HYPERLOOP

Challenges Running
at Top Speed

1
FOREWORD

In 2013, Elon Musk launched the Hyperloop concept, an ultra-high-

speed terrestrial means of transportation by tube. Academics and
engineers around the world have followed the entrepreneur's lead and
started developing their own tube-based transport projects.

The flurry of R&D and investment in new ultra-high-speed guided

transport systems based on Hyperloop Alpha has led Leonard,
VINCI's foresight and innovation platform, to prepare this new
Emerging Trends report, which reviews and debates the opportunities
and challenges of this next-generation mode of transport.

Non-conventional low-speed systems (MGV, shuttles and magnetic

levitation metros) or the least accomplished ones (Skyway) have been
deliberately excluded from this study.

Paris, May 2021

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – HYPERLOOP

I. Futuristic… and already a hundred! 4 IV. Rising to Challenges 76

• Magnetically Yours 6 • An Unfavourable Context 77
• With or Without Air 15 • Topography Leads to Extra Costs 81
• SwissMetro: A Hyperloop in 1992 20 • Crucial Technical Mastery 86
• Elon Musk 26 • Safety Determines Regulations 96
• Which Challenges to Keep Its Promise? 29 • Economic and Energetic Relevance 101
• A Hyperloop for Freight 108

II. The Hyperloop Alpha Concept 32

V. A Future for Hyperloop? 111

III. Real-Life Hyperloop 42

• Virgin Hyperloop 49
• Transpod 53
• Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT) 58
• Hardt Hyperloop 62
• Zeleros 66
• Nevomo 72

3
HYPERLOOP

THE TRANSPORT OF THE FUTURE…

HAS JUST TURNED A HUNDRED!
A system birthed a century ago has been
granted a new lease of life

4
 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

WHAT IS HYPERLOOP ?
Friction causes objects to slow down. To increase speed,
it is therefore preferable to reduce, or even eliminate friction.
To achieve this, a vehicle, called a capsule or pod, is placed
inside a tube with reduced air pressure and moves forward within
this tube.

In extreme cases, it is preferable to create a vacuum in order

to eliminate compression issues in the front of the vehicle.
This idea has been on the table since the nineteenth century,
but up until now, it has come up against technological readiness
and investment issues.

In 2013, Elon Musk associated his name with this transport system,
and coined the term Hyperloop Alpha. He therefore relaunched
the idea and announced that the system would allow users to travel
from Los Angeles to San Francisco (550 km) in 30 minutes,
for a provisional cost of 5.1 billion euros. However, SpaceX creator
Elon Musk has chosen not to develop Hyperloop himself.

5
Hyperloop

The Transport of the Future… has just turned a Hundred!

MAGNETICALLY YOURS
For more than a century, research has been undertaken to create a mode
of transport without contact, propelled by a magnetic field.

6
 FUTURISTE… ET DÉJÀ CENTENAIRE !

IN 1914, ÉMILE BACHELET BUILT A DEMONSTRATOR

FOR THE FIRST EVER “MAGNETIC LEVITATION TRAIN”.
SINCE THEN, ENGINEERS HAVE DREAMT OF REACHING 1,000 KM/H.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

MAGNETIC LEVIATION IS STILL AN EXCEPTION TO THE RULE

50 years of experiments 6 lines, 77 km in total 603 km/h

First prototype in Germany, 6 lines with magnetic levitation In 2015, a Japanese Maglev L0
1970 (Transrapid 01), provide commercial service. series reached 603 km/h.
and then in 1972, in Japan They are not all designed This is 4,4% faster than the
(Maglev ML100). for high-speed travel. French TGV.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

THE GERMAN TRANSRAPID

IS ADOPTED BY THE CHINESE
In 1979, the Transrapid 05 was the first ever train with magnetic
levitation to carry passengers. However, its considered
Berlin-Hamburg line never saw the day because of prohibitive cost.
The only Transprapid line currently in service is a shuttle between
Shanghai and Pudong airport (30 km) - this Transrapid reaches
501 km/h (431 km/h under normal service conditions).

Launched in 2002, this German technology, assembled in China,

has allowed Chinse industry to claim the technology as their own.
It has since been transferred to CRRC by Siemens
and ThyssenKrupp.

The Transrapid airport shuttle in Shanghai is constantly in deficit.

Its average load factor stands at 20%. This is partially explained
by the relative lack of commodities of the line which does not
travel directly to the town centre.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

THE MAGLEV HALVES RAIL TRANSIT TIME

The Japanese Maglev (JR-Maglev, alias SCMaglev) relies on a technique which uses superconductors. The forces lifting the vehicle
are also those that enable it to move forward and keep it in the centre of the track. In 2009, a decision was taken to build a Maglev linking
Tokyo to Nagoya, two cities separated by 258 km, which could be connected in 40 minutes, or twice as quickly as with the high-speed
train already in service. This 286 km line would include 256.6 km of tunnels and 11.3 km of viaducts and would cost some 55 billion
dollars. It would feature 16 carriage units (1,000 passengers) – it is scheduled to open in 2027. JR have also considered extending the line
to Osaka, (403 km from Tokyo) by 2025.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

EMS OR EDS? A DECISIVE TECHNOLOGICAL CHOICE

Transrapid JR-Maglev (SCMaglev)

The Shanghai Transrapid uses The JR-Maglev uses Larger trains/line distances are
electromagnetic suspension (EMS). electrodynamic suspension (EDS). necessary for very high speeds.
To lift the train, passive magnetic Magnets (superconductor or The main disadvantages of this
materials are placed beneath the permanent) are placed inside the technology, besides construction
line, and electromagnets facing vehicle, which creates currents, and running costs (the
upwards are secured to the train. induced in coils (integrated into superconductor magnets must be
This is why the vehicle comes right the line panels), as the vehicle cooled at a very low temperature),
up to the sides of the track. Unlike passes by them. The result creates are the safety risks linked to a
electrodynamic systems, the an electromagnetic field which potential exposure of passengers
Transrapid operates permanently at interacts with that of the train, to magnetic fields. The system
top speed and does not require a thus making it levitate and does not guarantee levitation at
lower speed “landing train” - this propelling it forward. The low speeds. It is therefore
facilitates the construction of the advantage of superconductivity is necessary to ass wheels to the
lines. that is allows for stronger train for operation at lower speed.
magnetic fields.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

CRRC HAS ENTERED THE RACE

China Railway Rolling Stock Corporation (CRRC) is a Chinese state

company which has become the world’s largest constructor of rail
equipment.

In 2016, CRRC announced it intended to create a train running with

magnetic levitation capable of exceeding 600 km/h, a speed
already reached by the Japanese Maglev. A life-size model of the
new train was presented in 2019.

