GLOSARIO DE TERMINOS EN EXTRUSION

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ADAPTER: In an extruder, the portion of the die assembly that attaches

the die to the extruder and provides a flow channel for the molten plastic
between the extruder and the die.

ADDITIVE: Any substance that is added to another substance. Usually a

material added in minor amounts to alter the properties of a resin or
compound.

ADIABATIC: This adjective denotes a process in which no heat is added

or removed. The term is used incorrectly to describe an extruder where
the mechanical energy from the screw is sufficient to plastify the polymer
and the barrel controller set-points are set so that little or no heating or
cooling is required.

AIR GAP: In extrusion coating, the distance from the die opening to the
nip formed by the pressure roll and the chill roll.

ALLOY: Polymer blend having a modified interface and/or morphology.

AMORPHOUS POLYMER: A polymer having no crystallinity. Polystyrene

is an amorphous polymer while HDPE is semi-crystalline.

ANISOTROPY: The situation where properties vary according to the

direction in which they are measured.

APPARENT SHEAR RATE: The shear rate determined in capillary

viscometers without making a correction (Rabinowitsch) for shear
thinning. It turns out that the apparent shear rate is equal to
4Q/ R3 where Q is the volumetric flow rate (m3/s) and R is the radius (m)
of the capillary.

APPARENT VISCOSITY: The viscosity determined in capillary

viscometry without making a correction (Rabinowitsch) for shear thinning.
The apparent viscosity is equal to the shear stress divided by the

apparent shear rate, which is  , where P is the pressure drop

(Pa), Q is the volumetric flow rate (m3/s), L is the length (m) and R is the
radius (m) of the capillary die.

ASTM: Abbreviation of American Society for Testing and Materials, an

association for establishing standard testing and reporting procedures.

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BACK-PRESSURE: The resistance that reduces forward flow in an

extruder.

BAGLEY CORRECTION: A term used in capillary viscometry to describe

the excess pressure drop in the entrance to the capillary due to
extensional (elongational) viscosity. It might be negligible when very long
capillaries are used (i.e. L/D > 35). If shorter capillaries are used the
errors in viscosity measurement might be 10-30% or even higher.

BANBURY MIXER: A high-intensity batch mixer composed of a "figure-

eight" shaped chamber and a pair of counter-rotating rotors that masticate
the materials.

BARRIER SCREWS: Screws where a second flight (barrier), with a larger

radial clearance than a normal flight, separates the solid bed from melt in
the compression section. Barrier screws have significantly higher melting
capacity than conventional screws.

BETA GAUGE: A device for measuring the thickness of plastic films,

sheets or extruded shapes. It consists of a Beta-ray emitting source and a
detecting element.

BLEND: An intimate combination of two or more polymer chains having

different features, that are not bonded to each other.

BLOCK COPOLYMER: A block copolymer is made when one of the two

monomers polymerized together to form a polymer exists as a long
section or block in the polymer chain.

BLOW-UP RATIO: In blown film extrusion, the ratio of the final tube
diameter to the die diameter.

BRANCHED POLYMERS: Polymers can be classified as linear or

branched. Linear polymers have the monomeric units linked together,
linearly, with little or no long chain branching. In branched polymers, side
chains are attached to the molecular chain backbone. High-density
polyethylene (HDPE) is linear, while low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
contains both short and long chain branches. Linear LDPE (LLDPE) is a
copolymer with controlled short chain branches. This results in polymer
that is "stiffer" than LDPE in shear but "softer" in extension. In extension
the LLDPE chains slide by without getting entangled since the chain
branches are very short.

BREAKER PLATE: A perforated plate located at the end of the extruder,

which usually supports screens for preventing contaminants from entering
the die.

BULK DENSITY: Weight of a unit of a material, in powdered or granular

form, including voids (air) inherent in the material.

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CAPILLARY VISCOMETER: An instrument used to measure polymer

melt viscosity. It consists of a heated reservoir used to melt the polymer,
which is subsequently pushed by a piston and flows through a 1-mm- to
2-mm-diameter round die. From the force required to move the piston and
the corresponding volumetric flow rate, the viscosity can be determined.
The Rabinowitsch correction is necessary to account for the shear
thinning effects and the Bagley correction to account for the excess
pressure drop at the die entrance (see RABINOWITSCH CORRECTION
and BAGLEY CORRECTION).

