Module 1: Optical Fiber communications

Introduction
 Communication - the transfer of information from one point to another
 For Information transfer over any distance a communication system is required
 Information transfer is frequently achieved by superimposing or modulating the information
onto an electromagnetic wave which acts as a carrier for the information signal
 This modulated carrier is then transmitted to the required destination where it is received, and
the original information signal is obtained by demodulation

1.1 Historical development

 Greater the carrier frequency, larger the available transmission bandwidth
 Higher transmission bandwidth - higher the information carrying capacity of the communication
system, improved system performance
 For this reason, radio communication was developed to higher frequencies
 Communication at optical frequencies offers an increase in the potential usable bandwidth by a
factor of around 104
 Optical Fibers are replacement for the coaxial cables
 Initially the optical Fibers exhibited very high attenuation and were therefore not comparable
with the coaxial cables
 There were also serious problems involved with joining the Fiber cables in a satisfactory manner
to achieve low loss
 The relative frequencies and wavelengths of these types of electromagnetic wave can be
observed from the electromagnetic spectrum shown in fig 1.1
First generation
 The first generation of light wave systems uses GaAs semiconductor laser and operating region
was near 0.8 μm Other specifications of this generation are as under:
i) Bit rate: 45 Mb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: 10 km
Second generation
i) Bit rate: 100 Mb/s to 1.7 Gb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: 50 km
iii) Operation wavelength: 1.3 μm
iv) Semiconductor: In GaAsP
Third generation
i) Bit rate: 10 Gb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: 100 km
iii) Operating wavelength: 1.55 μm
Fourth generation
Fourth generation uses WDM technique
i) Bit rate: 10 Tb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: > 10,000 km
iii) Operating wavelength: 1.45 to 1.62 μm
Fifth generation
  Fifth generation uses Raman amplification technique and optical isolators
i) Bit rate: 40 - 160 Gb/s
ii) Repeater spacing: 24000 km - 35000 km
iii) Operating wavelength: 1.53 to 1.57 μm

1.2 The general system

 A block schematic of a general communication system is shown in fig 1.2(a), the function of
which is to convey the signal from the information source over the transmission medium to the
destination
 The communication system consists of - a transmitter or modulator linked to the information
source, the transmission medium, and a receiver or demodulator at the destination point
 In electrical communications the information source provides an electrical signal, usually derived
from a message signal which is not electrical (eg. Sound), to a transmitter comprising electrical
and electronic components which converts the signal into a suitable form for propagation over
the transmission medium
 This is often achieved by modulating a carrier which, as mentioned previously, may be an
electromagnetic wave
 The transmission medium can consist of a pair of wires, a coaxial cable or a radio link through
free space down which the signal is transmitted to the receiver, where it is transformed into the
original electrical information signal (demodulated) before being passed to the destination
 However, it must be noted that in any transmission medium the signal is attenuated, or suffers
loss, and is subject to degradations due to contamination by random signals and noise as well
 Therefore, in any communication system there is a maximum permitted distance between the
transmitter and the receiver beyond which the system effectively ceases to give intelligible
communication
 For long haul applications, the installation of repeaters or line amplifiers at intervals, both to
remove signal distortion and to increase signal level before transmission is continued down the
link
Optical communication system

 For optical Fiber communications the system shown in fig 1.2(a) may be considered in slightly
greater detail, as in fig 1.2(b)
 In this case the information source provides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an
electrical stage which derives an optical source to give modulation of the light wave carrier
 The optical source which provides the electrical-optical conversion may be either a
semiconductor laser or light emitting diode (LED)
 The transmission medium consists of an optical Fiber cable and the receiver consists of an
optical detector which drives a further electrical stage and hence provides demodulation of the
optical carrier
 Photodiodes (p-n, p-i-n or avalanche) and, in some instances, phototransistors are utilized for
the detection of the optical signal or the optical-electrical conversion
 Thus, there is a requirement for electrical interfacing at either end of the optical link and at
present the signal processing is usually performed electrically
 The optical carrier may be modulated using either an analog or digital information signal
 In the system shown in fig 1.2(b) analog modulation involves the variation of the light emitted
from the optical source in a continuous manner
 With digital modulation, however, discrete changes in the light intensity are obtained (i.e. on-off
pulses)
 Although often simpler to implement, analog modulation with an optical Fiber communication
system is less efficient, requiring a far higher signal to noise ratio at the receiver than digital
modulation
 For these reasons, analog optical Fiber communication links are generally limited to shorter
distances and lower bandwidths than digital links
1.3 Typical digital optical Fiber link

 Figure 1.3 shows a block schematic of a typical digital optical Fiber link
 Initially the input digital signal from the information source is suitably encoded for optical
transmission
 The laser drive circuit directly modulates the intensity of the semiconductor laser with the
encoded digital signal
 Hence a digital optical signal is launched into the optical Fiber cable
 The avalanche photodiode (APD) detector is followed by a front-end amplifier and equalizer or
filter to provide gain as well as linear signal processing and noise bandwidth reduction
 Finally, the signal obtained is decoded to give the original digital information

