CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL AND TESTING

M O D U L E 1

GOSPEL DEVOTION:

Psalms 127:1
Except the LORD build the house, they labour in vain that build it: except the LORD keep the
city, the watchman waketh but in vain.
Provision
God's blessing on his people as their one great necessity and privilege is here spoken of. We are
here taught that builders of houses and cities, systems, and all labor in vain without the Lord; we
are all under the divine favor of God
Protection
As we build our homes, guard our communities and work for our provisions, there is a greater power at work
than our human effort. We are reminded that all our efforts are in vain unless they are covered by the blessing
of the Lord.

Preservation
God is in control! No matter what we do or where we are, the Lord is the One who makes things
come to pass. He holds every aspect of our lives. Praise be to God! “Every house is built by some
man, but he that built all things is God", and unto God be praise.
For raising a family. If God be not acknowledged, we have no reason to expect his blessing; and the
best-laid plans fail, unless he crowns them with success.

Let us Pray,
Almighty God in Heaven I thank you Lord for your goodness, for giving me the freedom to study
your Word. I come to you Lord with a humble heart and submitting my life to you Lord. I now
realize that without you, I’m nothing, without you, all my efforts will be fruitless. Unless you build
my life, everything will be in vain. Please forgive me of all my sins and wrongdoings. I accept you
Lord Jesus in my heart as my Lord and Savior. Please direct my life and lead me in the path of
righteousness.
All these things I pray in the mighty name of our the Lord Jesus Christ. AMEN!

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 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL AND TESTING

MODULE 1:

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION
Purpose of testing materials
Materials and types
Construction material
Properties of construction materials
Forces, Loads, and Stresses
Strain
Stiffness
Ductile and brittle materials

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 LESSON : AGGREGATES
Types of aggregates
Properties of aggregates
Specific gravity and moisture content
Bulk density and voids
Modulus of elasticity and strength
Gradation and fineness modulus
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

MODULE 1:

LESSON 1: This lesson contains introdroduction to construction

materials and testing, and types of materials.

1.1 WHAT IS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS and TESTING?

Construction Materials Testing (CMT) is the testing of materials used to

build new projects, add to existing projects, or amend existing construction
projects. The services involved in a comprehensive CMT process greatly
depends on the project, the land, and the scope of services.

Testing services can generally be divided into two areas: Field Testing and
Laboratory Testing.

Field Testing:

Field testing CMT services take place at the site. Roadways, airports, utility
projects, building developments: All typically involve CMT processes carried
out by certified professionals.

In the field, construction materials testing can involve:

 Soils
 Concrete/Asphalt

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  Steel
 Masonry
 Timber

What does Field Testing look for?

Compaction, moisture, air content, and more, most of which is evaluated

through visual inspection and/or non-destructive techniques. Steel
structures, retaining walls, and soil foundations are prime examples of
construction that are evaluated during Field Testing.

In instances where Field Testing is inconclusive or exploratory in nature,

samples of various materials may be sent off for further lab testing.

Laboratory Testing:

When Field Testing indicates further study is needed, Lab Testing is then
recommended as the next phase of a comprehensive CMT
regimen. Laboratory testing is usually performed on an as-needed basis.
Common lab-tested construction materials include: soil, asphalt, steel.
Masonry, and concrete.

1.2 Why is CMT So Important?

Because it is critical for the viability and safety of a construction project.

CMT can reveal any number of issues related to construction quality. It can
highlight future risks, help classify a building site, and assist with
engineering decisions. Without CMT, engineers and builders may not know if
the quality of the construction meets the requirements.

Examples of what could happen without sufficient testing:

-The Titanic ship, considered indestructible by its designers and

engineers, sank on its maiden voyage, as we all know. The cause has been
attributed to the mild steel used in the rivets that held the steel hull
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plates together – the cold temperature made them brittle and caused the
‘unzipping’ of the hull plates when it hit the iceberg – 1,523 people died
as a result.

-On July 17 1981 during a dance contests the Hyatt Regency Skywalk in
Kansas City, collapsed at its base under the weight of pedestrians, killing
114 people and injuring 200 others.

-In April 1988, an Aloha Airlines flight 243, scheduled Boeing 737 plane
was ripped apart in mid-flight. A flight attendant was sucked out of the
plane and ‘fortunately’ was the only casualty. The cause of the accident
was attributed to metal fatigue.

These disasters may have all been caused by equipment, design or

material failure. It is possible, however, that tragedies such as these can
be avoided through the process of physical materials testing.
Although natural disasters cannot be stopped, we can try to ensure that all efforts are
made to minimize or eliminate any damage caused.
Read:
(Causes and effects of the rapid sinking of Titanic by Vicki Bassett)

1.3 WHY IS MATERIALS TESTING PERFORMED?

Testing is performed for a variety of reasons and can provide a wealth of

information about the tested materials, prototypes or product samples.
The data collected during testing and the final test results can be very
useful to engineers, designers, production managers and others.
Here are some of the reasons material testing is important:

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 1. Meeting requirements of regulatory agencies
2. Selecting appropriate materials and treatments for an application
3. Evaluating product design or improvement specification
4. Verifying a production process

1.3.1 REGULATORY COMPLIANCE

Many products are used in critical applications where a failure could

result in extensive damage or injury. Some examples are manufactured
fasteners and parts that have a vital role in maintaining the safety of
aircraft, bridges, vehicles, nuclear reactors, military equipment and
medical implants. In cases like these, governments and regulatory bodies
set compliance requirements that must be met by manufacturers.
Companies must adhere to these standards, which generally specify test
procedures, to prove compliance.

