Unit One

The structure of a Sentence

1.1. Fundamentals of the English Sentence
A word is a meaningful unit of language sounds. Or it is a meaningful sound or
combination of sounds that is a unit of language or its representation in a text.
There are two types of words: function words (grammatical words), and Content words
A. Function Words are words such as the, and, but, in, to, because, while, ought, must, etc. the
main use of function words is to express relationships among other words. Compare the
following:
- I am lonely at dark. - The cook prepared a rich feast.
- I am lonely in the dark. - The cook prepared the rich a feast.
B. Content Words are words having meanings beyond grammar functions. The common content
words such as a noun, verb, adjective or adverb that primarily convey meanings rather than
grammatical function.
1.1 Definition
We tend to think of a sentence as a group of words with a period, a question mark, or an
exclamation point at the end and a capital letter at the beginning, but there is more to it than that.
In order to be a sentence, a word group must be complete enough to stand independently. In
other words, sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.
-A sentence is usually defined as a grammatically independent unit made up of a word or group
of words so related as to convey a complete thought.
-A sentence is the basic unit of thought someone uses to express her/himself.
The better we understand how to form and use sentences, therefore, the more effectively we can
communicate our thoughts to others.

Phrase is a group of related words that has no subject or predicate and is used as a single part of
speech. As we process language , we recognize phrases as chunks of information that expand a
basic sentence, adding to its meaning , but we also recognize that phrases cannot express
complete thoughts by themselves.
Example:
- I fell on the side walk. (It is a complete thought.)
- on the sidewalk (It is a phrase - not a complete thought)
Typical phrases are composed of a preposition and its object (I fell on the side walk.) or a verbal
and its object (I wanted to see the parade).Phrases are usually classified as prepositional,
infinitive, participial, or gerund phrases.
Example
- He is a man of action. (Prepositional phrase)
- I wanted to buy the house. (Infinitive phrase)
- Covered with ice, the road was dangerous. (Participial phrase)
- Making a profit is their only purpose. (Gerund phrase)

A Clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. The relation of a clause to the
rest of a sentence is shown by the position of the clause or by a conjunction.
There are two kinds of clauses: (1) main, or independent, clauses and (2) subordinate, or
dependent, clauses.
1. A main clause has both subject and verb, but it is not introduced by a subordinating word. A
main clause makes an independent statement; it could stand alone.
Example: Eagles are beautiful.
You can see that this clause is equal to sentence.
2. Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction (as, since,
because, etc) or by a relative pronoun (who, which, that). Subordinate clauses function as
adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. They cannot stand alone but must be attached to a main clause.
They express ideas that are intended to be subordinate to or dependent on the idea expressed in
the main clause. The exact relationship between the two ideas is indicated by the subordinating
conjunction or relative pronoun that joins the subordinate and the main clause.
Eagles are beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs.
Eagles are beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs.
Main clause Subordinate clauses
1.2 Classification of Sentences by Purpose
Declarative Sentences: Sentences that makes statements and end with a period.
Example: The human back-bone has thirty-three bones.
Interrogative Sentences: Sentences that ask questions and end with question marks (?).
Example: Could you tell me your name, please?
Imperative Sentences- Sentences that make commands or request and end with either a period or
if the command shows strong feeling with exclamation mark (!).
Example: Stand up!
Please, use your muscles.
Exclamatory Sentences- Sentences that make (express) strong feeling and end with exclamation
mark.
Example: What an excellent boy! Or how terrific you look!
1.3 Constituent Elements of a Sentence
Every sentence, short or long, is made up of one or more units containing two main parts: subject
and predicate.
Subject is a part of a sentence about which a statement is made. It is a noun or pronoun, with any
of its modifiers.
Predicate is the statement made about the subject .It is a verb or verb phrase, with any modifiers
or words used to complete its meaning. Example
Our soccer team won the state championship.
Our soccer team / won the state championship.
Subject Predicate

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate

Every sentence, we said, usually has a subject and a predicate.
Example:
- John fights.
- They run
In sentence 1, John the actor is, a simple subject, and fights, the action, is a simple predicate.
In sentence 2, the simple subject is they, the actor, and the simple predicate is run, the act.