1.4 Advantages of optical Fiber communication

Optical Fiber communications have several advantages over conventional electrical
communications. They include
1. Enormous potential bandwidth: The optical carrier frequency in the range 1013 to 1016 Hz yields a far
greater potential transmission bandwidth than metallic cable systems (i.e, coaxial cable)
 Therefore, the information-carrying capacity of optical Fiber systems is providing superior to the
best copper cable systems
2. Small size and weight: Optical Fibers have very small diameters which are often no greater than the
diameter of a human hair
 Hence, even when such Fibers are covered with protective coatings, they are far smaller and
much lighter than corresponding copper cables
3. Electrical isolation: Optical Fibers which are fabricated from glass or sometimes a plastic polymer are
electrical insulators and therefore they do not exhibit earth loop and interface problems
  This property makes optical Fiber transmission ideally suited for communication in electrically
hazardous environments
4. Immunity to interference and crosstalk: Optical Fibers form a dielectric waveguide and are therefore
free from electromagnetic interference (EMI), radiofrequency interference (RFI), or switching transients
giving electromagnetic pulses (EMP)
 Hence the operation of an optical Fiber communication system is unaffected by transmission
through an electrically noisy environment and the Fiber cable requires no shielding from EMI
 Even when many Fibers are cabled together, crosstalk is negligible
5. Signal security: The light from optical Fibers does not radiate significantly and therefore they provide
a high degree of signal security
 Any attempt to acquire a message signal transmitted optically may be detected
 This feature is obviously attractive for military, banking and general transmission applications
6. Low transmission loss: The development of optical Fibers over the last 15 years resulted in the
production of optical Fiber cables which exhibit very low attenuation or transmission loss in comparison
with the best copper conductors
 Fibers have been fabricated with losses as low as 0.2dB km-1 and this feature has become a
major advantage of optical Fiber communications
 It will be useful for long distance transmission reducing both system cost and complexity
7. Ruggedness and flexibility: Although protective coatings are essential, optical Fibers may be
manufactured with very high tensile strengths
 Furthermore, cable structures have been developed which have proved flexible, compact and
extremely rugged
 Taking the size and weight in terms of storage, transportation, handling and installation than
corresponding copper cables whilst exhibiting at least comparable strength and durability
8. System reliability and ease of maintenance: These features primarily stem from the low loss property
of optical Fiber cables which reduces the requirement for intermediate repeaters or line amplifiers to
boost the transmitted signal strength
 Hence with fewer repeaters, system reliability is generally enhanced in comparison with
conventional electrical conductor systems
 Furthermore, the reliability of the optical components is no longer a problem with predicted
lifetimes of 20-30 years
 Both these factors also tend to reduce maintenance time and costs
9. Potential low cost: The glass which is generally provides the optical Fiber transmission medium is
made from sand - not a scarce resource
 So, in comparison with copper conductors, optical Fibers offer the potential for low cost line
communication
 There are other possible advantages in relation to shipping, handling, installation and
maintenance

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Communications

1. High initial cost
 The initial cost of installation or setting up cost is very high compared to all other system
2. Maintenance and repairing cost
 The maintenance and repairing of Fiber optic systems are not only difficult but expensive also
3. Joining and test procedures
 Since optical Fibers are of very small size, the Fiber joining process is very costly and requires
skilled manpower
4. Tensile stress
 Optical Fibers are more susceptible to buckling, bending and tensile stress than copper cables
5. Short links
 Even though optical Fiber cables are inexpensive, it is still not cost effective to replace every
small conventional connector (e.g. between computers and peripherals), as the price of
optoelectronic transducers are very high
6. Fiber losses
 The amount of optical Fiber available to the photo detector at the end of Fiber length depends
on various Fiber losses such as scattering, dispersion, attenuation and reflection

Applications of Optical Fiber Communications

1. Telephone networks
 Optical waveguide has low attenuation, high transmission bandwidth compared to copper lines,
therefore numbers of long haul co-axial trunks; links between telephone exchanges are being
replaced by optical Fiber links
2. Urban broadband service networks
  Optical waveguide provides much larger bandwidth than co-axial cable, also the number of
repeaters required is reduced considerably
 Modern suburban communications involve videotext, videoconferencing video telephony,
switched broadband communication network

1.5 Optical Fiber waveguides

 It’s a transparent dielectric rod, typically of silica glass with a refractive index of around 1.5,
surrounded by air
 structure is illustrated in fig 1.5 which shows a transparent core with a refractive index n1
surrounded by a transparent cladding of slightly lower refractive index n2
 The cladding supports the waveguide structure whilst also, when sufficiently thick, substantially
reducing the radiation loss into the surrounding air

Figure 1.5 Optical fiber waveguide showing the core of refractive index n1, surrounded by the
cladding of slightly lower refractive index n2