1.3.2 MATERIAL AND TREATMENT SELECTION

The quality of a material going into a manufactured product is as

important as the reliability of the production process. Materials testing
helps us to understand and quantify whether a specific material or
treatment is suitable for a particular application.

With the wide variety of materials and treatments available in the

marketplace, testing can help narrow down the choices to the most
appropriate selection for the intended use. As mentioned before, for
many industry applications, testing is performed to certify material to a

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given standard or specification, or to verify that it meets other
stringent criteria before it is put into use.

1.3.3 PRODUCT DESIGN AND IMPROVEMENT

It’s typical for a business to purchase mechanical testing services when

specifying material for a new product design. Testing may be performed
to evaluate mechanical properties such as strength, hardness, elasticity
and fracture toughness. Corrosion testing can determine if the material
will hold up under given conditions such as humidity or a salt water
environment.

1.3.4 PRODUCTION PROCESSES

Testing is an essential part of both design and manufacturing processes,

not only when safety is a concern, but also for any company committed to
selling reliable products and minimizing damage and costs if problems do
surface. Testing is often performed early on during product development
to evaluate a planned production process. Materials testing also plays a
large role in failure analysis investigations to help identify defective
products, inadequate materials and, ultimately, the cause of a failure.

1.4 MATERIALS AND TYPES

A material is a substance or thing from which something else can be

made. In engineering, materials are employed to design and build
structures, elements or products.

Materials can have divided into several categories:

Amorphous Materials. Any noncrystalline solid in which the atoms and

molecules are not organized in a definite lattice pattern. Such solids

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 include glass, plastic, and impure carbon. Generally these materials are
strong but britle.

Brittle Materials. A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it

breaks with little elastic deformation and without significant plastic
deformation. Cast iron, ceramic, and concrete are examples of brittle
materials. Materials that have relatively large plastic regions under
tensile stress are known as ductile.
Building Materials. Materials used for construction. Many naturally
occurring
substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, and wood have been used to
construct buildings.

Ceramic Materials. A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often

crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material. Some elements, such as
carbon or
silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard,
strong
in compression, and weak in shearing and tension.

Clay Brick. A solid masonry unit made of clay, usually formed into a
rectangular unit
while in the plastic state and treated in a kiln at an elevated temperature
to harden it.

Composite Materials. A composite material (also called

composition material or
shortened to composite, which is the common name) is a material made from
two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or
chemical
properties that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics
different
from the individual components.

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Crystalline Materials. A crystal or crystalline solid is a
solid material whose
constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly
ordered
microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all
directions. Examples are ceramic, talc, quartz, ceramic glass.

Ductile materials. Ductility is the physical property of

a material associated with the
ability to be hammered thin or stretched into wire without breaking.
A ductile substance
can be drawn into a wire. Examples: Most metals are good examples
of ductile materials,
including gold, silver, copper, erbium, terbium, and samarium.

Elastic Materials. What are elastic materials? Elasticity is the tendency

of solid
materials to return to their original shape after forces are applied on
them. When the
forces are removed, the object will return to its initial shape and size if
the material
is elastic. Are all materials elastic?

Elastomeric Materials. An elastomeric material is

any material exhibiting elastic or
rubber- like properties. Generally speaking, elastomeric
materials are measured
in material type, compound, and durometer (the hardness of
the material).

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 Electronic Materials. Electronic materials are the materials used in
electrical
industries, electronics and microelectronics, and the substances for
the building up of
integrated circuits, circuit boards, packaging materials, communication
cables, optical
fibres, displays, and various controlling and monitoring devices.

Insulating Materials. A material that reduces or prevents the

transmission of heat or
sound or electricity. insulant, insulation.
building material - material used for
constructing buildings. lagging - used to wrap around pipes or boilers or
laid in attics to
prevent loss of heat.

Magnetic Materials. These materials studied and used mainly or

their magnetic
properties. The magnetic response of a materials is largely determined
by
the magnetic dipole moment associated with the intrinsic angular
momentum, or spin, of
its electrons

Masonry Materials. The common materials of masonry construction are

brick, building stone such as marble, granite, and limestone, cast stone,
concrete block, glass block, and adobe. Masonry is generally a highly
durable form of construction. A person who constructs masonry is called
a mason or bricklayer.

Metallic Materials. Metallic materials are inorganic substances, usually

combinations of metallic elements, such as iron, titanium, aluminum, and

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gold, which may also contain small amounts of non-metallic elements, such
as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.

Polymeric Materials. Polymers are materials made of long, repeating

chains of molecules. The materials have unique properties, depending on
the type of molecules being bonded and how they are bonded. The
term polymer is often used to describe plastics, which are
synthetic polymers.