Simple subject (actor) Simple predicate(act)

Flowers bloom.
Novels teach.
Men laugh.
Candles burn.
Honesty pays.
In the sentences given above, the subject (actor) has consisted of a single word: flowers, novels,
men, candles, honesty. Such subjects are called simple subjects. The predicate (act) has also
consisted of a single word: bloom, teach, laugh, burn, pays. Such predicates are called simple
predicates.
Complete Subject and Complete Predicate
1. Complete Subject
When a simple subject is expanded by the addition of modifying words, the subject thus
expanded is called a complete subject. Examples of expanded form of subject:
- Flowers are blooming. (Flowers, one word, is a simple subject)
- The flowers are blooming.
- The small flowers are blooming.
- The small red-petaled flowers are blooming.
Flowers, the simple subject in the first sentence, has been expanded by the modifiers the, small,
and red-petaled. Hence, it is a complete subject.
2. Complete Predicate
In the same way, when the predicate consists of a single word or a verb phrase, it is called a
simple predicate. When it is expanded by the addition of other words, then the simple predicate
plus its modifiers, plus any other words that completes its meaning, are called complete
predicate.
Examples of expanded form of predicate:
- Solomon is walking.
- Solomon is walking quickly.
- Solomon is walking quickly to school.
- Solomon is walking quickly to school in the morning.
- “is walking” ,the simple predicate in the first sentence , has been expanded by the
modifiers quickly, quickly to school and quickly to school in the morning. Hence, it is a
complete predicate.
Note: In both cases (complete subject and predicate) though the sentences contain expanded
form of subject and predicate, each is a simple sentence because each sentence contains only one
main clause involving one subject and one predicate and no subordinate clauses (dependent
clauses).
Compound Subject and Predicate
1. Compound Subject
A subject can be made up of two or more nouns or pronouns. In this case the sentence has a
compound subject.
Example:
- Gemechu and Chaltu saved $ 500 a year with grocery coupons.
- A right attitude and a winning personality /should be your best principles to get a job.
- The movement of the tropical fish and the bubbles from the filter/ fascinate the young cat.
2. Compound Predicate
A sentence can have two or more verbs for the same subject. In this case the sentence is said to
have a compound predicate. Example:
- We chopped the celery, diced the carrots, and sliced the onions.
- The snow fell throughout the night and blanketed the area.
- You should leave at six o‟clock and arrive by midnight.
1.3 Types of Sentences
In terms of their construction (function), there are four types of sentences: Simple Sentence,
Compound Sentence, Compound-Complex Sentence, Complex Sentence, and Complex- Complex
Sentence. The following is a detailed discussion of the sentence types.
1. Simple Sentence is a sentence consisting of one subject and one predicate, either or both of
which may be compound. It, in other words, is one main clause. Example
- The players arrived. - The judges arrived.
- The players and the judges arrived. -The players arrived and reported.
- The players and the judges arrived and reported.
- The big oak tree in front of our house is a permanent house for thousands of birds.
N.B. Do not be confused by the length of a sentence. You should simply count the number of
clauses in the sentence.
2. Compound Sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more independent clauses
connected by a coordinating conjunction, conjunctive adverbs or separated by a semi-colon.
Example: I have never played tennis, but I hope to start taking lessons next year.
I steamed the carrots, then I baked the potatoes.
I ate everything on the tray; I was really hungry.
I bought coca cola, and I drank it at once.
3. Complex Sentence is a sentence which consists of one main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses.
Example: Although I have never played tennis, I planned to start taking lessons next year.
The subordinate clause modifies a word (a noun/ a verb/ the whole main clause) in the sentence,
and it can be either adjectival or adverbial. Examples:
- He met a student who left school last year. (Adjective clause)
- After I took a nap, I felt better. (Adverb clause)
- If you come late, you will miss the bus. (Adverb clause).
4. Compound -Complex Sentence is a sentence which consists of two independent clauses with
one or more subordinate clauses.
Example:
- Although I have never played tennis, I planned to start taking lessons next year; I really
need the aerobic exercise that tennis provides.
- I bought coca cola, and I drank it at once because I was very thirsty.
5.Complex-Complex Sentences
A complex-complex sentence has one or more independent clauses and two or more dependent
clauses, one of which depend on the other. In other words, one of the dependent clauses depends
on the other dependent clause.
Example: The girl whom I told you about yesterday when we were at the café is a lawyer.
I like students who work hard when they are told.
You can see that this sentence has two dependent clauses: Who work hard, and When they are
told.
You can also see that the dependent clause ―when they are told‖ is dependent on the
preceding dependent clause, not on the independent (main) clause.
Look also the following examples:
Nelson Mandela, who had fought against apartheid for a long time because he wanted to make
his people free, has gained immense respect from the whole world.
Because my child likes toys which can talk, I have sent inquiries to the nearby factory for such
toys.
Come on time; otherwise, you will miss the Sophomore English class whose teacher is very
angry at late comers.
EXERCISE
Read the following sentences and identify whether each of them is simple, compound, complex,
compound-complex, or complex-complex. Then write the answer on the space provided.
________1.Bekele dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets a nasty sunburn.
________2.Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant contact on the internet.
________3.Those students who live in the area often find the local college boring, but students
from out of the area seem to like it.
________4.After a lengthy and noisy debate, they decided to take separate vacations
_______5.Ronaldiniho dribbled past two defenders and made a good shot, but the goalkeeper
easily saved.
_______6.A gentle man of wealth and position has been found guilty of theft
_________7.The life which seems so fair is like a bubble blown in the air
________8.There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it bad
________9.Those who seek faultless friends remain friendless.
________10.Reading a novel after work is a pleasant way of spending leisure
_______ 11.If you really want me to help you wash your floors, please give me a week‘s notice
for I am busy this month.
________12.The people of Bahir Dar are throwing garbage anywhere in the city; consequently,
the air is polluted.
________13. My brother who used to give me money whenever I want has been fired out of his
work, and I am in a financial problem now.

