosophy, 1950–
1960, New York: Pantheon, 1971.
Suzanne Lilar, A propos de Sartre et de l'amour, Paris: Grasset, 1967.
Axel Madsen, Hearts and Minds: The Common Journey of Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul
Sartre, William Morrow & Co, 1977.
Élisabeth Roudinesco, Philosophy in Turbulent Times: Canguilhem, Sartre, Foucault, Althusser,
Deleuze, Derrida, Columbia University Press, New York, 2008.
Edward Said, 2000: My Encounter with Sartre (https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v22/n11/edward-s
aid/diary), London Review of Books
Jean-Paul Sartre and Benny Levy, Hope Now: The 1980 Interviews, translated by Adrian van den
Hoven, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
P.V. Spade, Class Lecture Notes on Jean-Paul Sartre's Being and Nothingness (http://pvspade.co
m/Sartre/pdf/sartre1.pdf). 1996.
Gianluca Vagnarelli, La democrazia tumultuaria. Sulla filosofia politica di Jean-Paul Sartre,
Macerata, EUM, 2010.
Jonathan Webber, The Existentialism of Jean-Paul Sartre, London: Routledge, 2009.
H. Wittmann, Sartre und die Kunst. Die Porträtstudien von Tintoretto bis Flaubert, Tübingen:
Gunter Narr Verlag, 1996.
H. Wittmann, L'esthétique de Sartre. Artistes et intellectuels, translated from German by N.
Weitemeier and J. Yacar, Éditions L'Harmattan (Collection L'ouverture philosophique), Paris
2001.
H. Wittmann, Sartre and Camus in Aesthetics. The Challenge of Freedom, edited by Dirk
Hoeges. Dialoghi/Dialogues. Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs, vol. 13, Frankfurt/M:
Peter Lang 2009. ISBN 978-3-631-58693-8.
External links
Jean-Paul Sartre (https://curlie.org/Society/Philosophy/Philosophers/S/Sartre%2C_Jean-Paul/) at
Curlie
Jean-Paul Sartre (https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/637) on Nobelprize.org
By Sartre
Works by or about Jean-Paul Sartre (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3
A%22Sartre%2C%20Jean-Paul%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Jean-Paul%20Sartre%22%20O
R%20creator%3A%22Sartre%2C%20Jean-Paul%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Jean-Paul%20
Sartre%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Sartre%2C%20J%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Jean-
Paul%20Sartre%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Sartre%2C%20Jean-Paul%22%20OR%20de
scription%3A%22Jean-Paul%20Sartre%22%29%20OR%20%28%221905-1980%22%20AND%2
0Sartre%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
"Americans and Their Myths" (http://www.thenation.com/article/americans-and-their-myths)—
Sartre's essay in The Nation (18 October 1947 issue)
Sartre Texts (https://web.archive.org/web/20110408111752/http://www.philosophyarchive.com/ind
ex.php?title=Sartre) on Philosophy Archive
Sartre Internet Archive (https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/index.htm) on
Marxists.org (https://www.marxists.org/)
Works by Jean-Paul Sartre (https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL117592A) at Open Library
George H. Bauer Jean Paul Sartre Manuscript Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare
Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
On Sartre
UK Sartre Society (https://web.archive.org/web/20150730033039/http://www.sartreuk.org/)
Alfredo Gomez-Muller: Sartre, de la nausée à l'engagement. Paris, éditions du Félin, 2014.
Groupe d'études sartriennes (http://www.ges-sartre.fr/), Paris
Sartre's Critique of Dialectical Reason (https://web.archive.org/web/20140213031344/http://hom
e.mira.net/%7Eandy/works/sartre.htm) essay by Andy Blunden
"Jean Paul Sartre: Existentialism" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/sartre-ex.htm), Internet Encyclopedia
of Philosophy
"Sartre's Political Philosophy" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/sartre-p.htm), Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
"Jean-Paul Sartre" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sartre/)—Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
Sartre.org (https://web.archive.org/web/20050304090811/http://www.sartre.org/)—Articles,
archives, and forum
Critique and Engagement: Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–2015), Labyrinth 1/2015 (http://www.axiapubli
shers.com/ojs/index.php/labyrinth/issue/view/2), edited by Yvanka B. Raynova
History and Choice: Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–2015), Labyrinth 2/2015 (http://www.axiapublishers.c
om/ojs/index.php/labyrinth/issue/view/3), edited by Yvanka B. Raynova
"The Second Coming of Sartre" (https://web.archive.org/web/20050901150544/http://enjoyment.in
dependent.co.uk/books/features/article226073.ece), John Lichfield, The Independent, 17 June
2005
"The World According to Sartre" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061114015013/http://www.newcrit
erion.com/archive/extras/sartre.htm)—essay by Roger Kimball
Reclaiming Sartre (http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj102/pitt.htm) A review of Ian Birchall,
Sartre Against Stalinism
"Sartre's Existential Marxism and the Quest for Humanistic Authenticity" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20120417081727/http://www.hrfd.hr/u/dokumenti/19%20Jakopovich.pdf)—essay by Daniel
Jakopovich in the journal Synthesis Philosophica
Biography and quotes of Sartre (http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Sartre_e.htm)
Living with Mother. Sartre and the problem of maternity (http://www.sens-public.org/article.php3?i
d_article=300), Benedict O'Donohoe, International WebjournalSens Public.
"L'image de la femme dans le théâtre de Jean-Paul Sartre – Jean-Paul Sartre: sexiste?" by
Stephanie Rupert (https://archive.today/20121209175828/http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/student-
theses/2006-0912-200835/MA%20Eindwerkstuk%202006%20Eindversie.doc)
Pierre Michel, Jean-Paul Sartre et Octave Mirbeau (https://www.scribd.com/doc/2358674/Pierre-
Michel-JeanPaul-Sartre-et-Octave-Mirbeau).
"Sartre" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20041007.shtml)—In Our Time
on Radio 4 (RealAudio)
Sartre: philosophy, literature, politics (articles) (http://www.sens-public.org/spip.php?article544),
Sens Public (international Web journal)
Buddhists, Existentialists and Situationists: Waking up in Waking Life (http://publish.uwo.ca/~dma
nn/waking_essay.htm)
Louis Menand (26 September 2005). "Stand By Your Man: The strange liaison of Sartre and
Beauvoir (Book review of the republished The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir)" (http://www.
newyorker.com/archive/2005/09/26/050926crbo_books?currentPage=all). The New Yorker.
Retrieved 9 June 2012.
Newspaper clippings about Jean-Paul Sartre (http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/015376) in
the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
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26/06/2021 Jean-Paul Sartre - Wikipedia