Plastic Materials. Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-

synthetic organic compounds that are malleable. Plastic materials are the
result of carbon elements reacting with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
other organic and inorganic elements.

Semiconductor. Any of a class of crystalline solids intermediate in

electrical conductivity between a conductor and an insulator. A
semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling
between that of a conductor, such as metallic copper, and an insulator,
such as glass.

Thermoplastic Materials. A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening plastic, is

a plastic polymer material that becomes pliable or moldable at a certain
elevated temperature and solidifies upon cooling.
Common examples of thermoplastics include acrylic, polyester,
polypropylene, polystyrene, nylon and Teflon.

Waste Material. Fly ash or flue ash, also known as pulverized fuel ash in
the United Kingdom, is a coal combustion product that is composed of the
particulates that are driven out of coal-fired boilers together with the
flue gases. Ash that falls to the bottom of the boiler's combustion
chamber is called bottom ash. The use of fly ash in Portland cement
concrete (PCC) has many benefits and improves concrete performance in
both the fresh and hardened state. Fly ash use in concrete improves the

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workability of plastic concrete, and the strength and durability of
hardened concrete.

CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The basic materials used in civil engineering applications or in

construction projects are:

Aggregates
Cement and concrete
Bitumens and bituminous materials
Reinforcing and structural steel
Structural clay and masonry units
Wood
Plastics
Soil
…………………………………………………………………………………

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1.5.1 Properties of engineering materials
(https://theconstructor.org/building/properties-of-building-materials-
construction/14891/)

The common properties of engineering materials are grouped

under three major headings:

 Physical properties
 Mechanical properties
 Chemical properties
 Electrical properties
 Magnetic properties
 Thermal properties

1.5.2 Physical Properties:

These are the properties required to estimate the quality and condition
of the material without any external force. The physical properties of
engineering materials are as follows:

Bulk Density of Building Materials

The ratio of mass to the volume of the material in its natural state that
is including voids and pores. It is expressed in kg/m3. Bulk density
influences the mechanical properties of materials like strength, heat
and conductivity etc. bulk density values of some of the engineering
materials are given below.

______________________________________________________
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 Building Material Density (kg/cum)

Brick 1600 - 1800

Sand 1450 – 1650
Steel 7850
Heavy concrete 1800 – 2500
Light concrete 500 – 1800
Granite 2500 – 2700
__________________________________________________

Porosity of Building Materials

Porosity gives the volume of the material occupied by pores. It is the
ratio of volume of pores to the volume of material. Porosity influences
many properties like thermal conductivity, strength, bulk density,
durability etc.

Porosity = x 100

Durability of Building Materials

The property of a material to withstand against the combined action of
atmospheric and other factors is known as durability of material. If the
material is more durable, it will be useful for longer life. Maintenance cost
of material is dependent of durability.

Density of Building Materials

Density is the ratio of mass of the material to its volume in
homogeneous state. Almost all the physical properties of materials are
influenced by its density values. Density values of some building
materials are given below.

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 Material Density (kg/m3)

Steel 7800 – 7900

Brick 2500 -2800

Granite 2600 – 2900

Density =

Specific Gravity of Building Materials

Specific gravity is the ratio of mass of given substance to the mass of
water at 4oC for the equal volumes. Specific gravity of some materials is
listed below.
Material Specific gravity

Steel 7.82

Cast iron 7.20

Aluminum 2.72

Fire Resistance of Building Materials

The ability to withstand against fire without changing its shape and other
properties. Fire resistance of a material is tested by the combined
actions of water and fire. Fireproof materials should provide more safety
in case of fire.

Frost Resistance

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The ability of a material to resist freezing or thawing is called frost
resistance. It depends upon the density and bulk density of material.
Denser materials will have more frost resistance. Moist material have low
frost resistance and they lose their strength in freezing and become
brittle.

Weathering Resistance
The property of a material to withstand against all atmospheric actions
without losing its strength and shape. Weathering effects the durability
of material. For example corrosion occurs in iron due to weathering. To
resist this paint layer is provided.

Spalling Resistance
The ability of a material to undergo certain number of cycles of sharp
temperature variations without failing is known as spalling resistance. It
is the dependent of coefficient of linear expansion.

Water Absorption
The capacity of a material to absorb and retain water in it is known as
water absorption. It is expressed in % of weight of dry material. It
depends up on the size, shape and number of pores of material.

Water Permeability

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The ability of a material to permit water through it is called water
permeability. Dense materials like glass metals etc. are called impervious
materials which cannot allow water through it.

Hygroscopicity
Hygroscopicity is the property of a material to absorb water vapor from
the air. It depends on the relative humidity, porosity, air temperature
etc.

Coefficient of Softening
Coefficient of softening of a material is the ratio of compressive
strength of a saturated material to its compressive strength in dry state.
It affects the strength of water absorbent materials like soil.

Refractoriness
The property of a material which cannot melts or lose its shape at
prolonged high temperatures (1580oC or more).
Example: fire clay is high refractory material.