CARREAU MODEL: A mathematical expression describing the shear

thinning behavior of polymers. It is more realistic than the power-law
model because it fits the data very well at both high and low shear rates.

where: 0,, n are curve fitting parameters and   is the shear rate. Due
to the mathematical complexities it is not possible to obtain analytical
solutions with this model, but it is excellent for numerical simulations of
flow processes.
CATALYST: A substance that changes the rate of a chemical reaction
without itself undergoing a permanent change or becoming part of the
molecular composition of the product.

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION: A measure of the resistance to sliding of

one surface in contact with another. Low values mean easy sliding. The
coefficient of friction of a packed bed of plastic pellets on a polished
screw surface is around 0.25, and about 0.4 on the barrel (rougher)
surface. Pressure, temperature and surface characteristics affect the
value of the coefficient of friction.

CO-EXTRUSION: The process used to form a multilayer structure from

two or more polymers.

COGSWELL’S METHOD: An approximate method for extensional

viscosity measurement. It uses the excess pressure drop value in the die
entrance (i.e. from the Bagley Correction). Reproducible measurements
are usually possible in the elongation (extension, or stretch) rate range of
5 s-1 to 50 s-1.

COMMODITY RESIN: High-volume, low-priced resins like polyethylene

(PE), polypropylene (PP), styrene (PS, etc), acrylic (PMMA), vinyl (PVC
etc.).

COMPOUNDING: The combination of polymers with other materials

either by means of mechanical (dry) blending or melt state blending.

COMPRESSION RATIO: In single-screw extruders the channel depth in

the solids-conveying zone under the hopper is much larger than in the
metering (pumping) zone. The depth ratio, usually in the range of 2.0–4.0,
is referred to as the compression ratio. The low bulk density solid polymer
bed is compressed as it is forced to go through a gradually decreasing
depth and melts as it is sheared against the barrel wall.

COMPRESSION ZONE: The second zone in an extruder screw. It

receives material from the feed zone and delivers it to the metering zone.
It is sometimes referred to as the melting zone.

CONE AND PLATE INSTRUMENT (also called the Weissenberg

Rheogoniometer): A device to measure viscosity by determining the
torque necessary to rotate a cone over a flat plate with molten polymer in
between. The angle is very small so that the rotational flow is nearly
parallel. The device can also be used to determine the (first) normal
stress difference by measuring the normal force tending to separate the
cone from the plate surface (see NORMAL STRESSES).

CONSISTENCY INDEX: In the power-law viscosity model   ,

which describes the reduction of viscosity as the shear rate increases
(shear thinning), m is the consistency index (which is a function of
temperature). It corresponds to the value of the viscosity for shear
rate  .

COPOLYMER: Two monomers polymerized together to form a polymer.

CORONA TREATMENT: Surface treatment of plastic parts by exposing

them to an electrical corona discharge to increase their receptivity to inks,
paints and adhesives.

COUETTE FLOW (also called DRAG FLOW): The flow between two

surfaces caused by the movement of one relative to the other. The fluid is
literally dragged by the moving wall. For parallel flat surfaces the resulting
velocity profile is linear, varying from zero at the stationary wall to the
velocity of the moving surface.

COX-MERZ RULE: Frequently, instead of (steady) viscosity

measurements by a capillary and/or a cone-and-plate instrument,
dynamic measurements are performed (easier) by applying a sinusoidal
deformation in the cone-and-plate. The COX-MERZ rule states that the
(steady) viscosity versus shear rate curve is virtually identical to the
dynamic viscosity versus frequency curve. It is valid for most common
polymers. Since it is easier to get the dynamic data over a very wide
range of frequencies, it is used extensively in industry.

CREEPING FLOW: Flow at very low Reynolds Number i.e. Re << 1,

where the dimensionless Reynolds number is defined as:

From Fluid Mechanics it is known that when Re is more than 2100 the
flow is turbulent and below 2100 the flow is laminar. Molten polymer flows
through channels and process equipment usually occur at Re = 10-4 – 10-
2
, that is under creeping flow conditions. The creeping flow assumption
implies that the fluid inertia is negligible.

CROSSHEAD: A device for changing the extrudate flow direction, usually

by 90°, so that it can be blow molded or coat wire or coat shapes.

CROSS-LINKING: Formation of a 3-dimensional network of polymer

chains, which completely prevents flow (e.g. vulcanized rubber).