Separated by 1,300 km, Shanghai and Beijing are already connected

by a high-speed train. Magnetic levitation should allow this journey
to be reduced from 4 to 2 hours.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS OF MAGNETIC LEVITATION

Cost of a fully equipped line is notably higher

than that of a high-speed train line

Speed at maximum and cruise levels greater Problems of electromagnetic compatibility

than that of a high-speed train with other neighbouring electronic devices

Risk of derailment is theoretically absent Possible effects of electromagnetic fields on the health of users

Reduced noise pollution Incompatibility of magnetic levitation

with the transport of heavy goods

Energy consumption twice as high as high-speed rail

Incompatibility with traditional train networks

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

A FUTURE FOR OPEN-AIR MAGNETIC

LEVITATION
The Hyperloop announcement has not affected large open-air magnetic
levitation schemes launched before or after this event

In the result of research and tests undertaken over half a century, open air
magnetic levitation proves to be capable of reaching 600 km/h. Aerodynamics
create an increase close to the highest possible speed for a mainline plane
flying at a low altitude.
From Beijing to Shanghai, or along the Tokyo-Nagoya-Kyoto axis, new lines
with magnetic levitation are set to split travel time in half, compared to that of
high-speed train lines already in service.
The circulation in a low air pressure tube further reduces aerodynamic
constraints, but adds issues linked to creating and maintaining a total or partial
vacuum.
These are numerous and complex. The space sector already deals with some of
these issues.

14
Hyperloop

The Transport of the Future… has just turned a Hundred!

WITH OR WITHOUT AIR ?

By definition, the air around us opposes a resistance to movement, yet certain
technologies try to utilize this phenomenon to their advantage, using it like
a cushion that eliminates friction and isolates it from the vehicle’s guiding
equipment. From “Vactrain” depression systems to the Aerotrain, Hyperloop
Alpha integrates ideas which have already been explored.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

HYPERLOOP IS THE SUCCESSOR OF “VACTRAINS”

THAT RUN INSIDE A TUBE CONTAINING LOW-PRESSURE AIR

The idea of lowering pressure in a tube to move Created to connect the American coasts, the project Hyperloop projects are presented in a transparent tube
a vehicle forward appeared in the nineteenth was rumoured to be faster than the plane. whose cost could penalise the project.
century.

Levitation and propulsion of the capsule can rely Without a frontal compressor or vacuum, the tube If the air in the tube is close to a vacuum, the most
on magnetic systems alone. section would have to be much larger than the vehicle. ambitious projects could reach 4,000 km/h.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

SIMPLE AND EFFICIENT:

AIR CUSION LEVITATION
Pioneered in 1965 430 km/h
Jean Bertin’s Aérotrain is Equipped with a reactor, the
guided by a line shaped like Aérotrain I80 reached
an inverted T. The train 430 km/h in 1974.
levitates above the line
using an air cushion and it
is driven by a motor and
propeller.

The use of an air cushion An alternative to

The air cushion eliminates magnetic levitation
friction and allows the In a tube where a vacuum is
vehicle to glide over a “partial”, the residual air
surface. This works over would allow the generation
water (Hovercraft, of an air cushion beneath
Naviplane), land the vehicle, according to
(Terraplane) and with Elon Musk’s blueprint. This
guided transport (Aérotrain). is a much more cost-
effective solution than
magnetic levitation.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

Travelling at top speed,

yet incompatible
with train networks,
the Aérotrain was
shelved in 1974
and replaced
with high-speed electric
TGV trains after the first
oil crisis.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

The Spacetrain project also used the Aérotrain’s air cushion and inverted T-line systems,
to which it added linear induction motors that could reach 540 km/h.

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Hyperloop

The Transport of the Future… has just turned a Hundred!

SWISSMETRO:
A HYPERLOOP IN 1992
Close to current Hyperloop projects, SwissMetro was nonetheless
developed in the early 90s, but finally judged impossible to operate
in the foreseeable future.

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FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

TWENTY YEARS BEFORE HYPERLOOP,

ITS PRINCIPLES WERE RESEARCHED BY SWISSMETRO

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

WITH SWISSMETRO, SWITZERLAND COULD HAVE BECOME A VILLAGE

In the early 70s, Rodolphe Nieth launched the SwissMetro project. Supported on a scientific level by École polytechnique fédérale
de Lausanne (EPFL), a preliminary study was funded by the Swiss Confederation as well as private companies. It was completed in March
1993. From 1992 onwards, the Swissmetro SA was founded, gathering the necessary financial support for a more detailed study.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

Contact-free Energy
Transport System
SwissMetro
20 years
Tunnel Coating

Linear Motor
and Guiding Inductors

Levitation Inductors

Air Vacuum Panel

of research
inside Tunnel

Sidewalk for Emergency

Evacuation

Emergency Guiding
and Brake System

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

SWISSMETRO
TECHNOLOGY AND OPERATION

500 km/h transport in a tube where pressure has been lowered

to that met by a Concorde flying at an altitude of 18 000 m.
600 km/h could be reached, according to a simulation.
Installation underground, with stations placed beneath existing
train stations.
Attractivity which incited the development of this transport
with a view to replacing individual cars
Innovative exploitation with a determined frequency, allowing
for a fixed interstation schedule time (12 minutes), irrespective Cross-section diagram of two proposed tunnels with vehicles
of distance between stations (48 to 130 km). This imposes a strong
Proposal A (Engine inside tunnel) Proposal B (On-board motor)
variation of maximum speeds between sections.
A1 = Induction energy transmission B1 = Induction energy transmission
Vehicles of 80 m weighing 50 tons for 208 seats, A2 = Linear motors attached to the tunnel B2 = Linear on-board motors
or possibly, 130 metres, 85 tons and 416 seats. A3 = Guiding inductor B3 = Guiding inductor
A4 = Levitation inductor B4 = Levitation inductor

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FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

SwissMetro declared the project unfeasible

in the foreseeable future
In November 2009, the SwissMetro SA board of directors concluded that the project
for an underground magnetic levitation train was not feasible in keeping
with the agreed deadline. At the time, Pierre Triponez, president of SwissMetro SA,
declared: “We would not be so far from achieving SwissMetro if an investor had
pitched in. Yet up until now, the authorities are waiting for a sign from the economic
sector and vice versa. One cannot speak of the death of SwissMetro,
since the project never saw the light of day”. With the dissolution of SwissMetro SA,
the rights to the project have been transferred to EPFL who are now working
on a Hyperloop. SwissMetro only raised 11 million Swiss francs of investment
for its research, half of which was allocated by the Swiss Confederation.
The Pro SwissMetro organisation does not share the analysis of the board of
directors and considers that in the mid term, the project could still be up and
running.

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Hyperloop

The Transport of the Future… has just turned a Hundred!

ELON MUSK
The entrepreneur has become the mentor of Hyperloop.

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FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

ELON MUSK
A Prolific Entrepreneur
Elon Musk is a company director born in 1971, in South Africa,
and granted American citizenship in 2002. He is often presented
as the creator of Paypal and Tesla, though in reality, he purchased
and developed these companies. He did, however, create SpaceX
and Neuralink, amongst others - companies with surprising
ambitions. Elon Musk has plans which are visionary for some,
and unrealistic according to others, like, for example, his tweets
announcing the creation of a human colony on Mars
with a million inhabitants between now and 2050.
Initiator of the Hyperloop Dynamic
In August 2013, Elon Musk distributed the Hyperloop Alpha
Concept paper detailing his vision of transport powered by a linear
motor, in a tube where air is maintained under low pressure.
The entrepreneur has organised competitions to foster initiative
among companies willing to develop a Hyperloop. However, Elon
Musk has not directly taken part in creating a Hyperloop. Despite
incomplete research, he has announced that this system would
cost ten times less than a potential high speed trainline running
between Los Angeles and San Francisco.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

Why hasn’t Elon Musk protected

Hyperloop?
The concept is difficult to protect since it is adapted
from SwissMetro guiding principles.