1.6 Ray theory transmission

 Speed of light depends upon the material or medium through which it is propagating
 In free space light travels at its maximum possible speed
i.e. 3 x 108 m/s or 186 x 103 miles/sec
 When light travels through a material it exhibits certain behaviour
Reflection
 The law of reflection states that, when a light ray is incident upon a reflective surface at some
incident angle Φ1 from imaginary perpendicular normal, the ray will be reflected from the
surface at some angle Φ2 from normal which is equal to the angle of incidence
Fig. 1.6 (a) shows law of reflection
 Figure 1.6 (a) Reflection
Refraction
 Refraction occurs when light ray passes from one medium to another i.e. the light ray changes
its direction at interface
 Refraction occurs whenever density of medium changes
E.g. refraction occurs at air and water interface, the straw in a glass of water will appear as it is bent
The refraction can also observe at air and glass interface
 When wave passes through less dense medium to denser medium, the wave is refracted (bent)
towards the normal
 The refraction (bending) takes place because light travels at different speed in different
mediums
 The speed of light in free space is higher than in water or glass
 Fig. 1.6 (b) shows the refraction phenomena

Figure 1.6 (b) Refraction

Refractive Index
 The amount of refraction or bending that occurs at the interface of two materials of different
densities is usually expressed as refractive index of two materials
 Refractive index is also known as index of refraction and is denoted by n
 The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to
the velocity of light in the medium
  Hence

The refractive index for vacuum and air is 1.0

For water it is 1.3 and
For glass refractive index is 1.5
Snell’s Law
 Snell’s law states how light ray reacts when it meets the interface of two media having different
indexes of refraction
 Let the two medias have refractive indexes n1 and n2 where n1 >n2
 Φ1 and Φ2 be the angles of incidence and angle of refraction respectively
 Then according to Snell’s law, a relationship exists between the refractive index of both
materials given by,

 A refractive index model for Snell’s law is shown in Fig. 1.6 (c)

Figure 1.6 (c) Refractive model for Snell’s law

• The refracted wave will be towards the normal when n1 < n2 and will away from it when n1 > n2
• Equation can be written as,

• This equation shows that the ratio of refractive index of two mediums is inversely proportional to
the refractive and incident angles
• As refractive index n1 = c/v1 and n2 = c/v2 substituting these values in equation
 and

Critical Angle
• When the angle of incidence (Φ1) is progressively increased, there will be progressive increase
of refractive angle (Φ2)
• At some condition (Φ1) the refractive angle (Φ2) becomes 90o to the normal
• When this happens the refracted light ray travels along the interface
• The angle of incidence (Φ1) at the point at which the refractive angle (Φ1) becomes 90o is called
the critical angle
• It is denoted by Φc
• The critical angle is defined as the minimum angle of incidence (Φ1) at which the ray strikes
the interface of two media and causes an angle of refraction (Φ2) equal to 90o
• Fig 1.6 (d) shows critical angle refraction

Figure 1.6 (d) Critical angle

 Hence at critical angle Φ1 = Φc and Φ2 = 90o
 Using Snell’s law: n1 sinΦ1 = n2 sinΦ2

Therefore

Therefore

Critical angle,
1.7 Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
 When the incident angle is increased beyond the critical angle, the light ray does not pass
through the interface into the other medium
 This gives the effect of mirror exist at the interface with no possibility of light escaping outside
the medium
 In this condition angle of reflection (Φ2) is equal to angle of incidence (Φ1). This action is called
as Total Internal Reflection (TIR) of the beam
 It is TIR that leads to the propagation of waves within Fiber- cable medium, TIR can be
observed only in materials in which the velocity of light is less than in air

Figure 1.7 Light rays incident on a high to low refractive index interface (e.g. glass-air): (a)
refraction; (b) the limiting case of refraction showing the critical ray at an angle φc; (c) total
internal reflection where φ>φc
 Figure 1.7.1 The transmission of a light ray in a perfect optical fiber
 The light ray shown in fig 1.7.1 is known as a meridional ray as it passes through the axis of the
Fiber core
 This type of ray is the simplest to describe and is generally used when illustrating the
fundamental transmission properties of optical Fibers
 It must also be noted that the light transmission illustrated in fig 1.7.1 assumes a perfect Fiber,
and that any discontinuities or imperfections at the core-cladding interface would probably
result in refraction rather than total internal reflection with the subsequent loss of the light ray
into the cladding
The two conditions necessary for TIR to occur are:
1. The refractive index of first medium must be greater than the refractive index of second one
2. The angle of incidence must be greater than (or equal to) the critical angle

1.8 Optical Fiber as Waveguide

 An optical Fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide capable of conveying electromagnetic waves
at optical frequencies
 The electromagnetic energy is in the form of the light and propagates along the axis of the Fiber
 The structural of the Fiber determines the transmission characteristics
 The propagation of light along the waveguide is decided by the modes of the waveguides, here
mode means path
 Each mode has distinct pattern of electric and magnetic field distributions along the Fiber length
 When there is only one path for light to follow then it is called as single mode propagation
 When there is more than one path then it is called as multimode propagation
Single Fiber structure
 A single Fiber structure is shown in Fig. 1.8
 It consists of a solid dielectric cylinder with radius ‘a’
 This cylinder is called as core of Fiber
 The core is surrounded by dielectric, called cladding
 The index of refraction of core (glass Fiber) is slightly greater than the index of refraction of
cladding
 If refractive index of core (glass Fiber) = n1 and refractive index of cladding = n2, then n1 > n2
 Figure 1.8 Single optical fiber structure
Propagation in Optical Fiber
 To understand the general nature of light wave propagation in optical Fiber, first consider the
construction of optical Fiber
 The innermost is the glass core of very thin diameter with a slight lower refractive index n2
 The light wave can propagate along such an optical Fiber, A single mode propagation is
illustrated in Fig. 1.8.1 along with standard size of Fiber

