Hrs.

Module Unit Topics

No. No.
09
1.0 Overview of Satellite Systems, Orbits and Launching
satellite communication,
1.1 An overview of space and satellite, Frequency allocation for
third law, orbital elements,
Polar orbiting satellites, Kepler's First, second and
earth,
apogee, perigee heights, orbital perturbations, effects of a non-spherical

atmospheric drag
Effects, Rain
1.2 Wave Propagation & Polarization, Atmosplheric Losses, lonospheric
Polarization of Satellite
Attenuation, Other impairments, Antenna Polarization,
depolarization, Rain
signals, Cross polarization discrimination, lonospheric
depolarization, Ice depolarization
mount
1.3 Sub-satellite Point, predicting satellite position, antenna look angels, polar
of satellite, sun
antenna, limits of visibility, near geostationary orbits, earth eclipse
transit outage

1.4 Selection of launching site, launch window, zero and non-zero degree latitude
launching, sea launch, vehicles; satellite launch vehicle
launch (SLV), augmented
launch vehicle
satellite launch vehicle (ASLV), polar SLV, geostationary satellite
(GSLV)
06
2.0 Space Segment
Satellite configuration, Transponder sub-system, Antenna subsystem, AOC Sub-
2.1
power sub-system, Thermal sub-system, reliability and
system, TT&C Sub-system,
quality Assurance.

Earth station 05
3.0

3.1 Design consideration

3.2 Gencral configuration- Block diagram, Receive only type earth, transmit-receive type
earth station, Antenna system, Feed system, Tracking system, LNA, HPA

4.0 Satellite Links

4.1 Isotropic radiated power, transmission losses, free-space transmission, feeder losses,
antenna misalignment losses, fixed atmospheric and ionospheric losses, link power

budget
4.2 System noise, antenna noise, amplifier noise temperature, amplifiers in cascade, noise
factor, noise temperature of absorptive networks, overall system noise temperature,
carrier to noise ratio
-

4.3 Uplink: Saturation flux density, input back off, earth station HPA, Downlink: Output
back off, satellite TWTA output

4.4 Effects of rain, uplink rain-fade margin, downlink rain-fade margin, combined uplink

and downlink C/N ratio,inter-modulation noise

 Hrs.
Module Unit Topics
No. No.
08
5.0 The Space Segment Access and Utilization

demand assigned FDMA,

5.1 Space segment access methods, pre-assigned FDMA,
SPADE system, bandwidth-limited and powerlimited TWT amplifier operation
carrier recovery, network
5.2 TDMA: Reference Burst; Preamble and Postamble,
frame efficiency, channel
synchronization, unique word detection, traffic date,
satellite switched TDMA
capacity, preassigned TDMA, demand assigned TDMA,
and
5 Code Division Multiple Access: Direct-sequence spread spectrum-acquisition
tracking, spectrum spreading and dispreading-CDMA throughput
10
6.0 Satelite Applications
elements, Applications
6.1 VSAT systems: Advantages, configurations, frequency bands,
6.2 Broadcast services: Television broadcast systems, DAB,
with
6.3 Mobile satellite communication: INMARSAT, LMSS, mobile satellite systems
non GEO satellites

6.4 Satellite navigation systems

satellite link transmitter,
6.5 Laser Satellite Communication: Link analysis, optical
& positioning, deep
optical satellite link receiver, satellite beam acquisition, tracking
space optical communication link
6.6 Recent applications

6.7 Modern development and future trends

Total 48
 PTER
1 Introduction to Satellite
Communication
Module1

1.1 INTRODUCTION AN OVERVIEW OF SPACE AND SATELLITE.. 1-2

1.2 FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS FOR
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION. 1-3
1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A
SATELLITE cOMMUNICATION SYSTEM. ******* *************************************
1-5
1.3.1 Block Diagram of
Satellite Communication
a
System. 1-5
1.4 TYPES OF SATELLITES...
************* °**** *°'************* *********'"''***°******'*************"**********************"* 1-6
1.4.1 Communication Satellites..
***°*************"***********" ************'**'°***"'''**********?*********************** 1-6
1.4.2 Remote Sensing Satellites ************* **********************************"**************°*********'"*****°********
. 11-7
"*******

1.4.3 Weather Satellites...

*******"*****°***""*****"*****"************* ***** **"********************"******"*****°***°'°*********" 1-7
1.4.4 Scientific Satellites
***'*********************"''**********°'***°*********°°****"*****'*****°******°***",******°°'**°°'**°** 1-7
1.5 SATELLITE FREQUENCY PLANS AND ALLOCATIONS..
******* *********°'*********°********************* ***************°******°*****°'

1.5.1 Uplink Frequency . *************

*******"**************""******""******************"****
UQ 1.5.1 Why uplink frequency is diferent from downlink frequency ? Explain. (MU May 12, 5 Marks).
-

1-7
1.5.2 Downlink Frequency...
1-8
UQ 1.5.2 Why uplink frequency is different from downlink frequency ? Explain. (MU - May 12, 5 Marks). . . 1-8
1.5.3 Satellite Attitude..
***** ***" ****************************************"********************"*****"°***°****'*********************"**
* 1-9

1.6 ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION OVER TERRESTRIAL COMMUNICATION.. **********************s*** 1-9

UQ. 1.6.1 What are the advantages of satellite communication over terrestrial communication?
(MU- May 12, May 14,5 Marks)... 1-9
1.7 DRAWBACKS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION.. *e*s***************************************************e************************ 1-10
1.8 SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS. 1-10
1.9 SIGNIFICANCE Of MICROWAVE IN SATELLITE COMMUNICATION...
*****************************************°.**** **°'**** 1-11
Ua. 1.9.1 Explain the significance of microwave frequencies in satellite communication.
(MU - May 14,5 Marks). *****************************°**"***********************"*a**.****"********** *****° ****************1**
-11

1.10 APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION...

***********************************************************************°"******"************* 1-11
1.11 POLAR ORBITING SATELLITES.. *aaso************************************ *******************""*********************""****""""*******°***
1-12

Chapter End ssusuena us *su******m*snesne****a***ass******wseuBumea**nssnssmumesseeaaueneeauuuapuuuasnenuusanmenesasa*e*a**********B*a***********" 1-12

.
 Introduction to Satellite Communication
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 1-2

SATELLITE
1.1 INTRODUCTION : AN OVERVIEW OF SPACE AND
communication or gatnering
What is a satellite ?: A satellite is an artificial body placed in an orbit around the earth for
information. e.g. Earth is a satellite as it is orbiting the sun.

A satellite receives. amplifies and transmits analog as well as digital signals on a particular radio irequeney

A communication satellite is employed for telecommunication, radio and television signals.

The first satellite was launched in 1957. Satellite communication opened up a new area for communication
ne line of sight communication range was limited due to the earth's curvature. Hence, for long distance

communication, we required to develop a different technique like satellite communication.

Satellite communication is a directline of sight communication direct down to the earth. It solved many problems in the

field of communication.

Satellite communication does not require any cables or repeater stations for long distance communication.

Function of the satellite: The function of the satellite is to get the infornmation from an earth station and retransmit
that information, acting as a repeater station.

With the help of satellite we can cover a specific limited area for transmission. This area is called as satellite coverage
area or footprint area. It can be as high as 40% of total surface area facing the satellite and as low as a few square
kilometres.
The earth station within the coverage area can communicate directly with the satellite.

Any point of globe can be communicated with the help of satelite communication. This has made information
exchange between two countries very easy.

A satellite is launched well above the surface of earth. Satellite communication has a lot of applications.
As satellite is launched well above the surface of earth, it receives the solar
energy from the sun for more than 95% of
the period. Hence, by conversion of solar energy to electric energy we can
provide power to operate the circuit in the
satellite. For conversion of solar energy to electric energy large solar panels are
provided such that face the sun. In
absence of sunlight, batteries are used to provide power to the satellite. The life of
satellite is large and most of the
power is taken from the sun i.e. solar energy.

We know that the function of the satellite is to take the information

from the earth station and
retransmit that
information the given area. Satellite takes the information from one or more
to
earth station
This received information is filtered,
on one
frequency band.
amplified and retransmitted to the required area on some other
frequency band.
For transmission and reception separate frequencies are used so that they do not mix with each other.
The construction and launch cost of the satellite is
extremely high. These costs are "distance
for a short distance satellite link is same as the cost of a
insensitive", i.e. the cost
long distance satellite link. Hence, satellite
system is economical where the system is continuously used and has a communication
large number of users using it.
Few channels of the satellite are used for the
broadcasting of television signals. As these satellites
the TV receivers, they are called as Direct Broadcast Satellites broadcast directly to
(DBS).

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Satelite Communication(MU-Sem 8-E&TC)_
the television and cable networks are telecasted by the oGule
All the national and international channels that we see today on

DBS systems.
other events.
Cameras and antennas are installed on the satellite so that it can take pictures of the earth's surface and
and operating signals from the earth stations. Such satellites are

Some satellites transmit information and receive control

etc.
used for air traffic control, radar, navigation, survey, weather forecasting

COMMUNICATION
1.2 FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS FOR SATELLITE
requires international co-ordination
to satellite services is a complicated process. It
The job of allocating frequencies
and planning.
frequency allocation, the world
(ITU) carries out this process. For proper
The Intermational Telecommunication Union

is divided into three regions as showa in Fig. 1.2.1.

WORLD

Region 3
Region 1 Region-2
Asia (excluding region 1 areas)
North America
Europe Australia
Africa South America South West Pacific
.Greenland
Soviet Union
Mongolia
Fig. 1.2.1: Division of world for frequency allocation
bands are allocated to various satellite services. Some of the services provided by
Within these regions, frequency
satellites are shown in Fig. 1.2.2.
Services provided by satellites

Mobile satellite Navigational satelite Meteorological satellite

Fixed satellite Broadcasting satellite services
services (FSS) services (BSS) services services

Used for global Used for search

positioning systems and rescue work
TV signal This a direct
Telephone (GPS)
networks transmission broadacasting
satellite Land Maritime Aeronautical
mobile mobile mobile
Fig. 1.2.2: Services provided by the satellites

Table 1.2.1 lists the frequency band designations in common use for satellite services.
Table 1.2.1

Frequency range, GHz| Band designation

0.1-0.3 VHF

0.3-1.0 UHF

1.0-2.0 L

2.0-4.0 S
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Frequency range, GHz Band designation

4.0-8.0 C

8.0-12.0 X

12.0 18.0 Ku

18.0 27.0 K

27.0-40.00 Ka

40.0 755 V

75-110 W

110-300 mm

00 3000 um

Ku band
It is placed above the K and Ka band.

The propagation effects in this band are rain attenuation is more, ionospheric scintillation, atmospheric absorption. Also

Faraday's rotation effect is less.

It is used for maritime mobile, global positioning systems, direct broadcast satellite services (DBS) and some fixed
satellite services.

C-band
It is used for fixed satellite services and broadcast satellite services.

The propagation effects are

i) lonospheric scintillation and atmospheric absorption is less.

(i) Rain attenuation is negligible

(iii) Faradays rotation affects signals more in this band.

VHF band
It is used for certain mobile and navigational services.

It is also used for data transfer from weather satellites.

L band
It is used for mobile satellite services and navigational systems.

The high frequency Ku and Ka bands are extensively used. They have the advantage of
high bandwidth with reduced
antenna size. It has led to the development of DTH direct to home services. The individual home users can receive TV
and broadcast services using antennas small as 30-50 cm.

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1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Module

I
A geostationary communication satelite is basically a relay station in space. It receives signal from one earth station,

amplifies it, improves the signal quality and radiate the signal back to other earth stations. Such a relay system allows us to
communicate with any coner of the world.

13.1 Block Diagram ofa Satelite Communication System

GQ. 1.3.1 What are the elements of a satellite communication system ? Explain each with a suitable
block diagram.
The block diagram of a satellite communication system is shown in Fig. 1.3.1. An earth station transmits information

signal to the satellite using a highly directional dish antenna.

The satellite receives this signal, processes it and transmits it back at a reduced frequency.

The receiving earth stations will receive this signal using parabolic dish antennas pointed towards the satellite.

Satellite

Uplink Downlink
6GHz 4GHz

Dish antenna Parabolic

dish antenna

Transmitting Earth Receiving

earth station earth station

Fig. 1.3.1 : Basic operation of satellite communication system

i) The signal which is being transmitted upwards to the satellite is called as the "up-link" and it is normally at a frequency
of 6 GHz.

i) The signal which is transmitted back to the receiving earth station is called as the "down link" and it is normally at a
frequency of 4 GHz.

) Thus, a satellite has to receive, process and transmit the signal. All these functions are performed by a unit called
satelite transponder. A communication satellite generally has two sets of transponders, each set having 12 transponders
making it a total of 24 transponders. Each transponder has a bandwidth of 36 MHz which is sufficient to handle at least
one TV channel.

v) The upink signal received by a transponder is weak and downink signal transmitted by the transponder is strong.
Therefore to avoid interference between them, the uplink and downlink frequencies are selected to be of
different values.

(The operation of satellite takes place at a very high signal frequencies in the microwave range. The typical band of
signal frequencies used for the communication satellites are as follows:

1. Cband: 4/6 GHz

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Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC)
2. Ku band: 12/14 GHz
3. Ka band 20/30 GHz frequency is 6 GHz.
GHz while
the uplink
frequency is 4
he c b a n d frequencies of 4/6 GHz indicate that the downlink and o n r C o p o u C n t s
reduction in the size of antennas
is
O c
advantages operating at such a high frequency
of
of the system. routines sucn as
control
earth. Therefore
of the satellite with respect to
t s Cxuremely important to maintain the position
in the earth stations.
station keeping and attitude control are executed from the control room

(Time Division Multiple

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple
Access), TDMA
uple access methods such as number
satellite to the maximum
allow the access of a
ACCess) and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) are used to
of earth stations.
Carned Dy Une
batteries,
set of nickel cadmium
V) Ihe power requirement of a satellite is satisfied by solar panels and a

satellite itself.
?
frequency is used for downlink
- ~ * - - - - * - -

4 GHz
GQ. 13.2 why 6 aHz frequency is used for uplink and
----
/ 4 GHz system i.e. 6 GHz uplink frequency and 4 GHz downlink frequency system is widely used because o

followingreasons:
(a) The sky noise is low at 4 GHz. We can easily construct a receiving system with low noise temperature.

(b) Rain attenuation is not much at 4 GHz and 6 GHz.

(c)At such high frequencies, the antenna size is reduced. This reduces the cost of equipment.

1.4 TYPES OF SATELLITES

GQ 14.1 Explain the different types of satellites

Satellites are divided in four major categories as follows:

(i) Communication satellite. ii) Remote-sensing satellite.

(ii) Weather satellite. (iv) Scientific satellite.

1.4.1 Communication Satellites

Geostationary satellites when used for the communication applications are called communication satellites.

They are used in applications such as point to point communication, radio broadcasting, TV transmission, military
applications, commercial applications.

Communication satellites are classified based on the coverage area as global, regional or domestic satellites.

A term "NTELSAT" is often used in satellite communication. INTELSAT means International Telecommunication
Satellites.
These are communication satellites which are used for communication of telephony, computer data, TV signals etc.
More than 140 nations are interconnected via the INTELSAT system.

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1.4.2 Remote Sensing Satellites Module

This type of satellites can be used to find out the condition of crops, forests or minerals under ground, condition of soil
etc.

Indian satellite IRS is a remote sensing satellite. From the information obtained from the remote sensing satellites
detailed maps can be prepared.

1.4.3 Weather Satellites

These satellites are used for weather prediction, for taking the photographs of clouds. TIROS-1 was the first weather
satellite. Other weather satellites are Nimbus and Meteosat.
India's "INSAT" satellite is being used for three applications i.e. communications, TV transmission and meteorology or

weather prediction. Thus it is a multipurpose satellite.

a1.4.4 Scientific Satellitess

These satellites are relatively simpler and of short life span. They are used to carry out various scientific studies. India's

"Aryabhatta" was a scientific satellite.

1.5 SATELLITE FREQUENCY PLANS AND ALLOCATIONS

Satellite

Uplink Downlink
8 GHz 4 GHz

Dish antenna Parabolic

dish antenna

Earth Receiving
Transmitting
earth station earth station

Fig. 1.5.1: Uplink and downlink frequencies

The range of frequencies used for the satellite communication is from 3 to 30 GHz. This range is known as microwave
band of frequencies.
Due to such a high frequency the signals travel through the atmosphere and ionosphere without obstruction, absorption
or deflection.

1.5.1 Uplink Frequency

UQ 1.5.1 Why uplink firequency is differert from downlink frequency ? Explain (MU May 12, 5 Marks)

As shown in Fig. 1.5.1, the signal to be transmitted such as a telephone signal is converted to another signal having a
particular microwave frequency by the transmiter in the earth station. This signal is then transmitted "up" towards the
satellite.
Therefore the frequency of signal transmitted from earth station to satelite is called as "Uplink frequency".
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This is to facilitate the
The uplink frequency is downlink frequency.
gencrally higher than the corresponding

satellite to down convert this

frequency. an
are being transmitted by earth
The
power associated with the uplink signals can be adequately large as these signals
station.
The amount of power required to be transmitted using the uplink depends on the type oof beam used. r the beam is

narrow then less power is

required to be transmitted.
1.5.2 Downlink Frequency
UQ 1.5.2 Why uplink frequency is different from downlink frequency ? Explain. MU May 12, 5 Marks)

c Saente receives signal coming from the earth station, amplifies it, changes its frequency and radiate dack to the

earth.

The frequency of signal transmitted from satelite towards the earth is called as "Downlink Frequeney

Uplink and downlink frequencies to be assigned to various satellites are decided by international authority 1e.

International Telecommunication Union.

Why uplink frequency is different from downlink frequency ?

Uplink and downlink frequencies are different from each other to avoid their interference with each other.
Uplink frequencies are always higher than the downlink frequencies.
DITerent frequency ranges are used in satellite communication for different applications. The uplink and downlink

frequencies for each range are different as shown in Table 1.5.1.

Table 1.5.1:Frequency bands, uplink down link frequencies and applications

Sr. Frequency Uplink Downlink Bandwidth Applications

No. band frequency frequeney GHz GHz
GHz

1. UHF Band 0.292-0.312 0.25 -0.27 o.02 Military applications.

2. S-band 3.2-3.7 1.8-2.3 0.5 TV transmission. Used by Doordarshan to
transmit its 14 different language
channels.
3. C-band 5.9-6.4 3.7-4.2 0.5 TV broadcast e.g. star TV programs.
4. X-band 7.9-8.4 7.25 7.75 0.5 Military use. Mobile radio relay (ship,
aircraft).
5. Ku band 14 14.5 11.7- 12.2 0.5 TV broadcast, Non military
applications.
6. Ka band 27-30 17-20 Commercial broadcasting.
(commercial)

7. Ka band 30-31 20-21

Military.
(military)
8. V-band 50-51 40-41 Non military applications.

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The C andX bands are the most widely used frequency bands. They have a bandwidth
As
of 0.5 GHz i.e. 500 MHz. Module
more number of satellites are
being launched every year this bandwidth is not sufficient.
Therefore higher frequency bands (Ka, Ku and V bands) are
bandwidth is also
being made available. As seen from Table 1.5.1 their
higher than that of C and X bands and they can
accommodate more number of channels.
1.5.3 Satellite Attitude

GQ. 1.5.3 What do you mean by satellite attitude?

-

Satellite attitude is the orientation of a satellite with respect to the earth. The attitude control of satellites is essential
along with station keeping for optimum performance.
The attitude of the satellite must be
controlled so that the satellite antennas be
on the earth.
can
pointed towards the correct locations

Attitude control is also

necessary to keep the solar pannels pointed toward sun. Attitude control is maintained by a
combination of satellite stabilization
techniques and jet thrusters for correction purpose.
A three axis
stabilization or attitude control is normally Ptch axis
employed. The three axes are referred to as pitch, roll
and yaw.

These are as shown in Fig. 1.5.2. The actual correction

is carried Roll axis
out by firing the jet thrusters. Three axis
stabilization is much more accurate than the other
Yaw axis
methods of stabilization. Fig. 1.5.2: Axes used in determining the satellite attitude

1.6 ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION oVER TERRESTRIAL

COMMUNICATIONN
UQ. 16.1 What are the advantages of satellite communication over terrestrial communication

(MU-
May 12, May 14, 5 Marks
Satellite communication has the following advantages over terrestrial communication.

Coverage : Satellite cover a large geographic area in comparison to that of a terrestrial system. Satellites cover the

entire globe
2.
Bandwidth:Satellite communications have higher bandwidth available for use
3 Transmission cost The transmission cost of asatellite isindependent ofthedistance from centre of coverage arca
whereasfor a terrestrial network thetransmissioncostisproportionalto thedistance from thecentre ofcoveragearea
Universal : Satellite communication is virtually available everywhere.
Installation : The satellites can be rapidly installed., After the satellite is installed communication can be quickly
established with new services. Thetime neededforinstalling terestrial circuits is more.

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search and
rescue, naviganon, military
6. c o m m u n i c a t i o n requirements for
applications like

weather forecasting, in comparison to terrestrial communication. are pOint-to-point

terrestrial relays
multipoint and
Broadcast: Satellite relays are wide area broadcast i.e. point to
broadcast.
terrestrial
y : A satellite does not get afected by natural
calamities like flood, fire, earthquakes ike
communication.
to
Salellite communication is more reliable as there is no signal fading. Multipath refiectiOns n comparison
e
terrestrial communication.
communication are less in comparison to terestar colcalon
e e r e n c e The interference effects in satellite
Flexible : Satellite communication is flexible in connecting different mobile devices while terrestrialcommunication
bas limitations.
1.7 DRAWBACKS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

GQ. 1.7.1 What are thedrawbacks ofsatellite communication ?

The drawbacks ofsatellite communication are as follows:

1 Thecost of launchingthesatelliteintoanorbitisveryhigh.
2 Thereis apropagation delay.
3. Afterthe satellite is launched,repair is notpossible
4 High free space loss.
1.8 SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
L8.1 Explain the yst des ratio

The design considerations for a satellite system are as follows

1 Nature of servicetobe provided e.g data, voice, mobile,fixed ctc

Radio frequency selection depending onthe application.

3 Design objectives for meeting the required signal quality with parameters like system
cost and technology
4 Orbital parameters.
5.
Spectrum availability or coverage
6 Satellite multiple access method.
7 The desired propagation characteristics.
8 Radio regulations.
9 Satellite modulation and coding method,

10 Allowedearth station size and ocomplexity,

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11. Payload Module
12. Signal in space.
1.9 SIGNIFICANCE Of MICROWAVE IN SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
UQ. 1.9. Explain the significance of microwave frequencies in satellite communication.

(MU May 14, 5 Marks);

- - - - - - - .

The significance advantages of using microwave and millimeter waves in satellite

/
communication are as follows
1. Improved bandwidth availability : Use of microwave and millimeter
frequencies supports many information channels
for telephone network, TV
networks, military and defense applications, space communication.
2. Transparency property: Microwaves and millimeter waves can easily propagate through the ionosphere and reach
satellite. The ionosphere is opaque at lower the
frequencies.
3. Fading effect and reliability: At high frequency fading effect is less supporting microwave and millimeter
satellite communication reliable.
wave
4 Broadcast: Communication can be point-to point or multi point.
Wide applications : The use of microwave and millimeter waves in satellite communication
support a wide number of
applications.
6. Microwave and millimeter waves provide directive beams and small and efficient antenna
designs.
7. With microwaves and millimeter waves high capacity data can be transmitted over long distances.

Use of microwave frequency and milimeter waves increases the coverage area.
1 . 1 0 APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

GQ. 1.10.1 Explain the applications of satelite communication.

The important applications are as follows:

The main application of satellite communication is in the field of communication. The communication of video signals|
(TV), audio signals(telephones, satellite phones)andcomputer data (internet).
|2 To gain meteorological or weatherinfonmation. The photographs taken by the satellites are analyzed for predicting
weather.
3 To monitor the status of earth'sresources such as land, forests and oceans. We can get very important information about
crops, lakes, rivers, forests, fire etc.
To spot out mineralresources,pollutedareas, sources of pollution etc.

Direct broadcast by satellite.

Responding to discrete calls from chips.
Worldwide paging service.
8 To provide a useful back-up for existingterrestrial services.
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9. Instant contact with news reporters from inaccessible areas.

applications such as in auto,
retail and Dusiness seetois
OA(Very small aperture terminals) provide numeroUs
11. Toprovide live television to ships using advanced picture compression technqu
12. To track movements of yachts or truck fleets.

13. Mobile satellite communication.

14. Messaging and voice communication.
1.11 POLAR ORBITING SATELLITES
GQ. 1.11.1 Explain polar orbiting satellites.

The satellites that orbit the earth in such a manner that they
the polar regions
cover are called as Polar orbiting satellites
There are infinite number of polar orbits.

In US, the NPOESS (National Polar Orbiting Operational

Environmental Satellite System) was developed in 1994 for
Satellite
performing polar satellite operations of the U.S. air force,
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)
and NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).

The polar orbits are circular. They are located 800-900 Km

above the earth.
Polar orbit
Fig. 1.11.1: Polar orbit
The polar orbiting satellites are able to sense the weather conditions and thus used for
weather monitoring and
environmental studies

The polar orbiting satellites have a orbital period of 102 min. Number of orbits per day= 1440 min= 14.
102

Chapter Ends..

OO0
 AAPTER
2) Orbits and Launching

2 Module 1
2-4
2.1 INTRODUCTION.************°****°******************.***************r s******o************ee*************s********************a0**o*****************
**... 2-4
2.1.1 Equatorial Orbit or Geostationary Orbit.. *************"********************************************e*******************************************

Explain what is meant by geostationaryorbit. (MU- Dec. 14, 2.5 Marks) 24

UQ. 2.1.2
.. 2-6
2.1.1(A) Advantages of Equatorial Orbit.. ***********************************************************************************s******************s********

.2-7
2.1.1(B) Drawbacks of Equatorial Orbit. *****
****************************************************************************"*****

2.1.2 Geosynchronous Orbit. *******************************************************************o********************************s*s*****oo************

2-7
Comparison between Geostationary and Geosynchronous Orbit.
****************************************e**********************
2.1.3
2.7
UQ. 2.1.6 How do geostationary differ from geosynchronous ? (MU - Dec. 14, 2.5 Marks).. **********e***************e*.

Polar O r b
*********************a*******e*o******************************************************************************************************
it.. .2-8
2.1.4
2.1.4(A) Advantages of Polar Orbit..****************.**************.************ .
os***************s*nntseeennsonsoe********s*s*s***eo****** 2-8

2.1.4(B) Drawbacks of Polar Orbit... ***********************e**************************************************************************************************

.. 2-9
2.1.5 Inclined Orbit .
ua. 2.1.10 Why does a satelite in highly inclined elliptical orbit spend most of its orbital period over higher
latitude regions? (MU-May 16, Q. 1(aM), Dec.16,2.5Marks).
***************************************************************
2-99
2.1.5(A) Advantage and Disadvantage of Highly Inclined Orbit...
Ua. 2.1.11 What are the advantages and disadvantages of highly inclined orbit? (MU - May 16, 2.5 Marks). 2-9

2.1.6 Prograde Orbit. 2-10

2.1.7 Retrograde Orbit**************es*********************************************************************************************************************.2-10

KEPLER'S LAWS GOVERNING SATELLITE MOTION.*****************************************e******************** ************
2-10
2.2
Explain Kepler's laws. (MU- May 12, 5Marks). -10
UQ. 2.2.1 *osseoenssp*o*osesens************************

State and explain Kepler's laws. (MU- May 14, a. 1(o), Dec. 18, 5 Marka).
****************************************
2-10
UQ. 2.2.2
..2-10
2.2.1 Kepler's First Law. **********s**o**p**nssesnensroseensoaseooeesee*****************s************sosnessessosso**ioeeos*o*pese*******os**se***

Explain Kepler's laws. (MU- May 12, 5 Marks).*******************a*****e**********************************.********sna**asno***** -10

UQ. 2.2.3
Kepler's Second Law . . 2-11
saassaaae**asassosaneaeaasssasnnun**ss**** ***************************
2.2.2
2-11
UQ. 2.2.4 Explain Kepler's laws. (MU May 12, 5 Marks).
- ***********************************************************************************C

2.2.3 Kepler's Thid Law **************

.2-11

T*********************************************************************nsnspsenunr
Explain Kepler's laws. (MU - May 12, 5 Marks).. -11
Ua. 2.2.5
2.3 DEFINITIONS Of TERMS FOR EARTH ORBITING SATELLITES..oson*****sss*****s*****.. ********oen*
*****************
2-12

UQ. 2.3.1 Explain the following terms with reference to satellite communication..****************************************nsn C
2-12

0 Apogee, perigee Ascending node, descending node

Gi) Argument of perigee 6iv) Right ascension of ascending node
*o******************************* 2-12
(v)Mean anomaly, eccentric anomaly. (MU May 12, 10 Marks)..
-

Ua. 2.3.2 Define (i) True anomaly and mean anomaly. (MU Dec. 12,5 Marks). ********************************************** 2-13

ua. 2.3.3 Explain the following

)Argument of perigee
(i) Right ascension of ascending node. (MU -May 13, Dec. 13, 5 Marks).. ******************°********
i 2-13
 Orbits and Launchino
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-2
expect them to
UQ. 2.3.4 Explain what is meant by ascending and descending *********************'*********************************
nodes. Would you a.***********'************°****

2-13
change with time ? Explain. (MU Dec. 14, 5 Marks).
-

UQ. 2.3.5 with zero eccen

it is not possible to have an elliptical satellite orbit
Wny
*s******************************.., ..2-13
2-

(MU- May 15, 5 Marks).. **************** *********************"°*******

5
1(c), May 19, Marks)...*s 2-13
UQ. 2.3.6 Dec. 18, a.
Oerent orbital parameters. (MU Q, 1(d),
-

UQ. 2.3.7 zero eccentriciny

to have an elliptical satelite orbit with
t possible *****s************** **************...
15
(MU May 15, Marks).
-

5
**************** ********************************

UQ. 2.3.8 swer.