Recognizing and Correcting Sentence Faults

2. Faulty Sentences
A. Fragments
Every sentence must have a subject & a verb and must express a complete thought. A word
group that lacks a subject or a verb and does not express a complete thought is a fragment. In
other word, a fragment is a piece of a sentence punctuated as if a complete, independent clause.
Fragments can create misunderstanding and distract your readers. A fragment is usually either a
phrase or a dependent clause. For Example: The following sentences are fragments.
1. Even though the pizza was hot. He ate it quickly.
2. Traveling through six cities in one week. They lost their luggage.
3. As a result of this event. He had learned this lesson.
4. This was the painting. That was portrayed by Leonardo Da Vinci.
5. Alula was a former Ethiopian fighter. The most famous man at the Dogali.
See how the fragments are corrected.
1. Even though the pizza was hot. He ate it quickly.
Even though the pizza was hot, he ate it quickly.
2. Traveling through six cities in one week. They lost their luggage.
Traveling through six cities in one week, they lost their luggage.
3. As a result of this event. He had learned this lesson.
As a result of this event, he had learned this lesson.
4. This was the painting. That was portrayed by Leonardo da Vinci.
This was the painting that was portrayed by Leonardo da Vinci.
(Here, the comma is not necessary)
5. Alula was a former Ethiopian fighter. The most famous man at the Dogali.
(Here, the fragment is placed in a wrong place.)
Alula, the most famous man at the Dogali, was a former Ethiopian fighter.
‫٭‬In other ways, following are the most common types of fragments that people write:
1. Dependent word fragments
2. –ing and to fragments
 3. Added-detailed fragments
4. Missing subject fragments
1. Dependent-Word Fragments
Some word groups that begin with a dependent word are fragments. Following is a list of
common dependent words.
Dependent words
after if, even if when, whenever
although, though in order that where, wherever
as since whether
because that, so that which, whichever
before unless while
even though until who
how what, whatever whose
To correct dependent-word fragment:
In most cases you can correct a dependent-word fragment by attaching it to the sentence that
comes after it or the sentence that comes before it.
Examples:
1. After I cashed my payback. I treated myself to dinner.
Correct: After I cashed my payback, I treated myself to dinner.
(The fragment has been attached to the sentence that comes after it.)
2. I won‘t leave the house. Until I hear from you.
Correct: I won‟t leave the house until I hear from you.
(The fragment has been attached to the sentence that comes before it.)
2. -ing and to Fragments
When an-ing word appears at or near the start of a word group, a fragment may result. Such
fragments often lack a subject and part of the verb.
To correct dependent-word fragment:
1. Attach the fragment to the sentence that comes before it or the sentence that comes after
it, whichever makes sense.
2. Add a subject and change the –ing verb part to the correct form of the verb.
3. Change being to the correct form of the verb be.
Examples:
1. Stepping hard on the accelerator. Solomon tried to beat the truck to the intersection. He lost
by a hood.
Stepping hard on the accelerator, Solomon tried to beat the truck to the intersection.
2. At the Chinese restaurant, Tomas used chopsticks. To impress his date. He spent one hour
eating a small bowl of rice.
At the Chinese restaurant, Tomas used chopsticks to impress his date.
3. Added detail Fragments
Added detail fragments lack a subject and a verb. They often begin with one of the
following words: also, especially, except, for example, like, including, such as
How to correct added detail fragments:
1. Attach the fragment to the complete thought that precedes it.
2. Add a subject and a verb to the fragment to make it a complete sentence.
3. Insert the fragment within the preceding sentence.
Example:
1. My mother likes watching daytime television shows. Especially old moves and soap operas.
She says that daytime television is less violent.
 Correct: My mother likes watching daytime television shows, especially old moves and soap
operas. She says that daytime television is less violent.
2. We treat many diseases. For instance, malaria, pneumonia, etc.
4. Missing-Subject Fragments
To correct missing-subject fragments:
1. Attach the fragment to the preceding sentence.
2. Add a subject (which can often be a pronoun standing for the subject in the preceding
sentence.)
Example:
1) Alicia loved getting wedding presents. But hated writing thank-you notes.
Correct: Alicia loved getting wedding presents but hated writing thank-you notes.
Alicia loved getting wedding presents. But she hated writing thank-you notes.
Alicia loved getting wedding presents, but she hated writing thank-you notes.
Exercise
Examine these sentences, especially the italicized parts.
 Even though the pizza was hot. He ate it quickly.
 This was the painting. That was portrayed by Leonardo da Vinci.
 Alula was a former Ethiopian fighter. The most famous man at the Dogali.
 Traveling through six cities in one week. They lost their luggage.
 As a result of this event. He had learned this lesson.
 The dog ran fast it jumped over the barrel.
 Caffeine is a stimulant it gives some people the courage.
 Hanna got the highest grade she is my best friend.
 He is the person the person gave me the letter.