Figure 1.8.1 Single mode propagation and standard size of fiber

 Single mode Fibers can carry only one signal of a specific wavelength
 In multimode propagation the light propagates along the Fiber in zigzag fashion, provided it can
undergo total internal reflection (TIR) at the core cladding boundaries
 Total internal reflection at the Fiber wall can occur only if two conditions are satisfied
Condition 1:
 The index of refraction of glass Fiber must be slightly greater than the index of refraction of
material surrounding the Fiber (cladding)
 If refractive index of glass Fiber = n1 and refractive index of cladding = n2, then n1 > n2
Condition 2:
 The angle of incidence (Φ1) of light ray must be greater than critical angle (Φc)
 A light beam is focused at one end of cable, the light enters the Fibers at different angles
 Fig. 1.8.2 shows the conditions exist at the launching end of optic Fiber
 The light source is surrounded by air and the refractive index of air is n0 = 1
 Let the incident ray makes an angle Φ0 with Fiber axis
  The ray enters glass Fiber at point P making refracted angle Φ1 to the Fiber axis, the ray is then
propagated diagonally down the core and reflect from the core wall at point Q
 When the light ray reflects off the inner surface, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection, which is greater than critical angle
 For a ray of light to propagate down the cable, it must strike the core cladding interface at an
angle that is greater than critical angle (Φc)

Figure 1.8.2 Ray propagation by TIR

1.9 Acceptance Angle

 Applying Snell’s law to external incidence angle
n0 sinΦ0 = n1 sinΦ1
But Φ1 = (90 - Φc)
sinΦ1 = sin (90 - Φc) = cosΦc
Substituting sinΦ1 in above equation
n0 sinΦ0 = n1 cosΦc

 Applying Pythagorean theorem to ΔPQR

 Figure 1.9

• The maximum value of external incidence angle for which light will propagate in the Fiber

• When the light rays enter the Fiber from an air medium n0 = 1, Then above equation reduces to,

 The angle Φ0 is called as acceptance angle Φ0(max) and defines the maximum angle in which
the light ray may incident on Fiber to propagate down the Fiber

1.10 Acceptance Cone

 Rotating the acceptance angle Φ0(max) around the Fiber axis, a cone shaped pattern is
obtained, it is called as acceptance cone of the Fiber input
 Fig 1.10 shows formation of acceptance cone of a Fiber cable

Figure 1.10 Acceptance cone of a fiber cable

 The Cone of acceptance is the angle within which the light is accepted into the core and can
travel along the Fiber
 The launching of light wave becomes easier for large acceptance cone
 The angle is measured from the axis of the positive cone, so the total angle of convergence is
twice the stated value

Figure 1.10.1 The acceptance angle θa when launching light into an optical fiber

1.11 Numerical Aperture (NA)

 It is the width of the Fiber core which allows maximum amount of light to propagate through it
 The numerical aperture (NA) of a Fiber is a figure of merit which represents its light gathering
capability
 Larger the numerical aperture, the greater the amount of light accepted by Fiber
 The acceptance angle also determines how much light can be enter the Fiber and hence there is
relation between the numerical aperture and the cone of acceptance
 Figure 1.11 shows a light ray incident on the Fiber core at an angle θ1 to the Fiber axis which is
less than the acceptance angle for the Fiber θa
 The ray enters the Fiber from a medium(air) of refractive index n0, and the Fiber core has a
refractive index n1, which is slightly greater than the cladding refractive index n2
 Assuming the entrance face at the Fiber core to be normal to the axis, then considering the
refraction at the air-core interface and using Snell’s law given by equation (1.1):
n0 sin θ1 = n1 sin θ2 (1.1)
 Figure 1.11 The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical fiber in air at an input angle less
than the acceptance angle for the fiber
• Considering the right-angled triangle ABC indicated in fig 1.11, then:
Ф = (π/2) – θ2 (1.2)
 Where θ is greater than the critical angle at the core-cladding interface, hence eq (1.1) becomes
n0 sin θ1 = n1 cosФ (1.3)
 Using the trigonometrical relationship sin2Ф+cos2Ф = 1, eq (1.3) may be written in the form:
n0 sin θ1 = n1 (1 - sin2Ф)1/2 (1.4)
 When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered Ф becomes equal to the critical
angle Фc for the core-cladding interface and is given by eq sin Фc = n2 / n1
 Also, in this limiting case θ1 becomes the acceptance angle for the Fiber θa
 Combining these limiting cases into eq (1.4) gives:
n0 sin θa = (n12 – n22)1/2 (1.5)
 Equation (1.5), apart from relating the acceptance angle to the refractive indices, serves as the
basis for the definition of the important optical Fiber parameter, the numerical aperture (NA)
 Hence the NA is defined as:
NA = n0 sin θa = (n12 – n22)1/2 (1.6)
 Since the NA is often used with the Fiber in air where n0 is unity, it is simply equal to sin θa
 It may also be noted that incident meridional rays over the range 0 ≤ θ1≤ θa will be propagated
within the Fiber
Relation between NA and Δ
 The numerical aperture may also be given in terms of the refractive index difference Δ between
the core and the cladding which is defined as:
Δ = (n12 – n22)/2n12 ≈ (n1 – n2)/ n1 for Δ<<1 (1.7)
 Hence combining eq (2.6) with eq (2.7) we can write:
NA ≈ n1(2Δ)1/2 (1.8)
1.12 Types of Rays
 If the rays are launched within core of acceptance can be successfully propagated along the
Fiber
 But the exact path of the ray is determined by the position and angle of ray at which it strikes
the core
There exist three different types of rays
1. Skew rays
2. Meridional rays
3. Axial rays
 The skew rays do not pass through the centre, as shown in Fig. 1.12 (a)
 The skew rays reflect off from the core cladding boundaries and again bounces around the
outside of the core
 It takes somewhat similar shape of spiral of helical path
 The meridional ray enters the core and passes through its axis
 When the core surface is parallel, it will always be reflected to pass through the centre
 The meridional ray is shown in fig. 1.12 (b)
 The axial ray travels along the axis of the Fiber and stays at the axis all the time
 It is shown in fig. 1.12 (c)
 Figure 1.12 Different ray propagation