Is the velocity of satellite constant in an elliptic orbit ? Justity your ai
****************o******"******************************......
2-15 2

(MU-Dec. 17, 2 Marks).. *********************** *************

e*******"*******"*******"***********.
"2-15
2.4 ORBITAL ELEMENTS "****************** *****s*******************"*****
*****"**********

*****************s
*****************s***** .. 2-16
*********************************************s...s...
2.5 APOGEE AND PERIGEE HEIGHTS...
2.6 ORBITAL PERTURBATIONS/ORBITAL EFFECTS. *********************************************
********************"***** ****'***°**** .2-17

UQ. 2.6.1 ************************************"************.. 2-17

Write note on orbital perturbation. (MU May 12, 7 Marks).-

UQ. 2.6.2 Descnbe various reasons for perturbation of satellite orbit. (MU - May 13, Dec. 13, 10 Marks)..2-17

UQ. 2.6.3 Wwnte note on orbital parameters. (MUu- May 13, Dec. 13, May 14, May 15, 5 Marks). 2-17
UQ. 2.6.4 DISCuss Dnetly how perturbations affects the planetary motion. (MU Dec. 14, 10 Marks). *******. 2-17
Ua.2.6.5 Define 'Satellite perturbation', their causes and effects. (MU - Q. 3(a), May 19, 10 Marks).. 217

2.6.1 Efects ofa Non Spherical Earth/Effect of the Earth's Oblateness. ***********************************************
.2-17
2.6.2
Atmospheric Drag. *****************************************ecersase** *******a*********************"********************** 2-21
2.6.3 Effects of the Sun and Moon...
*************** ec**************************e*******************************"***. 2-21
2.6.4 Solar Radiation Pressure... 2-21
2.6.5 Doppler Effects..
**************************r .s *o*reassore**********************"******************************* 2-21
2.7 DEFINITIONS RELATED TO SATELLITE. 2-22
UQ. 2.7.1Define Satellite velocity and satellite period. (MU Dec. 12, 5 -
Marks).. ***********°******************°°*************** .2-22
2.8 PREDICTING SATELLITE POSITION..
*********************************************ssososee******* *******.********.*r . ..2-23
2.9 ANTENNA LOOK ANGLES..
************************************* "*****************************"*****"**************"******************°**a*** 2-24
UQ. 2.9.1 What are look angles ? Explain its
significance in relation to satellite position
(MU -May 13, 4 Marks, Dec. 13, 10 Marks)...
*************************************.**************************************
UEx. 2.9.1 (MU May 14, 10 Marks). ***s*******************************************************************°''"******"******°°***********°*"****.
-

2-28
UEx. 2.9.2 (MU- May 13, Dec. 13, 10 Marks).
******************************************************************** ******.**** 2-29
UEx. 2.9.3 (MU May 12, 10 Marks).
-

*********************************************************************************************e********** 2-29
.
2.10 POLAR MOUNT ANTENNA.*****
2.11 LIMITS OF VISIBILITY..
*****"**************** ******************************************************************************************************************* 2-30
Ua. 2.11.1 What is limit of visibility of satellite***********************""""******************************************************************
? How it is calculated ?
.2-31
(MU Dec. 16, 5 Marks). -

2-31 e**s****n
2.12 NEAR GEOSTATIONARY
ORBITS..
2.13 EARTH ECLIPSE OF SATELLITE.. .2-33
S "*s
UQ. 2.13.1 Write note earth
******************************"******"************************************a****s *e************ 2-33
on eclipse of satellite. (MU May 12,7
Marks).
-

uQ. 2.13.2 What is eclipse ? Is there any ways of **************************"**************2-33

avoiding eclipse during launch of satellite.
(MU- May 13, 10 Marks). Explain in detail.
UQ. 2.13.3 What is eclipse ? Are there any ways of 2-33
avoiding eclipse during lifetime of satellite.
(MU Dec. 13, May 18, 10 Marks)..
*****.ssn** ***u*nm
UQ. 2.13.4 Explain what is meant by earth eclipse of an earth-orbiting satellite ? *****a******** 2-34
operate with a satellite positioned west rather than Why it is preferable to
east, of earth station
(MU - Dec. 16, 5 Marks).
longitude ?
**************""***"*******************.***************.*************************"********* 2-34

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 Satelite Communication (MU-Sem8-E&TC) 2-3 Orbits and Launching
UQ. 2.13.5 Explain earth eclipse of satelite with neat sketches.
State and derive the period and duration Module
10 Marks).. *************o********. 2-34
2°0

of eclipse before and after equinox. (MU Q. 5(b), May 19,

-

? How it is affecting satellite operation ?

UQ. 2.13.6 Explain with diagram what is "Umbra" and "penumbra" ***
***********************st***************************************************************************** 2-35
(MU-May 17, 4 Marks).
..
"*********************************""******************************************************************************************** 2-36
2.14 SUN TRANSIT OUTAGE...
UQ. 2.14.1 Explain the following Sun transit outage. (MU - May 12, 3 Marks). ******************************************"**********E 2-36

Ua. 2.14.2 Explain the Sun Transitoutage. (MU-Q. 5(b), May 19, 2 Marks). ********************************************* .2-36
2-36

2.15 SUN SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT...

UQ. 2.15.2 Why is it preferable for a remote sensing satellite to be in sun synchronized orbits? 2-36
************************s*******o*******ss*ssess*eis********************s*s************************************
(MU-Dec. 16, 2.5 Marks). .2-38
2.16 LAUNCHES AND LAUNCH VEHICLES.. ********************************** ******************* *************************"******"*******

Ua. 2.16.1 Explain the various stages in launching of a geostationary satelite into final circular
2-38
orbit with zero inclination by ELV. (MU May 12, 12 Marks).
- .*.************************

UQ. 2.16.2 Compare ELV and STS methods to launch a satellite in GEO orbit.
********************************e*******************************************************"************ .2-38
(MU-May 13, Dec. 13,5 Marks).
Ua. 2.16.3 What are different methods of launching satellite ? Explain. (MU - May 14, 10 Marks). ****************
". 2-38

Ua. 2.16.4 Write short note on Launching mechanism. (MU - May 17, 5 M a r k s
********************************************
).. .2-38

Compare Explain Launching of Geo stationary satelites. (MU May 18, 5 Marks)..
2-38
*********************
UQ.2.16.5
-

.2-38
.16.1 Selection of Launch Vehicle and Zero and Non-zero Degree Latitude Launching. ***********************************.

ua. 2.16.6 Eplain minimum incilination at launch of a satelite. (MU May 12, 4 Marks).. ******************************.
-
..2-38

L a u n c h P a d , L a u n c h W i n d o w *************************************************es***********************s******************************** 2-40
2.16.2
Sea Launch.....
********************************************o****************************************************************************************"
2-40
2.16.3
2.16.4 Launch Vehicles..
*******************************************"*************************************************************************** ****2-40
ua. 2.16.7 Explain Launching of Geostationary satelites. (MU -Q. 1a), Dec. 18, 5 Marks)..************************* .2-40

2.16.4(A) Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV).. 2-41

2.16.4(B) Space Transport System (STS) or Space Shuttle.. .r*soasseses*********o*sannea****************************

2-43

2.16.4(C) Difference between ELV and STS Methods to Launch Satellite..

ua. 2.16.8 Compare ELV and STS method. (MU - May 13, Dec. 13,5 Marks) ** 2-44

2.16.5 Indian Launch Vehicles. . . .su****.*snsssannsss*sosnsssnnnn**** **************sseeaene******************** 2-44

2.16.5(A) Satelite Launch Vehicle(SLV-3). 2-45
2.16.5(B) Augmented Satelite Launch Vehicle (ASLV). 2-45
2.16.5(C) Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle(PSLV). ****************************" ******* 2-45
2.16.5(D) Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle(GSLV).. *********. 2-46
2.17 SOLVED EXAMPLES...
*************************************************************************************************************** **********. 2-465

UEx. 2.17.12 (MU- May 12, 10 Marks). ******************************s**************************nnoror**rre. 2-52

UEx. 2.17.13 (MU - Dec. 12, 10 M a r k s
*****s**e**************
).. ********************** 2-52
********************"******************* .

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 Orbits and Launching
=
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-4

M2.1 INTRODUCTION
* * * * 7 * * *

GQ. 2.1.1 How is the satellite located in orbit?

arc callcd as
paths. These patns
what is a satellite orbit ? The satellite can be rotated around the earth through different
orbits of the satellite.
The satellite orbits are used to cover the required application areas.
force on it balances the gravitatdonal
wnen a Satellite is moving in the orbit, it remains at a position as the centripetal
force of the earth. The balance is dependent on the following parameters

(i) The distance from the earth, (i) Gravitational force of the earth,

(ii) Earth's radius and iv) Speed of the satellite.

Fig. 2.1.1 shows the different satellite orbits.

Polar orblt

Inclined orblt

Subsatellite- Equetorlal orblt

polnt

Fig. 2.1.1: Satellite orbits

Depending on parameters like period for which satellite is visible to earth, delay time, transmission path loss, basis of
coverage required etc. the orbit of satellite is accordingly selected.

Types ofsatellite orbits:

The orbits of satellite are classified as,

| () Equatorial orbits (ii) Polar orbits. (ii) Inclined orbits

2.1.1 Equatorial Orbit or Geostationary Orbit

UQ. 2.1.2 Explain what is meant by geostationary orbit

(MU Dec. 14, 2.5
Marks
When the satellite rotates in an orbit above the equator it is called as an
equatoríal orbit or circular or geostationary
orbit. It is shown in Fig. 2.1.1.

The circular equatorial orbit is exactly in the plane of equator on the earth. All the
points on this orbit
from the earth's surface.
are equidistant

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 Orbits and Launching
2-5
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC)
earth's angular Module
orbit ?: If the satellite rotating in this orbit has the angular velocity equal to the
What is a geostationary appears to be
velocity, then the satellite is said to be moving along with the earth. It
the earth. Hence, it is called as geostationary orbit.
stationary to the point on
these
earth station and have an hour availability time. Hence,
remain in a fixed position with respect to a given
They
satellites are used for fixed point communication.
is
inclination of the geostationary orbit
zero.

The geostationary orbit lies in the equatorial plane. This indicates that the

The satellite must orbit the earth in the

same direction as the earth's spin and at the same speed.
indicating that it
orbiting in the geostationary orbit are called as geostationary satellites. (Geostationary
The satellites

appears to be stationary with respect to the earth).

geostationary three conditions need to be satisfied. They
are:
For an orbit to be

() The orbitmust be circular.

(i) The inclination of the orbit must be zero.
rotation speed of the earth.
(ii) The satellite should travel in the east direction with rotation speed equal to the
a

be zero. We know that the circular

The second condition states that the inclination of the orbit must
in the plane of equator on the earth. All points on this
orbit are at an equal
orbit is
equatorial/geostationary exactly
distance from the earth's surface.

the north and south. It would then not

Now, if this satellite is inclined then the satellite will move somewhere towards
be geostationary. Hence, the satellite is given zero inclination so that the orbit lies in the earth's equatorial plane.

The third condition states that the satellite must travel towards the east with a rotational speed same as that of the
earth. If a satellite appears to be stationary it must rotate with the earth's rotational speed that is constant.

The first condition follows from Kepler's second law. Constant speed indicates hat cqual areas must be swept out in

equal times. This conditions will occur only if the orbits is circular.
The rotational speed of the earth around its axis is 23 hours and 56 minutes. The satellite in the geostationary orbit
should complete its rotation around the earth in the same period of 23 hours and 56 minutes.

Now let us find the height of the geostationary orbit.

Letr be the radius of the geostationary orbit. To find the radius ofthe orbit we will make use of Kepler's third law.

'. 2.1.1)

Where rradiusof orbit; P period 23 hours, 56 minutes.

H 3.986005 x10 m'/sec?.
The period is the time taken for one revolution about its N-S axis. Substituting in Equation (2.1.1) we get,

r 42164 km ...(2.1.2)
The radius of earth is, R 6378km
.(2.1.3)
The centripetal force acting on the satellite will be mro, such thatm: mass of the satellite, and o: angular velocity of
the satellite.

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 Orbits and Launching

Satelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-ERTC) 2-6 fearth.

o*
ma>
M :
constant and
eravitational
torce on the satellite will be G is the
5 a
At any point on the geostationary orbit.

Gravitational force = centripetal force. ...(2.1.4)

GmM
mro

gravitational force is mg. g is the

acceleration due to graviy
At the earth's surface ..(2.1.5)
GmM mg

From Equations (2.1.4) and (2.1.5)

f = I revolution/ day.

R 6378 km
r = 42164 km
8 9.9 m/s
surface will be,
Hence, the height 'h' of geostationary orbit over the earth's
H = r-Rg = 42164 6378 = 35,786 km.

This value is rounded upto 36,000 km for approximate calculations.

and the effects of earth's
Practically, a geostationary orbit cannot be obtained because of disturbance forces in space

equatorial bulge.
The gravitational fields of the sun and moon produce a shift of about 0.85°/ year in inclination.

The satellite drifts towards the east along the orbit. Hence station keeping is to be periodically done.

There is only one geostationary orbit". This is because there is only one value of r that satisfies the equation for a

periodic time of 23 hours and 56 min, 4 sec.

Thus, the geostationary orbit is regarded as a natural resource.

As the earth rotates at a constant speed, he satellite orbital speed must also be constant.

The rotational period of the earth around its axis is 23 hours and S6 mins. Hence, the satellite orbiting in a geostationary
orbit must complete its rotation around the earth in the same period of 23 hours and 56 mins.

a 2.1.1(A) Advantages of Equatorial Orbit

GQ 21.3 What are the advantages of geostationary orbit ?

a) It remains in a fixed position with respect to the earthstation.

(2) Satellite communication links remain unaffected by Doppler frequency shift.
3) The orbit issunlit over99% ofthe time.

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 Satelite Communication (MU-Sem8-E&TC) 2-7 Orbits and Launching
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4) The ground / eath station may be cheap. The RF spectrum needed for the system can be easily shared with other|
services.

5) The communication channel may be point to point or broadcast.

6) They can be used for applications like telephony, data and Tv distribution, aeronautical, commercial, military and
broadcasting purposes.
(7) Satellite is visible from 40% of the earth's surface. A single satellite can provide continuous coverage for the major

portion of world's communication market.

8) It provides communication over wide area casily.
a 2.1.1(B) Drawbacks of Equatorial Orbit

GQ. 2.14 What are the drawbacks of geostationary orbit ?

(1) Launch vehicle required is costly.

(2) Thee is a time delay of about 300 msec between the transmitted and received signal.
the satellite.
(3) The regions near the north and south poles are not covered in the communication range of
4 Itrequires increase effective isotropically radiated power in comparison to the low altitudesatellites.
2.1.2 Geosynchronous Orbit
GQ. 2.1.S Why geosynchronous satellites are called as near geostationary satelites f

If the inclination of the orbit of the satellite is not zero then the orbit is called as geosynchronous orbit.

The period of the geosynchronous orbit is equal to the period the revolution of the earth itself. i.e. the geostationary and

geosynchronous orbits have the same period.

It is a circular orbit. Its radius is 42,242 km. It does not lie in the equatorial plane.

The position of the geosynchronous satellite changes with time due to its inclination with the equatorial plane, Thus, the
to earth.
geosynchronous satellite does not have a fixed position relative
called geostationary satellites, as exact geostationary orbits cannot be attained. Hence, the term
They are near

geosynchronous is used instead of geostationary satellite.

a 2.1.3 Comparison between Geostationary and Geosynchronous Orbit

UQ 21.6, How do geostationary ditYer from geosynchronous (MU Dec. 14, 2.5 Marks)

Sr. No. Geostationary orbit Geosynchronous orbit

It lies in the equatorial plane. Its inclination is zero It is inclined with respect to the equatorial plane.

2. A satellite in this orbit appears to be stationary with A satellite in this orbit appears to oscillate with respect
respect to the earth. to a point to point on the earth.

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 Orbits and Launching
2-8
Satellite Communication(MU-Sem 8-E&TC) Geosynchronous orbit

Geostationary orbit
Sr.No is equal
to
earth's rotational
satellite
The period of satellite is 23 hr, 56 min and 4.1 sec. The period of
3.
period. wIn
Cnanges
in this orbit
the satellite
is fixed with The nosition of
the equatorial plane.
of the satellite respect to
4. Cpositon
inclination with

the earth station. time due to its

non-circular orbit.
It is a circular orbit. It is a
5.
orbits.
geosynchronous
There can be many
6. There is one geostationary orbit.

a2.1.4 Polar Orbit

GQ. 2.1.7 What is polar orbit ?

Fig. 2.1.2 shows a polar orbit.

it is called as a polar
orbit that covers the north and south poles,
What is polar orbit ? When the satellite rotates in an

orbit. N
There are an infinite number of polar orbits.

It is not used for normal communication purpose. However, Satellite

if communication satellite is placed in thepolar region, it

can establish communication with the polar regions and

collect information about the polar regions of earth. This

information is useful in weather forecasting.

It is used for special applications like navigational satellites.

It helps to locate ships and aircraft in distress. A service Polarorbit

called SARSAT is used for search and rescue satellite. Fig. 2.1.2: Polar orbit

2.1.4(A) Advantages of Polar Orbit

GQ. 2.1.8 What are the advantages of polar orbit ?

They have some inclination with respect to the equatorial plane.

The satellites can cover high altitude.

There are an infinite number of polar orbits available.

They are used for weather forecasting, locating air crafts and shipsin distressetc.
5. It's launching cost is very low.

6 Time delay is negligible.

7. The gravítational pull of the sun and m0on have negligibleeffect, hend station keeping is not needed.

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Satellite Communication(MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-9 Orbits and Launching
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a 2.1.4(B) Drawbacks of Polar Orbit
I
GQ 2.1.9 What are the disadvantages of polar orbit ? ****

1 As satellite is available for a short time period, a tracking antenna is needed.

2. It is affected by Doppler frequency shift
3. For covering the earths surface, a number of satellites are needed.
Atmospheric drag affectsthe satellites below 1000 Km.
a 2.1.5 Inclined Orbit

21.10 Why does a satellite in highly inclined elliptical orbit spend most of its orbital perod over
UQ.
higher latitude regions?
(MU May 16. Q. 1(aX), Dec: 16, 2.5 Marks);

Fig. 2.1.3 shows an inclined orbit.

other than equatorial or polar is called as an
What is an inclined orbit? The satellite following any other orbital path,
inclined orbit. JN
Inclined orbit are used by many countries for their
- Inclined orbit
domestic communication.
An inclined orbit is used to cover the polar regions iie
these orbits can be used to place the communication
Satellite

satellites that can establish communication with the polar

regions.
An inclined orbit is not very frequenthy used.
S
The height of the inclined orbit is set to cover the area of

interest.
Fig. 2.1.3: Inclined orbit

The time for which the satellite is visible to the point on the earth is also controlled. The satellite cannot remain in

the earth, if it is rotating in the inclined orbits. Sometime they are also called as
continuous contact with the point on
elliptical inclined orbit.

Inclined orbit is used for domestic communication in Russia, as its geographical location is near the north pole of the

earth.

a 2.1.5(A) Advantage and Disadvantage of Highly Inclined Orbit

UQ 21.11 What are the advantages and disadvantages of highly inclined orbit?
(MU May 16,2.5 Marks
The satellite in a highly inclined eliptical orbit is used in cases where we need communication in high latitude regions
eg. Molniya series of satellites in Russia. With three satellites in any orbit, they are able to provide continuous coverage
over the high latitude regions. This is its main advantage.

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 Orbits and Launching
2-10
Satellite Communication(MU-Sem 8-E&TC) same. So the
earth station antenna
not remain sa
point Earth does
disadvantage is that the satellite position from a on
The

needs to acquire and track the satellite.

a 2.1.6 Prograde Orbit

as
direction
in the same
Wnat
isa prograde orbit ? An orbit in which the satellite moves
N
prograde orbit.
Prograde orbit
Fig. 2.1.4 shows a prograde and retrograde orbit.

It is also called as a direct orbit.

Earth
The inclination of the prograde orbit always lies between 0
and 90°.

Most of the satellites are launched in a prograde orbit. This is Retrograde orbit

because the earth's rotational velocity provides part of the

orbital velocity with a saving in satellite's launch energy. S
and Retrograde orbit
Fig. 2.14: Prograde

a2.1.7 Retrograde Orbit

earth's rotation is called as retrograde
An orbit in which the satellite moves in a direction counter clockwise to the

orbit.

Fig. 2.1.4 shows a retrograde orbit.

The inclination of a retrograde orbit always lies between 90° and 180°.

2.2 KEPLER'S LAWS GOVERNING SATELLITE MOTION

uQ 22 Explain Kepler's laws (MU May 12, 5 Marks)

UQ. 22.2 State and explain Keplerslaws (MU May 14, Q. 1(c), Dec. 18, 5 Marks

Satelites that orbit around the earth resemble the same laws that govern the motion of the planets around the sun.
Johannes Kepler discovered the laws that govern satellite motion.

He derived three laws that describe the planetary motion.

Later in 1665, Newton derived Kepler's laws from his laws of mechanics and
develop the theory of gravitation.
Kepler's laws are applicable to any two bodies in the space that interact through gravitation. The more massive of the
two bodies is called as the primary and the other body is called as the secondary body or satellite.

The Kepler's law are given below.

a 2.2.1 Kepler's First Law

uQ. 2.2.3 Explain Kepler'slaws. MU May 12, 5Marks

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it follows an elliptical path.
small body rotates around alarge body,
Statement: When a Or

body.
path inits orbit around the primary
The satellite will follow anelliptical the two focal points as
shown in Fig. 2.2.1.
An ellipse has two focal points. Let F, and F, be
center of
this elliptical path is at the
One of the foci of
center of the mass
mass of the
satellite. One of the foci is

of earth. Minor
called as axis
The center of mass of the two body system is
centered on one of the foci.
Center of
barycenter. It is always the ellipse
difference between the masses of the
As there is a huge
of mass coincides with the
earth and satellite, the center

center of the earth. Hence, it is always

at one
ofthe foci. -a-

and b be the Major

Let be the semi-major axis of the ellipse
a axis
of the
semi-minor axis of the ellipse. The eccentricity
ellipse is given as, axis a and
Fig. 2.2.1 : The foci F, and F2, semimajor
semiminor axis b of an ellipse
(2.2.1)
axis.
the earth are eccentricity and semi-major
The two orbital parameters specified for the satellites that are orbiting
orbit is this
If the eccentricity of an
zero,
between 0 and 1 i.e. 0<e<1.
For an elliptical orbit, the eccentricity varies
indicates that the orbit is circular.

a 2.2.2 Kepler's Second Law

(MU May 12, 5 Marks)
UQ. 2.24 Explain Kepler'slaws
time, foCused atthebarycenter
Statement The orbitof smaler body sweeps out equal area in equa
of A from time t, to t.
2.2.2 shows that the satellite sweeps area A, in time t to t. Similarly, it sweeps an area
Fig.
The areas Aj and A Swept out in unit time are equal.

then accordingto Kepler'ssecond law,

Ift-=t-
A = A2
Earth
distances S, and
It is assumed that the satellite will travel

S2 meters in 1s, for the areas A and A, to be equal.

SA
for each The
S, m/s are the average velocities
case.
S, and
distance S is greater than distance S,, as the areas A
and Satellite
is than
Az should be equal. Hence the velocity S, greater
Fig. 2.2.2 : Kepler's second law
velocity S
a 2.2.3 Kepler's Third Law
(MU May 12, 5 Marks)
uQ 2-25 Explain Kepler's laws.

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power
ofsemi mi-major axis of
to third
earth is equal
Statement: The square of the period of revolution of satellite about

ellipse multiplied by a constant.

2.2.2)
It
canbe expressed as, a
Where

a: Semi-major axis.

H: earth's geocentric gravitational constant. = 3.986 x 10 m/s

n:mean motion of the satellite in rad/sec.

spherical earth with uniform
DOVe equation is applicable to ideal condition of a satellite that is orbiting a perfectly
mass. Perturbing forces are not considered.

The orbital period in seconds is given as,

T-
ne importance of the Kepler's law is that there is a fixed relationship between the semi-major axis and the period.

Substituting in Equation (2.2.2) we get,

a ..(2.2.3)

Ex. 22.1: Calculate the radius of a cireular orbit for which the period is 1 day.
Soln.: The period in sec will be,
T 24 hours x 60 min x 60 sec
T = 86,400 s.

According to Kepler's third law,

T Ta 4a
(86,400) 3.986 x10
a 7.53711 x 10 a
7.53711 x 102
a = 42241080.07 a = 42241 x 10 m

a 42241 Km

As the orbit is circular, the semi-major axis is equal to the radius.

2.3 DEFINITIONS Of TERMS FOR EARTH ORBITING

SATELLITES
uQ. 2.3.1 Explain the following terms with reference to
satellite communication
( Apogee, perigee (i) Ascending node,
Ci) Argument of perigee
descending node
(iv) Right ascension of
(Meananomaly, eccentric anomaly,
ascending
node
(MU May 12, 10 Marks)
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UQ. 2.3.2 Define Module
True anomaly and mean anomaly. MU Dec. 12, 5 Marks

UQ. 2.3.3 Explain the following:

( Argument of perigee
(MU May 13, Dec. 13, 5 Marks)
(i) Right ascension of ascending node.
UQ. 2.3.4 Explain what is meant by aseending and descending nodes. Would you expect them to change

with time ? Explain. (MU-Dec. 14,5 Marks)

UQ. 2.3.5 Explain why it is not possible to have an elliptical satellite orbit with zero eccentricity.

(MU-May 15,5Marks)
(MU Q. 1(d), Dec. 18, Q. 1(c), May 19, 5 Marks
UQ. 2.3.6 Explain difterent orbital parameters.

1 Apogee: It is the point that is farthest from the carth. It is shown in Fig. 2.3.1 as h

2. Perigee: It is the point that is ofclosest approach to the earth. It is denoted by h, It is shown in Fig. 2.3.1.

3. Line of apsides: The line joining the perigee and apogee through
the center of earth is called as the line of apsides.

4 Ascending node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial apogee
na

Earth
plane going from south to north is called as the asecending node.

5. Descending node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial
plane going from north to south is called as the descending node. perigeea
-np-

6. Line of nodes : The line joining the ascending and descending

nodes through the center of earth is called as the line of nodes. Fig. 2.3.1

7. Inclination: Inclination is the angle between the orbital plane and the earth's equatorial plane.
It is denoted by i and is shown in Fig. 2.3.2. N

The inclination is usually measured at the Inclined orbit

Descending
ascending node from the equator to the orbit, node
going from east to noth.

The greatest latitude whether in north or south is Equatorial orbit

equal to the inclination.
Inclination

Ascending
node

Fig. 2.3.2 :Ascending and descending node

8. Argument of perigee: It is the angle from the ascending node to perigee, measured in the orbital plane at the earths
centre in the direction of satellite motion. It is denoted by o. It is shown in Fig. 2.3.3.

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Equatorlal plane
Incllned orblh

Equatorlal orbt

Descending Ascending nodes

node

Line of nodes

Argument of
perlgee

S
Perlgee
Right ascenslon of
ascending node

Fig. 2.3.3: Argument of perigee

9. Right ascension of the ascending node

The position of the ascending node is specified, in order to define the position of an orbit in space.

We know that the earth rotates. This keeps the orbital plane stationary. The longitude of the ascending node is not

fixed. Hence, it cannot be used as a

reference
The longitude and the time of crossing of the ascending node are the terms frequently used for determining an
orbit.

We require a fixed reference in space for measurement. First point of Aries is shown as the reference. It is also
called as spring equinox or vernal equino.

Spring equinox is observed when the sun crosses the equator while it moves from south to north. An imaginary
line is drawn from the crossing through the centre of sun points towards the first point of Aries. It is denoted by Y
in Fig. 2.3.3 and is called as line of aries.

The right ascension of the ascending node is the angle measured eastward, in the equatorial plane from the Y
line to the ascending node. It is denoted by 2 as shown in Fig. 2.3.3.

10. Eecentric anomaly

It is defined as the central angle measured from the x axis to the vertical
projection of the satellite over a circle
with radius Cas shown in Fig. 2.8.1.
11. Mean anomaly

It provides an average value of the angular position of the satellite with respect to the
perigee. It is denoted by M.
In case of a circular orbit, M gives the angular position of the satellite in the orbit.
In case of an elliptical orbit, it is dificult to estimate the position of the satellite as M is
used as an
intermediate
step in calculation.

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12. True anomaly Module
It is defined as the angle made from the perigee to the satellite position measured at the earth's centre,
I
The true angular position of the satellite in the orbit is a function of time.

uQ. 2.3.7 Why it is not possible to have an elliptical satellite orbit with zerv eccentricity ?
(MU-May15, 5 Marks)

According to Kepler's first law the satellite will follow an elliptical path in its orbit around
the primary body. e.g. Earth.
For an elliptical orbit the eccentricity is given as,

Va-B
a

a: semi-major axis of the ellipse.

b:semi-minor axis of the ellipse.

The eccentricity and the semi-major axis are the two orbital parameters, specified for the satellites orbiting the earth.

e a-B0
ya-B = o

.a b

As the lengths of the semi-major and semi-minor axes are equal, the orbit formed will be circular.

If we have an orbit with zero eccentricity i.e. circular orbit,

1. The satellite speed remains the same as its ground speed is constant.
not move in straight direction and the
2. Secondly, its velocity is not perpendicular to the pull of gravity, the satellite will
between 0 and1.
ground speed will vary. Hence, it is desired to have elliptical orbits with eccentricity
The eccentricity of Earth's orbit is very small (< 0.02), so the Earth's orbit is nearly circular.

uQ. 2.3.8 Is the velocity of satellite constant in an ellipticortit?Justifyyouranswer

(MU Dec. 17,2 Marks
It depends on where the satellite is positioned in its orbital path. If the
No, the velocity of the satellite is not constant.
satellite is placed near the earth, it will move faster. This is because the earths gravitational pull is stronger. At the perigee

the satellite moves the fastest while at the apogee the satellite moves the
slowest.

2.4 ORBITAL ELEMENTS

In order to specify the position of a satellite at a particular instant of time, we need to have knowledge about six

elements referred to as the orbital elements.

The six orbital elements are referred to as the Keplerian element set.

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Six orbltal elements
The six orbital elements are:

(i) Eccentricity (e)

6) Semimajorazis (a)
Argument of perigee
(0)
ii) Mean anomaly (M0 Gv)
of ascending node (52)
(v) Inclination (i) (vi) Right ascension
describe the shape
or
epo
orbital elements that
ne semimajor axis (a) and eccentricity (e), are alled.as
orbit at a
reference time
called
p
position in its
De mean anomaly M describes of the satellite ine
to the orbit's line of nodes
with respect
the orbits perigee point
describes the rotation of
The argument of perigee (0)
in the earth's equatorial plane. position to the
the elements
that relate the
orbit
plane s
right ascension of ascending node (Q)
are
nCnation (1) and
earth.

There are drifts in the values of o and Q due to the equatorial bulge.

Also, the values of the orbital elements may get varied due to
the perturbing forces.

2.5 APOGEE AND PERIGEE HEIGHTS

very frequently.
The apogee and perigee heights are the orbital parameters that are required
and perigee as,
From the geometry of ellipse we can determine the length of radius vectors at apogee
Apogee distancer, = a(1 +e)

Perigee distancer, = a(l-e)

For determining the apogee and the perigee heights we need to subtract the radius of the earth from the radii lengths.

They are expressed as,

Apogee height h,=r-RE

Perigee height h, =r,Rg (Rz:radius of earth)
Ex. 2.5.1 Calculate the apogee and the perigee heights for the orbital parameters a = 7192.3 km, e = 0.0012, radius of
earth = 6371 km.

Soln.
e = 0.0012 2
Given a = 7192.3 km
R 6371 km
Tofind: i) b
Steps to be followed:

Step 1 To find the apogeeand perigee distancer, and

Step II: To find the apogee height h,

Step Ill: Tofind the perigee height h

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=

S t e p I: To find the apogee and perigee distance r, and r, Module

I
a(1+c)= 7192.3 (1 +0.0012) =7200.93 km,
7183.66 km
a(1-e) =7192.3 (1 -0.0012)
p
=

Step I: Tofind the apogee heighth,:

= -Rg=7200.93-6371
829.93 km
Step I11:To find the perigee height h, :
h= -Rg=7183.66-6371
h 812.66km

2.6 ORBITAL PERTURBATIONS/ORBITAL EFFECTS

(MU May 12,7 Marks)
UQ. 2.6.1 Write note on orbital perturbation
(MU-May 13, Dec. 13, 10 Marks
uQ. 26.2 Deseribe various reasons for perturbation of satellite orbit
(MU - May 13. Dec. 13, May 14, May 15, 5 Marks)
UQ 26.3 Write note on orbital parameters.
(MU -Dec. 14, 10Marks
uQ. 26.4 Discuss briefy how perturbations affects the planetary motion.
(MU O. 3(a). May 19. 10 Marks)
UQ 26.5 Define Satellite perturbation, their causesand effect
The Keplerian orbit that is elliptical in nature considering that the earth is a spherical mass. The centrifugal force is the

only force that is acting, and balancing the gravitational pull of the earth.
But practically, the satellite and the earth respond to other factors like earth's gravitational field, gravitational field of

the sun and the moon, solar radiation pressure, atmospheric drag that are significant.
In case of low earth orbiting satellites, the atmospheric drag can be important. The atmospheric drag has a negligible

effect on the geostationary satellites.