Why hasn’t Elon Musk

invested in Hyperloop?
To date, it seems more secure for Elon Musk
to position himself theoretically, than for him to invest
massively in the first commercial Hyperloop line,
whose costs may be high and whose operating fees
are still uncertain.

What is Elon Musks’s

Hyperloop strategy?
He communicates and acts as a “prophet”. If one
of his projects is crowned with success, Elon Musk
will leave his mark on history. As he has already
become immensely successful, he would like to leave
the Hyperloop project to others.
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Hyperloop

A futuristic mode of transport… has just turned a hundred!

WHICH CHALLENGES ARE INTEGRAL

TO KEEPING THE HYPERLOOP PROMISE?
Though incompatible with existing infrastructures,
Hyperloop promises very high speeds,
though many obstacles still remain.

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

Magnetic Levitation in a Vacuum

(Hyperlooop)

Air Travel
Speed:
Magnetic Levitation
the
Hyperloop
in the Atmosphere

High-Speed Train - Established Technology

Promise
Implied Increase in Running Costs

High-Speed Commercial Train €

Currently in Service

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 km/h

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 FUTURISTIC… AND ALREADY A HUNDRED!

Up to 1,100 km/h Infrastructure costs

To fully exploit its potential, Hyperloop must Hypothetical,
connect town centres. Partly depends on regional topography.

Decarbonised Transport Safety

Using genuinely green electricity. Objectives are not unattainable
But could prove costly.

Interoperability Uncertain Context

To date, the players on the market are not Future health crises,
working on common technology. international tensions.

31
 THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA CONCEPT

HYPERLOOP

THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA

CONCEPT
A detonator triggered by Elon Musk

32
 THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA CONCEPT

ELON MUSK FOSTERS INNOVATION

August 2013 All the projects triggered by the original document are quite
different to its initial description, yet they all use the name
Elon Musk, supported by his Tesla and SpaceX teams, brings
created by Elon Musk: Hyperloop.
out a “concept paper” of 57 pages.
The is no Hyperloop project funded or managed directly
It describes a transport system combining a tube placed
by Elon Musk, but not one Hyperloop creator, whatever their
under low pressure, motorisation using a linear motor
advancement, is as well-known as Musk. Though he is
and levitation with an air cushion, which could potentially
content to foster emulation between the entrepreneurs
be replaced by magnetic levitation.
engaged in this adventure, his name will forever
This description is reasonably detailed, yet completely elliptic be associated with Hyperloop.
when it comes to certain points. However, it announces very
As described in the 2013 document, the system is called
precise establishment costs. Elon Musk compared Hyperloop
Hyperloop Alpha. Elon Musk considered it as a faster cost-
to Linux and has presented it in an “open source” manner
effective alternative to a high-speed trainline, that could be
to the scientific community, so that anyone may contribute
set up between Los Angeles and San Francisco.
to its development.

33
 THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA CONCEPT

CREATING A VACUUM IS TOO COSTLY

Air pressure analogue Exploiting residual air

to that found at an altitude As air must be maintained
of 45,000 metres in the tube, Hyperloop Alpha
A complete vacuum is difficult exploits this fact and eliminates
to create and maintain friction thanks to an air
in a tube several kilometres cushion. It is created
long, so Hyperloop Alpha by on-board compressed air,
has opted for very low as soon as the vehicle has
pressure instead. Reduced reached sufficient speed, but
to 100 pascals, pressure also through the evacuation,
in the tubes is a thousand under the vehicle, of air moved
times lower than the average by a frontal compressor.
atmospheric pressure
at sea level. This reduces Costlier alternatives
the aerodynamic drag Magnetic levitation is an
by just as much. alternative to the air cushion
mentioned in association
with Hyperloop Alpha,
but would have a strong
impact on cost.

34
 THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA CONCEPT

PARALLEL TUBES, ONE PER DIRECTION,

PLACED ON PYLONS 30 METERS APART,
ARE COVERED IN PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS.

35
 THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA CONCEPT

Hyperloop Alpha goes beyond the Kantrowitz Limit

When a vehicle moves quickly though a tube, the presence of air, even under low pressure, means that a space must be
preserved between the said vehicle and the edges of the tube, according to a ratio defined by the Kantrowitz Limit.
To break this speed limit, Hyperloop Alpha has equipped its capsule with a compressor at the front of the vehicle.
Blowing air out behind the capsule by making this air pass under it, the compressor works using an on-board battery.
When doubled, it ensures 45 minutes of functioning and is replaced during stops in stations.

36
 THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA CONCEPT

HYPERLOOP ALPHA HAS BEEN CREATED FOR DISTANCES OF UP TO 1,500 KM

37
 THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA CONCEPT

CAUGHT BETWEEN PERFORMANCE

AND COST REDUCTION
Speed (km/h)

1 g of longitudinal 28 passengers
1120
acceleration per capsule
Placed every 100 km, Each Hyperloop Alpha
the linear motors capsule has a width
890
of the Hyperloop Alpha of 1.35 m with a frontal
are only installed on 1% surface area of 1.4 m2.
of the total length Capsules adapted
480 of tubes. They guarantee to the transport of cars
vehicle acceleration would raise establishment
and deceleration. costs by 25%.
A departure Mach 0.91
Journey Time
every 2 minutes Hyperloop Alpha predicts
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 (seconds)
With 30 departures an hour a maximum speed
Los Angeles San Francisco
of 28-seater capsules, this of 1,120 km/h – a speed
system could accommodate situated in the higher
840 passengers per hour subsonic range.
and per direction.

38
 THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA CONCEPT

ACCELERATION IS PART OF THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA EXPERIENCE

By withstanding a lateral acceleration of 0.5 g, Hyperloop Alpha has determined a minimal radius for its curves – according to the speed
considered – of 3.67 km at 480 km/h, 12.6 km at 890 km/h and 23.5 km at 1,120 km/h.

39
 THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA CONCEPT

HYPERLOOP ALPHA LEAVES QUESTIONS HANGINIG

Managing capsule gyroscopic movement Assistance in the event of a capsule

immobilised inside a tube, with fire or smoke
Aligning the rotor of the linear motor
emanating from the on-board battery
with the corresponding stator
of the infrastructure when they come Evaluation of magnetic levitation –
together, at intervals of 100 km costs and demand

Conception of stations and buffers between Realisation of small-scale prototypes

partial vacuum zones and the open air for the evaluation of physical issues

Conception of signalling Genuine interest in the system compared

to existing rail and plane offers, if the stations
Maintenance of infrastructure
are located outside of urban centres and must
and capsules
be accessed on the periphery, like airports.

40
 THE HYPERLOOP ALPHA CONCEPT

ELON MUSK ESTABLISHED THE NAME HYPERLOOP.