1.13 Modes in planar guide

 The planar guide is the simplest form of optical waveguide
 We may assume it consists of a slab of dielectric with refractive index n1 sandwiched between
two regions of lower refractive index n2
 In order to obtain an improved model for optical propagation it is useful to consider the
interference of plane wave components within this dielectric waveguide
 The conceptual transition from ray to wave theory may be aided by consideration of a plane
monochromatic wave propagating in the direction of the ray path within the guide (see Figure
1.13 (a))
 As the refractive index within the guide is n, the optical wavelength in this region is reduced to
λ/n1, while the vacuum propagation constant is increased to n1k
 When θ is the angle between the wave propagation vector or the equivalent ray and the guide
axis, the plane wave can be resolved into two component plane waves propagating in the z and
x directions, as shown in Figure 1.13 (b)
 The component of the phase propagation constant in the z direction βz is given by:

 The component of the phase propagation constant in the x direction βx is:

Figure 1.13 (a) The formation of a mode in a planar dielectric guide: (a) a plane wave propagating in
the guide shown by its wave vector or equivalent ray – the wave vector is resolved into components
in the z and x directions; (b) the interference of plane waves in the guide forming the lowest order
mode (m=0)

Figure 1.13 (b) Physical model showing the ray propagation and the corresponding transverse
electric (TE) field patterns of three lower models (m=1,2,3) in the planar dielectric guide
1.14 Phase and group velocity
• Within all electromagnetic waves, whether plane or otherwise, there are points of constant
phase
• For plane waves these constant phase points form a surface which is referred to as a wave front
• As a monochromatic light wave propagates along a waveguide in the z direction these points of
constant phase travel at a phase velocity 𝑉𝑝 given by:
𝜔
𝑉𝑝 =
𝛽
where ω is the angular frequency of the wave, 𝛽 is the propagation constant
• However, it is impossible in practice to produce perfectly monochromatic light waves, and light
energy is generally composed of a sum of plane wave components of different frequencies
• Often the situation exists where a group of waves with closely similar frequencies propagate so
that their resultant forms a packet of waves
• The formation of such a wave packet resulting from the combination of two waves of slightly
different frequency propagating together is illustrated in Figure 1.14

Figure 1.14 The formation of a wave packet from the combination of two waves with nearly
equal frequencies. The envelope of the wave package or group of waves travels at a group
velocity 𝑉𝑔
• This wave packet does not travel at the phase velocity of the individual waves but is observed to
move at a group velocity 𝑉𝑔 given by:
𝛿𝜔
𝑉𝑔 =
𝛿𝛽
 • The group velocity is of greatest importance in the study of the transmission characteristics of
optical fibers as it relates to the propagation characteristics of observable wave groups or
packets of light

1.15 Cylindrical Fiber

 In common with the planar guide, TE (where Ez=0) – electric field perpendicular to the direction
of propagation
 TM (where Hz=0) – electric field is in the direction of propagation, modes are obtained within
the dielectric cylinder
 The cylindrical waveguide, however, is bounded in two dimensions rather than one
 For the cylindrical waveguide we therefore refer to TElm and TMlm modes
 These modes correspond to meridional rays travelling within the Fiber
 However, hybrid modes where Ez and Hz are nonzero also occur within the cylindrical waveguide
 These modes which result from skew ray propagation within the Fiber are designated HElm and
EHlm depending upon whether the components of H or E make the larger contribution to the
transverse (to the Fiber axis) field
 Thus, an exact description of the modal fields in a step index Fiber proves somewhat
complicated
 Figure 1.15 The electric field configurations for the three lowest LP modes illustrated in terms of
their constituent exact modes: (a) LP mode designations; (b) exact mode designations; (c) electric
field distribution of the exact modes; (d) intensity distribution of Ex for the exact modes indicating
the electric field intensity profile for the corresponding LP modes