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………………………………………………………………………………………

1.5.3 Mechanical Properties of Building Materials

Mechanical properties of the materials are determined by applying
external forces on them. These are very important properties which are
responsible for behavior of a material in its job. The mechanical
properties are,

Strength of Building Materials

The capacity of a material to resist failure caused by loads acting on it is
called as strength. The load may be compressive, tensile or bending. It is
determined by dividing the ultimate load taken by the material with its
cross-sectional area. Strength is an important property for any
construction materials. So, to provide maximum safety in strength, factor
of safety is provided for materials and it is selected depending on nature
of work, quality of material, economic conditions etc.

Hardness of Building Materials

The property of a materials to resist scratching by a harder body.
MOHS scale is used to determine the hardness of a materials. Hardness

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is most important to decide the usage of particular aggregate. It also
influences the workability.

Elasticity of Building Materials

The capacity of a material to regain its initial shape and size after
removal of load is known as elasticity and the material is called as
elastic material. Ideally elastic materials obey Hooke’s law in which
stress is directly proportional to strain. Which gives modulus of
elasticity as the ratio of unit stress to unit deformation. Higher the
value of modulus of elasticity lower the deformations.

Plasticity
When the load is applied on the material, if it will undergo permanent
deformation without cracking and retain this shape after the removal of
load then it is said to be plastic material and this property is called as
plasticity. They give resistance against bending, impact etc.

Examples: steel, hot bitumen etc.

Brittleness
When the material is subjected to load, if it fails suddenly without
causing any deformation then it is called brittle material and this
property is called as brittleness.

Examples: concrete, cast-iron etc.

Fatigue

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If a material is subjected to repeated loads, then the failure occurs at
some point which is lower than the failure point caused by steady loads.
This behavior is known as fatigue.

Impact Strength
If a material is subjected to sudden loads and it will undergo some
deformation without causing rupture is known as its impact strength. It
designates the toughness of material.

Abrasion Resistance
The loss of material due to rubbing of particles while working is called
abrasion. The abrasion resistance for a material makes it durable and
provided long life.

Creep
Creep the deformation caused by constant loads for long periods. It is
time dependent and occurs at very slow rate. It is almost negligible in
normal conditions. But at high temperature conditions creep occur
rapidly.

1.5.4Chemical Properties of Building Materials

The properties of materials against the chemical actions or chemical
combinations are tm ( :ermed”an it as chemical properties. And they are

 Chemical resistance
 Corrosion resistance
Chemical Resistance of Building Materials
The ability of a construction materials to resist the effects by
chemicals like acids, salts and alkalis is known as chemical resistance.

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Underground installations, constructions near sea etc. should be built
with great chemical resistance.

Corrosion Resistance
Formation of rust (iron oxide) in metals, when they are subjected to
atmosphere is called as corrosion. So, the metals should be corrosive
resistant. To increase the corrosion resistance proper measures should

be considered. Otherwise it will damage the whole structure.

1.5.5 Electrical Properties of Building Materials

The properties of a material to conduct or to resist electricity through
them are electrical properties of material. For example, wood have
great electric resistance and stainless steel is a good conductor of
electricity.

1.5.6 Magnetic Properties of Building Materials

The magnetic properties of materials like permeability, hysteresis etc.
are required in the case of generators etc. iron is magnetic material and
aluminum is non-magnetic material.

1.5.7 Thermal Properties of Building Materials

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  Thermal capacity
 Thermal conductivity
 Thermal resistivity
 Specific heat
Thermal Capacity of Building Materials
Thermal capacity is the property of a material to absorb heat and it is
required to design proper ventilation. It influences the thermal stability
of walls. It is expressed in J/N oC and it is calculated by below formula.
Thermal capacity, T = [H/(M(T2 – T1))]
Where H = quantity of heat required to increase the temperature from
T1 to T2
T1 = Initial temperature
T2 = Final temperature
M = Mass of material in N.

Thermal Conductivity
The amount of heat transferred through unit area of specimen with unit
thickness in unit time is termed as thermal conductivity. It is measured
in kelvins. It depends on material structure, porosity, density and
moisture content. High porous materials, moist materials have more
thermal conductivity.

Thermal Resistivity
It is the ability to resist heat conduction. And it is the reciprocal of
thermal conductivity. When it is multiplied by thickness of material it
gives thermal resistance. Thermal resistivity of soil varies from 30 to
500 0C-cm/W.
Specific Heat

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Specific heat is the quantity of heat required to heat 1 N of material by
1oC. Specific heat is useful when we use the material in high
temperature areas. Specific heat values of some engineering materials
are given below.
Material Specific heat J/N oC

Steel 0.046 x 103

Wood 0.239 to 0.27 x 103

Stone 0.075 to 0.09 X 103

1.5.8 Forces, Loads, and Stresses

An external force is commonly referred to as a structural load; an

internal force is a stress. Another way to look at it is action and
reaction. The load is the action; the stress is the reaction. For every
action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Stress is one of the most common causes of structural failure. This
lesson contains the definitions of the major types of stress, what
causes them, and the equations needed to compute an object's stress.

Types of loads acting on a structure are: Dead loads, Live loads,

Wind loads, Snow loads, Earthquake loads.

Stresses

Stress is the result of internal forces, or forces that result when

internal particles react to each other. Force is the measure of the
amount of energy that's applied to an object. These internal forces are
caused when a load is applied to an object. The most common loading

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types include longitudinally-loaded objects, axially-loaded objects, and
torsional-loaded, or twisted, objects.