The gravational pulls of the sun and moon have a significant impact on the geostationary satellites.

All these interfering forces cause the true orbit to be different from the simple Keplerian orbit.

a2.6.1 Effects ofa Non Spherical Earth/Effect of the Earth's Oblateness

6.6 Discuss the efrects of earth's oblateness.

According to the Kepler's third law for a spherical earth of uniform mass the nominal mean motion is expressed as,

no
V ..(2.6.1)

Where no nominal mean motion.

4 Earth's geocentrie gravitational constant.

a semi-major axis.

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he subscript O indicates that the result can be applied to a perfectly spherical earth that has uniform mass.

and also the equatorial bulge refering it as the

However, the earth is not spherical because there is flattening at poles
oblate spheroid.
If the earth's oblateness is considered the mean motion is expressed as,

.(2.6.2)

Where constant 66,063.1704 km

n = mean motion;
k =

a = semi-major axis; eccentricity

i inclination
The earth's oblateness has a negligible effect on the semi-major axis. The mean motion can be easily determined if the

semi-major axis is known.

The orbital period that considers the earth's oblatness is called as the anomalistic period.
The mean motion specified in the NASA bulletins is the reciprocal of the anomalistic period.
The anomalistic period is expressed as,

TA n
sec. ...(2.6.3)
n:mean motion in rad/sec.
Where TA anomalisticperiod;
The oblateness of the earth produces two rotations of the orbital plane. The first is called as the regression of the nodes
and the second is the rotation of the apsides in the orbital plane

Regression ofthe nodes

In this effect the nodes appear to slide along the equator. The line of nodes that is in the equatorial plane will
rotate about the centre of the earth. This will shift the position of right ascension of ascending node.
If the orbit is a prograde ortbit, then the satellite moves eastward. The nodes will slide westwards. While if the orbit
is retrograde orbit the satellite moves westward, the nodes slide eastward.
The nodes move in an opposite direction to the direction of satellite motion. Hence it is called as regression of
nodes.
In case of a polar orbit a regression is zero.
The rate of change of regression of nodes is

d=-k cos i (2.6.4)

Where k Constant in rad/day; i:Inclination.

When the rate of change regression given by Equation (2.6.4) is negative, the regression is westwards while when
the rate is positive, the regression is eastward.

For eastwards regression the inclination must be greater than 90° or the orbit must be a retrograde orbit.
For westward regression the inclination must be less than 90 or the orbit must be a retrograde orbit.
i) Rotation of apsides
This effect is produced by the equatorial bulge. The perigee point changes due other rotation of the line of apside.
The argument of perigee i.e. also changes with time. The rate of change of argument of perigee is expessed as,
do k(2-2.5 sin' i)
d
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Where k Constantin rad/day; i : Inclination Argument of perigee. Modnle

When the inclination is 63.435°, the term within the bracket is zero. Hence, no rotation will occur. This fact is used
for Molniya satellites.
Let the epoch time be to. the right ascension of the ascending node be g, the argument of perigee be Og
Then at the epoch the new values of S2, o and t are given as
d2 2.6.5)

..(2.6.6)
We know that the orbit is not a physical entity
The orbital parameters are changing because of the forces resulting from a non spherical earth that act on the
satellite.
This causes the satellite to drift as a result of the regression of nodes. Otherwise the satellite would follow an
elliptical path in the fixed plane.
The perigee changes as a result of rotation of line of apsides.
Let period PA be the time required for the satellite to move around the orbital path from perigee to perigee although
the perigee has moved relative to the earth.

If the inclination is 90°, then the regression of nodes is

-kcos 90° =0
Rate of rotation of line of apsides is
do
k (2-2.5 sin' (90°)) =k (2-2.5) =
-0.5 k=
If the perigee is exactly over the ascending node, at the time of observations, then a period the perigee will be at an

anglePA relative to the ascending node.

The time between the crossing at the ascending node will be PA .It would be the period that is observed
from the earth. The units of k will be same as the units of n i.e. rad/sec.

Ex.2.6.1 Determine the rate of regression of the nodes and the rate of rotation of the line of apside. The satellite
parameters are i = 98.6328', e=0.0011501, n = 14.23304826 day", a= 7192.3 km, k, = 66063.1704 km.

Soln.:
Given i = 98.6328° e =0.0011501
n= 14.23304826 day a 7192.3 kmn

k = 66063.1704 km
To find: G) Rate ofregression of nodes. (i) Rate of rotation of line of apsides.

Steps to be followed

StepI To find constant k.

Step I1 Tofind rateofregressionofnodes.
Step l Tofind the rate of rotation of line of apsides.

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Step I: Tofind constant k:
14.23304826x 66063.1704
n- k
1 - (7192.3) x (1 -(0.0011501)
k = 6.544°/ day

Step II : To find rate of regression of nodes:

-k cos i =-6.544 x cos (98.6328)°
dt

0.982
dt deg/ day
Step II:To find the rate of rotation ofline of apsides:
do
dt k(2-2.5 sin' i)= 6.544 (2 -2.5sin (98.6328))
do
dt =-2.903°/day
after epoch it d =
lI3.3S34",
and one period
For the above example find out the values of
o
:
EX. 2.6.2
Sa =251.5324°
Soln.
Given Q ' =0.982 deg/day. o=- 2.903 deg/day
20 251.5324°
113.5534°

n 14.23304826 day
Tofind: (i) 2 (i) o

Steps to be followed:

Step I: To find 2.

Step II: To find .

Step I:Tofind Q2
The period Pa n
Q = 2+2PA=251.5324 +0.982x4 3304826251.59°

Step II:Tofind 0:
@= + PA

= 113.5534 +(-2.903) x ; 1
23304826 = 113.33°

(i) Eccentricity variation

In the equatorial plane, the carth is not perfectly circular this is because of the equatorial bulge
The earth has a small eccentricity of the order of 10. t is called as equatorial ellipticity. This effect sets up a
gravity gradient that has an effect on satellites in the geostationary orbit.

This gravity causes the satellites in the geostationary orbit to drift to one of
two stable
minor axis of the equatorial ellipse.
points that coincide with the

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These two points are separated by 180° on the equator and are at 75°E longitude and 105°W longitude Module
approximately.
Through station keeping the satellites are prevented from drifting to these points.

a2.6.2 Atmospheric Drag

GQ 26.7 Define atmospheric drag.

The atmospheric drag is because of the friction that occurs by collision of ions and atoms. At relatively low orbital
altitudes the friction causes excessive heat on a satellite which finally results in its loss by burning.

In satellite below 1000 km, the effects of atmospheric drag are significant. This is because the drag is the greatestat
perigee.
At this point it reduces the velocity. As a reslt the satellite does not reach the same apogee height on successive

revolutions. Also, the semi-major axis a and eccentricity e are both reduced.

Atmospheric drag does the change other orbital elements. The perigee heights remain unchanged.
Pseudo drag" is a term used for generating orbital elements as per NASA bulletins. This term is equal to one half the

rate of change of mean motion.

The expression for change of major axis is

2/3

.(2.6.7)
n+n (t-tJ
The mean anomaly is also changed. It is given by,

SM =( t - , .(2.6.8)

a 2.6.3 Effects of the Sun and Moon

The gravitational attraction by the sun and moon causes the orbital inclination of the geosynchronous satellite to change

with time.

If not countered by north-south station keeping, these forces will result in increase in the orbital inclination from an
initial 0° at launch to 14.67° in 26.6 years.

2.6.4 Solar Radiation Pressure

Solar radiation pressure from the sun's rays perturb the satellites orbit. The satellite experienced variations in its

eccentricity.
For first 6 months it builds up and then shrinks during next 6 months. Small variations in the shape of the orbit can be

tolerated for most missions.

a 2.6.5 Doppler Effects

GQ. 2.6.8 Define doppler effect.

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transmitter's velocity

transmitter
varies with
d Stauonary viewer, the frequency of a moving radio
o
greceived frequency.
Let ftrue transmitterfrequency. transmitter 1s moving away from the
the
thereceiver otherwise
R t r then the transmitteris
moving towards
Case

receiver.
is
The relation between the transmitted and received frequencies

receiver.
directed towards the
Where, TComponent of transmitter velocity

6 Phase velocity of light. 1S called as Doppler

is negative. This
change in frequency
from the receiver, then vr
c
uransmitter is moving away
shift
For low orbit satellites, this effect is significant.
shift caused by Doppler shift, due to
to determine the frequency
For the satellite communication systems, it is important

the following reasons :

transmission frequency of the earth station.

10eliminate the doppler components in the measurement of
satellite
downlink frequency, when the transmission frequency of an earth station and
To determine the received
localoscillator frequency areknown
and the pbase lock loop capture range of
(i) A frequency budget is prepared to determine the receiver filter bandwidth
stations and also the Doppler shifts with the
the oscillator. It comprises frequency uncertainty drifts in the earth
uplink and downlink

M 2.7 DEFINITIONS RELATED TO SATELLITE

uQ. 27.1 Define Satellite velocity and satelite period (MU Dec. 12. 5 Marks

1. Subsatellite point: The point on earth vertically under the satellite is refered to as the subsatellite point.

2. Satellite footprint: The geographical representation of a satellite antenna's radiation patterm is called as satellite

footprint.
3. Zenith: The part of the celestal sphere directly above the observer is called as zenith.

4 Drag: It is the longitudinal retarding force exerted by air.

5.
Solstice: A solstice occurs when the sun is farthest from the equator.

6. Eauinox: The time or data at which the sun crosses the celestial equator, when the day and night are of equal lengthis
called equinox. There a two equinoxes in a year.

7. Satellite paylond: Payload can be considered as the brain of the satellite performing the intended function of te
satellite. Depending on the mission of the satellite there are a variety of payloads The basic payload in the case of a
communication satellite is a transpaonder, that acts as a receiver amplifier and transmitter.

8. Satellite trajectory: It is path of the satellite in space.

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It is expressed as Module
P
r1+ccos
Distance of any point on the trajectory when the geocentre.
P: A geometrical constant termed parameter of the conic which determines the width of the conic at the

focus.

eEccentricity
Angle between r and point on the conic nearest the focus

9. Satellite period
According to Kepler's third law, the period of satellite is,

The period is dependent on the semi-major axis for a satellite in a circular orbit around the earth

4TR +5

Where, R: radius of earth.

h Satellite attitude.
10. Satelite velocity
The velocity of a satellite in an elliptic orbit is given as,

For a circular orbit,

2.8 PREDICTING SATELLITE POSITION

GQ 2.8.1 Explain thetems

eccentric anomaly () true anomaly(i) méan anomaly
Fig. 2.8.1 shows the motion of a satellite in the orbital plane.
The origin 0, of the co-ordinate system is the geocentre.

The satellite at any instant t, is assumed to be at S. In practice it is

Satellite position
essential to determine the position of the satellite at a given time with
E
respect to fixed point in the orbit, usually the perigee P. C M
Orbit

Assume that a circle (shown dotted in Fig. 2.8.1) is drawn from the
centre C of the ellipse with a radius equal to the semi-major axis and
.
.
perpendicular BM is drawn passing through the point S. The angle E
(BCM) is called as the eccentric anomaly and the angle (2 SOM)

is called as the true anomaly. Fig. 2.8.1:Satellite position with time

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Mean anomaly is defined as the angle from the perigee that the satellite would traverse in the same time t, moving

with average orbital angular velocity.

2 . 9 ANTENNA LOOK ANGLES

UQ 29.1 What are look angles ? Explain its signifricance in relation to satellite position
(MU May 13. 4 Marks, Dec. 13. 10 Marks);
To orient an earth station antenna towards a satellite, it is essential to know the elevation angle and azimuth. These are

called as look angles. These look angles are azimuth and elevation.

Azimuth (AZ)
Definition : t is the angle made by projected satelite path with respect to north. t s caleulatedin
clockwise direction.

Fig. 2.9.1 shows how an azimuth angle is calculated.

A local horizontal plane is formed by the north and the east axes. The third axis is a local vertical axis. An earth station
is considered to be located at the centre of the co-ordinate system. To find the azimuth angle a projection of the satellite
path is taken on the local horizontal plane.
Local vertical

Satellite
Pathtosatellite

Earth elevation
station North
zimuth"
angle . Local

Fprojection horizontal

the
*******
o f path on to
local
*********************
..
****************************

** **. plane
P a

nzontal plane.. *
East **

Projection o
satelite on local
horizontal plane
Fig. 2.9.1 :Look angles

Elevation angle
Definition: The elevation angle is an angle made by the satellite path with respect to
local horizontal:
plane. The elevation angle determines the height of the satellite from the
horizontal plane.
Determination of the azimuth angle and elevation angle
The azimuth angle A and the elevation angle E can be calculated based on the
and longitude 6 and the satellite longitude 0, as shown in
knowledge of the earth station latitude
Fig. 2.9.2(a).
The azimuth angle is defined as the angle measured clockwise from the true North to the intersection of
local horizontal
plane TMP and the plane TSO passing through the earth station, the satellite and the earth's centre.
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Mocule
N

North
North
Pole
Zenith Station
longitude
Earth
station
Satellte
longitude g
South

M e Equator

Subsatellite
point

Satelite
B
o
(a) Azimuth and elevation b)Triangle to calculate elevation
Fig.2.9.2

The azimuth angle A is between 0 and 360°. Depending on the location of the earth station with respect to the sub-
satellite point, the azimuth angle A is given by :

1) Northern Hemisphere

Earth station West ofsatellite : A = 180°- A'

Earth station East of satellite: A = 180° +A

(2) Southern Hemisphere

Earth station West of satellite: A = A'

Earth station East of satellite: A =360° - A'

Where A' is the positive angle defined in Fig. 292 (). The elevation angle E is defined as the angle produced by the
intersection of the local horizontal plane TMP and the plane TSO with the line of sight between the earth station and the
satellite. We assume that the earth is a perfect sphere with radius RP. We have

A = tan( tan MOtan16-0,I)

Rp tan &

tan cos) tan 16,-6,!

Rp tan 6

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tan
tan - 6 2.9.1)
sin

To calculate the elevation angle E, consider the triangle TSO shown in Fig. 2.9.2 (b) we have

E B+8-90° =
(90° -)+6-90° =8-y
The angle y can be evaluated from the triangle TPO as follows:

Y = cos
OP

Since OP = MO/cos 0s-6l= Rp/cos 6, cos 16-0I as seen from the triangle MPO and TMO, we have

Y cos ( cos 0, cosI6-0,1)

To evaluate the angleö,

8 tantan( TE =tan" R p sincosYy

= tan r-R cos 0, cos 16-6,1
R sin [cos (cos 6, cos 16s-1) 1)

Thus the elevation angle E can be expressed by,

E = tan 1-R, cos , cos 10-0 1 1D]
Rp sin [cos (cos cos I-6, 11cOS (cos 6, cos I6g 6 .(2.9.2)

The slant range is given as,

- -28, (R, + E) sinE+sia s E

Azimuth calculation (another method)

The earth station, the center of the earth, the satellite and the subsatellite point all lie in the same plane, the azimuth Az
from the earth station the satellite is the same as the Azimuth from the earth station to the subsatellite point.

The azimuths between any two points A and B and the earth's surface can be calculated as follows

Latitudes in degree North are L and Lg.

Longitudes in degree West are I, and I

Either point A or B can be earth station, and the other must be subsatellite point.

Points A and B and the pole form a spherical triangle with polar angle C and angles Y at vertex B and angle X at

vertex A.

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Pole Pole Module

(a) Northern Hemisphere A West of B b) Northern Hemisphere A East of B

Pole Pole

(c)Southern Hemisphere A West B (d) Southern Hemisphere A East of B

Fig. 2.9.3

Formula for calculating Azimuth

At least one point in the Northern Hemisphere.

Subsatellite point Earth station Relation Azimuth in degree

A B A West of B 360-Y

B
A West of B X

A B B west of A

B A BWest of A 360-X

Both points in the Southern Hemisphere.

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Relation
Azimuth in degree
Subsatellite point | Earth station

A West of B 180+ Y
A B

180-X
A A West of B
B
180- Y
A B BWest of A
180+X
B A BB West of A

E = 21.45°
UEx. 2.9.1 (MU-May 14, 10 Marks)
A geostationary satellite is located at 35° W. What are its Step I :Tofind range:

look angles and range from. d R,+H)'+R,-2R,(R,+H)

) Bradford, UK station (54° N, 2°W)
i) Blacksburg USA (379N, 80°W) x sin E+sin

Soln. d= (6371 +35786)+ (6371)

() For Bradford UK station : -2x (6371) (6371 + 35786)
6371 21.45°
Given: Bs= 35°W, 6 = 2°W x
sin 21.45 + sin6371+35786 cos
6 = 54°N, 6r = 42164, 10-5.37x 10* x sin (29.54)
d= 10' +4.05 x
1.77 x

H 35786 Km, R 6371 km d 1.77x 10" +4.05 x 10' -2.647 x 10

Step I: To find azimuth angle: d= 1.545 x 10°
A = tan (tan,-6
sin sin ,
d 39.31 x 10° Km

(i) Blacksburg USA

tan(an
35-2
sin 54 B 35° w
A' = tan (0.8027) =38.75 80° W
6, = 37°N
The earth station is in northern hemisphere, azimuth
angle is in its west. Step I: To find azimuth angle
A = 180 - A' = 180-38.75 = 141.25° A tan (tan sin -58.95
37
Step I: Tofind elevation angle
The earth station is in Northern Hemisphere and west
E= tan -IR, COs 6, cos l0-6 of satellite.
R, sin [cos' (cos 0, cos 9-6,D1
. Azimuth angle A = 180°- A'
- cos (cos , cos 16-6,)

E =
42164-6371 cos54°cos 135°-21
tan 6371 sin [cos (cos 54° cos 135° -2°1)],
A = 180° - (-58.95°)

A = 238.95°
- cos (cos 54° cos (35° -2°))
Step II: To find elevation angle
E tan 0.87 cos (0.4929) - R,cos 6, cos(6-8)
E = tan

E = 81.9157 - 60.464
R sin (cos (cos.0, cos
(s 6))
cos (cos 6, cos (-0))

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E= tan
42164-6371 cos 37° cos(35°-80)_ E-tan
_-142164-6371 cos 12 cos (70°-52_ Modmle
6371 sin (cos (cos 37°) cos (35°-80°)) 6371 sin [cos (cos 12° cos (70° -52°)V
- cos (cos 12° cos (70° 52°))
-cos (cos 37° cos (35° 80°)

E = 26.61°
E = 64.79
w.w.ww.a

Step I : To find range: UEx.2.9.3 (MU May 12, 10 Marks

A communication satelite is located in a geostationary orbit
d R,+H+R, at a longitudeof30 west. Determine the slant range
azimuth and elevation angles of the satellite as seen from
-28p,+H),sin EsinRcos E
ground station at longitude 74° W and latitude of 41°N.
d (6371+ 35786+ (6371- 2(6371) (6371+35786) CAssumer,=6378 Km) ************

6371
sin 26.61 +sin6371+35786 cos 26.61°| Soln.
Given: 6, = 30° 6 = 74°
= 1.77x 10+4.05 x 10' -5.37 x 10 sin (34.38°)
e, 41°; R 6378 Km
d = 1.77x 10'+ 4.05x 10' -3.03 x 10*
I= 42164 Km; H 35786 Km
d 1.507x 10 StepI: Tofnd azimuth angle:
d= 38.826 x 10° Kmn A = tan tan1--tan-tan
(30-742
sin (41)
sin
UEx. 2.9.2 {MU May 13, Dec. 13. 10 Marks
A -55.80
Anearth stationislocated at latitude of 12 south and
longitude 52west. Calculate the antenna look angles for a The earth station is in Northem Hemisphere and west
satellite at 70W. of satellite.
Soln.: Azimuth angle A = 180°-A'
Given: 12° & 52° W
A = 180°-(-55.8)
es 70°W; R, 6371 Km
42164 Km A = 235.80°

StepI: Tofind azimuth angle: Step I: Tofind elevation angle

A =
tan (tan sin 8,
tan (70-52°)
Sin 120
tan
EE =tanR,-R,cosB,cos(-0)
sin (cos
(cos , cos (®-6))J
A' = 5738° - cos (cos 6, cos (-6)
As the earth station is in Southern hemisphere and west E = tan
1
(42164-6378 cos 41° cos(30°-74°)
6378 sin (cos (cos 41 cos (30-74)) )
of satellite.
-
cos (cos 41°cos (30°-74°)
.Azimuth angle A = A'=57.38
(6.067
tan 1 0.8398-cos
Step II: To find elevation angle
E =
(0.5428)
E = 82.119°-57.125°
The elevation angle is,

r-R, cos 6, cosl6-6 E 24.99°

E
anR, sin (cos' (cos 0, cos (6s -6) E = 25°
-cos (cos 6, cos 10,-)

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d= 1.778 x 10 + 4.06 x 10- 5.378
Step 11:Todetermine slant range: 10-2.92 x 10*
H) sin
d= 1.778 x 10 +4.06x
d (Rp+H)+R-2R, (R, +
d = 1.5186 x 10

d= 38.969 x 10 Km
d' (6378 +35786) +(6378)
-2(6378) (6378+ 35786)
sin
25°+sin 6378+35786 25° cos

2.10 POLAR MOUNT ANTENNA

GQ. 2.1o.1 Write short note on polar mount antenna.
N

Boresight

Equatorial plane

90+8
d
El Local horizontal plane

(i)
(i)
Fig. 2.10.1: Polar mount antenna

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The azimuth and elevation need the antenna to be rotated about two axes, one axis for azimuth and other for elevation.oe
There is one move antenna where a single actuator rotates the antenna in circular arc so as to point the antenna towards
the satellite. Such an antenna is called as polar mount antenna.

The antenna dish is mounted on the polar axis so that the antenna boresight is normal to the axis as indicated in
Fig. 2.10.1). The antenna is aligned along North N.

A is the angle between local horizontal plane and polar mount.

As shown in Fig. 2.10.1) the equatorial plane is parallel to antenna boresight.

As shown in Fig. 2.10.1i) the antenna dish is titled by an angle 8till the boresight points to a satellite position that is
due south of earth station.

Such that, 8 =
90°- El-ME ..(2.10.1)
Where : angle of tilt.
Elelevation anglefor satellite due south ofearth station.
Eangle between polar mount and local horizontal plane
From Fig. 2.10.1(i),

cos El sin A .2.10.2)

Combining Equations (2.10.1) and (2.10.2) we get,
8 90-arccos )sin - .(2.10.3)
The radius of earth (d) = 6371 km

We can ignore the earth station elevation. The value of o got will be fairly accurate from these calculations
2 . 1 1 LIMITS OF VISIBILITY
uQ. 211. What islimit ofvisibilityofsatellite? Howit iscalculated 2 (MU Dec. 16. 5 Marks)

There are cast and west limits on the geostationary arc visible
from any given earth station.
The limits are set by the geographic co-ordinates of the earth
station and the elevation.
The minimum value of elevation is zero. In such condition the
antenna is pointing towards the east or west direction along the
horizontal.
Consider Fig. 2.11.1 showing limits of visibility. The limiting
angle can be found as, Fig. 2.11.1 : Limits of visibility of 5
cos

Rg 6378 km

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r = 42,164 km = (6378=81.3°
cos4216=81.3
.2.11.1)

satellites a geostationary arc

Thus an earth station can see over

bounded by t81.3° about earth station longitude.

the earth station antenna then
If a minimum elevation angle of 5° is required for = 90°+Ed
station.
the limits of will also depend on the latitude of earth
visibility
2.11.2. Let the minimum value of elevation angle be Emin
and S S
Consider Fig.
be the angle subtended by the satellite when
rRE+h
Fig.2.11.2:Spherical geometry
min 90°+E_ min
.(2.11.2)

As per the sine rule,

...(2.11.3)
s = sin sin om
be obtained.
an accurate answer may
lf we assume the earth to be spherical and having mean radius of 6371 km, then
Once we determine angle S, we can also determine angle b. It is given as,
..(2.11.4)
b 180-OminS
We know that
b cos" (cos B cos A)

cos b = cOs B cos Ag

BB cos (COS b\ 2.11.5)

=
cos
cos A
The satellite longitude can be determined if the value of angle B is known.
at latitude 48.42 degrees north
Ex. 2.11.1: Determine the limits of visibility for an earth station situated at mean sea level,
and longitude 89.26 degrees west. Assume a minimum angle of elevation. of 5 degrees.

Soln.
= - 89.26°
g 48.42°
Given
= 42164 km
5°
Ein
R 6371 km

)b (iii) B
Tofind: (i) S

StepI To find i and S.

Step II :Tofind b.
Step l To find B

Step IV Todetermine limits of the earth station.

Step I: To find oma and S:
Omin 90+ Emin
=95°
min 90° +5°
S sin"(sin as i 2 1 6 sia(95

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S = 8.65 Module

Step II: Tofind b

b 180- min-S= 180 95-8.65
b 76.35°

Step III:Tofind B:

B cos(Os=cos
cOS cos COS
cos (76.35°)
(cos (48.42°))
B = 69.15°

Step IV:To determine limits ofthe earth station:

The satellite limit east of the earth station is at,

detB -89.26° +69.15° =- 20.11°

The satellite limit west of the earth station is,

e-B -89.26 69.15° = - 158.41°

2.12 NEAR GEOSTATIONARY ORBITS

For a satellite it is not possible to remain in its ideal Keplerian orbit. This happens because of the various perturbing
forces which cause the satellite to move from its ideal Keplerian orbit.

In case of geostationary orbits the perturbing forces are due to non spherical shape of the earth, the gravitaticonal fields
of the sun and the moon, solar radiation pressure, reaction of the satellite itself to motor movement within the satellite.
Hence, it is essential to cary out station keeping to keep the satellite at its fixed position with respect to the earth
station.
The orbital parameters vary with time. Hence, practically it is not possible to obtain an ideal geostationary orbit.

The period of a geostationary satellite is 23 hours, 56 min and 4 sec. The reciprocal of it is 1.00273896 rev/day. This
value is tabulated for most of the satellites.

These near geostationary satellites are refered to as geosynchronous. The geosynchronous satellites rotate at speed
that is same as the rotation speed of the earth, except that they are not geostationary
It is not essential that a geosynchronous satellite is near geostationary. There are a number of geosynchronous satellites
in highly elliptical orbits. They have comparatively high inclinations.

If the inclination of the geosynchronous satellites is small then it becomes a difficult task to locate the position of the
ascending node. It is also difficult to find the perigee, as the eccentricity of the satelite orbit is small.

2.13 EARTH ECLIPSE OF SATELLITE

naaann

uQ 213.1 write noteon earth eelipseof satellite (MU May 12.7 Marks

UQ 2.13.2 What is eclipse ?1s thern any ways of avoiding eclipse during launch of satellite Explain in
detail. (MU May 13, 10 Marks)

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2.13.3 What is eclipse ? Are there any ways of avoiding eclipse during
UQ
MU-Dec. 13,May 18. 10 Marks);
to
satellite ? Why it is preferable
4215.4 Explain what is meant by earth eclipse of an earth-orbiting
?
than east, of earth station longitude
perate with a satelite positioned west rather (MU Dec. 16. 5 Marks;

State and derive the period and duration

UQ 2.13.5 Explain earth eclipse of satellite with neat sketches (MU-Q.5(b). May 19. 10 Marks)
of eclipse before and after equinox.
earth eclipse. A satellite is in
period of time. These are called
as
De satellte pass into the earth's shadow at some

due to earth is more important than

cclipse, if the earth or moon prevents sunlight from reaching it. Solar eclipse
due to moon, because due to the earth it lasts for several days.
around the sun (i.e. ecliptic plane) the
f the equatorial plane of the earth coincides with the plane of earth's orbit
of the satellite.
geostationary satellite will be eclipsed by the earth. It is called as Earth eclipse
the satellite is in full view of the sun
The equatorial plane is inclined by an angle of 23.4 to the ecliptic plane. Hence,
for most of the days ofthe year. This is shown in Fig. 2.13.1 by a position X.

Periods and duration of eclipse

Around the autumn and the spring equinoxes the

sun is crossing the equator. Hence, at certain
periods the satellite does pass into the earth's
shadow. These periods are refermed to as the Spring Satellite
edipse
equinox
periods of the eclipse. They are shown in
Fig. 2.13.1. Satellite
in transit
The star Eclipses due to earth begin 23 days
before equinox and end 23 days after equinox. Sun
The spring equinox is the first day of spring and
the autumn equinox is the first day of autumn.
Satellite
During equinox the sun, earth and satellite are in Autumn
equinox in transit Poslton X
the same plane.

Spring equinox occurs on 21 March and autumn Satellite is

Satellite in full view of the sun
equinox occurs on 23 September respectively. edlipse
Maximum duration of eclipse is at the equinoxes.

The eclipse lasts about 10 min at the beginning Fig. 2.13.1: Satellite eclipse and satellite sun transit
around
and end of the eclipse period. spring and autumn equinoxes

At the time of full eclipse the duration of the eclipse may be about 72 min. This is the maximum
duration.
The solar cells do not
operate properly the time of solar eclipse. In this situation for the satellite
at
to
supply power with the help of batteries. This reduces the satellite life. operate we need to

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For satellites Nickel Hydrogen batteries are used as they can work with 70% depth of discharge. However, if the Modnle
batteries discharge below maximum depth, we may not be able to supply power to the Satellite till the battery is charged

to its full capacity. To obtain good performance during eclipses battery conditioning routines are undergone by ground

controllers.
failures.
Eclipses are therefore to be carefully monitored; as it can lead to equipment failure orcomponent
power region)
solar and
Satellite failure usually occurs when the satellite enters into eclipse (i.e. satellite switches to no
to satellite). This creates a
when the satellite moves out of the eclipse (i.e. large amount of solar power is applied
thermal stress on the satellite.

Moon eclipse
The solar eclipse caused by moon to the geostationary satellite occurs when the moon passes in front of the sun.

minutes to over two hours

Eclipses may occur twice within the 24 hour period. The eclipse duration any range from few
with an average duration of about 40 minutes.

They range from zero to four with an average of two per year,

Ways to avoid eclipse during launch/lifetime of

Satelite located
satellite. The satellite longitudes that are located at west of
earth station
west of the earth station are more desired than the
satellite located to the east.
'Edipse
Fig. 2.13.2 shows eclipse of the earth station when the Sun > region
satellite is at the east and west of the earth station.
Satelite located
A satellite that is located at east of the carth station wil at east of
earth station
enter into an eclipse during day light early evening Geostetionary orblt
hours at the earth station. If satellite operated at low

power, then effects are undesirable. Fig. 2.13.2

A satellite that is located towards the west of earth station will enter into an eclipse during the morning hours and at
night. The eclipse does not occur till the earth station is in dark station. Hence, its usage is low.

uQ2.13.6 Explainwith diagram what "Umbra andpenumbra' ? How it s affecting satellite

operation 2 (MU-May 17, 4 Marks)

At the time of total eclipse the satellite does not

receive light, if the satelite passes through the umbra
ie. the dark central region of shadow as shown in Solar rays
Umbra
Fig. 2.13.3.