CROSS MODEL: A mathematical expression describing the shear

thinning behavior of polymers. It is more realistic than the power-law
model because it fits the data very well at both high and low shear rates.

where: 0, , n are curve fitting parameters and   is the shear rate. Due
to the mathematical complexities it is not possible to obtain analytical
solutions with this model, but it is excellent for numerical simulations of
flow processes. This model is very popular in injection molding
simulations (cavity filling) and in the characterization of the flow behavior
of polymers produced with metallocene catalysts.

CRYSTALLINITY: Ordered repeated structures (crystals) encountered in

polymers below a certain temperature. Most polymers are semi-crystalline
containing both crystalline and amorphous regions (see also GLASS
TRANSITION and MELTING POINT).

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DEBORAH NUMBER (De): The ratio of a characteristic material time to a

characteristic process time. As the characteristic material time we can use
the relaxation time and as a characteristic process time the inverse of the
shear rate. Under usual extrusion conditions the relaxation might be 0.1
and the shear rate 100 s-1 and thus De = 10 (0.1 divided by 1/100). When
De << 1, the polymer behaves as a purely viscous fluid while for De >> 1
as an elastic solid. The phenomena of extrudate swell and melt flow
instability are evidence of polymer elasticity.

DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS (DOE): A methodology for planning

experiments where purposeful changes to the inputs (factors) to a
process (or activity) are made in order to observe corresponding changes
in the outputs (responses). A means of gaining knowledge about a
process or activity with minimal effort.

DIE LIP BUILDUP (also known as DIE DROOL): The gradual formation

of an initially liquid deposit at the edge of the die exit which solidifies and
may partially obstruct the flow of the extruded product and/or cause
defective extrudate surface. Depending on the severity of the problem,
continuous extrusion must be interrupted every few hours or few days
and the solid deposit must be removed from the die lips.

DIE SWELL: see EXTRUDATE SWELL

DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY (DSC): A thermal analysis

technique, which measures the difference between a reference and a
sample during a controlled temperature change. Changes in the heating
rate can be converted into heat capacity and enthalpy changes. It is used
to measure the Specific Heat (Heat Capacity Cp), Glass Transition
Temperature (Tg), and Melting Temperature (Tm), and to probe the
structure of polymer blends.

DISPERSIVE MIXING (also called INTENSIVE MIXING): An operation

that reduces the size of agglomerates or liquid drops of a minor
component within a major fluid matrix.

DISTRIBUTIVE MIXING (also called LAMINAR or EXTENSIVE

mixing): An operation that increases the randomness of the spatial
distribution of the minor component within the major fluid matrix.

DRAG FLOW: see COUETTE FLOW

DRAW RESONANCE: A phenomenon by which a continuous drawing

process becomes unsteady, alternating between thick and thin sections. It
is often encountered in fiber spinning and cast film production.

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL ANALYSIS (DMA): In this technique the

response of a material to an oscillatory load is measured during a
temperature cycle. It provides information on material modulus of
elasticity, which in turn can be related to impact strength, tensile strength,
toughness and creep rate.

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ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM): A metalworking process
in which controlled sparking is used to erode the workpiece.

ELONGATIONAL VISCOSITY (also called EXTENSIONAL

VISCOSITY): The resistance to extension (while the (common) viscosity
term describes the resistance to shearing). For Newtonian fluids the
elongational viscosity is equal to 3 times the (common) viscosity (3 is
known as the Trouton Ratio). Polymer melts are non-Newtonian and the
elongational viscosity is usually between 3 and 100 times the viscosity.
Melt strength is just a rough engineering measure of the elongational
viscosity, determined from the force required to break an extruded strand
of polymer by a pair of rollers (see MELT STRENGTH).

ENGINEERING RESINS: Resins for high-performance applications. This

category includes polycarbonates (PC) and polyamides (PA) like nylon.

EXTRUDATE SWELL (also called DIE SWELL): Whenever a polymer

melt emerges from a die the diameter or thickness is always larger than
the diameter (or gap) of the die. At usual production throughputs,
diameter or thickness ratios range from 1.20-1.40 for PVC to 1.50-2.00 for
commercial grade Polyethylenes and much more for some polymers
containing a high molecular weight tail. It is an indication of the elasticity
of the polymer. The more elastic polymers give larger swell. Of course, by
pulling the extrudate the swell is reduced and of course extrudates can be
drawn down to diameters (or thicknesses) much smaller than the die
diameter or gap.

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FEED ZONE: The first zone of an extruder screw. It receives material

from the hopper and delivers it to the compression zone.