Here is the most common equation to compute stress:

The six major types of stress are:

1. Compression
2. Tension
3. Shear
4. Bending
5. Torsion

Compression & Tension Stress

 Compression stress is the result of axially-loaded forces pointing

towards the center of an object. There are two major issues with
compression stress: Compression forces can cause an object to
shorten, or they can cause an object to buckle. When an object
buckles, it bends in such a way that it can no longer hold the load,
even though structurally speaking, the object can hold more stress
than is applied to it.
 Tension stress is caused when axially-loaded forces are pulling away
from an object's center, and perpendicular to the object's surface.

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 Tension stress can cause lengthening of an object. There are several
materials, concrete for example, where the object can only
withstand a fraction of the stress when the object is in
compression.

Shear & Bending Stress

 Shear stress is caused when the forces applied to an object are
parallel to the object's cross-section. This stress can cause the
object to deform and, in some cases, pull apart. As the object
deforms, it changes. The shape of the object can change, which can
affect how the object withstands other forces.
 Bending stress is seen in longitudinally-loaded objects. The forces
cause the object to bend, usually in a downward direction.

Related Problems:
SOURCE: (https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-
strength-of-materials/solution-to-problem-125-bearing-stress)

1. A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry

a tensile load of 400 kN. Determine the outside diameter of the
tube if the stress is limited to 120 MN/m2. D=119.35 answer
2. Problem
A rod is composed of an aluminum section rigidly attached
between steel and bronze sections, as shown in Fig. shown. Axial
loads are applied at the positions indicated. If P = 3000 lb and the
cross sectional area of the rod is 0.5 in2, determine the stress in
each section.

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 σst=24 ksi answer : σal=24 ksi answer:
σbr=18 ksi answer

3. An aluminum rod is rigidly attached between a steel rod and a

bronze rod as shown in Fig. P-108. Axial loads are applied at the
positions indicated. Find the maximum value of P that will not
exceed a stress in steel of 140 MPa, in aluminum of 90 MPa, or in
bronze of 100 MPa.
For bronze:
P = 10 000 N answer

For aluminum:
P= 36 000 N answer

For Steel:
P = 10 000 N answer

For safe value of P, use the smallest above. Thus,

P=10 000 N=10 kNP=10 000 N=10 kN answer

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4. In Fig. 1-12, assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates
that are each 110 mm wide. The allowable stresses are 120 MPa
for bearing in the plate material and 60 MPa for shearing of rivet.
Determine (a) the minimum thickness of each plate; and (b) the
largest average tensile stress in the plates.

Part (a):

From shearing of rivet:

P = 6000 N
From bearing of plate material:

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 t=7.85mmt=7.85mm answer

Part (b): Largest average tensile stress in the plate:

P=σA
σ=26.67MP answer

1.5.9 Stress and Strain (Review your Mechanics of Deformable Bodies.

source: Strength of Materials by Singer)

The term stress (s) is used to express the loading in terms of force
applied to a certain cross-sectional area of an object. From the
perspective of loading, stress is the applied force or system of forces
that tends to deform a body. From the perspective of what is happening
within a material, stress is the internal distribution of forces within a
body that balance and react to the loads applied to it.

Simple Strain

Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in

length caused by the applied force, to the original length.

ε=δ/L

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where δ is the deformation and L is the original length, thus ε is
dimensionless.

Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)

From the origin O to the point called proportional
limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight line

σ ∝ ε or σ = k ε

The constant of proportionality k is called

the Modulus of Elasticity E or Young's Modulus and
is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram
from O to P. Then

σ=E ε

Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go

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back to its original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum
stress that may e developed such that there is no permanent or residual
deformation when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic
range. The region from P to R is called the plastic range.

Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable
elongation or yielding without any increase in load.

Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate
strength or tensile strength.

Rapture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also
known as the breaking strength.

Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as
the force is gradually increased from O to P, in N·m/m3. This may be
calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve from the origin O
to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The
resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without
creating a permanent distortion.

Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as
the force is gradually increased from O to R, in N·m/m3. This may be
calculated as the area under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to
R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without

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causing it to break.

Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a
given loading. The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is
termed as the allowable stress. The allowable stress should be limited
to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since
proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable
tress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a
factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength)
to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.

Problem :
The following data were recorded during the tensile test of a 14-mm-
diameter mild steel rod. The gage length was 50 mm.

Load Elongation Load Elongation

(N) (mm) (N) (mm)
0 0 46 200 1.25
6 310 0.010 52 400 2.50
12 600 0.020 58 500 4.50
18 800 0.030 68 000 7.50
25 100 0.040 59 000 12.5
31 300 0.050 67 800 15.5
37 900 0.060 65 000 20.0
40 100 0.163 65 500 Fracture
41 600 0.433

31
Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following mechanical
properties: (a) proportional limits; (b) modulus of elasticity; (c) yield
point; (d) ultimate strength; and (e) rupture strength.