If the satellite passes through penumbra i.e. less dark

the umbra, it receives very less

xPenuiex
region surrounding
light.
Fig. 2.13.3:Umbra and Penumbra

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2.14 SUN TRANSIT OUTAGE (MU May 12. 3 Marks

uQ. 2.14.1 Explain the following Sun transit outage. (MU 0.5(b). May 19. 2 Marks

UQ. 2.142 Explain the Sun Transit outage.

1t 1s tne ransit of the
during the equinoxes.
* *

that must be allowed

'g
L.l3.I Sun transit outage is an event
u within the beamwidth
of earth anould
station
Sarelite between the earth and sun, that the sun enters
The signal from
the satellite is
satellite rises.
a result, the sun appears to be a noisy source. The noise level at the
blanked out. This effect is called as sun transit outage.
6 days.
t lasts for short periods in each day. Around the equinoxes it lasts for about
earth station.
ne occurrence and duration of the sun transit outage is dependent or
the latitude of the

This effect is for 10 min a day for several days and for about 0.029% of an average year.
station antenna. It appears
sun to move out of the
beamwidth of the earth
The receiving earth station has to wait for the
in the day time and forces the domestic data users to arrange alternate channels.

H2.15 sUN SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT

orbit 2 What is its
GQ. 2.15.1 How do you define an orbital cycle in the case of sun-synchronous
significance for earth observation application?
UQ. 2.15.2 Why is it preferable for a remote sensing satellite to be in sun synchronized orbits ?
(MU -Dec. 16. 2.5 Marks)
Sun Synchronous Orblt
Satellite in the sun-synchronous orbit cover a particular place on the earth's surface at the same local time each day thus
observing under the same illumination conditions.
The orientation of the sun-synchronous orbit remains fixed relative to the sun as shown in Fig. 2.15.1, the angle 6
remains constant. Winter L i n e of nodes

Line of nodes

Autumn Sun Y Spring

Line of nodes

Line of nodes.
Summer
Fig. 2.15.1: Sun-synchronous orbit

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The sun-synchronous satellite is placed in a near polar orbit with right altitude and inclination to make its orbit plane Module
twist approximately 1° per day (360° per year).

Thus, the angle between the orbit plane and the radius vector to the sun remains nearly constant at all times throughout
the entire year.

Those who are near the north and south poles have the largest number of opportunities to access the satellites.

Those who are near the equator have smallest number of satellite access opportunities
The condition for sun synchronicity is that the local solar time should be constant.

Local solar time = Q- a, which is also equal to the angle D. This is the local solar time at the ascending node, but a

similar situation applies at other latitude crossings.

For the satellite orbit to be sun-synchronous, the right ascension of the ascending node 2 also must increase eastward
by that amount.

Use is made of the regression of the nodes to achieve sun synchronicity.

The rate of regression of the nodes and the direction are determined by the orbital elements a, e, and i. These can be
selected to give the required regression of 0.9856° east per day.

Sun

Local
solar=
time
Linesof nodes

Greenwich
meridian

Fig. 2.15.2

It is seen that with sun synchronicity the angle 2-a remains constant.

Solar time is measured by the angle between the sun line and the meridian line which is known as the hour angle. For
example, universal time is the hour angle between the sun and the Greenwich meridian, as shown in Fig. 2.15.2.

Local solar time is the hour angle between the sun and the local meridian. The local solar time for the line of nodes is
seen to be Q-a, and as shown, for a sun-synchronous orbit this is constant.
However the manner in which the orbit appears from the point ofthe view of sun is same irespective of where the earth
is in its yearly orbit. This makes the earth to be illuminated throughout the year. Hence, they are preferred to be used in
weather and spy satellites to take Earth's images. They are also used in remote sensing satellites for maintaining the

angle between the aspects of incident solar radiation and observations by the satellite.

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 Orbits and Launching
2-38
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC)
W2.16 LAUNCHES AND LAUNCH VEHICLES
into final circular orbit with
- - - - - ~ - - - * -

satellite
Explain the various stages in launching of a geostationary MU-May 12. 12 Marks)
:216.1
zero inclination by ELV.
launch satellite in GEO orbit.
Compare ELV and STS methods to
a
2.16.2
Q. (MU-May 13.Dec. 13.5 Marks)
(MU May 14, 10 Marks)
UQ. 2.16.3 What are different methods of launching satellite ? Explain. (MU May 17, 5 Marks)
Write short note on Launching mechanism.
UQ. 2.16.4 MU - May 18, 5 Marks)
satellites
UQ. 2.16.5 Explain Launching of Geo stationary
stable orbit is a very difficult,complex and expensive task.
Launching the satellite into a
surface into space.
satellite into stable orbit. It carries the payload from the earths
A launch vehicle is used to place a a

Generally a launch system comprises of the following:

a spacecraft or rocket for carrying the payload

)
i) launch pad
ii) additional hardware needed for the launch.
launch vehicle are as follows:
The different factors considered while selecting a

1. Launch schedule 2. Cost of the launch vehicle

3. Location of the launching site 4. Spacecraft or rocket

5. Reliability 6. Recent launch failure/success history

7. Performance 8. Availability
9. Safety concern 10. Market conditions

a 2.16.1 Selection of Launch Vehicle and Zero and Non-zero Degree Latitude Launching

(MU May 12. 4 Marks)

UQ 216.6 Explain minimum inclination at launch of a satellite
-***
The selection of the launching site is very important consideration.The different factors responsible for selection of

launching site are as follows

1) Location of the launching site : This is because the efficieney of the launching process is dependent on the location of
the launching site.
2) Launching direction of the satellite
The Earth rotates from west to east. Hence satellites also rotate around the earth in a similar manner i.e. from west
east.

If the satellites are launched towards east the satellite acquires the earths incremental velocity, as it leaves the
earth's atmosphere.

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Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-39 Ortits ard Lainn
However if the satellites are launched towards the west direction, the satelite will lose the incremental veocity as o
it leaves the earth's atmosphere and it will need additional energy for launching
The minimum inclination of the orbit is equal to the latitude of the launch site To cbtain lower inclinatin,
satellites need to go through an orbit plane transfer.

The Communication satellites are placed into geostationary orbit above the equator with zero inclination to the
equatorial plane. It is called as zero degree latitude launching. To obtain zero degree latitude launching te
launch site should be ideally located on the equator or close to the equator.
Otherwise the satellite orbit would be inclined to the equatorial plane and it has to be maneuvered for which
additional fuel is needed. Such a launching are called non-zero degree latitude launching

Minimum inclination at the launch of a satelilite

A satellite can be launched directly into on orbit with a

specific inclination (i). Projscion ot ortital padh
on he sutace of
The minimum energy for launching is when the satellite is earth
launched due east. (ie. azimuth angle A, = 90°).
Lounch site
The minimum inclination at the launch of a satellite is, B
cos i cos À sin A

cos i cos sin 90°

cos i = cos A Csin 90 = 1)

Fig 216.1

Thus the minimum possible inclination at the launch of a satellite is equal to the latitode of the launch site G

3) The launching site must be away from populated areas as it has heavy equipment's. Coastal areas are preferred as
launching sites because the launch vehicle sheds out lot of spent hardware that has an impact on the earth.

4) The weatber conditions should be favourable for launching.

In India Sriharikota (SHAR) satisfies these requirements and is used for lannching. It is located at 37 N, S03 E
The other launching sites are

i) Shuang Cheng Tm in Gobi desert for LEO launches berweea inclinations 57 and 70 degrees.

n Koaroa in Freach Guiana, South America for launching geosynchronous satelites.

) San Marco in Africa for low inclination launches.

iv) Alcantara in Brazil, South America

vPlesetskin Russia has launched many satellites

vi) Taiyuan in Shanxi, China for launching satellites in polar orbits.

vii) Tanegashima in Japan is the largest launch site in Japan.

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 Orbits and Launching
2-40
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC)
a 2.16.2 Launch Pad, Launch Window
the launcher is fired.
base from where a spacecraft placed on
Launch Pad : It is the load bearing launched in space.
Launch Window: It is defined as the time
interval during which a spacecraft canbe
in the desired orbit, secondly it
launch window so that it is corectly placed
The satellites must be launched within the
control throughout the launch.
receives suficient power supply and thermal
window, the launching
some malfunction is
or
observed during the launch
it the weather conditions are inadequate
the spacecraft.
should be postponed to the next launch window that is suitable for launching

The launch window duration can be found out from the following parameters:
2. location of launching site
1. desired orbit

3. weather 4. Performance of the launch vehicle

5. Position of the satellite

a 2.16.3 Sea Launch

from Russia, Ukraine, Norway and
In 1995, Sea Launch was established in 1995 as an association of four companies
the United States. It is managed by Boeing along-with other companies
Sea Launch is a multinational spacecraft launch service.
of commercial payloads on specialized Zenit-3SL
It uses a mobile maritime launch platform for equatorial launches
rockets
In March 1999 the first rocket was launched. In 2007 January the second rocket also failed to launch because Zenith
3SL exploded on the launch pad in seconds after the ignition of the engine.

In 2008 Sea Launch launched 29 rockets successfully.

Sea Launch spacecrafts use the custom-designed three-stage Zenit-3SL launch vehicle.

The launch vehicle is capable of placing up to 6,000 ke of payload into geosynchronous transfer orbit.

The first and second stage rocket components are manufactured by SDO Yuzhnoye/PO Yuzhmash in
Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine and the third stage rocket components are manufactured by Energia in Moscow, Russia .
The payload the interstage structure components are manufactured by Boeing in Seattle, United states.
The rockets are assembled in California, United States at Long Beach.

a 2.16.4 Launch Vehicles

uQ 2167 Explain Launching of Geostationary satellites. (MU Q. 1(a). Dec. 18. 5 Marks)
*

The two parameters are responsible to place a satellite in stable orbit are:
(a) The velocity vector.

(b) The orbital height.

Both factors should be simultaneously correct to put the satellite in stable orbit. As there is
in
no meaning obtaining
correct height without correct direction or vice-versa.

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 Orbits and Launching
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-41

For example a geostationary satellite, must 25.00 4

Module
10:003
stage rolValign
be in a orbit of 35,786.03 km above the stage
separation
earth surface with an zero degree inclination 05.41 2
and should posses velocity of 3074.7 m/sec. stage separatlon
06:10 3 stage kgnition
tangential to the earth in the orbit's plane,
05.34 payload
which is the earth's equatorial plane.
fairng pettlson
In any earth satellite launch, the largest
fraction of the energy expended by the
rocket to accelerate the vehicle from rest
until it crosses about 20 miles (32 kms)
above the earth surface. 00.21 Roll
02.07 1stage separaton
Therefore to make the launch fuel efficient
2 stage igntion
it is necessary to shed extra mass from the
launcher as it moves upwards on launch,
this process is called staging.

Fig. 2.16.1 shows a schematic staging of

proton launch from the Russian Baikonur
complex at Kazakhstan, ncar Tyuratum.

The two important launch vehicles are Lift off

(a)Expendable launch vehicle (ELV)

(b) Reusable launch vehicle (RLV).

Fig. 2.16.1:Staging of a proton launch

Following facts should be considered while launching a satellite to place it in stable

orbit.

49 Always.remember theearth revolvesform west.toeast

i ) At the equator, the rotationa velocity of a sea level site in the plane of the equator is 0.4651 km/s. This impacts a

velocityincrementofapproximately 100mph (1610km/h)

i An easterly launch from the equator has a velocity increment of0.465 km/s due to rotation of the earth.
(iv) A satellitein a circular,equatorialorbitat an altitude of900km requires an orbital velocity of about 7.4 kms tangential
t o the surface of the earth

a 216.4(A) Expendable Launch Vehicles (EL

satellite is launched in east direction and close the equator

Fig. 2.16.2 shows a typical launch sequence. A
an as to as

of the earth's rotational velocity and minimize the fuel required for
possible in order to take maximum advantage
reducing the inclination to zero.
In order to minimize the drag from the atmosphere, a satellite is launched vertically.

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 Orbits and Launching
2-42
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) it is tilted by 90° in the
until, at the point of injection,
The vehicle is gradually tilted by its guidance system during flight

easterly direction.
are bunt.
After a few minutes the first stage rockets 250 km is reached the
between 185 and
initial parking orbit typically
Ihe second state is ignited soon after. When the

sound stage is cut off.

ignition of the
second stage rocket drift
in the parking orbit.
The satellite together with the remaining South aray
South arayY
West antenna deloyment deloyment
deployment
sUN

North array
deployment
AM
185 to 250 km FIRING

Geosynchronous
orbit

E6-6 Transfer
orbit
Intemediate
orbit
ft
orbit

East antenna
deployment Mode On
stabillzaton orbit

Fig. 2.16.2: Launch sequence

is burnt to depletion, followed by a

Shortly before reaching the equator, the second stage rocket is re-ignited. This stage
burn to depletion of the third stage if any. This injects satellite into liptical transfer orbit and the payload is separated
from the launch vehicle.
The satellite trajectory is closely monitored by a network of tracking stations till an accurate set of orbital parameters is
obtained.

Several resolutions lasting for several hours is essential. Before performing the circularization the satellite altitude is
corrected to obtain the desired orientation.

An apogee kick motor which is a part of the spacecraft is then fired at the apogee of the transfer orbit.

The satellite begins to drift slowly with respect to the earth and hence this phase is referred to as the drift phase.

Small thrusters on-board the satellite are fired for fine correction till the satellite is positioned at the desired location.

Other operations during phase include transition of stabilization of the

this satellite from the spin mode into a body
stabilized mode, solar array deployment and sun and earth acquisition.

Once onstation the performance of the satellite is checked using well laid procedures before the actual operations
begin.
ELV launchers like delta and Ariane put the satellite in an inclined
elliptical orbit called a transfer orbit with an apogee
at geosynchronous altitude and a 185 to 370 km
perigee.

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 Orbits and Launchin9
Satellite Communication(MU.Sem 8-E&TC) 2-43

Fig. 2.16.3(a) and (b) shows the delta launch vehicles and Module
Ariane launch vehicles.

The different versions of delta are

1. Delta (1960) 12 misions

2 Delta (1965) E,G, 25 missions.

3. Delta (1970) LM,N 24 missions.

4. Delta (1975) 2300, 2900 43 missions.

5. Delta (1982) 3920.

6. Delta (1984) 3914.

7. Delta (1986) 3920/ PAM (Payload Assist Module). (a) Delta ELV launch vehicles (b) Ariane launchers
Fig. 2.16.3
Delta launchers cannot achieve low inclination transfer orbits.

The different version of Ariane are

1. Ariane I (1700 kg) 2. Ariane Il (2175 kg)

3 Ariane II (2180 kg) 4. Ariane IV

5. In brackets payload is written.

They are designed to launch two satellites at the same time from an enclosed system de lancement double Ariane.

Ariane rockets inject satellites into transfer orbits with inclinations of 5', permitting more payload weight.
The advantages of Ariane are

(i) It imposes fewer safety constraints on satellite designers.

i) Its ability to achieve lower inclination transfer orbits from its launch side.

ii) No payload assist module is required.

a 2.16.4(B) Space Transport System (STS) or Space Shuttle

The expendable launchers use most of the expensive hardware during launch. Hence, one of the main design objective
of space shuttle was to develop a reusable launch vehicle.

The space shuttle consists of a reusable orbiter which injects satellites to a LEO and reenters the atmosphere, landing as
an aircraft.

The space shuttle can only launch satellites in the LEO. Hence an addition propulsion is essential to inject a satellite
into the geostationary orbit.

The thrust to attain the geostationary orbit is obtained by applying the required thrust at apogee. The succeeding phases
are similar to the expendable rockets.

The space shuttle flies a nominal 296 km circular orbit.

Geosynchronous satelite launched by the space transport system are moved from this orbit to the transfer orbit by an
additional stage called Payload Assist Module (PAM) or a perigee motor.

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 Orbits and Launching
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-44

Advantages
(1) Ifoffers a low cargo bay.

(2) Lower gravitational forces during launch.

insertion.
) In space checkout and repair before transfer orbit
Disacvantages
transfer orbit.
(1) A user must provide a stage to put the satellite into the
restrictions on the satellite designers than the
(2) Launch from a manned vehicle imposes significantly more difficult safety
ELV launches.

2.16.4(C) Difference between ELV and STS Methods to Launch Satelite

(MU -May 13, Dec. 13, 5 Marks)
UQ. 2.16.8 Compare ELV and STS method.
- - -

Sr. Parameter Expendable Launch Vehicles Space Transport system (STS)

No. (ELV
1. Use The expendable launch vehicles are The space shuttle is reusable system.
designed for one time use.

2. Safety restrictions There are less restrictions on the The launch from a manned vehicle imposes more
satellite designers. difficult safety restrictions on thesatelite designers.
3. Gravitational The gravitational force is more The gravitational force during the launch is less as it
force during the launch because the occurs froma low earth parking orbit.
launch occurs from the earth's
surface.
4. Transfer orbit Before the satellite is placed in the Before the satellite is placed in the actual orbit, there
actual orbit, there is only one are two orbits low earth parking orbit and transfer
transfer orbit. orbit.
5. Perigee Kickk No Payload Assisted Module For launching satellites by STS we need a Perigee
Motor (PKM (PAM) or Perigee Kick Motor Kick Motor (PKM) or Payload Assist Module (PAM)
(PKM) is needed. for moving the satellite from low earth parking orbit to
transfer orbit.

6. Examples Delta, Ariane, Atlas Space shuttles.

a 2.16.5 Indian Launch Vehicles

GQ 16.9 What are rent launch vehicles used in India and indicate their pagload capacity ?

In 1970 ISRO began to develop launch vehicles for satellites. In 1980 the first experimental launch vehicle: Satellite
Launch Vehicle SLV-3 was launched from SHAR Sriharikota at the time when Rohini RS-1 satellite was placed in
orbit.

The Rohini series of Rockets are made by ISRO for launching payloads to different altitudes for scientific

investigations and Research.

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 Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-45 Orbits and Launching
tellite launch vehicle was launched as a low cost Jaunch vehicle for showing and onle
In 1992 ASLV Augmented
I
validating critical technologies.
satellite launch vehicle are also launched by ISRO.
PSLV Polar satellite launch vehicle and GSLV geosynchronous
2.16.5(A) Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-3)

SLV-3 launched from SHAR Sriharikota.

experimental launch vehicle : Satellite Launch Vehicle
was
In 1980 the first
17 tonnes. In LEO orbit it can
SLV-3 is a 4 stage vehicle which comprises solid propellants. It is of 22m and weighs a

successful. Later in 1981 there were two more

40 kg payload and reach 400 km. However it was partially May
place
launches that were unsuccessful.

On 17h April 1983 the fourth and final successful launch of SLV-3 took place.

2.16.5(B) Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle(ASLV)

It was launched in 1982 as a low cost intermediate vehicle for
showing and validating validate critical technologies.

It was developed with a view to increase the payload capacity to

150 kg ie. thrice that of SLV-3.
ASLV is a 5 stage vehicle which comprises solid propellants. It
is of 23.8 m.

It weighed 40 ton at lift-off.

Under the ASLV programme four developmental flights were

conducted. The first developmental flight took place on March

24, 1987 and the second on July 13, 1988. ASLV-D3 was

successfully launched on May 20, 1992, when SROSS-C (106

kg) put into an orbit of 255 x 430 km. ASLV-D4, launched

was

on May 4, 1994, orbited SROSS-C2 weighing 106 kg.

2.16.5(c) Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV is the first

operational launch vehicle of ISRO.
PSLV is capable of launching 1600 kg satellites in 620 km
sun-synchronous polar orbit and 1050 kg satellite in geo-

synchronous transfer orbit.

It is 44.4 m tall and has a lift off weight of 295 tonnes.

PSLV has four stages using solid and liquid propulsion

systems alternately.
It provides very good reliability rate.

It is used for launching Indian Remote Sensing Satcllites.

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 Orbits and Launching
2-46
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) =

Launch
a 2.16.5(D) Geosynchronous Satellite
Vehicle (GSLV)
launch its INSAT-type
It is developed to enable India to
satellites into geostationary orbit.

India less dependent on foreign rockets.

It helps to make
3 stage launcher using one solid rocket motor stage,
It has a

one Earth storable liquid stage and one cryogenic stage.

It weighed 415 tonnes at lift-off and is of 49.15m.

Ex. 2.17.2: A satellite orbit has an eccentricity of 0.2 and

2.17 SOLVED EXAMPLESs semi-major axis of 10,000 km. Find the values

of
Ex. 2.17.1: A satellite is orbiting in equatorial plane with
(a) Latus rectum (b) Minor axis
a period from perigee to perigee 12 hrs. Given
the eccentricity is 0.002. Calculate the (c) Distance between foci.

semimajor axis. Equatorial radius of earth is Soln.

6378.144 km. e = 0.2
Given
Soln.: A = 10,000 km = 10° km
Given: e = 0.002
To find: i) Latus rectum
R 6378.144 km
i) Minor axis
T 12 hrs.
(ii) Distance between foci.
3.986 x104 m/s
Steps to be followed
Tofind: a

According to Kepler's third law, Step I: To find the latus rectum

Mean motion
27t Step Il: To find minor axis.
n=T 12x 60 x 60
Step Ill:Tofind distance betweenfoci
n = 14545 x 10 rad/sec.
Step I: To find the latus rectum:

Semi-latus rectum P = a(l - e)

3.986 x 104 P 10 (1 -(0.2))

. a
10421.88427 x 1022
(1.4545 x
P 9600 km
a = V1.88427 x 10 = 26610212.97 Latus rectum = 2 x P =2x9600

a 26610.21 km = 19,200 km

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 Satellite Communication(MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-47 Orbits and Launching

Step 11: Tofind minor axis: Step II: To find the apogee height h,: Module
b = a(1-e)2
Apogee distance r,= a(1 +e) I
b = 10,000 (1 - (0.2))"
9000 (1 +0.15)
b 9797.96 km
10350 km
Step Ill: Tofind distancebetween foci:
h = -R
Distance between foci = ae
h, 10350-6371
= 10,000x 0.2 = 2000 km
h, = 3979 km.
Ex.2.17.3: The orbital for an earth orbiting satellite has
Step II: Tofind the perigee height h,:
an eccentricity of 0.15 and a semi-major axis
of 9000 km determine. a(1 -e)
(a) Its periodic time
=9000 (1 -0.15)
(b) The apogee height
(c) The perigee height.
=7650 km
Assume a mean value of 6371 km for the h ,-R
earth's radius. h, = 7650-6371

Soln.
h,= 1279 km.
Given: e = 0.

a = 9000 km Ex. 2.17.4: If mean is 116.636, find mean

anomaly
angular motion for satellite launching in
4 3.986 x 10 m/s2 geostationary orbit. How much time is
R = 6371 km required for perigee passage.

Tofind: ) Periodic time T. Soln.

Given M =116.636
i) Apogee height h,
a 42.164
(ii) Perigee height h
To find: ) Mean angular motion n.
Steps to be followed:
i) Time required of perigee passage time (t- 1
Step I: To find the periodictime T
Steps to be followed:
Step 1:To find the apogee height h
Step Il: To find the perigeeheight h StepI Tofind mean angular motion n

To find the periodic time T:

I: Tofind perigeepassagetime (t
Step I:
Step I: To find mean angular motion:
According to Kepler's third law,
1/2

T 2
V ( 3 . 9 8 6 x 10o 2

T 27
(9000 x 10 4 42,164x 10 42,164x 10)
3.986x 10
n 7.292x 10 degree/sec.
T 8470 x 10° sec

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 Orbits and Launching
-48
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) satellite orbit with an
For an eccentric elliptic
Ex.2.17.6: at a distance of
StepII: To find perigee passage time perigee points
:
apogee
and

116.636 km respectively from the

50,000 km and 8,000
Perigee passage time(t-1) 7.292 x 10
=

determine the semi-major axis,

centre of earth,
orbit eccentricity.
= 1.595 x 10 sec semi-minor axis and

Ex. 2.17.5 : The sum of apogee and perigee

distances of a Soln. R,= 8000 km
certain elliptical satellite orbit is 50,000 km Given: R 50,000,

and perigee
and the difference of the apogee Semi-major axis a
To find: (i)
km. Determine the
distance is 30,00 e
Semi-minor axis b (ii) Eccentricity
(i)
eccentricity.
Steps to be followed
Soln.:
Given: r , +I, = S0,000 T o find semi-major axisa
Step I
b
-T 30,000 Step II T o find semi-minor axis

Step l T o find eccentricity e.

Tofind: Eccentricity e.
the semi-major axis a :
StepI: Tofind r,and r, Step I: To find
Solving equations simultaneously,

Tt=50,000 50,000+8000
_p = 30,000
a = 29,000 km
2r, 80,000
Step II:To find the semi-minor axis b:
=40, 000 km
Similarly b = 50000 x 8000
= 10,000 km
b 400000000
Step II: Tofind a: b = 20,000 km

Semi-major axis a -
Step I : To find eccentricity e

40,000+ 10,000 = a (1+e)

a
50000= 29,00 (1 +e)
a = 25,000 km
1.724 1+e
e 0.724
Step I :Tofind eccentricity e:
Ex. 2.17.7: Derive the expression to show that a satellite
= a (1 +e) launched into a circular orbit at a height h
metres from the surface of earth will move
40,000 25,000(1+e)
with a velocity v = R R Consider a
1.6 1+e
satellite of mass m moving in a circular path
e 0.6 around the earth as shown in Fig. P. 2.17.7.

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 Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-49 Orbits and Launching
V To find: ) Periodic time T, Module
H (i) Apogee height h
Cii) Perigec height h,.
Steps to be followed:
Earth

StepI: To find periodic time T.

To find apogee distancer, and apogee height

StepII:
Fig. P. 2.17.7

Step III: To find perigee distance r and perigee

Soln.
For satellite to be in the fixed orbit, the centrifugal
a height h
force and centripetal force acting on the satellite must be Step I: To find periodic time T:
equal.
According to Kepler's third law,
Centripetal force = centrifugal force

T 2 2
(9000x 10o
mg 3.986 x10
9000)
T 2x 3.142\|3.986 x10
But V ro

Where = angular velocity. T 6.284 x 1.353 x 10

T 8504 sec.
ro g T 2 hrs 21 min.
Step II : To find apogee distance r, and apogee

height h,
V R C* r=R+H)
a (1+e)
We know that o =
R T 9000 (1 +0.15)
= 10,350 km

h, - R
h,= 10,350-6370

Hence proved b, 3980 km

Step IlI To find perigee distance and perigee
Ex. 2.17.8 : The orbital for an earth orbiting satellite orbit
has an eccentricity of 0.15 and a semi-major height h,
axis of 9000 km. Determine a (1 -e)
(a) Periodic time (b) Apogee height = 9000 (1 -0.15)

(c) Perigee height.

Assume mean value of 6370 km for the eath's p 7650 km
radius.
Soln. h= 7650 -6370
Given: e= 0.15, a =9000 km, R =6370 km
h 1280km

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 Orbits and Launching
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eSatellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC equatorial radius,
of 6378 km for
the earth's
1675 satellite has an apogee axis and the
The the semi-major
Ex. 2.17.9: cosmos
of
Determine

height of 39,342 km and a perigee height satellites orbit.

eccentricity of the
the semimajor axis and
613 km. Determine

eccentricity of the orbit.

Assume mean radius Soln.
Given: h=35795 km
of earth to be 6371 km.
h 35779 km
Soln.: R 6378 km
6371 km
Given: h,= 39,342 km, h, = 613 km, R =

To find: (i) Semimajor axis a

Tofind: (i) Semi-major axisa
(i) Eccentricity e.

(ii) Eccentricity e.
Steps to be followed:
Steps to be followed:
To find r, and rp
To find apogee distance and perigee
StepI:
Step II: To find the semi major axis
a
Step I:
Step Il: Tofind eccentricity e
distance.
Step II: To find semi-major axis a
Step I: To find r, and r,:
Step II: Tofind eccentricity e.
ah+R
Step I : To find apogee distance and perigee
35795 + 6378
distance
42173 km
h -R
Tp h + R
h,+R
p 35779 +6378
39342 +6371
45713 km p 42157 km
Step II: To find semi-major axis a :
h, -R
h,+R a
42173 +42157
613+6371
a = 42165 km

6984 km
Step III:To find eccentricity e :
Step II: Tofind semi-major axis a :
a(1 +e)
_45713+6984
a
2
42173= 42165 (1 +e)
1.00189 = 1+c
a 26348.5 km
e = 0.000189
Step III: Tofind e:
a(1+e) Ex. 2.17.11: An earth station situated in the Bangalore,
45,713 = 26348.5 (1 +e)
needs to calculate the Look angles to a
geostationary satellite in the Indian Ocean
1.7349= l+e operated at INSAT. The details of the earth
e 0.7349
station site and the satellite are as follows:
Ex. 2.17.10: The Auss at 1 satellite in geostationary orbit
Earth station latitude and Longitude are 52.0°
has an apogee height of 35795 km and a
N and 0, Satellite longitude (subsatellite
perigee height of 35779 km. Assume a value
point) is 66.0° E.

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 Satelite Communiction (MU-Sem8-E&TC) 2-51 Orbits and Launching
Soln. cos Y= cos (L). cos (, -le) i ) Module

Given: L $2.0°N, = 0, cosy = cos (52.0) cos (66.0-0)

66.0 E, L,= 0, cos y = (0.61566) (0. 40673)

Step I: To find the central angle y. Fig. P. 2.17.11 cosy = 0.25041

shows the geometry for calculating the
Y cos (0.25041)
elevation angle.
Y 75.4981°
rs: Vector from centre of earth to the satellite.
As the central angle y is less than 81.3°, the satellite is
: Vector from centre of earth to the earth station.
visible from the earth station.
d: Vector from earth station to the satellite
StepII: To find the elevation angle E.
Central angle y: angle between r, and r. The distance d from the earth station to the satellite is,
1/2
V: angle measured from r, to d.