FILMS: In the plastics and packaging industries, films are usually

considered to be a web under 10 mils (0.010 inch or 250 microns) thick.
Webs greater than 10 mils are considered sheet.

FISHEYE: Small globular mass which has not blended completely in the

surrounding material.

FLIGHT: In an extruder, it is the helical metal left after machining the

screw channels. The screw flight diameter is the barrel inside diameter
minus a specified flight clearance to allow the screw to fit into the barrel.
A rule of thumb is 0.001 inch (25 microns) of radial clearance for every
inch (25 mm) of barrel diameter.

FLOW LINES OR STREAKS: Flow lines or streaks in the machine

direction are visual defects in the form of continuous lines or streaks,
which occur in the same axial location. They may appear and be very
persistent after a change in material, screw or die.

FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY (FTIR): In this

technique infrared radiation is passed through a sample and the amount
absorbed is measured as a function of wavelength. FTIR allows a wide
range of wavelengths to be scanned quickly. By comparison to known
spectra the polymer can be identified and its structure can be deduced.
This technique is used extensively for polymer identification purposes.

FRACTIONAL MELT INDEX: A melt flow index of less than 1.0.

FRICTION COEFFICIENT: See COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION.

FRICTIONAL HEATING: Whenever a highly viscous polymer melt is

forced to flow through a channel, considerable heat is generated by
internal friction. The rotating screw supplies actually more than 70% of
the heat required to melt a polymer in an extruder through this frictional
heating mechanism. During flow through dies, the frictional heating can
cause a significant local temperature increase (hot spots) and thermal
degradation, with an eventual discoloration of the product, black specks,
pinking, etc.

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G' and G" : See STORAGE MODULUS and LOSS MODULUS

GEL PERMEATION CHROMATOGRAPHY (GPC): In this measurement

technique separation of polymer fractions is effected by flowing a pulse of
a polymer solution through a packed bed of porous particles. By
measuring the polymer concentration in the effluent stream, and
comparing to calibration standards, the molecular weight distribution can
be determined.

GELS: In polymer science, a gel is defined as a 3-dimensional network of

sufficient cross-link density that prevents flow. However, in extrusion
practice the term "GEL" encompasses various visual defects in the final
product, which sometimes appear as elongated ellipses and even
includes various contaminants that are called "fisheyes" (see FISHEYE).

GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE (Tg): The lowest temperature at

which a polymer can be considered softened and possibly flowable. For
HDPE and LDPE, it is –100C and for PS +100C.

GROOVED (BARREL) EXTRUDERS: The forward conveying action of a

single-screw extruder can be increased by intentionally roughening the
barrel surface (grooves) in the solids-conveying zone. Grooved extruders
can produce rapid pressure rise, which can sometimes be high enough to
damage the screw or barrel. Grooved extruders produce higher
throughputs, but they might be susceptible to output instabilities and
surging problems.

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HEAT OF FUSION: The heat required to mobilize the molecules of a

solid polymer to produce a fluid melt i.e. the heat required to destroy the
solid crystal structure without increasing the temperature. For amorphous
polymers like polystyrene (PS) the heat of fusion is zero. For LDPE it is
about 130,000 J/kg, which is roughly equivalent to the heat required to
raise the temperature of 1kg of LDPE by about 50C.

HIGH LOAD MELT FLOW INDEX (HLMFI): This is a melt flow index test
that uses a higher than the usual (2.16 kg) weight. For PE, the HLMFI
weight is usually 10 kg, but sometimes 21.6 kg.

HOPPER: The container that holds the resin before it enters the extruder
feed zone.

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IMMISCIBLE: Incapable of mixing.

INTERFACIAL INSTABILITY IN COEXTRUSION: Highly irregular or

sometimes regular waviness, which appears in coextruded structures at
the polymer/polymer interface. Two types of interfacial instability are
common: zigzag and wave.

INTRINSIC VISCOSITY (IV): The limiting value of viscosity (at infinite

dilution) of a polymer in a solution, which is used in the determination of
an average molecular weight. The viscosity average molecular weight lies
between the weight average and number average molecular weight (see
also MOLECULAR WEIGHT).

ISO: The International Organization for Standardization, a worldwide

federation of national standards bodies from some 140 countries.
Equivalent to ASTM.

ISO 9000: Family of standards concerned with "quality management".

This means what the organization does to enhance customer satisfaction
by meeting customer and applicable regulatory requirements.

ISOTROPY: The situation where properties are independent of the

direction in which they are measured.