IT HAS BEEN ADOPTED BY A FAMILY OF PROJECTS
INCLUDING THOSE IN THE ACADEMIC WORLD.

41
HYPERLOOP

REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP
Start-ups or academia:
everyone is rolling up their sleeves

42
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

WHO SHALL CREATE THE FIRST HYPERLOOP ?

43
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

SIX COMPANIES ARE LEADING THE WAY

Three out of six are European

Among the six companies developing the main

Hyperloop projects, three are European: Hardt
450 M€
Hyperloop (Netherlands), Nevomo (Poland)
and Zeleros (Spain). Since 2013, Hyperloop projects have received
450 million euros in funding. The majority
Two have entities located in France comes from the private sector.

Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT) To date, the most relevant players seem
has an R&D centre and test strip of 330 m near to be Virgin Hyperloop One (VHO), Transpod,
Toulouse. Transpod has its offices in Limoges Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT)
and has built a test strip of 3 km to the scale and Hardt. These four firms have benefitted
of 1:2 in the surrounding area. from the largest sums.

44
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

HYPERLOOP INVESTMENT AND ACHIEVEMENTS

Headquarters Commercial Funding

and Offices Test Strip Discussions Staff (Euros)

USA (California), Las Vegas: 500m, 1:1 scale USA, UK,

290 340M
Dubai, London Canada, Ireland, Mexico

Limoges: 3km, 1:2 scale

Canada, Canada, France,
Beginning of the construction: 2020/2021 20 46M
Limoges, Paris Saudi Arabia, USA, Australia
Edmonton: 1:1 scale
USA (California), Toulouse: 330m USA, UAE, Spain, France, Brazil, 50 employees
Barcelona, Dubai, Abu Dhabi: 5km China, South Korea, India, Indonesia, 500 contributors 30M
São Paulo, Toulouse (planned in 2021) Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine & consultants

Grönignen Province: 3km Europe, South Korea, 26

Netherlands UAE, Japan, Turkey 15M
(planned for 2022)

Spain: 2-3km
Spain (planned for 2021 or 2022, Spain 23 7M
incomplete as of April 2021)
48m, 1:5 scale
Poland, Berlin Life-size model expected mid-2021 Poland 33 5M

45
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

Expected Concentration
In the long term, a consolidation
of the sector is probable around
one or two major players.
The search for interoperability
shall contribute
to this concentration.

46
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

TECHNOLOGIES OF THE MAIN HYPERLOOP PROJECTS

Technology Readiness Levitation

Level (TRL) High speed/Low speed Propulsion Power and Supply Infrastructure

6/9 Electromagnetic Levitation

Electromagnetic Linear Motor Electricity Low Pressure Tube (100Pa)
Lower rail at low speed

Electricity
Electromagnetic Suspension (Attraction) Low Pressure Tube (100Pa)
5/9 Electromagnetic Linear Motor Speed plasma arc for high speed
Top and bottom rail Conductible Steel
and rail (using a shoe) for low speed

Low Pressure Tube (100Pa)

Passive Magnetic Levitation Electricity Diameter: 13ft (about 4m)
6/9 for high speed Electromagnetic Linear Motor Energy recuperated when breaking Height of Pylon: 20ft (about 6m)
Wheels for low speed
Conductible Line

Electromagnetic Suspension Network junctions work

6/9 Electricity
Upper rail Electromagnetic Linear Motor as access and exit ramps
Energy recuperated when breaking
No wheels at low speed towards road network

Tube diameter: 4m
3/9 Passive Levitation Technology Compressed Air Propulsion Electricity. Pressure > 100Pa
Lower rail Battery fueled propulsion (according to Zeleros)

Magnetic Levitation Electricity Magnetic Levitation

3/9 on existing high-speed rail: Magrail Electromagnetic Linear Motor on existing high-speed rail: Magrail
Lower rail Lower rail

47
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

UNIVERSITES AND START-UPS ARE PART OF THE HYPERLOOP DYNAMIC

48
Hyperloop

Turning Hyperloop into a Reality

VIRGIN HYPERLOOP
(EX-HYPERLOOP ONE)
Virgin Hyperloop is currently pushing the most advanced proposal
when it comes to developing Hyperloop.

49
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

VIRGIN HYPERLOOP IS THE FIRST TO WELCOME PASSENGERS ON BOARD

Tests on a real-life scale

Virgin Hyperloop has built a test strip to a real-life scale,
to test and validate its subsystems - propulsion,
levitation, electronic supply and brakes.

First passengers
To date, the Virgin demonstrator is the only one which
has carried people (members of the team). This maiden
voyage took place on October 8th 2020, covering 500 m
and reaching 172 km/h. There is still a lot of work to do
for this model to be ready for the commercial
establishment of a viable line with a speed of over
1,000 km/h.

The capacity to attract funding

Out of the 443 M€ raised by the sector, Virgin
Hyperloop has garnered 340 M€, or more than three
quarters of total investments in Hyperloop projects.

50
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

THESE PASSENGERS ARE THE FIRST TO EVER TRAVEL BY HYPERLOOP

51
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

PASSENGERS FIRST, THEN FREIGHT, FOR VIRGIN HYPERLOOP

Virgin Hyperloop plans the construction of a new experimental strip of 11 km. Their commercial objective seems
to make passengers a priority, but the potential of freight is not to be neglected. The economic model could consist
in sales of licences or a direct commercialisation of the service to end users.

52
Hyperloop

Turning Hyperloop into a Reality

TRANSPOD
This Canadian company plans to build
a prototype near Limoges, then another in Canada.

53
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

Technical Features
Transpod
This mode of energy transmission is made
up of a brake shoe operating at lower speeds
and a plasma arc to reach higher ones.
The vehicle is equipped with a wheel/electric
motor combination for acceleration and
deceleration phases, and use linear engines
for cruising.

54
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

EACH TRANSPOD CAPSULE COULD CONTAIN UP TO

100 PASSENGERS OR 10 TO 15 TONS OF FREIGHT.

55
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

Transpod estimates
line construction costs
at 27 M€/km

56
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

An economic model in two stages

In the short term, Transpod would like to licence its technology, sell its vehicles and be a minority shareholder of future
corridors using TransPod technology.
In the long term, Transpod could also handle upkeep and maintenance for the entire system.

57
Hyperloop

Turning Hyperloop into a Reality

HYPERLOOP TT
This American company has set up its R&D centre in Toulouse.

58
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

A tube
on a real-life scale is
ready for action
Hyperloop Transportation
Technologies (HTT) have
undertaken tests with capsules
on a reduced scale and are now
focusing on systems to manage
pressure inside the tube.
The capsules could welcome
between 28 and 50 people
and the system should be
capable of transporting
160,000 passengers per day.

59
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

AFTER TOULOUSE, A LAUNCH STRIP IS PLANNED IN ABU DHABI

Inductrack Patent
Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT)
have opted for passive electromagnetic levitation.
This is derived from the Inductrak patent developed
in the 1990s.

Commercialisation of licences
Their economic model is based on an offer of licences
destined for transport operators, and the construction
of running equipment.

Test Strip
A 5 km launch strip is planned in Abu Dhabi
for a budget of 138 M€.