The plane of paper is the plane defined by the centre of (-()o (ii)

42164.17 km and r, = 6378.137 km we

earth satellite and earth station. The central angle is y. The Substituting r, =

elevation angle E is measured upwards from local horizontal get,

at the earth station. 6378.137 6378.13
Satellite d=42164.17 1+42164.17-2 42164.17/cos
d=42164.17 [+00228-0.30253825 cos y*km ...(iv)
The elevation angle E is,
| Local horizontal
E = 90° ..(v)
By law of sines,
d
Sin U sin y

Earth station sin y = Sin Y

Center of d
earth
Substituting equations (v) and (ii) we get,
Fig. P. 2.17.11: Geometry for elevation angle calculation
sin (E+90°) = Siny
The angle y is related to the earth station north latitude
sin cos E Sin Y
L, and west longitude l, L, is the number of degrees in
cos 90° sin 90°
latitude that the earth station is north from the equator and
in that the earth
L is the number of degrees longitude
sin y
station is west from the Greenwich meridian. The sub cos E =

satellite point at north latitude L, and west longitude l, is,

cosy=cos (L cos (L) cos (,-1)+ sin (L) sin ()..) For a geostationary orbit with r, = 42164.17 km,
For geostationary satellites the sub-satellite point is on
the equator at longitude 4, and the latitude L, is 0.
r=6378.137 km and=6.6107 gives,

Equation (i) simplifies to, E tan ((6.6107345 -cos y) Isin y1-Y

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 bits and Launching
ASatellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-52

E =tan[(6.6107345 -0.2504) I sin 75.4981]-75.498 T =2 21

(9000x 10o
-=

3.986 x10
E =
tan (6.5696] 75.4981 T 8.476 x 10's.
E = 81.3451 - 75.4981
Step II: Tofind latus rectum
E = 5.847
P a(1 -e)=9000 (1 -(0.15)
Step III: To find the intermediate angle a.
P 8797.5 Km
The intermediate angle a allows the correct 90°
. Latus rectum = 2p =2x8797.5 = 17595km
quadrant to be found for the azimuth. It is expressed as,
Step IlI:To find minor axis
a = tan tan I-L!|
sin (L)
b = a (1 -e
a = tan -| tan | (66.0-0)1| b 9000 (1 - (0.15?
sin (52.0)
b = 8898.17 km
tan tan "2.802)
Step IV:To find apogee height:
a = 70.667°
a a(1 +e)
Step IV: To find the azimuth angle.
The carth station is in the Northern Hemisphere and
= 9000 (1 +0.15)
satellite is to the southeast of the earth station. T=10350 km
A =
180°-a 180°-70.667
= Apogee height h, =-R,
A =109.33° (clockwise from true north) h 10350 6378
UEx. 2.17.12 (MU -May 12, 10Marks) h. = 3972 km

A satellite orbit has eccentricity of 0.15 and a semi major Step V: To find perigee height:
axis of 9000 km. Find the
G) Periodic time (i) Latus rectum p a (l-e)
(ii) Minór axis. iv) Apogee height p 9000 (1 -0.15)
(v) Perigee height. 7650 km
(Assume = 3.986 x 10" m/sec, r, =6378 km).
-R
Soln.
h 7650 -6378
Given e 0.15

a = 9000 Km
h 1272 km
UEx. 2.17.13 (MU Dec. 12, 10 Marks
H 3.986 x 10" m'S
Explain the significance of equation u=mV In
R = 6378 km.
launching of geostationary satellite
Tofind (i) Periodic time (ii) Latus rectum
Soln.:
(ii) Minor axis (iv) Apogee height
m v _mV-
G m Mwhile
(V) Perigee height r launching a
geostationary
satellite.
Step I: To find the periodic time T:
Where total energy
According to Kepler's third law,
=
of satellite for a two body
system.
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 Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 2-53 Orbits and Launching
m = mass of satellitec square of distance between them and directly proportional to Module
the produce of their masses.
V = velocity of the satellite

r = distance from geocentre F = GmM

G = gravitational constant

= 6.673 x 10 km'/Kg Where T unit vector

M Mass of earth

According to Newton's third law every action has an

mV= Kineticenergy
equal and opposite reaction. = kinetic energy - force

the total
Newton's gravitational law that two bodies attract each . Whilelaunching a geostationary satellite,
other such that the force is inversely proportional to the energy is equal to kinetic energy minusforce
Chapter Ernds...
 cHAPTE

3 Wave Propagation and Polarization

Module

3.1 INTRODUCTION. ****************°***************************************** ****************°************°*************

3-2

3.2 ATMOSPHERIC LOSSES. **'*********'*****°*******************°*a********* ************************************** ******************"*****'********

3-2

3.3 1ONOSPHERIC EFFECTS *******************************************************************************************°*********************"****°'

3-3

3.4 RAIN ATTENUATION.. ************°********************************************************************************************************** 3-3

3.5 OTHER PROPAGATION IMPAIRMENTS.. ********'***********************************************************************************°°******** 3-7

3.6 POLARIZATION.. . *onnsnrr**snmnsapea**********************************************************

3-7

3.7 ANTENNA POLARIZATION. **** ****°****************************************************.***************************************************************

3-8

3.8 POLARIZATION OF SATELLITE SIGNALS.. .rsnonnsnnne****************************************************** 3-8

3.9 CROsS POLARIZATION ISOLATION AND DISCRIMINATION. sss*s***********e***********************"i"****************************

3-10

3.10 1ONOSPHERIC DEPOLARIZATION. 3-111

* . . 3-12
3.11 RAIN DEPOLARIZATION. ************** ***************************
************************************* *****°*****************************

3.12 ICE DEPOLARIZATION.. . .****** none***onsasanes*********************************************************.3-13

3-13
Chapter End..
 Wave Propagation & Polarization
3-2
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC)
3.1 INTRODUCTION
from ransmitting earth
by satellite
about the powerreceived
portant as it provides the estimate
earth station.
station and also the power received from the satellite repeater by receiving
losses Iike
it leads to signal
AS the signal propagates through the earth's atmosphere

i) lonospheric losses
Atmospheric
(ii) Rain attenuation (iv) Ice depolarization
These phenomenon will be studied in following subsections.

3.2 ATMOSPHERIC LOSSES

GQ. 3.21 Explain Atmospheric Losses for radio wave propagation

In the atmosphere at microwave frequencies 100

the electromagnetic waves interact with the
501
molecules to cause signal attenuation.

However, at some frequencies atmospheric 20t

absorption can occur and as a result there
10t
can be atmospheric attenuation
To differentiate between the losses, the losses
2t
that are related to weather are termed as

atmospheric attenuation and the losses due H20

0.5t
to absorption are termed as atmospheric

attenuation. 0.1
Fig. 3.2.1 shows how atmospheric loss varies 0.05
with frequency. 0.02
0.01
Temperature = 20°C
2 5 10 20 50 100
water vapour =7.5 g/m*
Frequency (GHz)
Pressure = 1 atm Fig. 3.2.1: Zenith attenuation at ground level
In Fig. 3.2.l we can see two peaks one at a frequency 22.3 GHz that is because of the resonance absorption in water
vapour (H,O) and a second peak at 60 GHz because of resonance absorption in oxygen (0,). At other frequencies the
absorption is low. The graph in Fig. 3.2.l assumes that for the earth station antenna the elevation angle is 90°.

The approximate formula for absorption loss is given as,

[AA] = [AAlgo cosec

where [AAl0 = absorption loss at elevation angle of 90°

elevation angle
[AA] = absorption loss for elevation angles down to 10°

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Because of fading atmospherie scintillation may also take place. The fading period is several tens of seconds. Fading Ddt
can occur because of the differences in the atmospheric refractive index. This may lead to focusing to focusing and
defocusing of the radio waves that follow different paths through the atmosphere. This effect is called as atmospheric
scintillation. Hence, it is essential to add a fade margin for atmospheric scintillation while designing the link power budget.

3.3 1ONOSPHERIC EFFECTS

GQ. 3.3.1 Explain lonosphere Effects for radio wave propagation.

The radio waves propagating between the earth stations and satellite need to pass through the ionosphere. The

ionosphere is ionized by solar radiation

The sun emits energy. It causes the ionosphere to "grow" during the day. This increases the Total Electron Content
(TEC) by two orders of magnitude or more.
The total electron content is the total number of electrons that can be present in a vertical column of area 1 m from the

earth's surface through the atmosphere.

The typical values for total electron content vary from 10 during the day to - 10 during the night.

The rapid change in values of TEC occur at the time of local sunset in the ionosphere. This gives rise to iregularities in

the ionosphere.
The imegularities cause the signal to vary rapidly in amplitude and phase. This leads to rapid signal fluctuations referred
to as ionospheric scintillations.
The magnitude of ionospheric scintillations varies with time of day, month in the year and year in 11-year sunspot
cycle.
The greatest scintillation effects are observed after local sunset in equinox periods during sunspot cycle maximum
years.
The scintillation effects are worst witht 20° approximately ofthe geomagnetic equator and over the poles. The sunspot
cycle averages at around 11 years. But it has been observed that it can be as small as 9.5 years and as big as 12.5 years.

3.4 RAIN ATTENUATION

GQ. 3.4.3 Explain rain attenuation.

At the frequencies that are above 10 GHz, rain is a
16.5 GHz
dominant propagation phenomenon on the satellite 0.1
11 GHz
links.
8 GHz
The farmers, city planners and hydrologists require to
know the amount of rain that will fall in a given period. 6 GHz
0.01

This phenomenon is called as rain accumulation. 4 GHz

The weather forecasts aregiven in terms of how much 2 GHz

precipitation will fall over a given region. O.001
accumulation is
Unfortunately the phenomenon of rain
not very useful to the satellite link designers.
This is 8 10 20 40 80 100
It
because the rate at which rain is falling is important. Rainfall mm/hr
is called as the rainfall rate. Fig. 3.4.1: Rainfall attenuation

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 Wave Propagation & Polarization
3-4
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) It 1s accurate for
is commonly used.
rainfall rate. A tipping bucket rain gauge
A rain gauge is used for measuring the thunderstorms
mm/hr can be cxpected during
rnrall rates between 10 to 100 mm/hr. The peak values of 100 to 150

and short periods.

from radio waves. The drops absorb
Kain attenuation and depolarisation occur as individual raindrops absorb the energy
some of the incident energy and some is scattered.

Water droplets scatter and absorb impinging radiation, causing attenuation.

The rain effects are dependent on the
As the wavelength approaches water drop size, the rain effects become severe.

type of rainfall.
occur at frequencies as low as
During heavy rainfall the raindrop size may be a cm. Hence severe absorption may
10 GHz. Thus, the rainfall effects become severe at satellite frequencies at X band and above.

If a satellite link is to be maintained during rainfall it is essential to have sufficient power called margin to be

transmitted to overcome the maximum attenuation induced by rain. Hence it is essential to access expected rain loss

while evaluating the link parameters.

We need to obtain the expected rainfall in mmv/hr for region of the communication link to find the rain loss. Using the
curves shown in Fig. 3.4.l to read off dB loss per path length at operating frequency.
The rainfall attenuation YR is,

YRa(Ro) dB/km .(3.4.1)

where YR: Specific attenuation
R: Rainfall rate
Suffix Raon: Indicates rainfall rate measured for 0.01%
ofthe average year.
a and bfrequency dependent coeficients.
Table 3.4.1 gives the values of a andb for frequencies between 4 and 50 GHz.
Table 3.4.1 : Regression coefficients for estimating specific attenuation

Frequeney (GHz)
4
0.000650 0.000591 1.121 1.075
0.00175 0.00155 1.308 1.265
8 0.0454 0.00395 1.327 1.310
10 0.0101 0.00887 1.276 1.264
12 0.0188 0.0168 1.217 1.200
20 0.075 0.0691 1.099 1.065
30 0.187 0. 167 1.021 1.000
40 0.350 0.310 0.939 0.929
50 0.536 0.479 0.873 0.868
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Mocdule
The suffixes H and V refer to horizontal and vertical polarization.
If the rainfall rate is constant along the path as in light, strait form rain as shown in Fig. 3.4.1.Then calculating the total

attenuation for a given rainfall rate would be simple.

The physical length through the rain L is same as the effective path length.
Hence, the total attenuation is given as,

A YRX physical path length in rain.

A = YR L dB .3.4.2)

The path length can be considered as the distance between the transmitting and receiving antennas in case of short

terresttial paths with constant rain. It has the same height.

Satellite signal follows a slanting path through the atmosphere. It encounters rain of different types and intensities on its

way.

Ex. 3.4.1 What is the specific attenuation at 10 GHz if the rainfall rate is 40 mm/hr and linear vertical polarization
is used ?

Soln.
From Table 3.4.1, K, = 0.00887, a, 1,264 at 10 GHz

.Specific attenuation = Y=k (Ro01dB/km

Yr= 0.00887(40)1264

YR 0.9396» 0.94 dB/km

A Ku band satelite is to be used in a video broadcasting system. The uplink is from Miami. It is used to feed
Ex. 3.4.2:
more than a million home receivers, the uplink availability should be 99.99% in the average year. What is the
rain attenuation on Miami uplink path for 0.01% of average year ?
The link information is as follows:

Uplink frequency 17.8 GHz

Polarization Vertical

Coefficients for calculating K, 0.0510

at 17.8 GHz a, 1.0927

Specific attenuation
Rain climate regions for Miami Climate region M

Elevation angle 45
Height of rain h 4 km

0.05 km
Height of Miami earth station

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 Wave Propagation &Polarization
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 3-6

soln.

ha

Roo1 Point rainfall rate for location for 0.01% of an average year (mm/h)
h, Height above mean sea level of earth station (km)

Elevation angle (degrees)

Latitude ofthe earth station (degrees)
f Frequency (GHz)
R Effective radius of earth (8500 km)
A:FrOzen precipitation
B Rain height
C: Liquid precipitation
D Earth-space path

Fig. P. 3.4.2: Earth space path giving parameters to be input for rain attenuation procedure

Step I: Calculate the height h, thatis equivalent to ho

h 4 km
Step II: For 025°, compute the slant-path length L, from the rain height from

sin

If 0< 5°then,

2(-h) km= h5.5861 km

sin
sin' 2 0 - 2 +sin 0
R
Step Ill:Calculate the horizontal projection Lgofthe slant-path length from
Lg =
L,cos 6 = 3.95 km

Step IV:Find Rao, the rainfall rate for 0.01% of an average year (mm/hr)

Roo1= 63 mm/hr
StepV: Find Ye the specifice attenvation, along the path for Miami for the rainfall rate cncountered at 0.01% of an
average year.

YRk (Ro01givingYe =4.7175 dB/km

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Step VI: Find the horizontal reduction factor roo, for 0.01% of time Module

To.o1
I
+0.78 0.38 (1-e-2ad)
Too 0.7051
Step VI: To calculate the vertical adjustment factor va01 for 0.01% of the time.

tantan -Lg Too1

) .54.81230
It is greater than elevation angle 0° (45°)
LGo01
As>6,LR=g
cos =3.9388 kmn

Find
X 36-lo1
latitude of site
X 36-25 = 11 for Miami
Vo.01
1+ sin6 (31 (1- l + a
")) -045

Vo.o1 1.0332

Step VIl : The effective path length is,

Le = La Yo14.0696 km

Step IX: The predicted attenuation for 0.019% of average year is

Ag Y Ly= 19.1983 dB 19.2 dB for Miami
Such a situation will not apply to non geostationary orbit (NGSO) satellite systenm.

3.5 0THER PROPAGATION IMPAIRMENTS

Because of low water contents the factor ice, hail, snow are very less affected by attenuation.
Cloud attenuation can be determined similar to that for rain eg at frequency of 10 GHz with water content 0.25 g/m,
the attenuation is around 0.05 db/km and for water content of 2.5 g/m the attenuation is around 0.2 dB/m.
lce may cause depolarization.

H 3.6 POLARIZATION

GQ 3.6.1 What is polarizati

The electromagnetic field has some orientation in space called as polarization. The manner in which the
electromagnetic field is excited at the antenna feed before propagation decides the direction of polarization.
If the magnetic field is in phase with the electrical field such that its amplitude is proportional to the amplitude of the
electric field, then the polarization is linear polarization.

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CSatelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 3-8 olarizaton
f the clectric field is the earths surface, then
the polarization
is called as
vertical polar
arization:an i
pependicular to
irllel to the earths surface then the polarization is
called as horizontal polarization.
for
transmission. However, if there are
The satellite communication links
use circular and linear polarization
n s during transmission the polarization can modify to elliptical polarizauon.

3.7 ANTENNA POLARIZATIONN

The polarization of the signal transmitted by the antenna

is called as polarization of the
transmitting antenna
For transmission at maximum power, the polarization of
the receiving antenna should be correctly aligned
Fig. 3.7.1 shows a
parallel wire grid polarizer.
It reflects a linear polarized signal when the electric field
is parallel to the wires. It also transmits the orthogonal
signal. Fig. 3.7.1 : Parallel wire grid polarizer
Dua polarized antennas generally use parallel wire grid polarizer. The parallel wire grid allows the signals whose

electric field is transverse to the wire to pass. It reflects the (E,) parallel signal as show in Fig. 3.12

Solid or metal grid reflector

Metal grid reflector

EH
-. .

Antenna x Antenna y

Fig. 3.7.2: Dual polarized antenna using wire grid polarizer

The reflector that is located behind the grid allows the reflected wave to pass through. The antenna transmit the two
linearly polarized signals that are orthogonal have and have a high polarization isolation.

3.88 POLARIZATION OF SATELLITE SIGNALS

GQ. 3.8.1 What is meant by polarization of satellite signals?

If a geostationary satellite is transmitting a linear polarized
vector is to the Looal gravity Propagation direction
signal such that the electric field parallel
electrical field
equatorial plane i.e. (horizontal polarization)
or

vector is parallel to the earths polar axis (vertical polarization)

then irrespective of
then if the sub satellite point is on equator
electrical field will be
horizontal or vertical polarization the Local horizontal plane

parallel to the local horizontal plane. Fig. 3.8.1 : Reference plane for direction of
propagation and local gravity direction

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The polarnzauon vector is at some angle relative to the reference plane for other points on the earths surface. The

reference plane comprises the local gravity direction and the direction of propagation.
The directional of normal to the reference plane is,
f kxr .(3.8.1)
Where k =
propagation direction
r
=local gravity direction at the ground station
f direction of normal to the reference
plane.
The angle between unit polarization vector at earth station (P) and
direction of fis,

a arc cos
aso
The angle between the earth station and p is,

3arcsin = 190-n) Fig. 3.8.2: Vectors g k x a and h=gxk

The polarization vector is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Now let us relate the polarization vector (P) to the polarization at the satellite.
Let unit vector a represent the polarization at the satellite.

For horizontal polarization: a is located is equatorial plane at

right angles to geostationary radius roso of satelite.

For vertical polarization: a is parallel to N-S axis of earth,

Thus, a cross product is formed such that,
8 kxa

Where g: normal to plane comprising a and k.

The direction of polarization in plane can be determined by
the cross-product h such that r-R

h gxk
Unit polarization vector at earth station P =

Fig. 3.8.3 shows the relation of vectors with earth station

co-ordinates and satelite.

Along the positive x axis the satellite is positioned at

For earth station position vector R the co-ordinates are

asosGeostationary
given as,
R= Rcos à cos A
Fig. 3.8.3: Vectors R and k in relation to earth
Ry Rcos Asin A station and satellite positions
R, = R sin

Where A = OE- 9

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The direction of local gravity is r=-R.

The co-ordinates for direction of propagation k are,
k, = Rz
k, = R-Tsso
DISCRIMINATION
3.9 ROSS POLARIZATION ISOLATÍON AND

GQ. 3.9.1 Explain Cross-PolarizAtion Diserimination

----*
to
orthogonal polarization uad
PO1a7ation arises in the satelite links that employ that use equency reuse
communication systems
satellite
cOnmon frequency band. This arises in requires It that there
transmission purposes.
either linear or orthogonal circular polarization is used for
c u e s where copolarized signal from
between two orthogonal polarization states toallow the separation of the
1s0lation
the cross polarized signal cross polarization
determine the
and crosspolarized signal energy will
eence between the copolarized
between the two
of interference
dscrimination at the receiver. It is termed as the XPD.
And hence the level

orthogonally polarized signals.

E1t Depolarizing9 Copolar
medium component

Depolarizing
medium *

Cross-polar ....
component

(a) Cross polarization distribution (b) Polarization isolation

Fig. 3.9.1

Fig. 3.9.1(a) and (b) shows cross polarization distribution and polarization isolation.
Consider Fig. 3.9.2 showing signal depolarisation in the transmission path.

Let the amplitudes of transmitted electric field vectors Vertical Vertical

be a and b with vertical and horizontal polarization.

If the transmission medium was clear air then the At transmitting At receiving
antenna
rise to vertical polarization wave of antenna
phasor a will give
amplitude a, at the receiving antenna and the phasor b
will give rise to horizontal polarization wave of x
amplitude b, a, and b., are the copolarized components
have the Horizontal
at the receiving antenna. They same
Horizontal
polarization as a and b.
Fig.3.9.2:Signal depolarisation in transmission path
If there exists rain or ice crystals in the transssion menum tnen
some of the
energy will get coupled into the cross
lariged (horizontal) field component with an amplitude a, at the
receiving antenna. The b component will
to cross polarized (vertical) field component b, at the receiving antenna. get coupled

e of antenna the output of vertical channe! 1s

(4, + b,) and the
output of the horizontal channel
is (b. + a).
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ternis ana b, represents interference in the wanted signals b. and a. It will cause a crosstalk on the Modile
The unwanted
link, thus increasing the bit error rate (BER) on the link.
This generation of unwanted coss polarized components is called as depolarization.

communication systems the of depolarisation is refered as cros polarization isolation. It is

Ruf analysing
measure

denoted by XPI.

It is
expressed as, XPly b
V: Vertically polarized channel.
XP
H: Horizontally polarized channel.
The value when expressed in decibles is given as,

XPly = 201log B XPl= 20logdB

channel. The more the value of
polarization isolation is the ratio of wanted power to unwanted power in the
same
Cross
XPI, the less is the interference in the channel.
simultaneous transmission of signals at same
It is difficult to measure cross polarization isolation, XPI at it requires
frequency in both polarization senses.
wanted and unwanted i.e. copolarized and
The propagation experiments are simple. They measure simultaneously the
i.e. signals a, and a,
that are received from a satellite beacon transmitting with one polarization.
cross polarized signals
a that is transmitted and b, and b, are
measured by transmitting signal b.
are measured from a single polarized signal

This derives cross polarization discrimination, XPD.

XPD, = XPDH

When expressed in decibels,

XPD =20loz0dB
XPD, =
20log1o dB;

The values calculated for XPI and XPD are generally same. For high quality antennas cross polarization discrimination
30 to 40 dB can be achieved.

M3.10 IONOSPHERIC DEPOLARIZATION

ionosphere
GQ 3.10.1 Explain how depolarization is caused by
4 . 3.10.2 Explain ionosphene depolanzation
satellite path signal the ionosphere,
enters it
The ionosphere is ionized by solar radiation. When a linearly polarized
velocities the signals propagate through the ionosphere. When
excites the signals into two polarizations with different
i.e. the signal has a polarization different than linear polarization.
the signals have the ionosphere their phase changes

This is called as Faraday rotation.

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 Wave Propagation&Polarization
Satelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 3-12

Faraday rotation is dependent on factors like

Solar activity (i) Direction of incident wave

Gi) Time of the delay (iv) Season

(Radiofrequency (vi) State of the ionosphere

antenna such the
electric field E at the
receiver
t h e r e 1S no faraday rotation, a linearly polarized wave produces an
receiver power is proportional to the square ofelectric fieldE
the magnitude of the received
A CO-polarized component will be seen if there is a faraday rotation of 0, such that

signal a reduced to
E = E cos 0

Power received x E
The polarization loss in dBs is expressed as,

PL 20 PL 20 log (cos 6,)

=

log E
A cross plot component E, = E sin is also produced

20 XPD= 20 log(cot 8,)

XPD =
log
above 10 GHz, the effect reduces.
Faraday rotation is inversely proportional to the square of frequency. At frequencies
Faraday rotation is 9° at 4 GHz and 4 at 6 GHz.

In order to eliminate the depolarizing effects of faraday rotation, circular polarization is used. The faraday shift just

adds to the rotation, it does not affect the components of the electric field.

3.11 RAIN DEPOLARIZAdION

GQ. 3.11.1 Explain rain depolarization
GQ. 3.112 Explain how depolarization is caused by rain
When a radio wave passes with some arbitrary polarization through raindrops, the component of the electric field in the
direction of the major axes of the raindrops will be affected different from the component along the minor axes. It

produces a depolarisation of wave.

The wave is elliptically polarized.
Rain depolarisation occurs because the larger raindrops in a storm ae not spherical. They flatten out. They are shaped
like the oblate spheroids and fall with their major axes horizontal.

Ifall the rain drops in a rainstorm are aligned then waves propagating with their electric field. Vector parallel to the rain

drops of the minor axis then there is minimum attenuation.

If the field vectors are parallel, then the waves wold experience maximum attenuation.

In both the above cases there is no depolarisation.

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 Satelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 3-13 Wave Propagation&Polarization
Vertical Mocule
Fig. 3.11.1 shows rain depolarisation. An incident
electromagnetic wave with electric field vector E

striking the raindrop. It is revolved into components

*****************************************

E and Ey.

The horizontal component is attenuated more than the

EM
vertical component as it encounters more water. Thus
Horizontal
the receiver the vertical and horizontal field ErH EH
components are Et and Ey The received wave E, has
its polarization rotated towards the vertical by 0°. Fig. 3.11.1 : Rain depolarization

XPD is given as

XPD = u-v log AA

u and v are empirically determined.

A: rain attenuation
3 0logo (-40 log1o (E) -20 log10 Isin (2T)]

EI: elevation angle.

v = 20 for 8 SfS 15 GHz.

23 for 15 sfS 35 GHz

horizontal
T: Angle between received electric fields and

T = 45° for circular polarization

T = 0° when polarization field is parallel to ground.

3.12 ICE DEPOLARIZATION

GQ. 3.121 Explain how depolarization caused by ice
is

calculation. It has wide variations in the

The procedure to calculate the ice crystal depolarisation incorporates the XPD
accuracy.
high elevation angles the process tends to agree with the data
measurement.
At frequencies lower than 10 GHz and at
It has a rare occurrence.
place, then only ice depolarization
occurs.
If several thunderstorms take
have a greatercontribution.
O n low elevation angle paths, the ice crystals

GHz ice depolarisation is significant effect particularly in

greater than 30
a
At higher frequencies ie. frequencies
is less than 30°.
conditions where the elevation angle
Chapter Ends...

O00
 CHAPPTER

4 Space Segment

Module 2
************************************************s*****seesoea******e******.************************************************* 4-4
4.1
INTRODUCTION . .
*********************s*************************** **********************************" ,4-5
SYSTEM (AOCS)..
ATTITUDE AND ORBIT CONTROL Marks).4-5
4.2 axis stabilization method. (MU May 12, 10
-

Ua.4.2.1 What is satellite stabilization ? Explain three **********************"********************** .4-5

Dec. 14,5 Marks).
Write note on different stabilization techniques. (MU
-

UQ. 4.2.2 ***************sss***********************************************

4-6

Attitude Control System.. *************************************s*

****
4.2.1 one way
antenna and briefly describe any
UQ.4.2.3 Explain what is meant by the term despun *****************.********os***************o** .O
achieved ? (MU-May 15, 10 Marks)..
in which the despinning is**************eo****************************t*******************************n************************************************** 4-8
4.2.2 Satellite Stabilization..

Describe different stabilization Techniques. ***********************************e******************** 4-8

Ua. 4.2.4 Dec. 18, 10 Marks).
(MU -Q.4(a), May 18, *****************************************************************************************************************
10 Marks, Q. 3(a), 4-8
4.2.2.1 Spinning Satellite Stabilization.. ) . . . 4-8
(MU May 14, 5 Marks)..
demerits.
-

Explain spin stabilization methods.

Mention their merits and 10 Marks)..
4-8
UQ4.2.6 stabilization. (MU May 15,
***********"*******

method of satellite
****************************os*****************************s*
Briefly describe the three-axes
4-11
UQ.4:2.7
(Momentum Wheel Stabilization).
Satellite ***************e*********************""e***** 4-11
4.2.2.2 3 Axis Stabilized 10 Marks)..
stabilization method. (MU May 12, -

4-11
axis ********e***********************************************
UQ. 4.2.8 Explain three Dec. 12, 5 Marks).
stabilization. (MU -

4-11
UQ. 4,2.9 Write note on :3-axis demerits. (MU May 14, 5 Marks).
-

their merits and

axis stabilization methods.Mention
.4-11
Explain 3 (MU May 15, 10 Marks).
************e****

Ua.42.10 three-axes method of

satellite stabilization.
-

describe the
Ua.4.2.11 Briefly *****oe********************************************* .4-11
stabilization Techniques.
Describe different
UQ.4.2.12 Dec. 18, 10 Marks).
18, 10 Marks,
a. ss******************.
3(a), ********e*************************************************************** 13
(MU Q . 4(a), May
4.2.3
*o*************************************************a*********************ea****************************************************o******eo***
Obit Control System
and Station Keeping. 4-14
T I T

satellites?
STATION KEEPING... axis in GEO
4.3
Sensors" are not used for sensing
the Yaw
UQ. 4.3.1 Why the "Earth
16
4-16
(MU-May 17, 4 Marks). May 17, 4 Marks).. * .

.***********s**********************************************************************************************************************
*

communication ? (MU -

satelte
is used in 4-16
multi-beam antenna
UQ. 4.3.2 Why a ********. 4-16

THERMAL SUB-SYSTEM. satelite ? (MU -

Q. 2a), Dec. 17, 6 Marks).
4.4 thermal sub-systems in
functions of
UQ. 4.4.1 What a r e the
thermal sub-system.
*************e**************e******************************************************ee**************.
What are the
methods of themal control in satellite?
*********** . 4-16

Ua. 4.4.2 Explain **********************e********************************* 4-17

Dec. 16, 10 Maks.
(MU (TTC AND M)..
-

AND
MONITORING 4-17
12, 8 Marks)..
e**************

COMMAND
TRACKING,
system. (MU May
-

4.5 TELEMETRY, C
block diagram explain TT and and
Ua. 4.5.1 With the help of a what kind of antenna's
are used for tracking . 4-17
C subsystem
? Explain Dec. 13, 10 Marks)..
What is TT and (MU- May 13,
orbit.
transmission during transfer
UQ. 4.5.2 with block diagram.
command signal

tracking and
****************************************************s****o****ss**n********************************************** 4-17
command subsystem
? Explain its functioning

UQ. 4.5.3 What is telemetry

meant by
(MU-May 14, 10Marks) c o m m u n i c a t i o n satellite.
Explain what is 4 - 1 7

system of
***********'*****'*

a 10Marks).
Discuss the TT&C satellite. (MU Dec. 14,
-

UQ. 4.54 communication

"redundant
receiver in
Satelite Communication (MU-Sem Space Segment
UQ. 4.5.55
8-E&TC) 4-2
*******************
.4-17
Describe TTC facilities of a satellite communication system. (MU- May 19,
UQ. 4.5.6 Write short note on : Tracking technique used in satelite. (MU- May .***********************.** 1 8
Ua. 4.5.7 in tracking
n Tand C of multi-tone frequency »yo
subsystem. Explain the use*******************************************************************************.....
(MU Q. ..4-18
3(a), May 16, 10 Marks).
UQ. 4.5.8 Discuss in detail telemetry, tracking and command with necessary block diagran
************************************************.... 4-14-18
MO-Q.2(6), May 17, 10 Marks, Q. 2(c), Dec. 17, 10Marks).
Ua. 4.5.9 -Q. 4(b), May 18,
10
MaKS) 4-18
a n d system with the help of block diagram. (MU
C
4.5.1 4-19
one****e***********à************************°******

Telemetry and Monitoring System.

s..

****************e **eoo*a*s*

Ua. 4.5.10 Explain TT and C 4-19

*************************°***°°°°°"****°*****.****..

subsystem. (MU Q. 2(b), Dec. 18, 6 Marks)..

-

Ua. 4.5.11 Write short note on: **********************e****** 4-19

**********°******

TTC. (MU Q. 6(c), May 19, 10 Marks)..