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K-VALUE OF PVC: A measure of the molecular weight of PVC based on

measurements of viscosity of a PVC solution. It ranges usually between
35 and 80. Low K-values imply low molecular weight (which is easy to
process but has inferior properties) and high K-values imply high
molecular weight, (which is difficult to process, but has outstanding
properties).

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L/D RATIO: The ratio of the screw length to the screw diameter.

LEAKAGE FLOW: The flow through the clearance between the flight

lands and the barrel wall.

LINEAR POLYMERS: Polymers can be classified as linear or branched.

In linear polymers the monomeric units are linked together, linearly, with
little or no long chain branching. In branched polymers, side chains are
attached to the backbone of the molecular chain. High density
polyethylene (HDPE) is linear while low density polyethylene (LDPE) is
branched. Linear LDPE (LLDPE) is "stiffer" than LDPE in shear but
"softer" in extension. In extension the LLDPE chains slide by without
getting entangled (since the chain branches are very short).
LOSS MODULUS (denoted as G"): An indirect measure of polymer
viscosity using a cone-and-plate instrument subjected to dynamic
(sinusoidal) deformation (see also STORAGE MODULUS).

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MASTERBATCH: A concentrated blend of pigments, additives, fillers,

etc. in a base polymer. Masterbatch is added in small amounts to large
volume material (the same as or compatible with the base polymer) to
achieve desired properties.

MELT BLOCKAGE: The sudden drop of output rate of an extruder due to

insufficient forward transport of the solid packed bed in the feeding zone
of the machine.

MELT FLOW INDEX (also called MELT INDEX or MELT FLOW

RATE): The number of grams of polymer that can be pushed out of a
capillary die of standard dimensions (Diameter: 2.095 mm, Length: 8.0
mm) under the action of standard weight (2.16 kg for PE, at 190°C). in 10
minutes (ASTM Standard 1238). The usual melt index range is from less
than 1.0 (called fractional) to more than 25 (up to 100 for injection
molding). For PP it is usually called MELT FLOW RATE and the standard
temperature is 230°C.

MELT FRACTURE: At higher throughput rates, extrudates usually

become highly distorted and the head pressure shows significant
fluctuations. This phenomenon is known as gross MELT FRACTURE. It is
possible with some polymers to obtain grossly melt fractured extrudates
without sharkskin, i.e. the surface remains smooth and glossy but overall
the extrudate is distorted (see also SHARKSKIN).

MELT STRENGTH: A measure of the extensional viscosity of polymer

melts. It represents the maximum tension that can be applied to the melt
without rupture or tearing. Usually a capillary viscometer is used to
extrude a polymer strand and the strand is pulled till rupture by a pair of
rollers.

MELTING POINT: The temperature at which the structure of a crystalline

polymer is destroyed to yield a liquid. For HDPE it is about 135C, for
LDPE it is about 110C. It is not scientifically correct to talk about the
melting point of an amorphous polymer like PS, because it has no
crystalline structure. However, in extrusion practice it is often practical to
use the glass transition temperature plus 50C to define an equivalent
melting point of such amorphous polymers. For PS this would be 100C +
50C = 150C (see GLASS TRANSITION).

METALLOCENE CATALYZED POLYMERS: Commonly and erroneously

called metallocene polymers. Most polyolefins are produced nowadays
with the help of so-called Ziegler-Natta catalysts. Recent developments in
metallocene catalysts give the possibility to tailor the structure in such a
way as to produce polymers having significantly improved mechanical
and physical properties. The better properties of blown film are apparently
accompanied by the trade off of poorer processability than conventional
materials.

METERING ZONE: The single screw extrusion process consists of three

functional zones: the SOLIDS CONVEYING ZONE where the polymer
pellets or powder are compacted and transported forward, the MELTING
ZONE where the polymer melts mainly under the action of shear on the
barrel wall, and the METERING ZONE (PUMPING ZONE) where the
polymer is transported forward by DRAG FLOW caused by the rotating
action of the screw.

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: Polymers are composed of long chain

molecules. The monomer unit is repeated many times to give average
molecular weights ranging from 50,000 to 500,000 for most common
polymers. Of course, not all polymer chains are of the same length, so we
have a MOLECULAR WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION (MWD). Different
molecular weight averages are defined to express the breadth of the
distribution. The number average molecular weight , Mn, is the sum of the
individual molecular weights divided by their number. The weight average
molecular weight, Mw, is the sum of the squares of the weights divided by
the sum of the molecular weights. The POLYDISPERSITY INDEX (PDI)
Mw/Mn (weight average / number average) would be 1.0 if all chains had
exactly the same length (only theoretically possible). Usual grades of
polymers have PI values from 1.5 to 30. Broad distribution polymers
usually have lower viscosity, but higher elasticity.

