Definition: Routers - are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together.

Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects
networks (as gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI model.

Home networkers often use an Internet Protocol (IP) wired or wireless router, IP being the most common OSI
network layer protocol. An IP router such as a DSL or cable modem broadband router joins the home's local
area network (LAN) to the wide-area network (WAN) of the Internet.

Definition: A network gateway - is an internetworking system capable of joining together two networks
that use different base protocols. A network gateway can be implemented completely in software, completely in
hardware, or as a combination of both. Depending on the types of protocols they support, network gateways can
operate at any level of the OSI model.

Because a network gateway, by definition, appears at the edge of a network, related capabilities like firewalls
tend to be integrated with it. On home networks, a broadband router typically serves as the network gateway
although ordinary computers can also be configured to perform equivalent functions.

IPv4 and IPv6

Internet Protocol (IP) technology was developed in the 1970s to support some of the first research computer
networks. Today, IP has become a worldwide standard for home and business networking as well. Our network
routers, Web browsers, email programs, instant messaging software - all rely on IP or other network protocols
layered on top of IP.

Two versions of IP technology exist today. Essentially all home computer networks use IP version 4 (IPv4), but
an increasing number of educational and research institutions have adopted the next generation IP version 6
(IPv6).

IPv4 Addressing Notation

An IPv4 address consists of four bytes (32 bits). These bytes are also known as octets.

For readability purposes, humans typically work with IP addresses in a notation called dotted decimal. This
notation places periods between each of the four numbers (octets) that comprise an IP address. For example, an
IP address that computers see as

00001010 00000000 00000000 00000001

is written in dotted decimal as.

10.0.0.1

Because each byte contains 8 bits, each octet in an IP address ranges in value from a minimum of 0 to a
maximum of 255. Therefore, the full range of IP addresses is from 0.0.0.0 through 255.255.255.255. That
represents a total of 4,294,967,296 possible IP addreses.

IPv6 Addressing Notation

IP addresses change significantly with IPv6. IPv6 addresses are 16 bytes (128 bits) long rather than four bytes
(32 bits). This larger size means that IPv6 supports more than
300,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
possible addresses! In the coming years, as an increasing number of cell phones, PDAs, and other consumer
electronics expand their networking capability, the smaller IPv4 address space will likely run out and IPv6
address become necessary.

IPv6 addresses are generally written in the following form:

hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh:hhhh

In this full notation, pairs of IPv6 bytes are separated by a colon and each byte in turns is represented as a pair
of hexadecimal numbers, like in the following example:
E3D7:0000:0000:0000:51F4:9BC8:C0A8:6420

As shown above, IPv6 addresses commonly contain many bytes with a zero value.Shorthand notation in IPv6
removes these values from the text representation (though the bytes are still present in the actual network
address) as follows:

E3D7::51F4:9BC8:C0A8:6420

Finally, many IPv6 addresses are extensions of IPv4 addresses. In these cases, the rightmost four bytes of an
IPv6 address (the rightmost two byte pairs) may be rewritten in the IPv4 notation. Converting the above
example to mixed notation yields

E3D7::51F4:9BC8:192.168.100.32

IPv6 addresses may be written in any of the full, shorthand or mixed notation illustrated above.

Chapter 11. Configuring and testing your network

1. Cisco IOS

Similar to a personal computer, a router or switch cannot function without an operating system. Without an
operating system, the hardware does not have any capabilities. The Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS)
is the system software in Cisco devices. It is the core technology that extends across most of the Cisco product
line. The Cisco IOS is used for most Cisco devices regardless of the size and type of the device. It is used for
routers, LAN switches, small Wireless Access Points, large routers with dozens of interfaces, and many other
devices.

The Cisco IOS provides devices with the following network services:

 Basic routing and switching functions

 Reliable and secure access to networked resources
 Network scalability

The IOS operational details vary on different internetworking devices, depending on the device's purpose and
feature set.The services provided by the Cisco IOS are generally accessed using a command line interface (CLI).
The features accessible via the CLI vary based on the version of the IOS and the type of device. The IOS file
itself is several megabytes in size and is stored in a semi-permanent memory area called flash. Flash memory
provides non-volatile storage. This means that the contents of the memory are not lost when the device loses
power. Even though the contents are not lost they can be changed or overwritten if needed.

Using flash memory allows the IOS to be upgraded to newer versions or to have new features added. In many
router architectures, the IOS is copied into RAM when the device is powered on and the IOS runs from RAM
when the device is operating. This function increases the performance of the device.
Access Methods

There are several ways to access the CLI environment. The most usual methods are:

 Console
 Telnet or SSH
 AUX port

Console

The CLI can be accessed through a console session, also known as the CTY line. A console uses a low speed
serial connection to directly connect a computer or terminal to the console port on the router or switch.

The console port is a management port that provides out-of-band access to a router. The console port is
accessible even if no networking services have been configured on the device. The console port is often used to
access a device when the networking services have not been started or have failed.