B. Run-ons
The term run-on sentence labels an error with several different names, the most common being
fused sentence and comma splice.
Fused sentence refers to the error of two independent clauses put together without any
separating punctuation or linking device between them.
Example:
1. The witness was unwilling to testify he was afraid of the accused man.
2. Abebe told everyone in the room to be quite his favorite show was on.
3. I avoided deserts I was trying to lose weight.
Comma splice refers to the error of two independent clauses punctuated as one sentence. Placing
a comma in between two main clauses without a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor,
so, yet) results in the comma fault or comma splice.
Example:
1) Teresa works full-time for an accounting firm, and she takes evening classes.
2) I turned to the want ads, but I knew my dream job wouldn‘t be listed.
Fused sentence and comma splice can be corrected in one of the following ways:
1. Connect the main clauses with a coordinating conjunction and a comma.
2. Replace the comma with a semicolon.
3. Make a separate sentence of each main clause.
Example: 1
Run-on: The witness was unwilling to testify he was afraid of the accused man.
Revised 1: The witness was unwilling to testify; he was afraid of the accused man.
Revised 2: The witness was unwilling to testify. He was afraid of the accused man.
Revised 3: Because the witness was afraid of the accused man, he was unwilling to testify.
Example: 2
Run-on: Abebe told everyone in the room to be quite his favorite show was on.
Revised 1: Abebe told everyone in the room to be quite, for his favorite show was on.
Revied 2: Abebe told everyone in the room to be quite; his favorite show was on.
Revised 3: Abebe told everyone in the room to be quite. His favorite show was on.
Example: 3
Run- on: I avoided deserts I was trying to lose weight.
Revised 2: I avoided deserts; I was trying to lose weight.
Revised 3 I avoided deserts. I was trying to lose weight.
Revised 4: Because I was trying to lose weight, I avoided deserts
Example: 1(comma splice)
Run-on: Teresa works full-time for an accounting firm, and she takes evening classes.
Revised 1: Teresa works full-time for an accounting firm; in addition, she takes evening classes.
Example: 2
Run-on: I turned to the want ads, but I knew my dream job wouldn‘t be listed.
Revised 1: I turned to the wants ads; however, I knew my dream job wouldn‘t be listed.
Revised 2: I turned to the want ads. But I knew my dream job wouldn‘t be listed.