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NEWTONIAN FLUIDS: Fluids which exhibit constant viscosities

independent of the shear rate. Water, glycerin, oil and other small
molecule fluids are Newtonian.
NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS: Fluids having viscosities that depend on the
shear rate. Polymer solutions and melts are non-Newtonian fluids. They
also exhibit other non-Newtonian properties such as stress relaxation and
normal stresses.

NORMAL STRESSES: Polymer melts when sheared (i.e. when subjected

to tangential forces) give rise to perpendicular (NORMAL) STRESSES.
This means that when a fluid is flowing in a tube it is less compressed in
the axial direction than in the radial direction. These NORMAL
STRESSES are responsible for the phenomenon of EXTRUDATE
SWELL at the exit of the die. Polymers containing a high molecular
weight tail tend to give larger NORMAL STRESSES (i.e. they are more
elastic).

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PLATE-OUT: The undesirable deposition of additives or pigments on

machinery parts during processing of plastics.

POISEUILLE FLOW (also called PRESSURE FLOW): The flow of a fluid

caused by a pressure difference. The resulting velocity profile in a tube is
parabolic for Newtonian fluids and somewhat "flatter" for polymer melts.
The pressure drop is linear in the direction of flow for tubes or channels
with parallel walls.

POLYDISPERSITY INDEX (PDI): The ratio of weight average to number

average molecular weight (Mw/Mn) (see also MOLECULAR WEIGHT).

POWER-LAW MODEL: A simple mathematical expression describing the

shear thinning behavior of polymers:

Where m is the consistency index, n is the power-law index, and   the

shear rate (for polymer melts 0.2 < n < 0.8). The power-law model does a
good job in fitting high shear rate viscosity data but a poor job for fitting
low shear rate viscosity data. In fact for   the power-law model
gives   which is, of course, unrealistic. The usefulness of the power-
law model is derived from the fact that several analytical solutions are
possible and many practical flow problems occur at high shear rates
where the power-law model gives a reasonable fit of viscosity data.
PRESSURE FLOW (also called POISEUILLE FLOW): The flow of a fluid
caused by a pressure difference. The resulting velocity profile in a tube is
parabolic for Newtonian fluids and somewhat "flatter" for polymer melts.
The pressure drop is linear in the direction of flow for tubes or channels
with parallel walls. In the metering section of an extruder screw, pressure
flow is the relatively backward flow of material down the screw channel
caused by pressure in the head.

PSEUDOPLASTIC FLOW: This term is synonymous to shear thinning

flow, i.e. viscosity decreases as the shear rate increases.

PURGING: Cleaning of one type of material or color from an extruder by

forcing it out with the new material or color or by using special purging
substances. Purging is more efficient when the purging material is more
viscous than the material being replaced.

PYROMETER: A device for measuring high temperatures, usually by

radiation. Radiation devices have the advantage of not having to touch
the material being measured.

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RABINOWITSCH CORRECTION: When viscosity data are obtained from

a capillary viscometer, they require a correction to account for the fact
that the viscosity decreases as the shear rate increases. Without this
(RABINOWITSCH) correction the viscosity is referred to as APPARENT
VISCOSITY. Errors up to 10-20% in viscosity are common when this
correction has not been made. For the power-law viscosity
model   the Rabinowitsch correction

gives   (i.e. for n=0.45 m(true) = 0.89

m(apparent)).

RANDOM COPOLYMER: A random copolymer occurs when one of the

two monomers polymerized together to form a polymer is in a random or
statistical distribution in the polymer chain.

REGRIND: Waste material that has been reclaimed by shredding or

granulating.
RELAXATION: Whenever polymer melts are subjected to mechanical
work they develop stresses which do not become immediately zero when
the mechanical influence is removed. The time required for the stresses
to relax is referred to as RELAXATION TIME. There is no universally
accepted definition of the most characteristic relaxation time for a polymer
melt. Some authors use the  of the Carreau or Cross viscosity models,
but this is considered a poor choice by theoreticians. The best choice is
perhaps the "longest relaxation time" determined in dynamic

measurements as   where G' is the storage modulus, ' is the

dynamic viscosity and  is the frequency. Polymers with higher molecular
weights have long relaxation times. When the polymer solidifies without
the stresses having been relaxed, the product includes FROZEN-IN
STRESSES which will be released when the plastic part is reheated. The
accompanying changes in dimensions, shrinkage or warpage may be
significant.