Solution:
Area, A = 0.25π(142) = 49π mm2
Length, L = 50 mm
Strain = Elongation/Length
Stress = Load/Area

Load Elongation Strain Stress

(N) (mm) (mm/mm) (MPa)
0 0 0 0
6 310 0.010 0.0002 40.99
12 600 0.020 0.0004 81.85
18 800 0.030 0.0006 122.13
25 100 0.040 0.0008 163.05
31 300 0.050 0.001 203.33
37 900 0.060 0.0012 246.20
40 100 0.163 0.0033 260.49
41 600 0.433 0.0087 270.24
46 200 1.250 0.025 300.12
52 400 2.500 0.05 340.40
58 500 4.500 0.09 380.02
68 000 7.500 0.15 441.74
59 000 12.500 0.25 383.27
67 800 15.500 0.31 440.44

32
 65 000 20.000 0.4 422.25
61 500 Failure

From stress-strain diagram:

a. Proportional Limit = 246.20 MPa
b. Modulus of Elasticity
E = slope of stress-strain diagram within proportional limi
E = 246.20/0.0012 = 205 166.67 MPa = 205.2 GPa
c. Yield Point = 270.24 MPa
d. Ultimate Strength = 441.74 MPa
e. Rupture Strength = 399.51
33
1.5.10 Stiffness
It is defined as the property of a material which is rigid and difficult to
bend. The unit of stiffness is Newton per meter. Stiffness is applied to
tension or compression.
Stiffness is an indicator of the tendency for an element to return to its
original form after being subjected to a force. Strength measures how
much stress can be applied to an element before it deforms permanently
or fractures. Hardness measures a material's resistance to surface
deformation.
How is material stiffness measured?

Young's modulus, or the Young modulus, is a mechanical property

that measures the stiffness of a solid material. It defines the
relationship between stress (force per unit area) and strain (proportional
deformation) in a material in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial
deformation.

1.5.11 Ductile and Brittle Materials

Materials ability to undergo significant plastic deformation under

tensile stress before rapture called ductile properties
of materials. The ductile materials are Steel, Aluminum, copper
etc.Brittle materials break without significant plastic deformation
under tensile

LESSON 2 - AGGREGATES

34
 Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is a broad category of
coarse- to medium-grained particulate material used in construction,
including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and
geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most mined materials in the
world.
Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is a broad category of
coarse- to medium-grained particulate material used in construction,
including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and
geosynthetic aggregates

2.1 Introduction to Aggregate

Construction aggregate, or simply aggregate, is a broad category of
coarse- to medium-grained particulate material used in construction,
including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and
geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most mined materials in the
world.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES

2.2.1 Classification of aggregates based on: Grain Size

If we separate aggregates by size, there are two categories:

 Fine
 Coarse

The size of fine aggregates is defined as 4.75mm or smaller. That is,

aggregates which can be passed through a number 4 sieve, with a mesh
size of 4.75mm. Fine aggregates include things such as sand, silt and clay.
Crushed stone and crushed gravel might also fall under this category.

Typically, fine aggregates are used to improve workability of a concrete

mix. Coarse aggregates measure above the 4.75mm limit. These are more

35
likely to be natural stone or gravel that has not been crushed or
processed. These aggregates will reduce the amount of water needed for
a concrete mix, which may also reduce workability but improve its innate
strength.

2.2.2Classification of aggregates based on: Density

There are three weight-based variations of aggregates:

 Lightweight- The lightest manufactured aggregates have a loose
bulk density below 60 kg/m3, though a range of 400–1150 kg/m3 is
more typical for use in concrete.

 Standard or normal- The approximate bulk density

of aggregate that is commonly used in normal-weight concrete is
between 1200-1750 kg/m3 (75-110 lb/ft3). Here, the Standard test
method for determining the bulk density of aggregates is given in
ASTM C 29 (AASHTO T 19).

 High density or heavy weight- Heavyweight concrete

contains aggregates that are natural or synthetic which typically
weigh more than 2,080 kg/m3 and can range up to 4,485 kg/m

Different density aggregates will have much different applications.

Lightweight and ultra-lightweight aggregates are more porous than their
heavier counterparts, so they can be put to great use in green roof
construction, for example. They are also used in mixes for concrete
blocks and pavements, as well as insulation and fireproofing.

High density aggregates are used to form heavyweight concrete. They

are used for when high strength, durable concrete structures are
required – building foundations or pipework ballasting, for example.

2.2.3Classification of aggregates based on: Geographical Origin

36
Another way to classify aggregates is by their origin.
 Natural – Aggregates taken from natural sources, such as
riverbeds, quarries and mines. Sand, gravel, stone and rock are the
most common, and these can be fine or coarse.
 Processed – Also called ‘artificial aggregates’, or ‘by-product’
aggregates, they are commonly taken from industrial or engineering
waste, then treated to form construction aggregates for high
quality concrete. Common processed aggregates include industrial
slag, as well as burnt clay. Processed aggregates are used for both
lightweight and high-density concrete mixes.

2.2.4Classification of aggregates based on:

Shape

Shape is one of the most effective ways of differentiating aggregates.

The shape of our chosen aggregates will have a significant effect on the
workability of our concrete. Aggregates purchased in batches from a
reputable supplier can be consistent in shape, if required.