1.16 Fiber Profiles

 A Fiber is characterized by its profile and by its core and cladding diameters
 One way of classifying the Fiber cables is according to the index profile at Fiber
 The index profile is a graphical representation of value of refractive index across the core
diameter
 There are two basic types of index profiles
i) Step index Fiber ii) Graded index Fiber
 Fig. 1.16 shows the index profiles of Fibers
 Figure 1.16 Index profiles

1.17 Step Index (SI) Fiber

• The step index (SI) Fiber is a cylindrical waveguide core with central or inner core has a uniform
refractive index of n1 and the core is surrounded by outer cladding with uniform refractive index of
n2
• The cladding refractive index (n2) is less than the core refractive index (n1)
• But there is a step/abrupt change in the refractive index at the core cladding interface
• Refractive index profile of step indexed optical Fiber is shown in Fig.1.17 (a)
• The refractive index is plotted on horizontal axis and radial distance from the core is plotted on
vertical axis

Figure 1.17 (a) Step index fiber

Figure 1.17 (b) The refractive index profile and ray transmission in step index fibers: (a) multimode step
index fiber; (b) single-mode step index fiber
 The propagation of light wave within the core of step index Fiber takes the path of meridional
ray i.e. ray follows a zig-zag path of straight-line segments
 The core typically has diameter of 50-80 μm and the cladding has a diameter of 125 μm
 The refractive index profile is defined as –

1.18 Graded Index (GRIN) Fiber

 The graded index Fiber has a core made from many layers of glass
 In the graded index (GRIN) Fiber the refractive index is not uniform within the core
 It is highest at the center and decreases smoothly and continuously with distance towards the
cladding
 The refractive index profile across the core takes the parabolic nature
 Fig.1.18 (a) shows refractive index profile of graded index Fiber

Figure 1.18 (a) Graded index fiber

Figure 1.18 (b) The refractive index profile and ray transmission in a multimode graded index fiber
 Figure 1.18 (c) A helical skew ray path within a graded index fiber
 In graded index Fiber the light waves are bent by refraction towards the core axis and they
follow the curved path down the Fiber length
 This results because of change in refractive index as moved away from the center of the core
 A graded index Fiber has lower coupling efficiency and higher bandwidth than the step index
Fiber
 It is available in 50/125 and 62.5/125 sizes
 The 50/125 Fiber has been optimized for long haul applications and has a smaller NA and higher
bandwidth
 62.5/125 Fiber is optimized for LAN applications which is costing 25% more than the 50/125
Fiber cable
 The refractive index variation in the core is given by relationship

where,
r = Radial distance from Fiber axis
a = Core radius
n1 = Refractive index of core
n2 = Refractive index of cladding
α = Shape of index profile
 Profile parameter α determines the characteristic refractive index profile of Fiber core
 The range of refractive index as variation of α is shown in Fig. 1.18 (d)
 Figure 1.18 (d) Possible fiber refractive index profiles for different values of α

1.19 Fiber Configurations

 Depending on the refractive index profile of Fiber and modes of Fiber, there exist three types of
optical Fiber configurations
 These optic-Fiber configurations are -
i) Single mode step index Fiber
ii) Multimode step index Fiber
iii) Multimode graded index Fiber
Single mode Step index Fiber
 Single mode step index Fiber has a central core that is sufficiently small so that there is
essentially only one path for light ray through the cable
 The light ray is propagated in the Fiber through reflection
 Typical core sizes are 2 to 15 μm
 Single mode Fiber is also known as fundamental or monomode Fiber
 Fig. 1.19 (a) shows single mode Fiber

Figure 1.19 (a) The refractive index profile and ray transmission in single mode step index fiber
 Single mode Fiber will permit only one mode to propagate and does not suffer from mode delay
differences
  These are primarily developed for the 1300 nm window, but they can also be used effectively
with time division multiplex (TDM) and wavelength division multiplex (WDM) systems operating
in 1550 nm wavelength region
 The core Fiber of a single mode Fiber is very narrow compared to the wavelength of light being
used
 Therefore, only a single path exists through the cable core through which light can travel
 Usually, 20 percent of the light in a single mode cable travels down the cladding and the
effective diameter of the cable is a blend of single mode core and degree to which the cladding
carries light
 This is referred to as the ‘mode field diameter’, which is larger than physical diameter of the
core depending on the refractive indices of the core and cladding
 The disadvantage of this type of cable is that because of extremely small size, interconnection of
cables and interfacing with source is difficult
 Another disadvantage of single mode Fibers is that as the refractive index of glass decreases
with optical wavelength, the light velocity will also be wavelength dependent
 Thus, the light from an optical transmitter will have definite spectral width
Multimode step Index Fiber
 Multimode step index Fiber is more widely used type
 It is easy to manufacture
 Its core diameter is 50 to 100 μm i.e. large aperture and allows more light to enter the cable
 The light rays are propagated down the core in zig-zag manner
 There are many paths that a light ray may follow during the propagation
 The light ray is propagated using the principle of total internal reflection (TIR)
 Since the core index of refraction is higher than the cladding index of refraction, the light enters
at less than critical angle is guided along the Fiber