REYNOLDS NUMBER: A dimensionless quantity defined as:

which is equivalent to the ratio of INERTIA forces to VISCOUS forces.

The flow is turbulent when the Reynolds number is more than 2100 for
tubes. Below 2100 the flow is laminar (i.e. streamlines without
disturbances). For molten polymer flow, the Reynolds Number is usually
in the range 10-4 to 10-2 (see also CREEPING FLOW).

RHEOLOGY: The science of deformation and flow of materials including

polymers. Viscosity, elongational viscosity, normal stresses, relaxation
time, G', G", etc. are rheological properties.

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SHARKSKIN (also known as SURFACE MATTNESS): The failure of an

extrudate to exhibit smooth and glossy appearance. The surface usually
exhibits a repetitious wavy or ridged surface pattern perpendicular to the
flow direction.

SHEAR FLOW: The sliding of imaginary fluid slices parallel to each other,

like a deck of cards. Shearing occurs whenever fluids flow through tubes
and channels. The velocity is zero right at the wall surface and maximum
at the center. So the fluid is being sheared as it flows through a tube or
channel.

SHEAR RATE: The velocity gradient, i.e., velocity divided by the gap

measured in reciprocal seconds, s-1. In screw extruder channels, the
shear rate can usually reach 100 s-1 or more. In flow through extrusion
dies, it might reach 500 s-1 or more, and in injection molding more than
5000 s-1.

SHEAR STRESS: A tangential force divided by the area (FORCE/AREA)

on which it is applied. The shear stress is equal to the viscosity multiplied
by the shear rate (measured in units of pressure, i.e., MPa or psi). At the
die lips under usual production conditions, the shear stress may reach
values of 0.2 MPa (29.0 psi) or more. The usually accepted value for the
onset of sharkskin in capillaries is 0.14 MPa (20.3 psi), although higher
values are reported in industrial production. With additives the critical
shear stress value might be pushed up to 0.5 MPa (72.5 psi).

SHEAR THINNING: The reduction of the viscosity as the shear rate

increases, which is exhibited by polymeric liquids. Shear thinning is due
to molecular chain alignments in the direction of flow and
disentanglements.

SHEAR VISCOSITY: The ordinary viscosity that is the ratio of shear

stress to the shear rate (see also VISCOSITY).

SHEET: In the plastics and packaging industries, sheets are usually

considered to be a web greater than 10 mils (0.010 inch or 250 microns)
thick. Webs smaller than 10 mils are considered films.

SI UNITS: "Systeme International" units, established in 1960, based

partly on the metric system, which was used in Europe for a long time. In
SI the six base units are: metre (length), kilogram (mass), second (time),
ampere (electric current), degree Kelvin (temperature) and candela
(luminous intensity).

SLIP, SLIPPAGE: When fluids flow it is assumed that the velocity at a

surface is zero (or equal to the surface velocity if the surface moves).
Virtually all polymer melts exhibit some slippage on the surface,
especially when the shear stress levels are high, e.g., over 0.1 MPa (14.5
psi). Stick-slip phenomena are responsible for the onset of sharkskin
whenever polymers are extruded at shear stresses higher than 0.14 MPa
(20.3 psi). Some additives and processing aids promote slippage.
Slippage is beneficial for delaying the appearance of sharkskin at higher
throughput rates.

SOLIDS CONVEYING ZONE: The single screw extrusion process

consists of three functional zones: the SOLIDS CONVEYING ZONE
where the polymer pellets or powder are compacted and transported
forward, the MELTING ZONE, where the polymer melts mainly under the
action of shear on the barrel wall and the METERING ZONE (PUMPING
ZONE) where the polymer is transported forward by DRAG FLOW caused
by the rotating action of the screw.

SPE: Abbreviation for Society of Plastics Engineers.

SPI: Abbreviation for Society of Plastics Industry.

STARVE FEEDING: Feeding of an extruder at a rate below the full

capacity of the machine. This results in output determined by the feeder
and not by the extruder or the process parameters.