Examples of console use are:

 The initial configuration of the network device

 Disaster recovery procedures and troubleshooting where remote access is not possible
 Password recovery procedures

When a router is first placed into service, networking parameters have not been configured. Therefore, the router
cannot communicate via a network. To prepare for the initial startup and configuration, a computer running
terminal emulation software is connected to the console port of the device. Configuration commands for setting
up the router can be entered on the connected computer.

During operation, if a router cannot be accessed remotely, a connection to the console can enable a computer to
determine the status of the device. By default, the console conveys the device startup, debugging, and error
messages.

For many IOS devices, console access does not require any form of security, by default. However, the console
should be configured with passwords to prevent unauthorized device access. In the event that a password is lost,
there is a special set of procedures for bypassing the password and accessing the device. The device should be
located in a locked room or equipment rack to prevent physical access.

Telnet and SSH

A method for remotely accessing a CLI session is to telnet to the router. Unlike the console connection, Telnet
sessions require active networking services on the device. The network device must have at least one active
interface configured with a Layer 3 address, such as an IPv4 address. Cisco IOS devices include a Telnet server
process that launches when the device is started. The IOS also contains a Telnet client.

A host with a Telnet client can access the vty sessions running on the Cisco device. For security reasons, the
IOS requires that the Telnet session use a password, as a minimum authentication method. The methods for
establishing logins and passwords will be discussed in a later section.

The Secure Shell (SSH) protocol is a more secure method for remote device access. This protocol provides the
structure for a remote login similar to Telnet, except that it utilizes more secure network services.
SSH provides stronger password authentication than Telnet and uses encryption when transporting session data.
The SSH session encrypts all communications between the client and the IOS device. This keeps the user ID,
password, and the details of the management session private. As a best practice, always use SSH in place of
Telnet whenever possible.

Most newer versions of the IOS contain an SSH server. In some devices, this service is enabled by default.
Other devices require the SSH server to be enabled.

IOS devices also include an SSH client that can be used to establish SSH sessions with other devices. Similarly,
you can use a remote computer with an SSH client to start a secure CLI session. SSH client software is not
provided by default on all computer operating systems. You may need to acquire, install, and configure SSH
client software for your computer.

AUX

Another way to establish a CLI session remotely is via a telephone dialup connection using a modem connected
to the router's AUX port. Similar to the console connection, this method does not require any networking
services to be configured or available on the device.

The AUX port can also be used locally, like the console port, with a direct connection to a computer running a
terminal emulation program. The console port is required for the configuration of the router, but not all routers
have an auxiliary port. The console port is also preferred over the auxiliary port for troubleshooting because it
displays router startup, debugging, and error messages by default.

Generally, the only time the AUX port is used locally instead of the console port is when there are problems
using the console port, such as when certain console parameters are unknown.

2. Devices Need Names

The hostname is used in CLI prompts. If the hostname is not explicitly configured, a router uses the factory-
assigned default hostname "Router." A switch has a factory-assigned default hostname, "Switch." Imagine if an
internetwork had several routers that were all named with the default name "Router." This would create
considerable confusion during network configuration and maintenance.

When accessing a remote device using Telnet or SSH, it is important to have confirmation that an attachment
has been made to the proper device. If all devices were left with their default names, we could not identify that
the proper device is connected.

By choosing and documenting names wisely, it is easier to remember, discuss, and identify network devices. To
name devices in a consistent and useful way requires the establishment of a naming convention that spans the
company or, at least, the location. It is a good practice to create the naming convention at the same time as the
addressing scheme to allow for continuity within the organization.

Some guidelines for naming conventions are that names should:

 Start with a letter

 Not contain a space
 End with a letter or digit
 Have characters of only letters, digits, and dashes
 Be 63 characters or fewer
The hostnames used in the device IOS preserve capitalization and lower case characters. Therefore, it allows
you to capitalize a name as you ordinarily would. This contrasts with most Internet naming schemes, where
uppercase and lowercase characters are treated identically. RFC 1178 provides some of the rules that can be
used as a reference for device naming.

As part of the device configuration, a unique hostname should be configured for each device.

Note: Device host names are only used by administrators when they use the CLI to configure and monitor
devices. Unless configured to do so, the devices themselves do not use these names when they discover each
other and interoperate.

Applying Names - an Example

Let's use an example of three routers connected together in a network spanning three different cities (Atlanta,
Phoenix, and Corpus) as shown in the figure.

To create a naming convention for routers, take into consideration the location and the purpose of the devices.
Ask yourself questions such as these: Will these routers be part of an organization's headquarters? Does each
router have a different purpose? For example, is the Atlanta router a primary junction point in the network or is
it one junction in a chain?

In this example, we will identify each router as a branch headquarters for each city. The names could be
AtlantaHQ, PhoenixHQ, and CorpusHQ. Had each router been a junction in a successive chain, the names could
be AtlantaJunction1, PhoenixJunction2, and CorpusJunction3.

In the network documentation, we would include these names, and the reasons for choosing them, to ensure
continuity in our naming convention as devices are added.

Once the naming convention has been identified, the next step is to apply the names to the router using the CLI.
This example will walk us through the naming of the Atlanta router.