The different shapes of aggregates are:

 Rounded – Natural aggregates smoothed by weathering, erosion and

attrition. Rocks, stone, sand and gravel found in riverbeds are your
most common rounded aggregates. Rounded aggregates are the main
factor behind workability.
 Irregular – These are also shaped by attrition, but are not fully
rounded. These consist of small stones and gravel, and offer
reduced workability to rounded aggregates.
 Angular – Used for higher strength concrete, angular aggregates
come in the form of crushed rock and stone. Workability is low, but
this can be offset by filling voids with rounded or smaller
aggregates.

37
 Flaky – Defined as aggregates that are thin in comparison to length
and width. Increases surface area in a concrete mix.
 Elongated – Also adds more surface area to a mix – meaning more
cement paste is needed. Elongated aggregates are longer than they
are thick or wide.
 Flaky and elongated – A mix of the previous two – and the least
efficient form of aggregate with regards to workability.

2.2.5 Coarse aggregate

Coarse aggregates are any particles greater than 0.19 inch, but generally
range between 3/8 and 1.5 inches in diameter. Gravels constitute the
majority of coarse aggregate used in concrete with crushed stone making
up most of the remainder.

What are coarse aggregates used for in construction?

Coarse aggregates have several uses in construction. The most obvious is

as part of the mix in concrete. They are also used in the preparation of
the moisture break under the slab and vapor barrier. They are part of
the base prep for driveways and roadways. They are used to facilitate
drainage for perimeter drains, septic leach fields, and retaining walls.
Also used to backfill retaining walls, as temporary road surfaces (think
gravel roads), and to make the tire knock off areas for trucks leaving
construction sites.

Aggregates in concrete can be mainly defined into two types: fine

aggregate(FA) and course aggregates (CA). FA is normally called sand
including natural sand and manufactured sand which size is from 0.075㎜
to 4.75㎜; CA is generally called gravel including natural gravel and
crushed stone which size is greater than 4.75㎜. Aggregate has a huge

38
 influence on dimensional stability, elastic modulus, durability, workability
and the cost of concrete.

2.2.6 FINE AGGREGATE

Fine aggregates are usually sand or crushed stone that are less than
9.55mm in diameter. Typically the most common size of aggregate used in
construction is 20mm. A larger size, 40mm, is more common in mass
concrete. Larger aggregate diameters reduce the quantity of cement and
water needed.
What are the types of fine aggregate?

Types of Fine Aggregate

 Coral Sand.
 Glass Sand.
 Gypsum Sand.
 Silica Sand.
 Pit Sand.
 River Sand.

2.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

What this.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mBSyflYdovc&t=155s)
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
Aggregates are used in concrete to provide economy in the cost of
concrete. Aggregates act as filler only. These do not react with cement
and water.

39
There are properties or characteristics of aggregate which influence
the properties of resulting concrete mix. These are as follow.

1. Composition
2. Size & Shape
3. Surface Texture
4. Specific Gravity
5. Bulk Density
6. Voids
7. Porosity & Absorption
8. Bulking of Sand
9. Fineness Modulus of Aggregate
10. Surface Index of Aggregate
11. Deleterious Material
12. Crushing Value of Aggregate
13. Impact Value of Aggregate
14. Abrasion Value of Aggregate

1. COMPOSITION

Aggregates consisting of materials that can react with alkalies in cement

and cause excessive expansion, cracking and deterioration of concrete
mix should never be used. Therefore, it is required to test aggregates to
know whether there is presence of any such constituents in aggregate or
not.

2. SIZE & SHAPE

The size and shape of the aggregate particles greatly influence the
quantity of cement required in concrete mix and hence ultimately
economy of concrete. For the preparation of economical concrete mix on
should use largest coarse aggregates feasible for the structure. IS-456
suggests following recommendation to decide the maximum size of coarse
aggregate to be used in P.C.C & R.C.C mix.

40
Maximum size of aggregate should be less than

 One-fourth of the minimum dimension of the concrete member.

 One-fifth of the minimum dimension of the reinforced concrete
member.
 The minimum clear spacing between reinforced bars or 5 mm less
than the minimum cover between the reinforced bars and form,
whichever is smaller for heavily reinforced concrete members such
as the ribs of the main bars.

Remember that the size & shape of aggregate particles influence the
properties of freshly mixed concrete more as compared to those of
hardened concrete.

Also read: How to Classify Aggregates Based on Size

3. SURFACE TEXTURE

The development of hard bond strength between aggregate particles and

cement paste depends upon the surface texture, surface roughness and
surface porosity of the aggregate particles.

If the surface is rough but porous, maximum bond strength develops. In

porous surface aggregates, the bond strength increases due to setting of
cement paste in the pores.

4. SPECIFIC GRAVITY

 Specific gravity is the ratio of weight in air of a unit volume of a

material to the unit weight of an equal volume of water

Specific gravities are primarily of two types.

 Bulk specific gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume
of aggregate (including the permeable and impermeable voids in the
particles, but including the voids in the particles) to eight of an equal
volume of water.

41
 Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of the unit
volume of the impermeable portion of aggregate to the weight of an
equal volume of water.