4.5.2 Tracking.. ******°*************************es******sssasso**************************
*****°**********°*
4-19
a . 4.5.12 Whyisit necessary to employ antenna tracking in large earth stations ?
*************************»*******************************°°**********°*****°*°*****.** 4-19
(MU Q. 1(e), Dec. 17, 5 Marks)..
Ua. 4.5.13 Write short note 4-19
-Q. 6(c), May 19, 10 Marks).
aa******s*seoe*s

TTC. (MU
e****************************

on:
Ua.4.5.14 What is the use of multi-tone tracking system ? (MU -a. 1(d), Dec. 17, 5 Marks)... 4-19
Ua. 4.5.15 Explain TT and C subsystem. Explain role of multi-tone frequency in tracking system.
(MU Q. 2(b), Dec. 18, 10 Marks). *************************.********************************************°****** 4-199
.4-20
4.5.3 Command.... ***********************************************************o******************************************************

Ua. 4.5.16 Why the control system in satellite waits for an execute command after receiving the
command to be executed ? (MU -Q. 1(c), Dec. 16, 5 Marks, Q. 2(b), Dec. 17,4 Marks). 20
Ua. 4.5.17 Explain TT and C subsystem. (MU -Q. 2(b), Dec. 18, 10 Marks). .******.********o******************************
4-20

UQ. 4.5.18 Write short note on TTC. (MU Q. -

6(c), May 19, 10 Marks). 4-20

4.6 POWER sYSTEMS.. ee*****.s******e***so******o*n*****o***************oo*o*********************************************************************

4-21

Ua. 4.6.1 Write note on: Electrical power system (MU - Dec. 12, 5 Marks). 4-21

UQ. 4.6.2 Write short note on: Electrical power sub-system (MU - May 15, 5 Marks). ****** ****** 4-21

Ua. 4.6.3 Explain: why a spin stabilized satellite uses relatively large number of solar cells as compared to three
axis stabilized satellite for the same power requirement ? (MU - Dec. 16, 5 Marks).. -21

UQ. 4.6.4 Explain: why are storage batteries used along with solararays ?
(MU a . 2(aX2), Dec. 16, 5 Marks).o***********************************************a* *** aa*****
4-21
UQ. 4.6.55 For the same area of solar array which configuration, spin stabilization or body stabilization,
generate more power. Justifly. (MU-0.1( ), May 17, 4 Marke). ********.******o******es***o***ar** 4-21
UQ. 4.6.6 Explain why some satellites employ cylindrical solar arrays whereas others employ solar-sail
arrays to power generations. (MU - Q. 1(c), Dec. 17, 5 Marks)..
*********a**********°******° ***************e****** 4-21
COMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEMS.. 4-22
4.7
4.8 SATELLITE TRANSPONDER. . e..o.....*.*s ******************************"******"***********************************e**************************** e****
...4-23
4.8
What is transponder ? (MU - May 14, 2 Marks).
Ua. 4.8.1 ***********.******e***********e*********°°.****e** .e *****°***** 4+-23
Single Conversion Bent Pipe Transponder for C Band.
4.8.1 ********************a******ea****aeseaa**************************** ..4-25

UQ. 4.8.2 Explain block diagram of satellite transponder: Single conversion in "C" band
(MU Dec. 12, 5 Marks)........os *******************************e**************************************.a**.* e ***********
4-25

Explain single conversion transponder. (MU - May 14, 3 Marks).

UQ. 4.8.33 oasoo***a******°***aeses**es*** °*°°
..4-25

4.8.2 Double Conversion Satellite Transponder for Ku Band . . .

*ao*****e******e******e******************************.*********°
*****... 4 - 2 6
.
Ua. 4.8.4 Write note on: Double conversion transponder. (MU - May 12,7 Marks) . . 4-26
**************** ****°*****
Explain block diagram of satelite transponder : (i) Double conversion in "Ku" band,
UQ. 4.8.55
(MU Dec. 12, 5 Marks). . *e******oa*****e***** 4-26
*****************************************e***********. .asee*sseneo****o**
Onboard Processing Transponder... **************e**************e***************n****** 4-27
4.8.3 *************.osssoasens ***

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 Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-3 Space Segment
wIDEBAND RECEIVER.. 4-28
4.9 *****

Ua. 4.9.1 Explain what is meant by "redundant receiver" in communication satellite.

(MU- Dec. 14, 10 Marks)...
****************.******s . . **.******************e********************************.4-28
4.10 INPUT DEMULTIPLEXER.. *******************************°°*********************************°*******************°*"*********************** 4-29
4.11 POWER AMPLIFIER.. *********************************.areo*** .o . ************** ****************e********************
.4-29
ua. 4.11.1 Explain point of compression of 1 dB, AM/PM conversion and input and output back-off ratio
with respect to satellite communication. 29
(MU May 13, Dec. 13, 10 Marks)..
-

ua. 4.11.2 Define and explain the tem 1-dB compression point. What the significance of this point in
relation to the operating point of a TwT ? Explain why operation near the saturation point of
a TWTA is to be avoided when multiple carriers are being amplified. Module
(MU Dec. 14, 10 Marks, May 15, 6 Marks).*******************°**********************************o******ev****************°*****°°
...4-29O
UQ.4.11.3 Write short note on : AM to PM conversion. (MU -

May 15, 5 Marks). .***************

***************** 4-29

...... 4-29
UQ. 4.11.4 Explain *************°****°"******************* ****°***°°"*********°*******°**°*°***

1) Input back off and output back off

2) AM/PM conversion. (MU -a.2(b), May 16, 10 Marks). ******.******************************************e***********
4-29

UQ. 4.11.5 Why TWT amplifier is preferred for satellite communication ? (MU - Q. 5(c), May 17, 5 Marks). 4-30

UQ. 4.11.6 Write short note on : Inter modulation distortion and back-off in satellite communicatior
(MU -Q. 4(a{1), Dec. 17, 5 .4-30
Marks). . *************************. ****°°****°*.**

UQ.4.11.7 Explain the following : () 1 db compression point (i) AM to PM conversion

(MU- a . 3b), May 18, 10 Marks). .4-30

4.12 ANTENNA SUBSYSTEM.. *************************************************************a******ee****************°*******e******** 4-32

Ua. 4.12.1 Why is it necessary to employ antenna tracking in large earth stations ?
(MU Q. 1(e), Dec. 17, 5 Marks). ********n* *annose******a*n*ns****o******************************** ****** 4-32

4.12.1 Types of Antennas.. 4-32

UQ. 4.12.2 Explain what kind of antenna's are used for tracking and command signal transmission
during transfer orbit. (MU - May 13, Dec. 13, 10 Marks)..***** *°°°**********°*** ... 4-32
UQ. 4.12.3 Which types of antennas are used in satellite communication, Explain one antenna in detail.
(MU -Q. 2(b), May 18, 10 Marks, Q. 5b), Dec. 18, 10 Marks). ******a. 4-32
4.12.2 o*o****o******a**eaa****ee**********a*e***ae**********a**°***e***********ea******************oo**************°*e********4-34
Antenna Basics . .
4.13 EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY AND SPACE QUALIFICATION (QUALITY ASSURANACE)... *°**o**********o***** 4-36

4.13.1 Space Qualification (QUALITY ASSURANACE).. *******************************e***********************************************************.4-36

ua. 4.13.1 Explain space qualification. (MU - May 12, 5 Marks). .4-36
****o**************************a****************.******.*******o.

va. 4.13.2 What do you understand by space qualification ? (MU - May 14, 3 Marks.****°* 4-36

ua. 4.13.3 Write short note on : space qualificeation.

(MU - May 15, 2.5 Marks, Q. 6(d), May 17, 2.5 Marke, a. s(c), Dec. 18, 2.5 Marks). ***.a***.******* 4-36
4.13.2 Reliability.. o**************e****************************************
*******e*********************s**************************************** 4-37

ua. 4.13.4 Explain reliability. (MU May 12, 2.5 Marke).

- *********a*e***********ao*** *********** 4-37
ua. 4.13.5 What do you understand by reliability. (MU-May 14,3 Marks) ************************* ************ 4-37
ua. 4.13.6 Explain significance of bath tub curve. (MU - May 14, 3 Marks). 4-37
ua. 4.13.7 Write short note on :Reliability.
(MU-May 15, 2.5 Marks, Q. 6(d), May 17, 2.5 Marks, Q. 6(c), Dec. 18, 2.5 Marks)..
***************** 4-37
ua. 4.13.8 Write short note on : Improvement of reliability of satellite communication system.
(MU Q. 6(d), Dec. 17, 5 Marks). ****************************************s*********s*s*e**a*************** ************* 4-37
Ua. 4.13.9 What is meant by sub-system reliability and its characteristics ? Hence explain the tems
initial failure, random failure and wear-out failure. (MU - Q. 4(a), May 19, 10 Marks).
************** .4-37

ameueneccceoeeenenoeeoneopeopeeeeoaemeeneepepapeasooeposebpepeeapeBaeeeaBensaeeeaaeseseeasoceeeneenenbaaeoo eeeaaeeeeoooeeooe®®oanaaoebad 4-39

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 Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-4 Space Segment
4.1 INTRODUCTION

GQ. 4.1.1 Explain the main satellite subsystenms.

Any satellite communication
system comprises of two segments viz.
(a) Ground segment (b) Space segment
The space
segment comprises of the satellite and different
subsystems.
The major subsystems required on a satellite to support its main function of communication are

1) Attitude and Orbit Control

System (AOCS)
2) Telemetry, Tracking Command and Monitoring (TTC & M)
3) Power system
4) Communication subsystems
5) Spacecraft antennas.
1. Attitude and Orbit Control
System (AOCS).
The external forces acting on the satellite it to drift away from its
cause
original position.
To move the satellite back to the correct orbit rocket
motors, gas jets, inertial devices are used. They control the
attitude of the satellite.
2 Telemetry, Tracking, Command and Monitoring (TTC & M)
These systems are partly on the earth station and partly on the satellite.
The sensors on the satellite send data to the controlling earth station through a telemetry link.

The tracking system is located at the earth station. It provides information on the range, elevation and azimuth
angles of the satellite. Thus, if there is any change in the orbital elements such as range, elevation and azimuth
angles of the satellite then they are detected by the tracking system.

Based on telemetry, data and tracking system, the control system corrects the
position and the attitude of the
satellite.

It is also used to control the antenna pointing

and communication system
configuration to suite current traffic
requirements and operate switches on the satellite.

3. Power system

The communication satellites get electrical power from solar cells.

The solar cells convert sunlight into electrical energy. Most of the power is used in the
transmitters and electrical
systems on the satellite.

The satellite has battery backup feature that can be used at the time of satellite launch and during eclipses. The
batteries of the sealed nickel - cadmium, ensuring good reliability and long life ofsatellite

4. Communication subsystems

The communication subsystems is one of the major subsystem of a communication satellite.

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S satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-5 Space Segment
The communcation subsystem comprise of microwave antennas, transmiters and receivers that amplify and
retransmit the incoming signals. The transmitter-receiver units are called as satellite transponders.

Two types of transponders are

commonly used for satellite communication.
Linear or bent pipe transponders
i) Baseband processing transponder.
The linear or bent pipe transponder amplifies the received signal and retransmits it at a lower frequency.

The baseband processing transponder converts the received signal to baseband, processes and retransmits the Modne

signal.
5 . Satellite antennas
The different antennas that are used for satellite communication are reflector antennas, horn antennas, Cassegrain
antenna, wire antennas etc.

They produce beams with shapes in-order to match the areas on the earth's surface.

They can be considered to be different from the satellite transponders.

The antenna systems are very complex for large GEO satellites.

4.2 ATTITUDE AND ORBIT CONTROL SYSTEM (AOCS)

uQ 4.2.1 What is satellite stabilization ? Explain three axis stabilization method. MU -May 12, 10 Marks
MU-Dec. 14,5 Marks)
UQ. 4.22 writenoteon difterent stabilization techniques

satellite must be controlled that the satellite antenna points towards the earth. This will
The attitude and orbit of a so

enable the user regarding knowledge about where to look into the sky for locating the satellite.

The geostationary satellites have a fixed position. If there is a drift in signal position then the signal will lost.

Factors affecting the satellite to change its attitude and orbit:

There are a number of factors that cause the satellite to change its attitude and orbit.

The most significant amongst them are

i) Solar pressure from the sun

1) The gravitational fields of the sun and the moon,

field, and (iv) Variations in the earth's magnetic field.

i ) Irregularitiesin the earth's gravitational
the moon change the orbit of the
geostationary satellite with time. The
i) The gravitational field from the sun and
than the sun's at geostationary altitude.
moon's gravitational force is twice as stronger
5°. Because of this it creates force the satellite. Such
The moon's orbit is inclined to the equatorial plane by a on

of the satellites orbit.

that its component is normal to that
the sun is inclined by angle of 23 towards the equatorial plane.
The plane of the earth's rotation around
gravitational pull changes
satelite. The the inclination of the satellite
Hence, there is a netgravitational pull on the
from the carth's equatorial plane at a rate of approximately 0.86° per year.
orbit. The satellite orbit is pulled away

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Satelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-6 Space Segment
The inclination increases to
14.65° in 26.7 years.
n e Orbit control system of the satellite should be capable of moving the satelite back to the equatorial plane
before the orbital inclination
becomes excessive.
O W Carth orbits are affected by the gravitational ficlds of the sun and the moon because they are close to the
earth. Also the earth's
gravity is strong while the pull from the sun and moon is weak.

1)Solar pressure from the sun

acts on the satellite solar sails and antennas. The
magnetic field earth generates
eddy of the
currents in the satellites
metallic structure. It causes rotation of the of the satellite
body as it travels
through the
magnetic field.
The effect can be minimized if the
design of satellite structure is properly done.
As the satellite moves in the
orbit, the forces acting on satellite also vary. This causes a wobble (nutation) of the
satellite. It must be
mechanically damped out by the attitude control system.
ii) The earth's shape is not
a
perfect sphere. The
shape of earth has two bulges at the two sides at Drift Drift
the equator. The bulges are at
approximately 65 Satellite stable..
m at
longitudes

to
of 162° E and 348° E.

They will accelerate the satellite in order

bring the satellite to a stable point in the
..... point 75°E

geostationary orbit at longitudes of 75° E Satellite semistable

point
and 252E as shown if Fig. 4.2.1.
165 E
In order to maintain the accurate
position Satellite semistable
of the satellite (station keeping) the point
satellite must be accelerated in the 15w
opposite direction periodically.
It is obtained as a

keeping maneuvers with the help small

sequence of station
* ....-..***65m bulge
Equator *****.***" W

Satelite stable
rocket
controlled

telemetry,
moters,

tracking
from
thrusters
the
that
earth
command
can
through
be

and
:**
Drift
point 105 w
Drift

monitoring system. Fig. 4.2.1: Forces acting on

synchronous satellite
4.2.1 Attitude Control System
uQ. 4.23 Explain what is meant by the term
despun antenna and
which the despinning is achieved? briefly describe. any one way in
(MU May 15, 10 Marks
Function The attitude of asatellite indicates its orientation in
space. The main function of
subsystem is to maintain accurate satellite position and the attitude control
satellite.
communication antenna pointing for the life of the

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Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-7 Space Segment
The different sensors placed on the satellite measure the pointing angles with respect to particular reference. They

eomprise of the sun sensor, star sensor and the earth sensor.
con

Barth sensor measures the orientation of the satellite with respect tothe earth, whereas the sun sensor measures the
sensor measures the orientation with respect to
rientation of the solar arrays with respect to the sun and the star
a

distant star.

shows an Atitude control system.

Fig. 4.2.2
A sensor electronic unit processes the sensor's output signals and produces a calibrated error signal.

This error signal is used by the onboard computer to provide corrective action.
Module

Pointing Sensor Atitude

Error Electronic Control
Sensors Unit Electronios

Satellite
Body Thruster Momentum|
Wheel
control
control

Spacecraft/ Satellite dynamics

Fig. 4.2.2 : Block diagram of the Attitude control system of a satellite

change the attitude of the satellite depending

The different mechanical devices like momentum wheels, thrusters etc.

upon the output command

from the on-board computer.
infrared sensors are used. With four sensors, infrared
For detecting the edge of the earth against the background space
of N-
one for each quadrant, the centre of
the earth can be considered as a reference point. Fig. 4.2.3 shows the principle
S control of a spinner satellite using infrared earth sensors.
corresponding signal is generated which activates the
Any shift in orientation Fig. 4.2.3 is detected by sensors and a

restoring torque. Earth

North
T Upper
sensor

Lower
sensor

South
Voltage upper
sensor
Voltage lower
output sensor

Error to N. No error ime output

N-S control of a spinner satellite using infrared earth

sensors

Fig. 4.2.3: Principle of

that the antennas can be pointed towards the correct location of the earth.
The attitude of a satellite can be controlled so

the satellite solar panels pointing towards the sun so that maximum
Attitude control is also important inorder to keep
power is produced at all times.
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 Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-8 Space Segment
nitialy the attitude of a satellite is found, after the satellite is put into stable orbit.

OnCe the initial attitude of the satellite is set, it must be maintained in this This is done by one of the ty
position. two
stabilization techniques.
a4.2.2 Satellite Stabilization
:UQ. 4.2.4 Describe different stabilization Techniques.
(MU Q. 4(a), May 18, 10 Marks, Q. 3(a), Dec. 18, 10Market
GQ. 42.5 What is satellite stabilization?
Satelite stabilization is a method used for controlling the atitude of the satellite in order to maintain the antenna a
pointed correctly towards the Earth's direction.
Satellite stabilization methods: The satellite stabilization
techniques are
Spin stabilization satellites
ii) 3 axis stabilized satellite
(momentum wheel stabilization)

4.2.2.1 Spinning Satellite Stabilization

UQ 426 Explain spin stabiltization methods. Mention their meritsand demerits (MU May 14,5Marke
UQ. 4.2.7 Briefly describe the three-axes method of satellite stabilization. (MU May 15, 10 Marks

Axis
Fig. 4.2.4 shows a spin stabilized
Helical
satellite. They are cylindrical in shape. antenna

As shown in the Fig. 4.2.4 the satellite

comprises of a cylindrical drum
containing many solar cells that contain
Despin mechanism
power systems and rocket motors.
What do you mean by despun?
The communication system is mounted
at the top of the drum. It is driven by an
electric motor in an direction oPposite to outer surta
of
that of the drum to keep the antennas satelite covered- Jet thruster fired
with solar cells to start rotation or
pointing towards the earth. Such adjust it.
satellites are called as despun.

By operating small radial gas jets Spin direction

of the satellite
available on the rim of drum during the Axis of
launch phase, the satellite can be spun. satellite

Fig. 4.2.4: Spin stabilized satellite

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spinners ?
are
What
satellite is in the proper orbit, a jet thruster is
satellites are made to spin on their axes. Once the
The spin stabilized
the satellite. Such satellites are called spinners.
fired to begin spinning
is to create gyroscopic or flywheel
spin stabilized satellite rotates a rate between 30 rpm and 100 rpm. This
a
A typical
satellite pointed in one direction and provides stability of the spin axis.
effect that keeps the

For geostationary satellites the spin axis adjusted parallel to

the N-S axis of the

earth as shown in Fig. 4.2.5. Satellite Module
spin
As the despun system operates TTC and M antennas will point II
towards the earth. "The TTC and M systems operates at 6/4

GHz on Intelsat satellite. It has a 2 GHz backup systems for

use during the launch phase.
Geostationary
the stabilized satellite small radial orbit
We know that for spinning
mounted on the periphery of the drum. Fig. 4.2.5:Spin stabilization geostationary orbit
gas jets are

is the commonly used propulsion as

For the gas jets different liquid propulsion mixes are being used. Hydrazine (N,H,)
when passed over a catalyst. By heating the catalyst and
it can be easily liquified under pressure. It decomposes easily
can obtain high power from the hydrazine gas jets.
gas electrically we
fuels. Bipropellelent fuels are the fuels that mix
The satellites that use liquid fuel thrusters for spinning use bipropellant

together to form thrusters fuel.

tetroxide, mono methyl hydrazine etc.

Commonly used bipropellants are nitrogen
contact. Hence, for igniting bipropellants we do not need a heater or catalyst as

The bipropellants ignite immediately on

in radial gas jets.

at correct time and in the
generate pulses of thrust
bipropellants is adjusted properly, then
we can
If the flow of the
correct direction.
jets or ion thrusters and
Satellites two types of rocket motors. They are arc
of rocket motors used : use
Types
bipropellant thrusters.

for two tasks. They are

Geostationary satellite fuel is used
that injects the satellite in its
orbit.
1) firing the apogee kick motor
its lifetime.
maintain the satellite in its orbit
over
i)
its final orbit is very less.
fuel required for the geostationary orbit to attain
If the satellite launch is accurate, then the
satellite is used. It is required for placing
then most of fuel in the geostationarý
But if the satellite launch is less accurate
the amount of fuel required for station keeping.
the satellite to its final position, reducing
accelerate the ions to a high velocity.
thrusters employ a high voltage source to
Thus, to produce thrust the bipropellent
Such thrusters are called ion thrusters or arc jets.
cells can drive the ion engine. Hence, expendable
fuel can be saved.
The ion engine thrust is not large. The solar
satellite from a transfer orbit to a geostationary
h e ion engines can be used to move a
satellite from the geostationary

orbit..
Maximum fuel is required for station keeping
used for north south
station keeping.
The ion thrusters or arc jets are
thrust than that is required to move the satellites.
aneuvers in this case. They have less
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station keeping8
The thrust that they produce is sufficient to maintain N-S and E-W
It is obtained by
including a large flywheel.
e on
C Spin stabilization is also used in non cylindrical shaped satellites.
some point on the satellite body.
isS put into
are oriented, the Ilywneel motion
Once the satellite is in position and its solar panels, antennas and sensors
Altitude.
The gyroscopic effect of the flywheel keeps the satellite oriented with proper
satellite can be used to control pointing toward te
Fig. 4.2.6 shows how an infrared sensor on the spinning body at a
earth.
Destpin control system(E-W)

Upper Earth E-W Antenna Antenna

sensor

H
control drive position
pulse
Lower input unit servo. senSOr
sensor

Earth Atitude Gas jet N-S

pulse control control jet
system unit controls
comparator

8 GHZ CommandH Control Telemetry Telemetry (4 GHz

hom receiver system transmitter for matter hom
Fig. 4.2.6: Typical onboard control system for a spinner satellite

Merits and demerits

Merits

Spin stabilization is simple.

2 Spin stabilization is low cost as sensor gyros, momentum wheels and onboard computers are not required.

3. Spin stabilization provides modest pointing accuracy and minimal maneuvering.

The spin stabilization about the transverse axes is passive for long time periods.
4
5. Spin stabilization provides scanning motion needed for some instruments.

6. Spin stabilization eliminates the need for thrust vector control by using rocket motors.

. Spin stabilization provides propellant control.

Demerits

1. The pointing accuracy is low.

2. It has poor manual reliability.

3. Tight control of moment of inertia is needed.

4. Body pointing of sensors and payload antenna is not possible.

5 The total power available is limited. It has a low solar panel efficiency. (Maximum 32%).

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4.2.2.2 3 Axis Stabilized Satellite (Momentum Wheel Stabilization)

UQ 4.2.8s Explain three axis stabilization method. MU May 12, 10Marks

UQ. 4.29 Write note on : 3-axis stabilization. MU Dec. 12, 5 Marks

uQ 4.2.10 Explain 3 axis stabilization methods. Mention their merits and demerits. (MU May 14,5 Marks)

va 4.211 Briefly deseribe the three-axes method of satelite stabilization (MU May 15, 10 Marks)
ug. 4.212 Describe ditferent stabilization Techniques.
(MU-Q. 4(a), May 18. 10 Marks, Q. 3(a), Dec. 18, 10 Marks): odule

The satellites can be stabilized by using one or more momnentum wheels. Such satellites are called as 3 Axis Stabilized

Satellites
The basic control of such satellites to speed up or slow down the momentum wheel depending on the direction in

which the satellite is perturbed.

The satellite rotates in a direction opposite to that of speed change of wheel. For example, an increase in the speed of
the wheel in the clockwise direction will make the satellite to rotate in anticlockwise direction.

The momentum wheel is a solid metal disk that is driven by as electric motor.

There must be one momentum wheel for each of the three axes of the satellite. The three axes of the spin stabilized
satellite are called as pitch, roll and yaw.

A single momentum can be mounted on the gimbal. It can be rotated to in order a rotational force about one of the axes.

The antennas are mounted on the earth facing side and on the lateral side adjacent to it.

What is body stabilization?

The solar panels are flat and mounted above
and below the body of the satellite, such that

they always point towards the sun. It is also

1******.
referred to as body stabilization.
tuses sensors to observe the external
*****
fromVerttihceal earaxisth ***

reference point such as the sun, the earth or yaw

Some remote star. The infrared sensors
Roll
Equator
operate an electronic control system that
determines when the Attitude of the satellite

requires adjustment. If adjustment. is needed

one or more thrusters are fired to make

corrections. Pitch
The attitude corrections are automatically - * * *

made by the attitude control subsystem of orbit

Satellite
the satellite. However, most of the satellites
can be controlled from the ground station. Fig. 4.2.7 : Pitch, roll and yaw

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Spad Segment
Dy 15SUing Command signals from the earth station thrusters can be fired to make minor adjustments wnen required,

The three axes of the satellite are refered to as pitch, roll and yaw. Any aircraft or space cralt posesses tnese properie

Fig. 4.2.7 shows pitch, roll and yaw.

in both directions of
In three axis stabilized satelite, one
a
pair of gas jets is required in order to provide rotation pick
roll and yaw for every axis.

We require an additional set of components that will permit only one jet on a given axis to be operated. They willao

provide velocity increments in the X, Y and Z directions.

We define a set of reference Cartesian axes Xg. YR and Zg with reference to the satellite at the origin. The axis Xg is

tangent to the orbital plane.

The axis YR is perpendicular to the orbital plane and the axis Z is directed towards the centre of the earth

The rotation about the X axis is called as roll, the rotation about the Yn axis is called as pitch and the rotation about

the Zg axis is called as yaw.

The rotation about the three axes is similar to that
of an aircraft or ship that travels in the X axis. N
Equator
To maintain accurate pointing of antenna beams,
the satellites need to be stabilized.

The variations in the attitude cause the angles 0, yaw R

and y to vary as the X, Y and Z axes move relative
to the reference axes XgY and Z It is shown in Pitch Spacectat
Fig. 4.2.8. R

Fig. 4.2.8: Forces on a satellite

The Z axis intercept (i.e. Z axis directed towards reference point

on earth) point can be shifted in attitude. It can repoint all the
antenna beams by modifying the attitude of the satellite by an
attitude control system as shown in Fig. 4.2.9.
orbital path
In the spin stabilized satellites, y axis is termed as the axis of
rotation. It is maintained close to the Yp axis. The Y axis is
***
****.
perpendicular to the Y, plane.

On the despun antenna system, pitch connection is required.

Pitch corection is done by varying the speed of the despun
Ya
motor. Fig. 4.2.9:Relationship between axes of satelite
If the jets are pulsing and are radialy mounted on the correct instants at the body of satellite rotates then roll and yaw

can be controlled.

The three axis stabilization system is more accurate in attitude control and positioning than the spin stabilized satelie.

In the application where pin point accuracy is required, a three axis stabilization system must be used.

The attitude control of three axis stabilization system demands an increase or decrease in the speed of the inertial whe

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If the system torque is constant then in order to maintain the correct attitude of the satellite a continuous increase or

decrease in the speed of the momentum wheel is required.

If the speed reaches to either upper of lower limit of the momentum wheel speed that is specified then it must be
unloaded. Unloading is done by a pair of gas jets. The wheel speed is increased or decreased simultaneously.

Generally to maintain the correct attitude of satellite, closed loop control of attitude is used.

If the antennas that are used are large and have a narrow beam then the entire satellite may have to be stabilized. It must
bet0.1° stabilized on each axis.
Mocule
The outer edge of the earth's surface may be considered to be the reference system. It can be observed with the sun, one

or more stars.

Meritss

L The three axis stabilization is more accurate in attitude control and positioning in comparison to spin stabilized satellite.
It has a high pointing accuracy.

Z. It provides rapid maneuvering.

3. Three axis stabilization can support large power requirements.

4 It provides unlimited payload pointing.

5. Solar panels can fully utilize the solar energy. There are no constraints on the star panel size.

6. Three axis stabilization is most adaptable to the changing requirements of the spacecraft.

Demerits
. The hardware (momentum wheels, gyros, star scanners, onboard computers) are complex and consume high power.

2. Redundancy methods for three axes stabilization are complex.

3. Active thrust vector control is required.

4 It is the most expensive method.

5. Propellant control is needed.

6. Fault protection method is complex.

systems have high weight and

consume more power.
7. The three axes stabilization

4.2.3 Orbit Control System and Station Keeping

The orbital perturbations cause the geostationary satellite to move away from its required orbit. The most important

due to the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon.

perturbations are

the orbital plane to be inclined.

The gravitational forces of the sun and moon cause
Also the subsatellite point can be drifted as a result of the non spherical shape of the earth around the equator.

sun transit outage are the factors that may change the orbit of the
The other effects like solar eclipse, atmospheric draj
satellite.
need a computer program with upto 20 force parameters. By doing so
Hence, to predict the exact position of satellite we
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we will be able to predict the position of the satellite before a week or 2 weeks accurately
Fig. 4.2.10 shows a satellite is as inclined orbit. It is closed to the geostationary orbit and should be in the equatorial

plane. Also it must be circular and have correct attitude.

Earth
Equatorial
/Current plane
position for
satellite in
the equatorial
plane

W N

incdined ortbital plane

Satelite
position in
indlined
orbital plane
Fig. 4.2.10: Satellite in an inclined orbit

The forces acting on the satellite will tend to pull the satellite out of the orbit. Hence, the main function of orbit
control system is to maintain the satellite at its correct Atitude position.

The momentum wheels cannot be used to return the satellite back to its correct orbit as it requires linear acceleration.

For providing velocity changes gas jets are used in the control system along the three reference axes.

If the orbit is noncircular orbit then the increase or decrease of the velocity is done along the orbit in the X direction.

3 axis spin stabilized satellite systems use two pairs of X axis jets. The jets are acting in opposite directions. One of jets
is operated at a length that is estimated for specific period in order to obtain the desired change in the velocity of the
satellite.

For long periods of time the orbit of the geostationary satelite is circular. It does not require velocity corrections

frequently.
By operating the Z axis gas jets Altitude corrections are achieved.

4.3 STATION KEEPING

Station keeping is done to maintain the satellite in position.

The direction and drift are monitored continuously from the earth station. From this data the velocity of the satellite is
determined. At appropriate time thruster rockets on satellite are fired to adjust the velocity and correct the drift.

The orbital correction is done with command from TTC and M earth station that monitors the satellite position.

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 satelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-15 Space Segment
Wast west and north south station keeping manuevers are carried out using same thrusters for attitude control.

As an effect of the gravitational forces of the sun and moon the inclination of the satellite changes at an average rate of

about 0.85 per year.

The initial rate of change of inclination is between 0.75 0.94° per year for a satellite that is positioned in the

equatorial orbit.

Practically corrections called north-south station keeping are made every 2 to 4 weeks to keep the error small.

The corrections are split as E-W and N-S maneuvers. The corrections are made at an interval of 2 weeks. Initially the E- Module
W corrections are made and then after two weeks the N-S corrections are done.

To correct the inclination drift, a velocity at right angles to the orbital plane in the Y directions is applied. But when

the inclination has reached zero degrees, an opposing jet is operated to stop the satellite at that position. It is called as

north-south station keeping.

If ion thrusters are used for north south station keeping then they operate continuously, as they have low thrust levels as

compared to the traditional bipropellants.