60
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

Brazil, China, South Korea,

the UAE, France, India,
Indonesia, Slovakia, the
Czech Republic, the
Ukraine, the USA…

Hyperloop TT already
plans to install lines
in over 10 countries

61
Hyperloop

Turning Hyperloop into a Reality

HARDT HYPERLOOP
The Dutch start-up Hardt Hyperloop was originally a student project.

62
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

THE HARDT HYPERLOOP FOUNDERS

WON A COMPETITION ORGANISED BY SPACE X IN 2017
Hardt Hyperloop accelerated its development by raising 15 million Euros in private and public funds. The company is leading a working
group on European standards dedicated to Hyperloop, and they aim to build a European centre for Hyperloop trials in the Netherlands.
Low-speed tests have been performed regarding levitation, propulsion, switching lines and the creation of a vacuum.

63
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

FREIGHT FIRST FOR HARDT

To begin with, Hardt Hyperloop plans to transport freight.

The Hardt economic model is based on an offer that includes
An initial route, dubbed the “Route of flowers” could link
the technology licences and system maintenance services.
Amsterdam to Rotterdam. Capsules are to move within tubes
It is aimed at transport operators.
with a diameter of 1.10 m, at a cruise speed of 150 km/h,
and a capacity of 1.125 t. With a frequency of 15 capsules Hardt Hyperloop has launched a feasibility study
per minute and direction, transport capacity could reach in partnership with Amsterdam-Schiphol airport.
1012.5 t/h - the payload of 40 tractor-trailers. This consists in implanting a Hyperloop system in the airport
so as to reenforce its position as a European air hub.
Passenger transport could be considered at a later date.
The result is a project for a network of 2 200 km in length
The capacity of a capsule would be of 60 persons, at an
with 18 stations spread out over five different countries
average speed of 700 km/h. The system could therefore
(Germany, Belgium, France, the Netherlands and the UK).
transport up to 20,000 passengers per hour per direction.
This Hyperloop would therefore replace current offers
Hardt Hyperloop announced that their vehicle should
in the field of short-haul flights and transport 12 passengers
consume 38 Wh per passenger and per kilometre, at
by 2050. Hardt Hyperloop estimates that its system
700 km/h and at 60 % of its load. The construction costs of
will reach its operational stage in 2028.
their solution are estimated at 30 M€/km, including vehicles.

64
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

The Hardt system

includes permanent
magnets which
prevent the use
of low-speed rail.
Its infrastructure
allows for the
switching of lines.

65
Hyperloop

Turning Hyperloop into a Reality

ZELEROS
In 2016, this Spanish start-up took part in a Hyperloop competition organised
by Space X and was awarded the “Top Design Concept” and “Propulsion /
Compression Subsystem Technical Excellence” prizes. That same year, Altran
began to invest in its capital.

66
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

Zeleros are not trying to reach

complete vacuum
At around 50 hPa, the pressure
in the Zeleros is above that announced
by the competition.
It is analogue to that of an airplane flying
at an altitude of 20,000 metres.
This approach, pioneered by SwissMetro,
benefits from lower maintenance
and running costs.

67
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

Inside the Zeleros tube,

a lower rail guides
the vehicle and can
make it roll to one side
in the event
of an emergency.

68
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

THE ZELEROS CAPSULE IS PROPULSED BY A LINEAR MOTOR

FOR ACCELERATION AND BY A TURBINE AT CRUISE SPEED.

69
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

While Hyperloop Alpha directs air flow

beneath the capsule to keep the engine running,
Zeleros passes it over the top of the capsule.

70
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

ZELEROS FOCUSES ON FREIGHT

The Zeleros team have performed tests and are now working on:
Sub-system optimization
Propulsion and levitation development
Vehicle conception
Patent filing

After the construction of a prototype to the scale of 1:3, Zeleros

is considering an initial line of freight for 2023, a date which
does not seem entirely realistic.

According to Zeleros, the CAPEX investment of their solution would

come to 20 M€/km and their vehicle would carry about fifty
passengers.

The economic model rests on the sale of their technologies taking

the form of licenses to future transport operators.

71
Hyperloop

Turning Hyperloop into a Reality

NEVOMO
(EX-HYPER POLAND)
This new Polish company is using an evolution of the traditional rail system
to create a Hyperloop in three stages.

72
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

TWO INTERMEDIARY STAGES

IN BUILDING A HYPERLOOP WITH NEVOMO (EX-HYPER POLAND)

The Magrail hybrid Hyperrail Hyperloop

Electromagnetic shuttles and Evolution of the Magrail. This stage requires technologies
classic trains share the same track. the vehicle is now placed inside dedicated to the construction
Magrail is aiming for 415 km/h a low-pressure tube of new infrastructures.
on high-speed lines. Rail signalling located above train lines
has yet to be validated. and reaching 1,000 km/h.

73
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

A miniature Magrail is already

up and running
Nevomo has performed tests
on a Magrail to the scale of 1:5
on a 48-metre strip.
Many of its features have been tested
with success - passive levitation, linear
pull, data communication, acquisition
elements and general mechanics.

Nevomo estimates that a life-size

prototype of the Magrail could be
developed by 2021. The certification
of the system may be granted between
2022 and 2023. No roadmap has yet
been arranged for the following stages
(Hyperrail, Hyperloop).

74
 REAL-LIFE HYPERLOOP

NEVOMO : REPURCHASING AS AN OBJECTIVE

The economic model considered is founded on licences sold to rail constructors.

In the long term, Nevomo would like to be acquired by a company with worldwide experience in the rail sector.

75
HYPERLOOP

RISING TO CHALLENGES
A question of means

76
Hyperloop

Rising to Challenges

The health crisis has led to an unprecedented decrease in passenger transport.

77
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

FIGURES FOR TRANSPORT IN 2020 COMPARED TO 2019

-42% -66% -75.6%

Major French rail travel Passengers using airlines Passengers using airlines
(TGV, Intercity lines). on a worldwide scale. for international travel,
on a worldwide scale.
Source : SNCF

-48.8% -92.8% 485 B$

Passengers using airlines Air traffic at the height of the crisis Losses for the air travel sector.
on domestic flights, on April 12th, 2020. 370 B$ for airlines,
on a worldwide scale. 115 B$ for airports.
Source : IATA

78
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

THE EXISTENCE OF DEMAND, AS WELL AS ITS DURABILITY,

MUST BE ENSURED IN ORDER TO MOTIVATE PRIVATE INVESTORS

79
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

Permanent risk of transport suddenly

AIR TRAFFIC IN 2021 being brought to a halt
COMPARED TO 2019
The Covid-19 health crisis has led to a stark
reduction in long distance passenger travel.
The apparition of variants comforts the head start
the virus possesses over existing vaccination
campaigns. The crisis seems here to stay.

Perceived with optimism, the air transport crisis

presents an opportunity for Hyperloop. It could

51% accelerate transition in favour of less carbonised

modes of transport.

Unlike an airplane, a fixed link like Hyperloop

cannot change destination to adapt to a regional
health crisis.

Source : IATA 80
Hyperloop

Rising to Challenges

TOPOGRAPHY LEADS TO EXTRA COSTS

FOR ULTRA-HIGH-SPEED TRAVEL
The price of property in urban centers, as well as engineering necessary
to overcome natural obstacles, have a strong influence on operating costs.