Specific gravity is a mean to decide the suitability of the aggregate. Low

specific gravity generally indicates porous, weak and absorptive
materials, whereas high specific gravity indicates materials of good
quality. Specific gravity of major aggregates falls within the range of 2.6
to 2.9.

Specific gravity values are also used while designing concrete mix.

Also read: Specific Gravity & Water Absorption Test of Aggregates

5. BULK DENSITY

It is defined as the weight of the aggregate required to fill a container

of unit volume. It is generally expressed in kg/litre.

Bulk density of aggregates depends upon the following 3 factors.

 Degree of compaction
 Grading of aggregates
 Shape of aggregate particles

6. VOIDS

The empty spaces between the aggregate particles are known as voids.
The volume of void equals the difference between the gross volume of
the aggregate mass and the volume occupied by the particles alone.

( )
Void content = x 100
( )

SG is specific gravity, W is the density of water and B is bulk density

42
Also read: Bulk Density & Void Test of Aggregate

7. POROSITY & ABSORPTION

The minute holes formed in rocks during solidification of the molten

magma, due to air bubbles, are known as pores. Rocks containing pores
are called porous rocks.

Porosity is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the volume of the

pores or interstices of a substance, as a rock or rock stratum, to the
total volume of the mass.

Porosity =

Water absorption may be defined as the difference between the

weight of very dry aggregates and the weight of the saturated
aggregates with surface dry conditions.

Depending upon the amount of moisture content in aggregates, it can

exist in any of the 4 conditions.

Moisture States:

Please watch this video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGKL9fp4jZw

Oven-dry (OD) :All moisture is removed by heating the aggregate in an

oven at 105°C (221°F)
Air-dry (AD): All moisture removed from surface, but internal pores
partially full.
Saturated-surface-dry (SSD): All pores filled with water, but no film
of water on the surface

43
Wet: All pores completely filled with water with a film on the surface.
*Please watch this video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGKL9fp4jZw

8. Moisture content and Moisture levels

(Watch this. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWYug0v7QdI)

Aggregates are generally porous and thus absorbed water. The

moisture content of an aggregate, which is generally expressed as
percentage, is calculated as follows:

Moisture content = x 100 or

Moisture content = x 100

The moisture content represents the amount of moisture existing at the

the time of measurement. Two types of measurement are recognized in
aggregate particles.
Absorbed moisture is the moisture retained within the pores, and that
which is held on the surface is surface moisture.

Surface moisture = Moisture content – absorption capacity

Absorption capacity = x 100

9. BULKING OF SAND

It can be defined as in increase in the bulk volume of the quantity of

sand (i.e. fine aggregate) in a moist condition over the volume of the
same quantity of dry or completely saturated sand. The ratio of the

44
volume of moist sand due to the volume of sand when dry, is called
bulking factor.

Fine sands bulk more than coarse sand

When water is added to dry and loose sand, a thin film of water is
formed around the sand particles. Interlocking of air in between the
sand particles and the film of water tends to push the particles apart
due to surface tension and thus increase the volume. But in case of fully
saturated sand the water films are broken and the volume becomes
equal to that of dry sand.

Also read: Bulking of Sand – What, Why & How

10.FINENESS MODULUS

Fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by adding the

cumulative percentages of aggregate retained on each of the standard
sieves ranging from 80 mm to 150 micron and dividing this sum by 100.

Fineness modulus is generally used to get an idea of how coarse or fine

the aggregate is. More fineness modulus value indicates that the
aggregate is coarser and small value of fineness modulus indicates that
the aggregate is finer.

Also read: Fineness Modulus of Aggregate – What, Why & How

11. Gradation

10. SPECIFIC SURFACE OF AGGREGATE

The surface area per unit weight of the material is termed as specific
surface. This is an indirect measure of the aggregate grading. Specific
surface increases with the reduction in the size of aggregate particle.

45
The specific surface area of the fine aggregate is very much more than
that of coarse aggregate.

Also read: How to Calculate Total Surface Index of Aggregate

11. DELETERIOUS MATERIALS

Aggregates should not contain any harmful material in such a quantity so

as to affect the strength and durability of the concrete. Such harmful
materials are called deleterious materials. Deleterious materials may
cause one of the following effects

 To interfere hydration of cement

 To prevent development of proper bond
 To reduce strength and durability
 To modify setting times

Deleterious materials generally found in aggregates, may be grouped as

under

 Organic impurities
 Clay , silt & dust
 Salt contamination

Also read: Determination of Light Weight Pieces in Aggregates

12. CRUSHING VALUE

The aggregates crushing value gives a relative measure of resistance of

an aggregate to crushing under gradually applied compressive load. The
aggregate crushing strength value is a useful factor to know the
behavior of aggregates when subjected to compressive loads.

Also read: Crushing Value Test of Aggregates

46
13. IMPACT VALUE

The aggregate impact value gives a relative measure of the resistance

of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact. The impact value of an
aggregate is sometime used as an alternative to its crushing value.

Also read: Impact Value Test of Aggregates

14. ABRASION VALUE OF AGGREGATES

The abrasion value gives a relative measure of resistance of an

aggregate to wear when it is rotated in a cylinder along with some
abrasive charge.

…………………………………………………………………………………

47