Configure IOS Hostname

From the privileged EXEC mode, access the global configuration mode by entering the configure terminal
command:

Router# configure terminal

After the command is executed, the prompt will change to:

Router(config)#

In the global mode, enter the hostname:

Router(config)# hostname AtlantaHQ

After the command is executed, the prompt will change to:

AtlantaHQ(config)#

Notice that the hostname appears in the prompt. To exit global mode, use the exit command.

Always make sure that your documentation is updated each time a device is added or modified. Identify devices
in the documentation by their location, purpose, and address.

Note: To negate the effects of a command, preface the command with the no keyword.

For example, to remove the name of a device, use:

AtlantaHQ(config)# no hostname

Router(config)#

Notice that the no hostname command caused the router to revert to the default hostname of "Router."

1. How and where computers are used?

Computers play an increasingly important and nearly indispensable role in everyday life.

Computers are used all over the world and in all types of environments. They are used in businesses,
manufacturing environments, homes, government offices and non-profit organizations. Schools use computers
for instruction and for maintaining student records. Hospitals use computers to maintain patient records and to
provide medical care.

In addition to these types of computers, there are also many customized computers designed for specific
purposes. These computers can be integrated into devices such as televisions, cash registers, sound systems, and
other electronic devices. They can even be found embedded in appliances such as stoves and refrigerators and
used in automobiles, and aircraft.

Where are computers found within your environment?

 Tvrtke (računovodstvo, kontrola proizvoda, proizvodnja i prodaja)

 Kuća (igre, enciklopedija, kućne financije)
 Vlada (stanje populacije, upravljanje proračunom, javni podatci)
 Škole (učenje i pregled školovanja)
 Neprofitabilne ustanove (Crkva) (pregled članova i slanje newsletter-a elektoničkom poštom)
 Auto industrija (proizvodnja automobile uz nadzor i upravljanje računalom)
 Bankomati (ATM) (Pristup bankovnim novčanim uslugama uz identifikaciju)
Computers are used for many reasons and in many different places. They may be of different sizes and
processing power, but all computers have some features in common. In order for most computers to perform
useful functions, there are three things that have to work together:

1. Hardware - the physical components, both internal and external, that make up a computer.

2. Operating System - a set of computer programs that manages the hardware of a computer. An operating
system controls the resources on a computer, including memory and disk storage. An example of an operating
system is Windows 7.

3. Application Software - programs loaded on the computer to perform a specific function using the
capabilities of the computer. An example of application software is a word processor or a computer game.

2. Classes of Computers

There are many different types of computers available including:

 Mainframes
 Servers
 Desktops
 Workstations
 Laptops
 Hand-held portable devices

Each type of computer has been designed with a particular purpose in mind, such as portable access to
information, processing of detailed graphics, and so on.

The most common types of computers used in homes and businesses are servers, workstations, desktops, laptops
and other portable devices. Mainframes, on the other hand, are large centralized computers found in sizeable
enterprises and purchased through specialized resellers.

3. Representing Information Digitally

Within a computer, information is represented and stored in a digital binary format. The term bit is an
abbreviation of binary digit and represents the smallest piece of data. Humans interpret words and pictures;
computers interpret only patterns of bits.

A bit can have only two possible values, a one digit (1) or a zero digit (0). A bit can be used to represent the
state of something that has two states. For example, a light switch can be either On or Off; in binary
representation, these states would correspond to 1 and 0 respectively.

Computers use binary codes to represent and interpret letters, numbers and special characters with bits. A
commonly used code is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). With ASCII, each
character is represented by a string of bits. For example:

Capital letter: A = 01000001

Number: 9 = 00111001

Special character: # = 00100011

Each group of eight bits, such as the representations of letters and numbers, is known as a byte.

Codes can be used to represent almost any type of information digitally: computer data, graphics, photos, voice,
video and music.

4. Computer Systemp

There are many types of computers. What makes one computer better suited to play a new game or play a new
audio file over another? The answer is the components and peripherals that make up the computer system.

The requirements for a machine dedicated mainly to word processing are very different than one designed for
graphics applications or gaming. It is important to determine the intended uses for a computer before deciding
on the type of computer and components to purchase.

Many manufacturers mass produce computer systems and sell them either through direct marketing or retail
chains. These computer systems are designed to function well for a variety of tasks. There are also a number of
vendors that can custom assemble computer systems to the end-user's specifications. There are advantages and
disadvantages for both.

Preassembled Computer

Advantages:

 Lower cost
 Adequate to perform most applications
 No waiting period for assembly
 Typically used by less knowledgeable consumers who do not require special needs

Disadvantages:

 Often lack the performance level that can be obtained from custom built computers

Custom Built Computer

Advantages:

 The end-user can specify exact components that meet user needs
 Generally support higher performance applications such as graphics, gaming, and server applications

Disadvantages:

 Generally more costly than a preassembled device

 Longer waiting periods for assembly

It is also possible to purchase the individual parts and component of a computer and build it. Regardless of the
decision to buy a preassembled or custom built system or build it, the final product must match the requirements
of the end user. Some of the items to consider when purchasing a computer include: the motherboard, processor,
RAM, storage, adapter cards, as well as the case and power options.