81
RISING TO CHALLENGES

REACHING THE HEART OF THE CITY

SIGNIFICANTLY RAISES COSTS

82
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

Bringing Hyperloop to
the very heart of a city Acceleration Maximum speed Deceleration
comes at a price. If this The time spent at maximum
cannot be ensured, the speed is inferior to half of
positions of airports or total transport time
high-speed lines circling
cities may be possible
locations for Hyperloop Route to Route from
Entering urban centres
stations Hyperloop Hyperloop
station station

Erasing differences in topography

High speed trains access the town centre

using existing infrastructure Hyperloop Hyperloop
at surface level, networks which LGV
Departure Arrival
are shared and non-specific. station station
Hyperloop can access a city using
Upon departure and arrival, one
an underground line but at an important must take into account: Very high speed (± 1,000 km/h)
cost - amortisement may not be offset - Either travel time between does not allow vehicles to follow
by its utilisation for Mass Transit the town centre and the Hyperloop the curves of the land. It therefore
station located outside of the city, requires the setting up
on a regional level. - Or the cost of creating of complicated and costly
an underground hub (real estate, engineering schemes
public works engineering). (tunnels, viaducts).
83
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

RAISING SPEEDS IMPLIES RAISING CURVE RADIUS

In effect, transversal acceleration is equal to linear speed squared, divided by curve radius (or angular speed squared,
multiplied by curve radius), so raising speed therefore implies an adaptation of the curves these lines follow.
These limitations are added to those presented by the topography of the land to be covered, which can call for specific civil
engineering schemes (tunnels, viaducts) to overcome obstacles occurring along the way.

84
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

THE FASTER THE

SPEED,
THE LESS AN
INCREASE OF 100 KM/H
AFFECTS TOTAL TRANSIT
TIME

When circulating at 100 km/h, an acceleration

of 100 km/h divides journey time in half.
However, gaining 100 km/h when already running
at 1,000 km/h only saves marginal time. This is why
a speed of 300, or even 350 km/h, is the compromise
to reach between cost and transit time for ultra
high-speed rail travel within Europe.

85
Hyperloop

Rising to Challenges

CRUCIAL TECHNICAL
MASTERY
From managing a “partial vacuum”, to interoperability founded
on shared standards and signalling conception, there are still
many technical challenges to overcome.

86
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

BREAKING THROUGH THE

KANTROWITZ LIMIT
As a capsule approaches, air present in the tube flows out from its central
section towards the back of the vehicle, thus passing through a limited
space situated between the capsule edges and the internal wall of the
tube. This phenomenon leads to an acceleration of flow speed, according
to principle, derived from fluid mechanics, of sustained flow rate. Because
of the very high speed of the capsule, the speed at which the flow passes
through the tube can, at times, come close to the speed of sound,
creating local shockwaves between the walls of the tube and the vehicle.
This in turn leads to the localised saturation of flow which limits its
speed, causing an accumulation of air in front of the capsule, an
accumulation which can limit maximum speed. Two solutions could solve
this issue:
Raising the diameter of the tube to increase the amount of space
for the air as it passes around the vehicle. This would push back the critical
speed at which the flow saturates. The drawback of this solution is that it
raises infrastructure costs.
Installing a compressor in front of the capsule in order to push air
towards the back. This solution has been considered by certain
Hyperloop players.

87
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

GAUGING PRESSURE
Bringing a flight of fancy back to reality
The Hyperloop concept is founded on the circulation
of capsules in tubes where air pressure has been lowered
to reduce friction. This is theoretically conducive
to transport at very high speeds with reduced energy
consumption. Though seductive, to be applied, the idea
needs to rise to several technical challenges:
• Ensuring that the tubes stay watertight over time,
yet also allowing the evacuation of heat (pod HVAC,
energy generated by the brakes, friction between
the capsule and wall, etc.).
• Permitting frequent pressurisation
and depressurisation necessary for system
maintenance as well in the event
of passenger evacuation.
• Conserving a certain amount of air pressure
so as to cool hauling equipment and guarantee
the renewal of conditioned air for passenger comfort. These vacuum pumps come from the Hyperloop TT test facility set up in
Toulouse. One of the main expenditures of the Hyperloop system involves
keeping them in operation.

88
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

HOW TO MANŒUVRE SIGNALLING

ADAPTED TO THE CIRCULATION OF CAPSULES ?
To date, only Hardt Hyperloop has put together and patented a line switch system. This system has only been tested at low speeds
and on a small scale. Yet the maneuvering speed of signaling systems is a factor which could limit the output of lines. The Hyperloop
players promise the departure of a capsule every 30 seconds if the system is running at full capacity. With such a frequency,
how to guarantee consistent verification, commands, locking mechanisms and signaling network safety?

89
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

Essential and regular geometric controls to assess seismic risk

Maintaining the alignment necessary for high speed, as well as airtight tubes, means
that Hyperloop structures raised off the ground must possess seismic isolation in accordance
with local risk. This could lead to significant construction costs. Following seismic activity,
it is essential to verify the geometry of installations in order to ensure that no permanent
movement of their foundations is damaging the system. In the event of underground
Hyperloops, distortions could appear after a seismic shift. Periodic geometric assessments
are therefore necessary.
90
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

IS THERE A PILOT IN THE POD ?

Hyperloop is an automated, ultra high-speed mode of transport. It calls for systems of detection and communication which are robust yet
also extremely fast, within a highly limited environment (underground, ultra-fast, vacuum, within a tube, etc.). In the event of transport
structured by short intervals between capsules launched at very high speeds, it is crucial to be able to detect incidents far in advance
of the position of a capsule, but also to act with a reaction time which is incompatible with direct human monitoring.

91
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

CONTROLLING EMERGENCY BREAKING

Imagine a hyperloop launched at 700 km/h, with an interval Each second lost before reacting prolongs the distance
by 200 m.
of 11 s between each capsule, aiming to carry 20 000 people
With the departure frequency retained here, and two capsules
per hour and per direction using 60-seater capsules. In this
separated by 2 100 m, the next capsule has between 1 and 11 s
case, the distance between two capsules is of 2,100 m. to “react” to an incident involving the front capsule:
› If the front capsule experiences an incident that stops
If we admit that emergency brakeage is limited to 1 g,
it immediately (collision with a fixed obstacle, with
brakeage distance at 700 km/h would be of around 1,900 m. a signaling strip, etc.), the following capsule will have
In the event of a human triggering a brake system, it would exactly enough time to stop as long as the brakeage
be necessary to add the distance covered during is triggered in the second following the occurrence
this person’s reaction time (1 s), or about 200 m. of the event. This case is not highly likely
as the environment is sealed off and the main
The stoppage distance in this case would therefore be foreseeable obstacles are spare parts from the vehicles
of 2,100 m. Admitting these hypotheses : or infrastructure.
For a human to activate emergency brakes, they would › If the front capsule encounters a situation calling
have to be informed of an incident situated at least 2,100 m for emergency brakeage at 1 g, the following capsule will
in front of the capsule. have 4.2 km in order to stop (2.1 km of inter-distance
and 2.1 km of front capsule stoppage distance). In this
case, the brakeage of the second capsule must be
triggered in the 10 s following that of the first capsule.