Figure 1.19 (b) TIR in multimode step index fiber

  Light rays passing through the Fiber are continuously reflected off the glass cladding towards the
centre of the core at different angles and lengths, limiting overall bandwidth
 The disadvantage of multimode step index Fibers is that the different optical lengths caused by
various angles at which light is propagated relative to the core, causes the transmission
bandwidth to be small
 Because of these limitations, multimode step index Fiber is typically only used in applications
requiring distances of less than 1 km
Multimode Graded Index Fiber
 The core size of multimode graded index Fiber cable is varying from 50 to 100 μm range
 The light ray is propagated through refraction
 The light ray enters the Fiber at different angles
 As the light propagates across the core toward the center it is intersecting a less dense to
denser medium
 Therefore, the light rays are being constantly being refracted and ray is bending continuously
 This cable is mostly used for long distance communication
 Fig 1.19 (c) shows multimode graded index Fiber

Figure 1.19 (c) The refractive index profile and ray transmission in a multimode graded index
fiber
 The light rays no longer follow straight lines, they follow a serpentine path being gradually bent
back towards the center by the continuously declining refractive index
 The modes travelling in a straight line are in a higher refractive index, so they travel slower than
the serpentine modes
 This reduces the arrival time disparity because all modes arrive at about the same time
 Fig 1.19 (d) shows the light trajectory in detail
  It is seen that light rays running close to the Fiber axis with shorter path length, will have a lower
velocity because they pass through a region with a high refractive index

Figure 1.19 (d) Light trajectories in a graded index fiber

 Rays on core edges offers reduced refractive index, hence travel more faster than axial rays and
cause the light components to take same amount of time to travel the length of Fiber, thus
minimizing dispersion losses
 Each path at a different angle is termed as ‘transmission mode’ and the NA of graded index Fiber
is defined as the maximum value of acceptance angle at the Fiber axis
 Typical attenuation coefficients of graded index Fibers at 850 nm are 2.5 to 3 dB/km, while at
1300 nm they are 1.0 to 1.5 dB/km
Advantages of Mono/single mode Fibers
 Low intermodal dispersion (broadening of the transmitted light pulses) as only one mode is
transmitted
 Bandwidth is higher
Disadvantages of single mode Fibers
 Because of extremely small size, interconnection of cables and interfacing with source is difficult
 As refractive index of glass reduces with optical wavelength, the light velocity will be wavelength
dependent
 Lower tolerance requirements on Fiber connectors
Advantages of Multimode Fibers
 Light can be efficiently coupled into the Fiber with the use of incoherent optical sources
 Larger N.A, core diameter facilitating easier coupling to optical sources
Advantages of Graded Index Fibers
 The main advantages of graded index Fiber are:
1. Reduced refractive index at the centre of core
2. Comparatively cheap to produce
1.20 Modes in Fibers
 Modes are the number of waves propagating through the optical Fibers
 The number of modes in a multimode step index Fiber is given by:

 The number of guided modes or mode volume Ms for a step index Fiber is related to the ‘V’
value for the Fiber, by normalized frequency:
 The number of guided modes or mode volume Mg for a graded index Fiber is related to the ‘V’
value for the Fiber, by normalized frequency:
1.21 Cut-off Wavelength
 It is given by:

 For a single mode Fibers Vc = 2.405

 For a graded index Fiber:

1.22 Mode field diameter

 The mode field diameter is fundamental parameter of a single mode Fiber
 The mode Field diameter (MFD) is distance between opposite 1/e – 0.37 times the near field
strength (amplitude) and power is 1/e2 = 0.135 times
 In single mode Fiber for fundamental mode, on field amplitude distribution the mode filed
diameter is shown in fig. 1.22

Figure 1.22 Field amplitude distribution E(r) of the fundamental mode in a single-mode fiber illustrating
the mode-field diameter (MFD) and spot size (ωo)
 The spot size ω0 is gives as –
 MFD = 2ω0
 The parameter considers the wavelength dependent filed penetration into the cladding
 Fig. 1.22 shows mode field diameters variation with λ

1.23 Effective refractive index

• The rate of change of phase of the fundamental LP01 mode propagating along a straight fiber is
determined by the phase propagation constant β
• It is directly related to the wavelength of the LP01 mode λ01 by the factor 2π, since β gives the
increase in phase angle per unit length
Hence:
β λ01 = 2π
• sometimes referred to as a phase index or normalized phase change coefficient neff, by the ratio
of the propagation constant of the fundamental mode to that of the vacuum propagation
constant:
neff = β/k