In such a case if the satellite inclination is to be corrected, then more fuel is required. The fuel that is required is more
than all other orbital perturbations/ effects.

This reduces the communication payload that the satellites cary.

ected by the use of X axis jets. Satellite located away from the stable points are 0.75° E
East-west station keeping is
and 0.252° E will drift towards these points. The X axis jets are used every 2 to 3 weeks to monitor the drift and a small

velocity increment in the opposite direction.

The satellite will then drift through its nominal position, stop at a point of a fraction of degrees beyond it and then drift

again.
East-west station keeping is essential for all geostationary satelites because the spacing between the satellites is 2 or 3
degres. Exces deift is not tolerated, as C band satellites are with held within t 0.1° of their allotted position and K

band are held with t 0.05° of their allotted longitude.

East-west station keeping requires a moderate amount of fuel.

The Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and Low Earth Orbit (LE0) satellites need attitude orbit control systems to maintain
correct attitude and orbit of the satellites, so as to provide continuous communication.

In LEO satelites attitude stabilization is achieved with a rigid gravity gradicnt boom, as it has a strong gravitational
force. It points towards the centre of the eath. It also provides damping oscillations, about the Z axis of the satellite.

uQ43.1 why the"Earth Sensors are not used for sensing the Ya axis in GEOsatellites
(MU May 17, 4 Marks
Ans.
The earth and sun sensors are commonly used sensors. The earth sensors are also called as horizontal sensors. This is
ecause the earths image falls on the sensor. The sensor has multüple detectors in order to find out the alignment of the

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 Satellite Communication(MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-16 Spa Segment
satellite. The attitude measurement using the earth sensors are done along the Yaw axis. Thus, sun sensors are used for

sensing the Yaw axis in gèostationary satellites.

**************- -***--.-*-**-

UQ. 4.3.2 Why a multi-beam antenna is used in satellite communication? (MU May 17, 4 Marks

Ans.

Spot beams

(a) Separate antennas

Antenna

Beam
Multiple
spot
beams

Multiple feed elements Phase shift array

(b) Multiple feed, single reflector (c)Array

Fig. 4.3.1: Multi-beam antennas used in satellite communication

Fig. 4.3.1(a) shows how for each beam a separate antenna is used such that every antenna points to an adequate area
providing maximum isolation between feeds.

Fig. 4.3.16) shows how a microwave lens or single reflector can be used to generate multiple feeds. The feeds
illuminate a common parabolic dish that focuses the field in a direction.

Fig. 4.3.1(c) shows phased antenna arrays for transmitting the beams.

4.4 THERMAL SUB-SYSTEM

UQ. 441 What are the funetions of thermal sub-systems in satellite ? (MU Q. 2(a), Dec. 17, 6 Marks
ua 642 Explain thermal sub-system. What are the methods of themal control insatellite ?

(MU Dec. 16, 10 Marks)

********--~*--- -***

The satellites are subjected to large thermal gradients because one side receives the radiations from the sun and the
other side space.
For geostationary satellites, the thermal radiation from the earth and earth's albedo is negligible. For LEO satelites it is
considerable.

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The subsystems present in satellite also generate heat that needs to be removed.
All the satellite subsystems should operate at a stable temperature.
remove the heat from
to provide insulation to subsystems thermal blankets and shields are used. To
In order
This enables
communication payload, radiation mirrors can be used. The radiation mirrors provide good radiation path.
the heat radiated to escape into the space.

In comparison to body stabilized satellite, an advantage of spinning satellites is that temperature is averaged.
constant.
When the transponders are switched off, heaters are activated in-order to maintain the temperature
Mocule
Methods of thermal control

There are two methods of thermal control. They are

() Active (i) Passive
These
of high magnitudes.
Active thermal control methods are changes in temperature that
used to aid the sudden are

falls.
changes are generally seen during echlipses when the temperature drastically

The active thermal control subsystems comprise of mechanical refrigerators,

heat pipes, controlled heaters etc.
the
methods that have multilayer insulation surfaces. These systems reflect/absorb
Passive thermal control systems use

radiation.

input. They comprise of good

a
electrical power
passive thermal control systems do not have any moving parts
or
The
insulators,
selection of materials ,reflectors, thermal blankets, coatings,
layout plan for the satellite equipment, proper
heat sinks etc..
the sun than
the satellites are very different when
the satellite is facing
The external conditions that are experienced by
when the satellite is in the eclipse.
facing the sun while the other
orbit such that one side of the satellite is always
Some of the satellites are placed in an
side is facing the colder side of space.
be obtained from changes of
the satellite is provided shade as much as can
Hence, In order to obtain thermal control,
help of highly reflective coatings
and by thermal blankets.
sun's radiation with the
The thermal blankets provide shade to the satellite from excessive heating.
Thermal blankets are golden in colour .

4.5 TELEMETRY, TRACKING,

COMMAND AND MONITORING
(TTC AND M)
(MU May 12, 8 Marks)
explain TT and C system.
With the block
help of adiagram
UQ. 4.5.1
are used for tracking and
subsystem ? Explain what kind of antenna's
UQ. 4.5.2 What is TT and C MU-May 13, Dec. 13, 10 Marks
transmission during transfer
orbit.
command signal
and command subsystem ? Explain its functioning with block
UQ. 4.5.3 What is telemetry tracking (MU-May 14, 10 Marks
diagram what is meant by "redundant
satellite. Explain
UQ. 4.5.4 Discuss the TT&C system of a communication (MU Dec. 14, 10Marks
in communication satellite.
receiver (MU Mày 15, 10 Marks
communication system.
a satellite
Deseribe TTC facilities of
w

Q. 4.5.5 "*************

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easeasssoaA
*****--------------------~~~~-----******
(MU May 15. 5 Marks
UQ. 45.6 Write short note on: Tracking technique used in sateire
7 Eplain TT and C subsystem. Explain the use of multi-tone frequeney in tracking system

MU 0. 31a), May 16,10 Marks

UQ. 4.5.8 Diseuss in detail telemetry, tracking and command with necessary block diagra

(MU-0.2(b), May 17. 10 Marks. Q. 2(C). Dec.17,

10Marks
(MU O. 4(b). May 18. 10 Marks
UQ. 4.5.4 Explain TT and C system with the help of block diagram

An orbit with attitude greater than 200 km, it is not economical in terms of launch vehicle power to pertorm direct

nrection. The satellite must be placed into the transfer orbit between the initial low earth orbit and final high altitude

orbit.
ne transter orbit is selected so as to minimize the energy required per transfer such an orbit is called as Hohmann

transfer orbit.
It is tangent to low altitude orbit at perigee and to the high altitude orbit at the apogee.

the launch and network of ground stations spread across the earth is required to
Throughout acquisition phases, a

perform the Tracking, Telemetry, Command and Monitoring (TTC & M) functions.
The telemetry, tracking and command subsystem performs several routine functions aboard the spacecraft.

It is essential for the successful operation of a satellite.

The system is partly on the earth station and partly on the satellite.

Function of TTC and M subsystem

The main functions of the system are

Satellite
i) To monitor the status of all the sensors, Satelite
TTC&M antenna
(ii) Control the altitude and orbit of the satellite,
(iii) Switch on-off different modules of the communication system.
Receiving Transmitting
two different
The TTC and M system on the satellite uses antenna antenna

antenna in the satellite lifetime. i.e. transmitting and the receiving

antennas.

the launch and the transfer orbit phases, a low gain Telemetry
During receiver Tele-command
omnidirectional antenna is generally used. transmitter
Tracking
Once the satellite reaches
directional antenna is used for
a desired

sending
position, higher gain
the command and
system
T
Data
telemetry signals. processor
(LEO) satellites use omnidirectional Computer for
The Low Earth Orbit Controller
attitude and
antenna throughout their life
because they are near the earth. Ephemeris orbital control
data

Fig. 4.5.1 shows a typical TTC and M system.

Fig. 4.5.1: Telemetry, Tracking Command and Monitoring System

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4.5.1 Telemetry and Monitoring System
UQ. 45.10 Explain TT and C subsystem.
(MU Q.2(b). Dec. 18. 6 Marks)
iuo. 45.11 Write short note on TTC. (MU Q. 6(c). May 19, 10Marks
-

**

It collects the data from many sensors like the sun, earth, environmental information like magnetic field intensity and

direction, power suppiy voltage, pressure in fuel tanks etc. in the communication systems and sends this data to the
controlling earth station.

Module
The temperature of the subsystems is significant. It must be kept within predetermined limits, so that many temperatureT
sensors are used for keeping the temperature constant.

The status of cach subsystem, sensor data and the positions of switches in the communication systems are reported back

to earth station by the telemetry system.

The telemetry system link also monitors the sighting devices that are used to maintain the atitude of the satellite,
otherwise it may show a wrong direction. The faulty unit should then be disconnected and other unit should be
substituted in place of it through the command system or other means of controlling the attitude of the satelite.

The analog signals are encoded digitally. Then they are multiplexed with other signals to form a digital stream. The data
rates are 150 to 100 bps.

The telemetry data are as they are transmitted as phase shift keying (PSK) using time division techniques as they are
digital in nature.

To maintain a high carrier to noise ratio, the data rate is usually kept low. This will allow the earth station to have
C
narrow bandwidth and a high ratio.

The TDM frame contains thousands of bits. To transmit these thousand bits, it takes number of seconds.

A computer can be used as the controlling earth station. It will monitor, store and decode the telemetry data. This will

help us to determine the status of a system or sensor on the satellite with the help of controller placed on the earth.
If an important parameter exceeds its allowable limits, then an alarm may be sounded.

4.5.2 Tracking

UQ. 4.5.12 Why is it necessary to employ antenna tracking in large earth stations
(MU Q. 1(e). Dec. 17. 5 Mark
TTC. (MU Q. 6(c), May 19, 10 Marks)
UQ. 4.5.13 Write short note o n :
(MUO. 1(d), Dec. 17,5 Marks
UQ. 4.5.14 What is the use of multi-tone tracking systenm ?
UQ. 4.5.15 Explain TT and C subsystem. Explain role of multi-tone frequency in tracking system.

MU-Q.2b), Dec. 18, 10Marks)

-**-*

the current orbit of a satellite. Tracking helps to track the movement of

A number of methods can be used for finding
various perturbing forces that are acting on a satellite.
satellite. It sends correction signals because of the
on the satellite give information about the change in orbit. This is
The and acceleration sensors that
are present
velocity
last position that is known.
done from the integration of data by the
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 Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-20 Space Segment
n c carth station that is
controlling the satellite can observe the Doppler shift of the telemetry carrier or the beacon
transmitter carrier. It is used to give the information about the rate at which the range 15 Cnags*

nc range alongwith the measurements from the earth station antenna can be used to determine the orbital elements.
p u l s e or sequence of pulse is transmitted to the satellite then we can determine the range, if we observe the tinme

delay before a pulse is again received.

The
propagation delay in a satellite transponder should be known.
To take the
range measurements one or more earth stations may be used.
n case a number of earth
stations are viewing the satellite then the position of the satellite can be established by
trangulation from the earth station by taking the range mcasurement simultaneously. There is sufficient space between
successive earth stations.
Ranging tones or multi-tone tracking system may also be used for the range measurement.
If the frequencies used are high then the range may be measured upto millimetre accuracy.
4.5.3 Command
UQ. 45.16 Why the control system in satellite waits for an execute command after receving the
command to be executed ? (MU O. 1(c). Dec. 16, 5 Marks, O. 2(b). Dec. 17., 4 Marks
UQ. 4.5.17 Explain TT and C subsystem (MU 0. 2(b), Dec. 18, 10 Marks
UQ. 4.5.18 Write short note on: TTC. (MU a. 6(c). May 19. 10 Marks)

During the launch phase and injection of satellite into the geostationary orbit, the main TTC and M system is not
operable. This is because the space crat does not have correct altitude. Hence, we require a secure and effective
command structure for the successful launch and operation of a communication satellite.

The backup system is used that controls the important sections like the control of the apogee boost motor, altitude
control system, orbit control thrusters, solar sail deployment etc.

The command system is used to make changes in altitude and comrections to the orbit. It controls the satellite
communication system.

During the launch phase it is used to control the firing of the apogee kick motor. It also spins up a spin stabilized
satellite or it extends the antennas and solar sails of a 3 axis stabilized satellite.

The satellite command structure must provide security against unauthorized attempt made to change the operation of
the satellite. It also must provide security against incorrect operation of a control whenever there is an error in the

command received.

Fig. 4.5.1 shows a typical command system. The commands are generated from the control terminal of the computer.

The control code is transformed into a command word. It is then sent in a frame of TDM to the satellite. The command

word is checked for validity in the satellite.

After checking, for validity is then sent to the control station through the telemetry link. The command word will then
checked again into the computer.

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Satelite Communication(MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-21 Space Segment
If the command word is correctly received, then an execute instruction is sent to the satellite. The command is then

executed.

The complete procesS may take 5 to 10s. It reduces the risk of transmission of erroneous commands, that may cause
malfunctioning of the satellite.

The telemetry and command links are

separate from the communication system.
Intelsat satelite uses two levels of command system. The main system operates in 6 GHz band in gap between

communication and main telemetry frequencies system uses a gap in 4 GHz band.
Module
Horn antennas are used.

Near the omnidirectional antennas sufficient margin is provided in the ratio at the receiver end. This will guarantee

control under adverse conditions.

With the help of backup controls e.g. apogee kick motor, altitude control system etc. we can inject a satellite into the
geostationary orbit.

The satellite is facing the earth. It is supplied the entire electrical power so that control can be handed over to the TTC

and M system.
If the main TTC and M system fails then the backup system will be used to keep the satellite on its correct station. The
backup system can also remove the satellite from the geostationary orbit, may switch off all the transmitters if a satellite
reaches towards the end of its life.

4.6 POWER SYSTEMS

uQ 4.6.1 Write note on Electrical power system (MU Dec. 12, 5 Marks

uQ. 4.6.2 Write short note on : Electrical powersub-system MU May 15, 5 Marks
UQ. 4.6.3 Explain : why a spin stabilized satellite uses relatively large number of solar cells as compared
to three axis stabilized satellite for the same power requirement ? (MU-Dec. 16, 5 Marks)
UQ. 4.6.4 Explain: why are storage batteries used along with solar arrays ?
(MU 0. 2(a 2), Dec.16,5Marks)
Q. 4.6.5 For the same area of solar array which configuration, spin or body stabilization,
stabilizátion

generate more power. Justity (0MU-0. 1(c), May 17,4Marks

UQ. 4.6.6 Explain why some satellites employ cylindrical solar arrays, whereas others employ solar-sail
(MU Q. 1(c), Dec. 17, 5Marks
arrays to power generations.
The primary source of power in a satellite is the solar cell. The solar cells are photo voltaic devices that convert the

sun's light energy into electrical energy.

The sun is a powerful source of energy. The solar cells do not convert the entire incident energy into electrical power.

Typically their efficiency is 20 to 25% at the beginning

of life. It gradually reduces with time because of aging of cells

and etching of the surface by micrometer impacts.

The satellite has to supply power to all the system on board. Hence, at the end of life it needs sufficient power to switch
off transmitters. So about 15% of extra area of the solar cells is kept as an allowance for aging.

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CASatelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TTC) Space Segme
4-22
ASpn stabilized satellite has a cylindrical
body. The body is covered
with solar cells.
But as body is
cylindrical Only
half of the solar cells are
illuminated. This results in generation of less electrical pow
6 kW from the solar power.
Communication venerate power upto
satellites used for direct broadcast
g can

A three axis stabilized satellite has the cells arranged on flat panels. The cells can be rotated in order to maintain the
incidence of satellite.
Oarison to the spin stabilized satellite only one third of total area of solar cells is required. 1 his will save i
In n

weight.
To obtain large power in excess of 10 kW; the spinnerrequires large body for placing the solar cells. This will exceed
the maximum payload dimensions of the launch vehicles.
SOlar sails must be rotated by an electric motor, once every 24 hours. This helps, to keep the satellite in fun

sunlight.
It causes the cells to heat upto 50 to 80°C, thus reducing the output voltage.
If the design is the design of a spin stabilized satellite then the solar cells cool down when they are in shadow with sone

high efficiency.
The bombardment of the sails by the electrons and protons is more severe. A thick of glass is required to reduce the rate

of deterioration of the cells, with a weight penalty.

During the launch and eclipses the satellite requires batteries inorder to supply power to the satellite. Eclipses
Occur twice during each year. The longest duration of an eclipse is 72 min. It occurs around 21° March and 21

September each year.

To avoid the necessity of large, heavy batteries a part of the communication system is shut down at the time of the

eclipse. When telephonic or data traffic is there, this method is rarely employed.

Generally nickel-hydrogen batteries are used. They have a good reliability, long life, do not gas while charging. They
can be discharged upto 70% of their capacity.
A power conditioning unit controls the charging current. It will put the excess current from the solar cells into heaters,
load resistors placed on the cold side of satellite.

The battery voltages are typical 20-50 V. Their capacity is 100 ampere hours.

H 4.7 cOMMUNICATION SUBSYSTEMS

GQ. 4.7.1 Write short note on satellite communication subsystems

***

The communication subsystem provides the receive and transmit coverage for the satellite.

It consists ofa communication antenna and a communication repeater.

The communication antenna serves as an interface between the earth stations on the ground and various satellit
subsystems during operation.
The main function of the antenna is to provide shaped link and downlink beams for
transmission and reception o
communication signals in the operating frequency bands e.g. Cor Ku band.

The antenna may be used to provide a signal link for the telemetry, command and ranging subsystem.

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 Satellite nunication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-23
Space Segment
W 4.8 SATELLITE TRANSPONDER
UQ 48.1 What is transponder?
MU May 14.2 Marks
A satellite transponder receives the uplink transmission from Satellite antenna
an earth stationand retransmits the
signal on downlink.
Fig. 4.8.1 shows the block diagram of a satellite
transponder.
The combination of a transmitter and receiver in the satellite Diplexer
is called as a transponder.
Module
The uplink transmission is received by the satellite antenna.It
is given to the front end receiver through the diplexer.
RF front Carier Power
The front end receiver increases the signal to noise ratio of end receiver processing amplifier
the signal received and provides amplification.

Fig. 4.8.1:Satellite transponder block diagram

The power received at the satellite antenna via the

uplink is very small. Hence, the front end receiver prOVIdes
amplification of the signal.

Carrier processing involves the demodulation of the uplink carrier frequencies and remodulation of the information on
downlink frequencies.
Generally, the uplink and downlink frequencies are separate. This is done so that the frequencies wil not mix with each

other
Hence, the same antenna is used for the transmission of the downlink frequencies.

The diplexer does the job of simultaneous transmission and reception through the antenna. As the uplink and the
downlink frequency bands are separate simultaneous transmission and reception does not have any problem.

The power amplifier is provided in the transponder. It increases the power level of re-modulated downlink carier.

The power level should satisfactorilyreachthe earth stations.

The gain of a typical satellite transponder is around 80-100dB

By using widely spaced transmit and receive frequencies, interference is avoided.
Transponders have a wide bandwidth, so they can receive and transmit more than one signals. But in practice one
transponder is used only with a single signal.

This is done to reduce the interference and improve reliability. But we cannot install a satellite only for one channel.

Hence, most of the satellites have more than one, typically 12 to 24 transponders.

Fig. 4.8.2 shows a satellite communication subsystem for the 6/4 GHz band.

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Input
WIA 1Output Output
Multi- Multi fiter
plexer plexer
IWIAZ1L
Input Receiver
driver
filter
(redundant) TWA 3
Input Output Output
Multi Multi- filter
plexer plexer
IWTA2

Input
Multi-
WIAOutput Multi-
Output
fiter
plexer plexer
IWIA22
Receiver
Input driver
filter
(redundant) TWTA output
Input Output
Multi- Multi-
Mu fiter
plexer 20| plexer
TWTA24L

Fig. 4.8.2 : Transponder Arrangement of satellites

The transponder consists of

(1) Receiver/down converter (2) Input multiplexer

(3) Travelling wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) (4) Output Multiplexer
The uplink signals are first filtered by a waveguide bandpass filter with about a 600 MHz bandwidth and then amplifed
by a parametric or Ga As FET low noise amplifier with a noise figure of 2 to 4 dB.

The amplified signals are then down converted to 3.7 to 4.2 GHz for C band and 11.7 to 12.2 GHz for Ku band.

After down conversion, the signals are gain amplified by GaAs FET amplifier and passed through a ferite isolator to
the input multiplexer.

The input multiplexer separates the S00 MHz bandwidth into individual transponder channels. The input muliplexer
consists of circulators, input fiters, group delay equalizers, amplitude equalizers and output circulators.
The Travelling Wave Tube Amplifers (TWTAs) amplity the low level downlink signals to a high level for transmissio
back to the earth.

Driver amplifiers are employed in front of high power TWTAs to allow the communication receiver to be operated in

the linear mode.

The output downlink signals from the channelized TWTAs are combined by the output multiplexer for retransmision

to the earth.

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 Catellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-25
Space Segment
The output muliplexer provides the
required output out-of-band attenuation as well as
the signal hamonics and the noise generated the attenuation essentual to suppres
by TWTAs.
Variable power dividers may be used to provide the necessary power
split to select the desired transmit antenna
average which can be selected by ground command.
4.8.1 Single Conversion Bent Pipe
4.8.1

Transponder for C Band

1Q.4.8.2 EXplain block diagram of satellite
transponder: Single conversion in "C band
Module
0. 4.8.3 Explain single conversion (MU Dec. 12, 5 Marks)
transponder (MU May 14, 3 Marks)
Fig. 4.8.3 shows a
single conversion transponder for a 6/4 GHz band.

Down converter

H
6 GHz 6 GHz
-EH 4 GHz 4 GHz
4GHz
HPA

Downlink
uplink antenna BPF BPF LPA antenna

Local
oscillator
2225 MHz

Fig. 4.8.3: Single conversion transponder

- I t is used for 6/4 GHz band or C band.

The output power amplifier is generally a Solid State Power Amplifer (SSPA) or a (TWTA) Travelling Wave Tube

Amplifier.
The local oscillator is at 2225 MHz. It will provide an appropriate shift in the frequency from 6 GHz, uplink frequency

to the 4 GHz downlink frequency.

The bandpass filter that is placed after the mixer, removes the unwanted frequencies resulting from the down

conversion operation.
The attenuator can be controlled through the uplink command system to set the gain of the transponder.

For the high power amplifier redundancy is provided in each transponder and provides the necessary control to back off
the output TWT or Solid State Power Amplifier that can be switched into the circuit if a primary power amplifier fails.

The life span of HPA is limited. If a spare HPA is given in each transponder then it will increase the probability that the

satellite will reach the end of its working life with all its transponders operational.
band.
ne HPAs have larger bandwidths than the allocated frequency

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LASatellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) Space Segment
4-26
4.8.2 Double Converslon Satellite Transponderfor Ku Band
(MU ssassesasanec
May 12.7 Marks
UQ. 4.8.4 Write note on: Double conversion transponder
conversion in "Ku" band.
p l a i n block diagram of satellite transponder: (i) Double
(MU Dec. 12, 5 Marks

Fig. 4.8.4 shows double conversion transponder for the 14/11 GHz band.
1 GHz
14 GHz
1 GHz IF amplifier
BPF
BPF

14 GHz
uplink
antenna

LNA

13 GHz
local oscillator

Up converter
11 GHz
downlink
antenna

11 GHz
HPA
10 GHz
local oscillator
Fig. 4.84:Double conversion satellite transponder

It employs a double frequency conversion scheme.

It is casier to implement amplifiers, filters and equalizers at an Intermediate Frequency (IF). The intermediate frequency
may be 1100 MHz than 14 or 11 GHz.

Hence, the incoming 14 GHz carier is translated to an IF around 1 GHz.

The amplification and filtering are performed at 1 GHz.

A high level carrier is translated back to 11 GHz for amplification by the HPA.

Filters must provide good rejection of the unwanted frequencies like the intermodulation products. They have a very
low amplitude and phase ripple in their pass bands.

A filter may be followed by an equalizer that smoothes out the amplitude and phase variation in the passband.
Phase variation the pass band generates a group
across delay distortion. It is troublesome with wide band FM
signals
and high speed phase shift keyed data transmission.

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Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-27 Space Segment

a3
4 . 8 . 3 Onboard Processing Transponder
Fig. 4.8.5 shows an onboard processing transponder.

If the onboard processing with switched beam technology is implementing there is an increase in the communication
satellite.
capacity of a
A switched beam satcllite generates a narrow transmit beam for each earth station with which it communicates.
A

It then transmits sequentially to each earth station

using time division multiplexing.
The satellite transmit antenna must have a high gain in comparison to the zone coverage area, due to the presence of Module
narow beam.

Data storage 1s required at the satellite, as it will communicate with one earth station at a time.

Forward
Receiver eTor Baseband
Rx Demodulator corection
processor
OBP
detector
Multiple
beam uplink On board processor
antenna

Transmitter FEC
Modulator
Tx encoder

Mutiple
beam downlink
antenna
Fig. 4.8.5 :Onboard processing transponder

The presence of high gain antennas will raise the effective isotropically radiated power of the transmiter of thesatellite
This will increase the capacity of satellite at downlink.

Switched beam systems on the geostationary satellites work best at the Ka band.
Multiple beam antennas with baseband processing transponders are used on geostationary and low earth orbiting

satellites. They provide service to handheld telephones, mobile terminals etc.

Low gain of the mobile earth station must be compensated by a high gain antenna on the satellite. It is essential to use

multiple beam antennas.

bandwidth can be saved. The downlink
By using techniques on the uplink and the uplink
different modulation
bandwidth can be saved by providing a baseband processor on the satellite.
High level modulation e.g. 16 QAM can be used on the link between the earth station and satellite. This will improve

the bandwidth efficiency.

Onboard processing may be used to switch between the uplink and downlink access techniques. This aids the small

directly access each other through the

earth stations to satellite.

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 Satellite Communication (MU-Sem
8-E&TC 4-28 Soace Semen
ne processor may provide data storage. Data storage is required for switched beamiecnnd
ne
independently do errorcorrection on the satellite uplink and downn
processor can

4 . 9 WIDEBAND RECEIVER
* * * *

4.9.1 Explain what is meant by "redundant receiver" in communication sateline

-
(MU-Dec.
-
14, 10 Marks
--*--1-.

Fig. 4.9.1 shows a satellite wideband receiver.

800dB
-1.5 dB 28.5 dB 23 dB
Preamplifier Mixer Amplifier

2.225 GHz
Oscillator
To input demultiplexer
From
input fiter

Standby or redundant receiver

Fig. 4.9.1:Satellite wideband receiver

A stand-by or redundant receiver is also provided in case if the receiver fails, the system automatically conects to
the redundant wideband receiver.

The preamplifier is a Low-Noise Amplifier (LNA) that adds noise to the canrier that is to be amplified. The receiver
noise is expressed in terms of equivalent noise temperature.
The amplified signal is applied to the mixer stage. For frequency conversions, the mixer needs a local oscillator whos
frequency is stable and has low phase noise.

The mixer output is fed to amplifier block to provide amplification. The output wideband receiver gain is around 60dB
By spliting the gain between amplifier (4 GHz) and preamplifier (6 GHa), system prevents oscillations
From Fig. 4.9.1 we can see that wideband receiver uses only solid state devices.
For some applications tunnel-diode amplifiers are used as preamplifiers at 6 GHz in 6/4 GHz transponders. Nowadays
for providing good performance FETs are also used.

The mixer stage comprise diodes.

The second amplifiers are usually transistors at 4 GHz and FETs at 12 GHz.

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catellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-29 Space Segment

4.10 INPUT DEMULTIPLEXE Matched

Channele
temination

The function of the input demultiplexer is to

arate the 3.7 4.2 GHz frequency to

separate 3

transponder frequency channels as shown in

5
Fig. 4.10.1.

There are 12 channels 1 - 12. Groups of even

Module
and odd number channels are done inorder to
decrease the adjacent channel interference. Also
two successive frequencies in
gap between a
11
group is more. Wideband
recelver.

The wideband receiver output is applied to the

Standby or
redundant 3 dB 12
power splitter
that is applied to two different receiver coupler

chains ofcirculators as shown in Fig. 4.10.1. 10

A filter is connected to every circulator. The

8
filter has 36 MHz bandwidth and is tuned to

centre frequency.

The demultiplexer losses can be made up in the

transponder channels overall gain.

Matched
termination
Fig. 4.10.1 : Input Demultiplexer

M 4.11 POWER AMPLIFIER

and input and output back-off ratio
uQ 4.11.1 Explain point of conmpression of 1 dB, AM/PM conversion (MU May 13, Dec. 13., 10 Marks)
with respect to satellite communication.
the significance of this point in
UQ. 4.11.2 Define and explain the term 1-dB compression point. What
TWT? Explain why operation near the saturation point of
relation to the operating point of a
are being amplified.
a TWTA is to be avoided when multiple carriers

MU-Dec, 14,10 Marks,May 15,6Marks)

PM conversion. (MU May 15, 5 Marks)
UQ. 4.11.3 Write short note on : AM to
UQ. 4.11.4 Explain
back off
1) input back off and output
(MU Q. 2(b), May 16, 10 Marks
2) AM/PM conversion.

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Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) Space
4-30 Segment
UQ 411.S Why TWT amplifier is preferved for satellite communication ? (MU 0. 5(0). May 17. 5Marks
1 1 6 Write short note on : Inter modulation distortion and back-off in satellite comnunication

(MU Q.4(a)(1). Dec. 17.5 Marks

UQ. 4.11.7 Explain the following
( 1 db compression point ( AM to PM conversion (MU 0 . 3(b). May 18. 10Marks
.
Each transponder channel has a used for
power amplifier (TWTA) travelling wave tube amplifiers are supplying output
power to the transmitting antenna.

Fig. 4.11.1 shows Travelling Wave Tube (TWT) and its power supplies.

Input power Output power

Magnet
Shadow grid Anode Attenuator Collector Collector
Cathode 2

Grid
Heater
Lmm Rod

Helix

Fig. 4.11.1: TWT and power supplies

An electron gun assembly comprising of cathode, heater, focussing electrodes are used for generating the electron
beam.

For ransmiting the beam through the helix, a magnetic field needs to be produced inside the helix. The magnetic field
is produced with the belp of power supply and solenoids. However, solenoids are not used on satellites because of their
high power consumption and large size*.

For satellites, low power TWTs are used that have permanent magnet focussing.

The RF signal is coupled into helix at cnd near the cathode setting up a travelling wave. The travelling wave has a
component along the axis of the helix.

Electron bunching occurs along the beam as a result of acceleration and deceleration of electrons in some areas in the
beam. The kinetic energy into the beam is translated into potential energy in the wave.

The wave follows a helical path. The axial component of wave interacts with the clectron beam resulting in a decreases
in the helix phase velocity. The TWT is called as a slowwave structure

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However they provide a amplification over wide

handwidth. To minimize distortion, the input levels 1 dB compreeslon

be monitored.
Pout point
of TWT should Saturation
point reference for
4.11.2 shows the power transfer characteristics 0 dB (0 dB
Fig input and output)
of a TWT.

For low input powers, the relation between input

is linear.
and output powers
Module
As the power increases, the output power saturates Linear region

as shown in Fig. 4.11.2. Saturation point denotes Pn

o dB
the maximum power output. It is the 0 dB
Themal noise limit
reference for inputs and outputs. Fig. 4.11.2: Power transfer
characteristics of TWT
The linear region has two bounds

)Thermal noise limit at the lower end.

line.
) 1dB compression point at upper end.At this point the transfer curve drops 1 dB below the straight

There is some time delay between the input and output.