92
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

HEALTH RISKS YET TO BE EVALUATED

Before the actual establishment of electromagnetic

levitation or propulsion systems, it is necessary not only
to study their electromagnetic compatibility with other
electronic devices placed nearby (ElectroMagnetic
Compatibility), but also the possible health risks caused
by exposure of humans to magnetic fields
(ElectroMagnetic Exposure).
These humans could be passengers on board
the trains or near their lines, but also local dwellers
and the personnel of companies manning or performing
maintenance on these transport systems.

93
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

Is system interoperability
a genuine possibility?
The many specificities of each Hyperloop
system do not make them conducive
to interoperability between rival Hyperloops
or with other guided transport systems.
Only the European Hyperloops touch upon
a necessary interoperability. Interoperability
would therefore require common technical
specification and standardisation - a major
issue for Hyperloop companies.

94
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

EUROPEANS ARE ATTEMPTING TO STANDARDISE HYPERLOOP

When it comes to standardisation, the JTC 20 Committee (Joint Technical Committee) was created in February 2020. It is piloted
by the European Committee for standardisation (CEN) and the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC). This initiative
has been led by several European and Canadian Hyperloop players. Among them, we find Hardt Hyperloop, Nevomo (Hyper Poland),
Transpod and Zeleros.

The objective of this committee is to create standards and common specifications, interoperable systems but also shared objectives
of safety for Hyperloop systems. One of its aims is the reduction of cost and time necessary for its development and operation.
It is probable that the company that will become the most advanced in Hyperloop development will be able to impose its techniques
and procedures as standard for the other players.

95
Hyperloop

Rising to Challenges

SAFETY DETERMINES REGULATIONS

European regulation already exists on the subject of rail safety, including
tunnels. The manning of a commercial Hyperloop line must be accompanied
by regulations which are just as strict.

96
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

SEATBELTS IN THE EVENT OF AN

EMERGENCY
Two to three times quicker than the highest of high-speed trains,
Hyperloop raises issues regarding passenger protection needs when
it comes to capsule movements.

Normal Conditions Emergency brakeage

The acceleration and The optimal running of a
deceleration of capsules Hyperloop is founded on
under normal conditions reduced intervals between
should be comparable to capsules running at top
those practiced by a high- speed. Most Hyperloop
speed train when it comes projects mention the
to user acceptability, even possibility of emergency
by the most vulnerable. This brake systems with
limits g-force to 0.1 or deceleration to the tune of
maybe 0.2 g during 1 g. This calls for a “three
deceleration. Under these point” seatbelt with a locking
conditions, no form of system, or even passive force
restraint is necessary. limiters and a pretensioner in
An automobile seatbelt is the event of a collision,
blocked at 0.3 g. notably at signalling points.

97
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

THE HYPERLOOP INDUCES ZONES OF TURBULENCES FROM THE GROUND

UPWARDS
With Hyperloop, it is necessary to study the risks of turbulence inside the tube, notably turbulences of flow triggered
by the capsule preceding it. They could justify restraining passengers using seat-belts. The possibility of lateral movements
or rolls during the levitation or suspension of capsules must be considered, and likewise, during transitions between transport
using wheels and levitation or suspension.

98
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO LEAVE THE

CAPSULE WITHOUT EXTREME RISKS

In case of passenger evacuation, emergency exits shall be designed

along the lines. Safety vehicles shall also be available to carry
passengers as well as to haul broken down capsules. The setting up
of these structures could call for a “service” tube comparable
to that of Channel Tunnel.

99
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

TOWARDS REGULATION ADAPTED TO UNIQUE HYPERLOOP FEATURES

The stages of certification and approval are crucial when Research shall be led by teams of experts along with
it comes to the setting up of any commercial means the companies developing Hyperloop. As for the USA, in July
of transport. The Hyperloop is a new mode of transport 2020, they declared themselves in favour of the creation
at the crossroads between high-speed rail and air travel - of legislation concerning the Hyperloop. The Non-Traditional
legislative bodies will simultaneously have to adapt existing and Emerging Transportation Technology (NETT) Council has
regulations and create new texts adapted to specific taken on the mission of publishing regulatory guidelines
Hyperloop features. for Hyperloop over the next six months.

On a European level, the creation of a relevant legal These advances illustrate the increase of interest shown
framework could take five to ten years. European by these two markets for Hyperloop.
and American regulatory bodies are already hard at work.
The European Commission predicts it will launch schemes
to achieve this in 2021.

100
Hyperloop

Rising to Challenges

ECONOMIC AND ENERGETIC

RELEVANCE
High final cost and energy consumption.

101
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

SAVING TIME Hardt Hyperloop has created data comparing

WITH HYPERLOOP the Hyperloop, high speed trains and air travel between
Paris and Amsterdam. The table on the left presents total
transit time for a journey from Paris (Gare du Nord)
to Amsterdam (Central Station) including waiting time,
check-in and safety checks.

Hardt Hyperloop have announced a travel time of 1h30,

door-to door. This rises to 2h40 if we add 0h40
for journeys on public transport towards outlying stations
such as airports, and 0h30 for the handling of passengers
in stations.

According to this estimate and on this journey, Hyperloop

would be faster than a plane and a high-speed train.

102
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

CAN PRICING SYSTEMS

VALUE TIME SAVED?
Few pricing elements have been communicated to date
by companies in the Hyperloop sector. Hardt Hyperloop
has quoted 71€ for a one-way Amsterdam-Berlin ticket. Air Travel
HST (Thalys) Hyperloop

As Paris-Amsterdam is comparable in distance, the same rate 3h55 3h40 2h40

may be applied. Ticket Cost (€)

500
The Hardt Hyperloop price for Paris-Amsterdam is close
400
to that of the Thalys and costs markedly less than air travel.
300
It therefore does not seem to account for the time saved
484 €
200
by the Hyperloop.
100 204 €
105 €
By integrating this valuation, Thalys clients could be willing 65 €

Compared Compared
to pay 105€ for a Hyperloop ticket, and air travellers, 484€. to Thalys to Air Travel

According to this analysis, the price of a ticket sold Source: VINCI (for cost estimates) / General Commission for Strategy and Perspective (for estimate value of time saved)

to Hyperloop clients could therefore be markedly superior

to the price announced to date by Hardt Hyperloop.

103
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

RELEVANCE OF INVESTMENT
.
IN THE SUGGESTED MOBILITY OFFER
Hyperloop
(Hardt estimate)
Capex/km (M€)

30
The adjacent table shows the relation between the
throughput offered by a mode of transportation and the
25 High-Speed Train
investments it requires.
20
According to the estimates of Hardt Hyperloop,

15
1,700 people could use the Paris-Amsterdam line in 2050.
This is distinctively lower than rates for air travel and Thalys,
10 outside of exceptional circumstances.