STORAGE MODULUS (denoted as G' ): The ratio of shear stress to

strain (deformation) when dynamic (sinusoidal) deformation is applied in a
cone-and-plate rheometer. It relates to the elasticity of the polymer melt.
G", the loss modulus, also determined in dynamic (sinusoidal)
measurements relates to the viscous behaviour. So, G' and G" together
give an idea of the dual nature of the polymer melt (partly elastic solid and
partly viscous fluid). Measurements of G' and G" provide information on
polymer structure and might be related to molecular weight distribution,
cross-linking, etc.. Computer software like RHEOMWD can infer the
breadth of the molecular weight distribution from G' and G" data.

STRAIN: A technical term synonymous with deformation.

SURGING: An instability of melt pressure and flow rate in an extruder,

which can be detected by a pressure gage at the tip of the screw (or at
the die adapter), or by dimensional product variations.

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THERMAL MECHANICAL ANALYSIS (TMA): In this technique, a

sample is deformed under a static load as its temperature is being
changed. Glass transition and softening points can be measured. The
amount of orientation can also be measured by TMA.

THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS (TGA): This technique is used to

measure a variety of polymeric phenomena involving weight changes,
such as sorption of gases, desorption of contaminants (monomers,
solvents, and additives) and degradation. In TGA, a sample is placed on
a balance beam in an oven. From the weight versus temperature curves,
kinetic and other studies are carried out.

THERMOPLASTICS: Polymers that can be melted by heating and

solidified by cooling and may be remelted repeatedly. PE, PP, PVC and
all extrudable polymers are thermoplastics.

THERMOSETS: Materials that undergo chemical reaction and can be

hardened by application of heat and pressure. They cannot be softened
again to make them flowable. Typical plastics in this family are melamine,
urea, epoxies and phenolics.

TROUTON RATIO: The ratio of elongational (extensional) viscosity to

(shear) viscosity for Newtonian fluids is 3. Polymers do not obey this
relation. Ratios can range up to 100 for melts and up to perhaps 10,000
for solutions.

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VISCOELASTICITY: The dual nature of polymers, partly viscous fluid and

partly elastic solid, is referred to as viscoelasticity. In flowing polymers
viscoelasticity is responsible for time-dependent properties, such as
stress relaxation, normal stresses, very large elongational viscosities, and
numerous unusual phenomena such as extrudate swell, entry flow
vortices and some flow instabilities.

VISCOSITY: The resistance to flow of a fluid (strictly speaking the

resistance to shearing). It is defined as the ratio of shear stress
(Tangential Force/Area) to shear rate (velocity/gap). The viscosity of a
polymer decreases as the shear rate increases. This property is referred
to as pseudoplastic behavior or shear thinning. The viscosity of a polymer
at (near) zero shear for a polymer like PE might be 5,000 to 10,000 Pa.s
while during flow in an extrusion channel it could be much lower (i.e. 500
Pa.s or less). Melt flow index corresponds to just one point on a viscosity
curve (actually inverse). High viscosity implies low melt index and high
molecular weight. Viscosity is measured in units of Pa.s or poise. 1 Pa.s =
10 poise. The viscosity of water is 10-3 Pa.s (1 centipoise) and for a
typical polymer melt at least one million times larger (i.e. over 1000 Pa.s
or 10,000 poise)

VISCOUS DISSIPATION (or VISCOUS HEATING): see FRICTIONAL

HEATING

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WEISSENBERG NUMBER: The product of a characteristic material time

and shear rate. It has the same meaning as the Deborah Number under
certain conditions (see DEBORAH NUMBER).

WEISSENBERG RHEOGONIOMETER: see CONE AND PLATE

INSTRUMENT

WELDLINES (also known as PARTING LINES): Weldlines are formed

because of flow interruptions by obstructions in a melt flow field. Because
of the high viscosity, the diffusion of polymer molecules, after they have
been separated, is very slow and the weldline remains a line of
mechanical weakness and may be visible to the naked eye. Such defects
are common in injection molded products and are often encountered in
extruded pipes, bottles, and film.

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ZERO SHEAR VISCOSITY: The asymptotic viscosity value at zero shear

rate (i.e., the maximum value). As the shear rate increases, the viscosity
decreases due to alignments of molecular chains in the direction of flow
and molecular chain disentanglements. The zero shear viscosity is
proportional to the 3.4 power of the weight average molecular weight
(i.e. 0 = constant * Mw3.4 for most common polymers). This means that if
we increase the molecular weight of a polymer from 100,000 to 200,000
the viscosity will increase by 23.4 = 10.55 times. Obviously it is extremely
difficult to extrude polymers having very high molecular weight.

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