1.24 Fiber Materials

In selecting materials for optical Fibers, several requirements must be satisfied
Characteristics Required for Fiber Optic Material
1. The material must be transparent for efficient transmission of light
2. It must be possible to draw long, thin and flexible Fibers
3. Physically compatible materials (slightly different r.i’s)
Materials that satisfy these requirements are glasses and plastics
Glass Fibers
 Most of the Fibers are made up of glass consisting of either silica (SiO2) or silicate
 In glass Fibers, the losses are moderate and with large cores and are used for short distance
transmission
 Glass is made by fusing mixtures of metal oxides having refractive index of 1.458 at 850nm
 For changing the refractive index different oxides such as B2O3, GeO2 and P2O5 are added as
dopants
 Fig. 1.24 shows variation of refractive index with doping concentration
 Figure 1.24 Variation in refractive index as a function of doping concentration in silica glass

 Fig 1.24 shows addition of dopants GeO2 and P2O5 increases refractive index, while dopants
Fluorine (F) and B2O3 decreases refractive index
 One important criterion is that the refractive index of core is greater than that of the cladding
Other types of glass Fibers are:
 Halide glass Fibers
 Active glass Fibers
 Plastic clad glass Fibers (PCS)
 All Plastic Fibers (SCS)
Plastic Fibers
 Plastic Fibers are not popular because of high attenuation they have better mechanical strength

1.25 Plastic clad glass Fibers (PCS)

 It is multimode and have either the step index or a graded index profile
 It consists of a plastic cladding (often a silicon rubber) and a glass core which is frequently a
silica
 It exhibits lower radiation, induce losses than SCS and have an improved performance in certain
environments
 It is cheaper than SCS
 A typical structure of a multimode step index PCS is shown in figure
 Figure 1.25 (a) Typical structure for a glass multimode step index fiber

Figure 1.25 (b) Typical structure for a plastic-clad silica multimode step index fiber

Figure 1.25 (c) Typical structure for a plastic multimode graded index fiber

Figure 1.25 (d) structure of Lucina PFBVE fiber

• A typical structure of a multimode graded index PCS is shown in figure

 Figure 1.25 (e) Typical structure for a standard single-mode step index fiber
• A typical structure of a single mode step index PCS is shown in figure
Structure
 Core diameter: Step Index – 100 to 500µm
Graded Index – 50 to 100µm
 Cladding diameter: Step Index - 300 to 800 µm
Graded Index – 125 to 150 µm
 Buffer jacket diameter: Step Index – 500 to 1000 µ m
Graded Index - 250 to 1000 µ m
 NA: Step Index - 0.2 to 0.5
Graded Index - 0.2 to 0.3
Performance Characteristics
 Attenuation: Step Index – 5 to 50dB/km
 Graded Index – 4 to 15dB/km
 Bandwidth: 6 to 25 Mhz km
 Applications: Short haul applications

1.26 Specialty Fibers

 Telecommunication Fibers are designed to transmit light with minimal change in signal fidelity
 Specialty Fibers are designed to interact with the light and thereby, manipulate or control some
characteristics of an optical signal
 The light manipulation applications include – optical signal amplification, optical power coupling,
dispersion compensation, wavelength conversion and sensing of physical parameters such as
temperature, stress, pressure, vibration and fluid levels
Conventional Fiber Photonic Crystal Fiber
  Specialty Fibers can be of a multimode or a single mode type
Following are some specialty Fibers and their applications
1. Erbium doped Fiber – optical Fiber amplifiers
2. Photosensitive Fibers – fabrication of Fiber bragg gratings
3. Bend insensitive Fibers – tightly looped connections in device packages
4. Termination Fibers – termination of open optical Fiber ends
5. Polarization preserving Fibers – pump lasers, polarization sensitive devices, sensors
6. High index Fibers – fused couplers, short wavelength sources
7. Photonic crystal Fibers – switches, dispersion compensators
Photonic crystal Fibers
 The difference between the specialty Fiber and a conventional Fiber is cladding
 In some cases, the core regions of a PCF contain air holes, which run along the entire length of
the Fiber
The two basic PCF categories are –
1. Index guiding Fiber
2. Photonic band gap Fibers
 In PCF, the effective refractive index of the cladding depends on the wavelength and size and
pitch of the air holes
Index guiding Fiber
 The index guiding PCF has a solid core which is surrounded by a cladding region which contains
air holes running along the length of the Fiber
 The air holes have a diameter ‘d’ and a pitch ‘A’
 The core and the cladding are made of the same material (pure silica), the air holes lower the
effective refractive index in the cladding
Figure 1.26 (a) Cross-sectional end views of two basic structures of index-guided photonic crystal fibers:
(a) air holes of uniform size; (b) air holes of different sizes
Advantages of PCF over conventional Fibers
 Very low losses
 Ability to transmit high optical power levels
 High resistance to darkening effects from nuclear radiation
 Wavelength ranging from 300nm to 2000nm
Photonic Band Gap Fiber
 In these types, Air holes are replaced by Hollow core
 The hollow core creates a region in which the light can propagate

Figure 1.26 (b) Cross-sectional end view of some type of photonic bandgap fiber