*
Hardt Hyperloop estimates its Capex at 30 M€/km, which is
5
Air Travel higher than that of the Thalys train (22 M€/km outside
Debit/Day (Pax)
of urban areas) and air travel (1.2 M€/kilometre).
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000

* Dœs not include airport platforms

104
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

Wh/pax.km 
VACCUM WEIGHS HEAVILY
600
ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Hyperloop
Based on Hardt Hyperloop and Transpod data, this table compares energy 500

consumption per passenger and per kilometre, but this data does not seem
realistic. The Hyperloop could in fact consume more energy than the Thalys 400 193

(x 7,2) and air travail (x 1,34).

36
300
Founded on Transpod characteristics, this estimate considers consumption
over 400 km, with 26 000 passengers carried at a frequency of 85 capsules
per hour, namely 36 passengers per capsule and 17 h of service. Placing a 200 375
tube with a diameter of 4 m in a complete vacuum with a length of 313 313

1 000 m for 1h calls for 3 MW. If it only operates 2 h/day, we obtain a 100
consumption of 230 Wh/pax.km. For propulsion, the power necessary for a 0,3
70 43
capsule is given at 3 MW. By considering a journey of 1h30 for 400 km,
consumption reaches 313 Wh/pax.km. Thalys Air Travel Hardt Transpod Our estimate

Movement (Necessary energy for the transport of a pod)

Transpod and Hardt underestimate the energetic needs of the Vaccum (Necessary energy for the creation of a vacuum and its maintenance)
infrastructure. The running costs (OPEX) of the Hyperloop will be highly Source: VINCI - Based upon technical specifications provided by different
sensitive to evolutions in energy costs. Hyperloop projects

105
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

CARBON FOOTRPRINT DEPENDS

ON THE MEANS OF ELECTRICITY
gCO2/km.pax
Air Travel PRODUCTION
125

100
The Hyperloop carbon footprint is favourable compared to air
travel but this point needs to be put into perspective.
75 Currently, the French energetic mix with its massively
decarbonised energy encourages the Hyperloop.
50 As for the air travel sector, its global carbon footprint could
Hyperloop change to its advantage if biokerosene or dihydrogen use
(VINCI estimate)
Transpod
become stansdardised.
25

High-Speed Train This footprint is not complete as the emissions associated

WH/pax.km
with the construction of infrastructures have not been taken
100 200 300 400 500 600 into account. They are difficult to assess at this stage.

106
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

SPEED ON A EUROPEAN SCALE COMES

WITH HEAVY INITIAL INVESTMENT
By basing ourselves on data communicated by companies involved
in Hyperloop schemes:
Hyperloop should be faster door-to-door than high-speed
transport available today.
Hyperloop has very important needs in terms of investment
(Capex) yet the number of passengers it can carry is inferior to that
of its competitors.
Current estimates of the sector players regarding tariffication
do not take into account the added value of time saved.
Energy consumption and carbon footprint of the Hyperloop
has yet to be quantified, to evaluate the relevance of this mode
of transport compared to classic high-speed trains and air travel
covering similar routes.

107
Hyperloop

Rising to Challenges

A HYPERLOOP
FOR FREIGHT?
Less dependent on the health situation, the flow of express freight
is a means of utilising the infrastructure at times where there is
lower passenger demand.

108
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

MAIN FLOW OF AIR TRAVEL

109
 RISING TO CHALLENGES

An alternative to air freight

For express or messenger freight, Hyperloop
could complete or replace air travel as long
as grouping organisations are undertaken
upstream, and output flow is redistributed
downstream.

What about cars?

Conjured up by Elon Musk for Hyperloop
Alpha, car transport by Hyperloop
has not been integrated to any
of the current projects.

110
HYPERLOOP

A FUTURE FOR
HYPERLOOP?
Does it have what it takes to become a reality?

111
 A FUTURE FOR HYPERLOOP?

HYPOTHETICAL TECHNICAL READINESS AND PROFITABILITY

Still in the R&D phase

The Hyperloop is a concept with a technology readiness
level of 6 out of 9, at best. The main players offer
different solutions yet many technical hurdles still
remain to be overcome.

Holding out without public funds?

The economic viability of a model exclusively founded
on private investment has not been proven at this stage.
Public economic support, similar to those rail or air
travel benefit from, seems necessary to give a chance
to the Hyperloop industry. At this stage, energetic
and environmental viability have not been proven either.

112
 A FUTURE FOR HYPERLOOP?

Operation and
maintenance
At the moment, companies are
mainly focusing on technical
development and financing
to support their activities.
“Operation and maintenance” (O&M)
has not yet been touched upon
and scheduling of capsules
in stations (departure every
30 seconds), managing users
and adjustment of the service
to demand have not been defined
yet either.

113
 A FUTURE FOR HYPERLOOP?

Rounding off the existing offer

Hyperloop could round off the existing offer,
with an inferior capacity and at prices higher
than high speed rail and air travel that we
know today. It would constitute a premium
offer on axes with a strong “business”
potential. Freight transport also holds strong
promise.

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WHERE TO BUILD HYPERLOOP ?

Limits and opportunities

The commercial success of Hyperloop depends on :
• Infrastructure constraints
• Level of equipment in high-speed rail at a given location
• Use of existing infrastructure
• Acquisition and usage of public real estate
• Seismic limitations
• Acceptability of territories covered without direct access
• Availability of public and private funding

A potential concentrated on territories without high-speed

trains
The potential of Hyperloop seems promising in territories calling
for frequent intercity connections (especially business interests).
This namely concerns West China, the UAE, the USA and Canada.
In Europe, this mode of transport can only reach its full potential
on a continental level.

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Who shall build Hyperloop ?

After a initial competition in the sector,
there only one or two major players shall
remain on this market. This may be
explained by highly capitalistic R&D needs
and the difficulty in achieving
interoperability between several systems,
over time.
Players working on the development
of Hyperloop will have also to deal
with pressure from rail
and air transport lobbies.

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 A FUTURE FOR HYPERLOOP?

COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT : OBJECTIVE 2030?

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Written Material:
VINCI – Leonard / Agence Les Récréateurs

Layout & Illustration:

Agence Les Récréateurs

Photo Credits:
Carnegie Mellon (p. 43, 94, 98) Nevomo (p. 73, 74, 75, 93)
CRRC (p. 12, 16) Scientific American (p. 16)
Deutsche Bahn (p. 9) Société de l’Aérotrain (p. 17, 18)
L’Illustration (domaine public – p. 7) SpaceTrain / Groupe Jacques Vaucanson (p. 19)
Hardt Hyperloop (p. 63, 65, 89, 116) SpaceX (p. 27, 28, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39)
Hyperloop Pod Competition (p. 16, 95, 117) SwissMetro / EPFL (p. 21, 22, 23, 24, 25)
Hyperloop TT (p. 2, 4, 42, 59, 60, 61, 76, 79, 82, 84, Tesla (p. 27, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39)
88, 111, 113) ThyssenKrupp (p. 8)
Japan National Railway (JNR – p. 8) Transpod (p. 1, 46, 54, 55, 56, 57, 87, 90, 91, 97,
Japan Railway (p. 8, 10, 14) 99, 107, 110, 112, 114, 115)
Neuralink (p. 27) Virgin Hyperloop (p. 50, 51, 52)
Paypal (p. 27) Zeleros (p. 5, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71)

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