"authentic" way of "being" became the dominant theme of 21 June 1905

Sartre's early work, a theme embodied in his principal Paris, France

1943).[8] Sartre's introduction to his philosophy is his work

Biography Region Western philosophy

Further reading Notable Bad faith, "existence

In 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who

From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycées of Le Havre

resistance. He then wrote Being and Nothingness, The Flies, and

Cold War politics and anticolonialism

The first period of Sartre's career, defined in large part by Being

the world ran parallel".[78] However he stood against the persecution

During a collective hunger strike in 1974, Sartre visited Red Army

Towards the end of his life, Sartre began to describe himself as a

Late life and death

Sketch of Sartre for the New In 1964 Sartre renounced

Though his name was then a household word (as was

In 1975, when asked how he would like to be remembered, Sartre

I would like [people] to remember Nausea, [my plays]

second one, Critique of Dialectical Reason. Then my

Sartre's physical condition deteriorated, partially because of the

Sartre died on 15 April 1980 in Paris from edema of the lung. He

Thought Sartre's and de Beauvoir's grave in

Career as public intellectual

intellectual: "Now teaching at a lycée in Laon ... Sartre made his

Sartre portrayed his own pre-war situation in the character Mathieu,

the nature of existence itself: "Insofar as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an

Existentialism says existence precedes essence. In this statement he is taking existentia

The Flies / Les mouches Sketch for a Theory of the (1947)[138]

Sartre By Himself / Sartre par lui-mème (1959)

17. Memoirs: fifty years of political reflection, By Raymond Aron (1990)

49. Ousby 2000, p. 173.

76. Khwaja Masud (9 October 2006). "Remembering Che Guevara" (https://web.archive.org/web/201

97. Existentialism and Humanism, p.29

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