At high input levels, the beam velocity is decreases as -0
more energy is translated into output power. This Saturation Degree/dB

increases the time delay and also the phase delay as it is

AM/PM
directly proportional to the time delay. Phase conversion
shift
IfG is the phase difference between the input and output,
is the saturation phase shift, 0 -

0, is the phase shift

e,
O dB
w.r.t saturation i.e. variations in the input signal power

result in variations in phase. This is called as AM/PM Pin inputpower)

conversions.
Fig. 4.11.3 : Phase characteristics of TWTA
modulation coefficient in degree/dB
The AM/PM curve is obtained from slope of phase shift curve. It gives the phase
4.11.3.
(degree per decibel) as shown in Fig.
undesired amplitude modulation. It is converted to phase
In analog satellite communication, fillers present produce
noise on FM carrier.
modulation (PM), that appears as
POut Single camier operation
and results in - Multiple carrier operation
The AM/PM conversion is complicated O dB Output
intermodulation distortion. back off

In order to reduce the intermodulation

distortion, we Input
have to shift the operating point near
the linear part back off
of the curve.
input-backof
The drop in input power is called as
is
For carrier operation, the input-off
single 0 dB P
decibels between
expressed as the difference in Fig. 4.11.4:Transfer curve of TWTA for single
carier input at operating and saturation point.
and multiple carrier operation

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Satelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 4-32 Space Segment
cartier
output power is less than that obtained for single
For multiple carier operation, the
operlon
u c o n in output power is called as output-backoff. It is approximately 5 dB less than input backoff.

4.12 ANTENNA SUBSYSTEM

**--*--~---.

Q . 4121 Why is i t necessary to employ antenna tracking in large earth stations

(IMU O. 1e). Dec. 17.5Marks

. ***************--.

An antenna is simply a means for radiating or receiving the radio waves.

1 s required for radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves. An antenna is a means for linking the electromagnetic

waves from the transmitter to the receiver.

Antenna is a metallic object, often a wire or collection of wires that are used to perform the following functions

i) It couples the transmitter output to the free space, or the received input to the receiver.

(i) It must be capable of radiating or receiving the electromagnetic waves.

(ii) It converts the high frequency current into electromagnetic waves and vice versa.

They are required for wire communication networks like mobile communication, broadcast systems, microWave
linking, satellite communication ete.
There are many types of structures used for antennas ranging from a simple length of wire suspended above the ground
to the certain arrays used for very low frequency (VLF) broadcasting. Aperture antennas are used at microwave
frequencies. e,g. a horm antenna. A lens antenna is used by traffic police for radar aparatus. Dish antenna is used by
astromers for their radio telescope.

An antenna converts the high frequency current flowing through it into èlectromagnetic waves at the transmitter and
converts the electromagnetic waves received by the receiving antenna to a high frequency electrical current.

The antennas at the transmitting and receiving end operate on the same principle and are identical.

a 4.12.1 Types of Antennas

UQ. 4.122 Explain what kind of antenna's are used for tracking and command signal transmission
during transfer orbit. (MU- May 13, Dec. 13, 10 Marks
UQ. 4.123 Which types of antennas are used in satellite communication, Explain one antenna in detail

(MU- Q. 2(b). May 18. 10 Marks. Q. 5(b), Dec. 18, 10Marks):

There are four types of antennas that are used on satellites. They are

(1) Linear wire antennas monopoles and dipoles

(2) Horn antennas

(3) Reflector antennas

(4) Array antennas

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catelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC
4-33 Space Segment
Linear wire antennas
1)
The linear wire antennas are
used at the VHF and UHF frequencies in order
TTC and M systems.
to provide communications lor tne

They can be observed on top of buildings,

aircrafts, automobiles etc.
They provide an
omnidirectional coverage.
They are
of different shapes e.g. straight wire (dipole), monopole etc. Fig, 4.12.1: Linear wire dipole antenna
(2) Horn antennas
Module
They are commonly used at the microwave I
frequencies.
They may take the form of a horn whose apertures is square, circular, rectangular etc. as shown in Fig. 4. 12.2.

(a) Pyramidal horn b) Conical horn

Fig. 4.12.2: Horn antennas
They are used for spacecraft applications as they can be mounted on the surface of the spacecraft or aircraft.

They are used as feeds for the reflectors either singly or in clusters.
They are examples of aperture antennas.
They can give gains upto 23 dB. To obtain high gain reflector antenna or array must be used.

(3) Reflectorantennas
All the antennas and antenna arays can be used at all frequencies. Practically the antenna shape depends on the
frequency band for which it is designed.
At microwave frequencies, the physical size of antenna becomes small to practically construct metallic curved
reflectors to produce the desired gain and directivity.
The practical antennas used are parabolic reflector, paraboloid, microwave dish etc.
Fig. 4.12.3 shows typical reslector antennas.

Reflector
Feed
Reflector Feed

Antenna

(a) Corner reflector antenna (b) Parabolic reflector with front feed
Fig, 4.12.3: Reflector antennas

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(4) Array antennas
In many applications it is desired to design the antennas with very high gains to meet the requireme
ments of long
distance communication. It can be obtained by acreasing the electrical size of antenna. ButBut enlarging the
dimensions of single element leads to more directive characteristics. To avoid this an assembly of
of radiating
elements is formed in an electrical and geometrical configuration. The new antenna comprising multielements i
s
called as an array.
It can be used to increase the directivity to a transmitter or a receiver.
Using an aray any power pattern can be obtained.

Fig. 4.12.4 shows examples of array configurations.

Circular patch

Dielectricsubstrate
(a) Aperture array (b) Microstrip patch area

Fig.4.124:Arrayconfigurations
4.12.2 Antenna Basics
Radiation intensity ()
It is defined as the power per unit solid angle.

Directive gain, directivity and power gein

As we know, the directional antennas radiate more power in certain directions than the other.

The omnidirectional antenna radiates equally in all the directions. We can put this in a different way.

A directional antenna is said to have 'gain' in a particular direction. The definitions in connection with the antenna gain
are as follows

Directive gain

This is defined in a particular direction as, the ratio of the power density radiated in that direction by an isotropic
antenna to that by a directional antenna.

Both these power densities are measured at the same distance and both the antennas radiate the same amount of total
power.

The directive gain is thus a power ratio. The directive gains of the practical antennas are greater than unity.

Directivity (D)
The directive gain can be defined in any direction. However directivity means the maximum directive gain which is
obtained in only one direction in which the radiation is maximum.

Directivity = Maximum directive gain

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Power galn (A, )
The power gain
or an antenna is
defined as ratio of power fed to an antenna to the power ted
nna, to develop the same field strength at the same distance, in theisotropic
o a

antenn
direction of maximum radiation. a
Power gain = Power fed to the isotropic antenna
Power fed to the directional
antenna
Compare the Power gain and the directive gain. The directive gain is the ratio of "radiated" powers while the power
gain is the ratio of powers fed to the antennas.

Thus the power gain takes into account the antenna losses. Module
The relation between the power gain and directive gain is as follows
Ap nD .4.12.1)

where, Ap Power gain.

D =
Directivity (maximum directive gain).
n = Antenna efficiency = 1 for ideal lossless antenna.

The power gain has more practical importance than the directivity.

EIRP

In practice we use a directional antenna having gain G, For a transmitter with output power driving a lossless antenna

with gain, the flux density in the direction of antenna boresight, at a distance Rm is given by.

..4.12.2)
F4TRW/m
The product PG, of Equation (4.12.2) is called as the effective isotropically radiated power or EIRP. It describes the
combination of transmitter and antenna in terms of an equivalent isotropic source with power PG, watts radiating

uniformly in all the directions.

EIRP= PPG, watts ..4.12.3)

Bandwidth of antenna

Bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the frequency range over which the operation is satisfactory. It is the frequency

difference between the half power points.

There are two types of bandwidths. One is related to the radiation pattern and the other one is related to its input

impedance.
to the difference between the frequencies at which the received power falls to half of the
The pattern bandwidth is equal
radiation.
maximumn, in the direction of maximum

Beamwidth
between the two half power
lt is defined as the angular separation -Beamwidth
points on the power density radiation patterm.
between two 3 dBB
OR it can be defined as the angular separation
radiation pattern of antenna as
aown points on the field strength of
3dB
shown in Fig. 4.12.5.
Fig. 4.12.5: Beamwidth of antenna
Beamwidth is expressed in degrees.
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Polarization
Polarization is defined as the direction of the electric vector in the electromagnetic wave radiated trom an antenna.

The LF, VLF and MF antennas are vertically polarized due to the proximity of ground.
But there are advantages in using the horizontally polarized antenna at higher frequencies so that the radation is not

affected by the vertically polarized man made noise.

4.13 EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY AND SPACE QUALIFICATION
(QUALITY ASSURANACE)
The componeats that are used to make the spacecraft must have high reliability in outer space and tnere must be a

strategy to allow some components to fail without causing the communication capacity to be lost. 10 0Dlain this two

methods are used. They are

S p a c e qualification ofevery part of the satellite to guarantee that it has a long life expectancy in orbit.

11) Redundancy of the most critical components with a view to obtain uninterrupted operation in conditions of component

failure.

4.13.1 Space Qualification (QUALITY ASsSURANACE)

UQ. 4.13.1 Explain space qualification. (MU May 12, 5 Marks

; UQ. 4.13.2 What do you understand by space qualifrication ? (MU May 14, 3 Marks

UQ. 4.13.3 Write short note on :

space qualitcation
(MU-May 15, 2.5 Marks, Q.6d), May 17,2.5 Marks. O.6c),Dec.18, 2.5 Marks
Only components that have high reliability in outer space are selected. Each component is individually tested to meet its
specification.
Once, the individual components are tested then the total system of spacecraft is tested to ensure its reliability. It is
called as quality assurance or quality control and is very important.

After the components and satellite sub-systems are space qualified, the satellite requires to be tested to ensure that its
systems are reliable.

When a satellite is designed three prototype models are built and tested. The three prototype models are

(i) Mechanical (ii) Thermal (ii) Electrical

) Mechanical model
It comprises all the structural and mechanical parts that must be present in the satellite. It is tested to guarantee that
all the parts are operating in vacuum over a wide temperature range.

The parts are subjected to vibration and shock testing inorder simulate the vibration levels and the G forces to e
encountered on satellite launch.

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(i) Thermal model

It contains all the electronic packages and the other components that must be maintained at correct temperaturc.

a vacuum chamber the vacuum, thermal and vibration tests are done. It1s called as shake and bake test.

The function of antennas in thermal model antennas check for distortion of reflectors and displacement or

bending of support structures.

ii) Electrical model

The elecical model comprises all the electronic parts of the satellite. Mostly it is tested for correct electrical Module

perfonnance under total vacuum and a wide range of temperatures. II

The function of antennas is to give beamwidth, correct gain, and polarization properties.

Space qualification is an expensive process. Hence, it makes GEO satellites expensive.

Some LE0 (Low Earth Orbit) satellites have built in less expensive methods that are dependent on 10w

performance in orbit.
Most of the components used in mechanical and electronic model have limited lifetimes or finite probabiliy or

failure.
If one of the components fails, the system design must be such that it can automatically take over into operation Dy
command fronm the ground .eg. redundancy is always provided for travelling wave tube amplifiers used n une

transponders of a communications satellite with a stand by unit in event on transponder failure.

4.13.2 Reliability
(MU May 12, 2.5 Marks
vQ. 4.13.4 Explain reliability.
MU-May 14, 3 Marks
UQ. 4.13.5 What do you understand by reliability.
(MU-May 14, 3 Marks
UQ. 4.13.6 Explain signiticance of bath tub curve
UQ 4.13.7 Write short note on:Reliability
(MU-May 15, 2.5 Marks, Q. 6(d),May 17,2.5 Marks, Q.6(c), Dec. 18,2.5 Marks);
conmmunication system.
vQ. 4.33.8 Write short note on : Improvement of reliability of satellite
MU-O. 6d), Dec.17, 5Marks
characteristics ? Hence explain the terms
uQ. 4.13.9 What is meant by sub-system reliability and its (MU-0.4a), May 19. 10 Marks
failure.
initial failure, random failure and wear-out
future. We need to calculate the system reliability for two
Reliability theory is a mathematical approach to predict the
reasons. They are:
will be still working after a given time period.
) To know that the probability of the system
of failure is more.
or subsystems where the probability
(i) To provide redundant components
can be expressed in terms of the probability of failure Pp () after time t. For most of the
The reliability of a component
the beginning of life the burn in period than that
of failure 1s higher at
electronic equipments the probability to the bath tub curve.
increases as shown in Fig. 4.13.1 leading
the failure rate
afterwards with aging of components,

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Bum-in End of life

Wear-out
Initial failure failure

Random failure

Time

Fig. 4.13.1: Bath tub curve for probability of failure

The bathtub comprises three parts:

1 The first part is a decreasing failure rate, called as initial or early failures.

2. The second part is a constant failure rate, called as random failures.

3. The third part is an increasing failure rate, called as wear-out failures

The testing of components is carried out under rigorous conditions like the components that are exposed to the vacuum
of space are tested in a vacuum chamber, and the components subjected to sunlight are tested under radiant heat
conditions.

Semiconductors and integrated circuits that are required to have high reliability are subjected to burn-in periods from
100 to 1000 hours at high temperatures and excess voltage to induce failures in any suspect devices and get beyond the
initial low reliability part of the bath tub curve.

The reliability of a device is expressed as,

R () Number ofsurvivingcomponents attimet ..(4.13.1)

Number of components at start of test period.

The number of failure components that failed in time t is N, ()

where,
N, () = No-N, ()
.4.13.2)
The probability of failure any one of the Ng components is closely related to the mean time before failure (MTBF)
Assume that we test till all he components fail. If the i" device fails after time , then mean time before failure is
expressed as,
No
MTBF m= ..(4.13.3)
i 1
The average failure rate A, is the reciprocal of MTBF (m). IfA is constant then,

=
number of failures in a given time
number of surviving components ..(4.13.4)

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dt MTBF
..(4.13.5)
The failure rate A is
expressed as the average
failure rate per 10 hours. The rate of failure
dN
is the negative or ne
rate of survival

4.13.6)
The reliability R =
Module

.(4.13.7
Equation (4.13.7) can be expressed as,

R = e
04.13.8)
The reliability of a device decreases
exponentially with time. After certain failure or infinite time the reliability
becomes almost zero.

However, end of useful life is considered at time t. Such that R falls to 0.37) when,

4.13.9)

Probability is related to MTBF exponentially and is represented by right side of bath tub curve.

Chapter Ends..
OO0
 APTER
5
Earth Station
Module 33 |

5.1 INTRODUCTION....
*****************************r **************************°°********
**************

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS...
*********** eee***e *ss****
****************************** 5-2
5.2
****°**********"* * .* . 5-2
UQ.5.2.1 Discuss design consideration of .****** *************"*********
earth station. (MU Q.
Ua. 5.2.2 Explain design considerations of Earth station. 4(a), May 17,4 Marks)..
-

)*******s***********.****. 5-2

(MU- a.1(6), Dec. 18, 5 Marks,

Q. 1(d), May 19, 5 Marks).
53 RECEIVE-ONLY HOME TV SYSTEMS... .ssao ******************.*****ss*s-2

5-3
Ua. 5.3.1 Why
in satellite TV
receiving system, a demodulation/remodulation unit is needed 7
(MU-Q.3(b), Dec. 17, 4
Marks).. 5-3
5.3.1 Indoor Unit for Analog (FM) TV....
5.3.2 Outdoor '******°**"************************ass*****en**************************ee*e******°***°************ 5-4
Unit for
Analog (FM) TV.. ************************osoo****s*** *******o*******.************************"****** 5-4
.**.**

UQ. 5.3.2 Why LNA is placed closed to antenna of out door unit ?
(MU-Q.1(b), May 16, 5 Marke, Q. 1(a), May 19, 5
UQ.5.3.3 Why LNA in a satellite Marke). *************
5-4
***************************e*****************s**

receiving system is placed at the antenna end of the feeder cable ?

(MU- May 17,4 Marks).. ***************a***ou**tt**s***ee**** es***eesoa****** ***eoa****sees*********************** 5-4
Ua. 5.3.4Explain the need of placing LNA next to antenna. (MU May 17, 2 Marks). -
***************
****** 5-4
5.4 MASTER ANTENNA TV SYSTEM (MATV)..
*******a******s*************a***************a******.*******e*******os*******************e******************** 5-5
5.5 COMMUNITY ANTENNA TV SYSTEM (CATV)..
**
s******************o*nssosetsdesasae******s*nsensenntee*******s***s************a************* 5-66
5.6 TRANSMIT - RECEIVE EARTH STATIONS . **********************
***************************************************sssororses*oss* 5-6
UQ. 5.6.1 With the help of a block diagram describe the working of transmit receive earth station
used for telephone trafic. (MU -a. 4(a), May 16, 10 Marks, Q. 4(a), Dec. 16, 10
Marke).. **************** -0

Ua.5.6.2 Discuss design consideration of earth station. Draw the block diagram for transmit and
receive earth station and explain. (MU -Q. 4(a), May 17, 10 Marks).. *****sa*a*****e********eso*ees*eeos*ss .5-6
UQ. 5.6.3 Draw and explain working of transmit and receive type of earth station.
(MU-Q.3(a), Dec. 17, 6 Marks).***** **ssssene************************assanauansnonsannesssoe . . . . 5-6
UQ. 5.64 Explain block diagram of Transmit and receive type of earth station. Explain each block in detail.
(MU Q. 2(a), May 18, 10 Marks).
UQ.5.6.5 With the help of block diagram explain transmit receive type of earth station.
(MU Q. 4(a), Dec. 18, 10 Marks, a. 4(6), May 19, 10 Marks). 5-7
UQ.5.6.6 Draw the block diagram for transmit and receive earth station and explain.
(MU Q. 4(a), May 17, 6 Marks). ***
*** ******s*****s*********
************************ .. 5-7

Chapter End .. s*assoanaosassseepeeesensneesessaaneaees*auseeecnaeseeanaoseoeeseaseeeenceenesneesseseneas 5-9

Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 5-2 arth Station
5.1 INTRODUCTION
An earth station can have both the transmit as well as receive earth stations depending on the appicauon. Ihe home Ty
Keceive Only (TVRO) systems, stations on ships at sea, aeronautical mobile stations, commercial, military and land
mobile stations are included in earth
segment.
Ihe earth stations are used to provide logistic support to satellites for performing functions like TTC and M.

H5.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

UQ. 5.2.1 Discuss design consideration of earth station (MU Q. 4(a). May 17, 4 Marks:
UQ. 5.2.2 Explain design considerations of Earth station.
(MU Q. 1(b), Dec. 18, 5 Marks, Q.1(d),May 19,5 Marks
****

An earth station sends

signals to or receives signals from a satellite.
The earth station location
may be an aircraft or ship.
The downlink carrier to noise ratio sets the link
performance and the communication capacity. Generally it is of order
of 5 to 25 dB.

The ratio is expressed as,

EIRP] -Losses]+[G]-[K]-[T]-[B]
or

For a satellite, the parameters that affect the earth station are system noise temperature T,, Gain
[G,],
S as and A are constant for asatellite system.

Thus.Traiodepends on the parameters ofthe earth station.

To increase ratio, T, should be decreased. Generally the range of T, is 70 Kto 2000 K.

If the aperture area is increased, gain can be increased. For antennas with large sizes, increasing the gain is very
expensive. So we should consider decreasing the system noise temperature.

The large earth stations can be cooled with low noise amplifiers to achieve a low system noise temperature.
The small earth stations prefer to increase the antenna aperture area rather than decrease the system noise temperature

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Satelli Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 5-3 Earth Station
M s1
5.3
RECEIVE-ONLY HOME TV SYSTEMS
1 Why in satelrte tV
UQ. 5.3.1
receiving system, a demodulation/remodulation unit is needed ?
(MU0.3(b), Dec. 17,4 Marks)
Rroadcasting
Br
aata O ne nonme Tv receivers usually occurs in the 14/12 GHz Ku band and is called as Diret
Rroadcast Satellite (DBS) service.

The reasons for using high frequency Ku band than C band

are :

Ku band is not used for terrestrial microwave systems, hence there is

no interference
i) More frequencies are available.

Setelllte recelver

Channel
Tunable
oscillator
H select and
display
AM
000.o
Standard TV set
Module
950-1450Hz
Tracking 70 MHz FM
filter and down
converter IF Block Demodulator
Amplifier
Indoor unlt

Outdoor unt
DC power
12.2 12.7 GHz

Parabolic reflector
Low noise
amplifier

Receive hon
and polarizer

Fig. 5.3.1: Block diagram of home terminal DBS TV receiver system (Analog (FM) (Tv))
installed on terraces or backyards for receiving the downlink TV signals in the C band range
Large satellite dishes are
stations and cable TV).
(4 GHz) for network relay. (VHF and UHF TV broadcast
The systems are marketed for home reception of Ku band signals or C band signals or dual C/Ku band signals.

The television programming arises as first generation signals. It i1s also termed as master broadcast quality signals.
the satellite to network headstations. At the headstations the signals are
hese signals are transmitted in C band with
to DBS and cable TV providers. The main advantage of such
Cransmitted as compressed digital signals providers
ansmission is that because of compressed digital
signals, there is no loss of signal quality.
from satellites
polar mount antenna is used to receive signals
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KSatellite Communication (MU-Sem
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The advantages of using C band home systems are
1. For reception large number of satellites are available.
2. Free analog channels for reception and "wildfeeds".
Subscription services are cheaper in comparison to cable TV and DBS-TV.
The users can subscribe to pay TV channels.
The main difference in the home receive systems at Ku and C band is in the operating frequency of
outdoor unit
Also the EIRP for DBS
systems is more.
The antennas used for C band systems are
larger in size than used for Ku band.
Fig. 5.3.1 shows a home terminal DBS TV receiver
system (analog FM TV) with indoor and outdoor units.
5.3.1 Indoor Unit for Analog
(FM) TV
Fig. 5.3.1 shows the indoor unit for
analog (FM) TV. The signal applied is a wideband signal in the
frequency range
950-1450 MHz.
This signal is amplified and passed to a tracking filter that selects the required channel.
As polarization interleaving is used alternate channels are present at input of the indoor unit.
The channel that is selected is down converted from
950-1450 MHz to 70 MHz fixed IF. The 70 MHz IF
amplifies the signals to the levels needed for demodulation. amplifier

The difference between conventional TV and DBS TV

is that conventional TV uses
amplitude modulation in VSSB
(Vestigial Single Side Band) and DBS uses frequency modulation. Hence, for
analog (FM) TV the 70 MHz FM should
be demodulated for
generating VSSB signal that is given to VHF/UHF channels of a standard TV.
A DBS TV
receiver performs many functions. The audio and video signals are present at the output jacks.
To minimize interference, an energy
dispersal waveform is given to the satellite carrier.
a5.3.2 Outdoor Unit for Analog (FM) TV

UQ. 5.3.2 Why LNA is placed closed to antenna of out door unit ?

(MU -Q.16), May 16, 5 Marks, Q. 1(a), May 19,5Marks

UQ. 5.3.3 Why LNA in a satellite receiving system is placed at the antenna end of the feeder cable ?

(MU-May 17,4Marks
UQ. 5.3.4 Explain the need of placing LNA next to antenna. (MU May 17, 2 Marks

As shown in Fig. 5.3.1, the outdoor unit comprises of a receiving antenna that feeds into a low noise amplifier (LNA).
Low-Noise Amplifier (LNA) is electronic
amplifier. II is used for the amplification
an

generally at the antenna end of the feeder cable inorder to decrease the feeder losses.
of the weak signals. It is placed
Such an antenna arrangement is used in the GPS systems. This is because at microwave frequencies the coaxial cable
is very lossy and can cause reduction in the Signal-to-Noise Ratio
(SNR).

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Satellite Communication(MU-Sem 8-E&TO) 5-5 Earth Station
Hence, it is essential for an LNA to amplify the desired signal power As the satellites use low power transmitters,
they have limited power. The satellites suffer from path loss. The LNA amplifies the antenna signal to compensate for

the feeder losses.

The receiving antenna is generally a parabolic reflector such that the receiving horn is mounted at focus with offset

feed.

The DBS operates at high EIRP. This allows antennas with low gains also as gain is proportional to

The 12.2 12.7 GHz downlink band scans accommodating 32 TV/FM channels such that each
range of 500 MHz
channel is 24 MHz wide.

the interference the channels are

There may be some overlap between the channels, However inorder to minimize
polarized towards the left and right side referred as polarizationinterleaving
An indoor unit may switch a polarizer to required polarization at the receiver horn.
converter. It provides gain and converts the signal to a
The receiver horn feeds a low noise amplifier preceeded by a

of low cable to be used at the input of the indoor unit. The frequencies are
low frequency range. This enables use cost
Module
down converted in the range 950-1450 MHz.
unit.
Polarization switching control wires and coaxial cables are needed to supply power to the outdoor

5 . 4 MASTER ANTENNA TV SYSTEM (MATV)

LHC polanzaton channel group Outdoor unlt

LNA
Polarization
Diplexer

RHC polarization
channel group

Indoor unit
Channel
selector

Receiver 1 Modulator1

Receiver2 Modulator 2

Recoiver 3 Modulator3

Power divider

Antenna TV system (MATV)

Fig. 5.4.1: Master

TV/FM channel reception to users in small group e.g. residents in an apartment.

This system is used for providing DBS
of a single outdoor unit that feeds many indoor units.
AS shown in Fig. 5.4.1 MATV comprises
used.
community antenna (CATV)
are
For more users
A user can independently access all the channels.
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 5-6
Earth Station
KESatelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&To
Advantage
1 Only one outdoor unit is needed.

Drawbacks
indoor unit.
to noise ratio at the
.A large antenna (2-3 m in diameter) is required for maintaining signal
polarization.
2. Separate LNA and feeder cables are needed for sensing

5.5 cOMMUNITY ANTENNA TV SYSTEM (CATV)

outdoor unit with feeds for indoor units

Similar to the MATV the community antenna TV system comprises a single

with polarization sense.

At the indoor receiver all the channels are available and can be accessed.

5.5.1 which are then combined and

A common receiver filter system demodulates the carriers as shown in Fig.

multiplexed for transmission to cable TV users.

transmitter.
In regions where cable TVs are not installed, the signals are transmitted using low power TV

Cable distibution

Combiner

Channel filters
or

demodulators

TTT
Wideband Wideband
recelver receiver

950-1450 MHz from outdoor unit

Fig. 5.5.1:CATV arrangement for indoor unit

5 . 6 TRANSMIT RECEIVE EARTH STATIONS

UQ. 5.6.1 Withthe help ofa blockdiagram describe the working of transmit receive earthstationusd
for telephone traffic. (MU Q. 4(a), May 16. 10 Marks, Q. 4(a), Dec. 16, 10 Marks

uQ s.6.2 Discuss design consideration of earth station Draw the block diagram for transmit and
receive earth station and explain. (MU 0. 4(a), May 17, 10 Marks

uQ 563 Draw and euplain working of transmit and receive type of earth station
MU Q.3a), Dec. 17,6 Marks)
uQ 564 Explain block diagram of Transmit and receive type of earth station. Explain each block in
detail (MU Q. 2(a), May 18.,10Marks

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 Satelite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 5-7 Earth Station
***-~------
******--°------*---*---***

Q. 5.6.5 With the heip of block diagram explain transmit receive type of earth station.

DQ. 5.6.6
(IMU0,4a), Dec. 18, 10 Marks, 0,4b), May 19,10 Marks)
Draw the block diagram for transmit and receive earth station and explain.

(MU-O.4a),May 17,6 Marks

Depending on the application, an earth station can have both transmit and receive capabilities or may be capable or

either transmission or reception.

Transmit receive earth stations are needed for telecommunication traffic.

Fig. 5.6.1 shows the generalized block diagram of an earth station. In case of system failure, the standby units shown in

Fig. 5.6.1 are used. The standby units are also called redundant units.

Fig. 5.6.2 shows the detailed block diagram without standby units.

High

Switch
Modulator Hconverter
Up power
amplifier Switch1 Module
Stand by
------=-. - --

Terrestrial Antenna
network
Standby
Switch Low Switch
Down
Demodulator converter Lamplifier
noise

Fig. 5.6.1: Block diagram of earth station with standby or redundant units

The digital information from the terrestrial network enters through the transmit section. The information is processed
(i.e. buffered, multiplexed, formatted etc.) with the baseband equipment.

The multiplexed information signal is modulated on an Intermediate requency (1F) carrier. The IF carier has a

frequency 70 MHz.
For every 70 MHz carrier to be transmitted, we need parallel IF stages.

The modulated IF carier from the modulator is given to the upconverter. The upconverter translates the intermediate
frequency to needed microwave carrier frequency. At the same time many carriers can be transmitted at different

frequencies for different stations.

The cariers are then combined and the resulting wideband signal is amplified with the HPA. The amplificd signal is fed

to the antenna
through the diplexer.
The antenna is capable of simultaneously handling the transmitted and received signals, but at different frequencies.

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rublications.
 5-8
Earth Station
Satellite Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC)
uplink frequency for Ku band
The for C band is 6 GHz and downlink frequency is 4
GHz whereas the
uplink frequency
is 14 GHz and downlink frequency is 12 GHz.
to/from terrestrial links should he
Terestrial microwave links don't operate at Ku band. Hence, C band interference

avoided.
and given to
amplified in low noise amplitier a
At the receiver side as shown in Fig. 5.6.2 the wideband signal is

divider.

Antenna
feed

1
Diplexer

High Power Low Nolse Amplifier

Amplifier (HPA) LNA)
Microwave
carriers

Combiner Dvider

Up Down converter
convertor
F

Modulator L JLo
Demodulator
Re-fomated basebands

Multiplexing
Demultiplexing
signal prooessing
Baseband signals
Connection toterrestrial network
Terrestrial network

Fig. 5.6.2: Transmit receive earth station

The divider separates the carriers, which are down converted to the intermediate frequency. Then the cariers are
demodulated and applied to multiplexer unit. The multiplexer unit reformats the signals according to the requirements
of the terrestrial network.

The signal flow traffic at the transmitter and receiver ends is different.

The traffic can be: (i) Thin-route i) Medium route (ii) Heavy route
In a thin-route circuit, a number of single carriers occupy the 36 MHz transponder. This is referred as Single Carrier
Per Channel (SCPC). Antenna size range for 3.6m for traffic stations to 30 m for main station.

In a medium route circuit, FDMA/TDMA are used. The antenna sizes range from 10 m for traffic station to 30 m for

main station.

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 lite
Satellit Communication (MU-Sem 8-E&TC) 5-9 Earth Station
tn a heavy route circuit, every satellite channel can simultaneously carry 960 voice circuits or single colour analog Tv

anal with audio. It has antenna size of at least 30 m.

The earth station antennas must be strong and stable as thev are large. Their weight is high. They produce narrow
heams,
bea under atmospheric conditions like rain, ice, smog. For it, heaters that are built in are needed.
Carh station antennas are used with
geostationary satellites.
For limited degree tracking alternatives should be provided as there are some drifts in the satellite position. Also in-
order to maximize the received signal, computerised control needs to be used to adjust the azimuth and elevation in

steps.

In case of power supply failure, batteries or generators are needed to be provided to avoid transmit receive earth
station failure.

Chapter Ends...

Module