C. Dangling modifiers
Verbal phrase
Verbal phrase are phrases that start with a verbal. Verbals come in three forms: Participles,
Gerunds, and Infinitives. We will focus, however, on the verbal phrase (participles) that is
needed for this topic.
Participles function as noun modifiers. They have three forms: present, past, and perfect.
- The present participle ends in –ing (dancing, waiting).
- The past participle usually ends in –ed (danced, waited).
- The perfect participle is formed by the past participle preceded by having (having danced,
having waited).
A participial phrase contains a participle and any complements and modifiers it may have. The
entire phrase functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun:
- Coming in for a landing, the plane skidded off the way.
- Built in the 1700s, the church was a historic place.
- Having finished the cake, James started on the cookies.
When we come to a dangling modifier, it occurs when the implied subject of a verbal phrase is
not the same as the subject of the independent clause. Who or what is doing the action in the
verbal phrase must be named as the subject in the independent clause. When these two subjects
are not the same, you have created a dangling modifier. It is obvious that a modifier must have
something to modify, but a dangling modifier has nothing to modify because the word it
logically should modify is not present in its sentence. A modifier that opens a sentence must be
followed immediately by the word it is meant to describe. Otherwise, the modifier is said to be
dangling, and the sentence takes on an unintended meaning. For example:
Driving through the mountains, three bears were seen.
Driving through the mountains is a participial phrase that can modify anything capable of
driving. The sentence says that the bears are driving, but common sense tells us bears can‘t drive.
Although the writer surely meant that the bears were seen by some person who was driving, the
sentence contains no words directly identifying such a person.
There are two ways to correct / revise a dangling modifier:
1. Change the subject of the main clause or state an appropriate subject for the main clause so
that the stated subject goes with the implied subject of the modifying phrase.
Error: Driving through the mountains, three bears were seen.
Revised: Driving through the mountains, he/she saw three bears.
2. Change the dangling phrase into a subordinate clause by adding a subordinating conjunction
(while, as, after…) and a subject.
Error: Driving through the mountains, three bears were seen.
Revised: While Edward was driving through the mountains, he saw three bears.
Other examples:
Dangling: While turning over the bacon, hot grease splashed my arm. (Who is turning over the
bacon? The answer is not hot grease, as it unintentionally seems to be, but I. The subject I must
be added.)
Correct: 1. While I was turning over the bacon, hot grease splashed my arm.
3. While turning over the bacon, I was splashed by hot grease.
EXERCISE
INSTRUCTION: The following sentences have problems. Revise them as necessary. You
may have to change a word or two to make the sentence meaningful. Rewrite the sentence on the
line provided.
Example: Brushing the street, I saw the street sweeper go by.
Brushing the street, the street sweeper went by me
1. Blowing at 100 miles per hour, the roof was ripped off.
2. Shaving in front of the steamy mirror, the razor nicked Edward's chin.
3. Reading the newspaper, my dog sat with me on the front steps.
4. Pitching his tent, a snake bit Tony on the ankle.
5. Munching leaves from a tall tree, the children were fascinated by the giraffe.
6. Chopping the onions, the knife cut her finger.
7. Turning over the bacon, hot grease splashed my arm.
8. Knowing the answer, my hand was raised.
9. Walking in the rain, my shoes got wet.
10. Tired after work, a nap was what I wanted.
D. Misplaced Modifiers
Modern English relies heavily upon word order to show relationships among words for word
order is crucial to meaning in English. Just as word order is the principal way to keep subject–
verb–object relations clear, so it is the principal way to keep many modifiers attached to the
words they modify. Phrases and clauses that modify nouns require special care, since they
normally attach to the nearest noun preceding them.
Misplaced modifiers are words that, because of awkward placement, do not describe what the
writer intended them to describe. Misplaced modifiers often confuse the meaning of a sentence.
To avoid them, place words as close as possible to what they describe.
Example:
Error: Frozen shrimp lay in the steel pans that were melting rapidly.
(The italicized clause is a misplaced modifier.)
Revised: Frozen shrimp that were melting rapidly lay in the steel pans.
Error: Katherine performed the role with a dark attitude.
(The italicized phrase is a misplaced modifier.)
Revised: Katherine with a dark attitude performed the role.
George couldn‘t drive to work in his small sports car with a broken leg.
 (The sports car had a broken leg?)
George with a broken leg couldn‘t drive to work in his small sports car.
With a broken leg, George couldn‘t drive to work in his small sports car.
(The words describing George are now placed before George.)
The television was sold to us by a charming salesman with a money back guarantee.
(The salesman had a money back guarantee?)
The television with a money back guarantee was sold to us by a charming salesman.
He nearly brushed his teeth for twenty minutes every night.
(He came close to brushing his teeth but in fact did not brush them at all?)
He brushed his teeth nearly for twenty minutes every night.
EXERCISE
INSTRUCTION: Underline the misplaced word or words in the following sentences. Rewrite
the sentences and place the misplaced modifiers next to the words they describe.
1. Mr. Yassir Arafat was born in Jerusalem who was the first president of Palestine.
2. The sweater was torn which I bought from Tana Supermarket.
3. The man is a company manager who invited us to dinner.
4. The girl is my sweetheart with a long hair.
5. The woman is a medical doctor in a green coat.
6. Alula was a former Ethiopian fighter the most famous man at the Dogali.
7. The bank robber pointed his gun at the teller in the ski mask.
8. The torn student‘s book lay on the desk.
9. Abebe found a gold man‘s watch.
10. The dealer sold the Cadillac to the buyer with leather seats.
E. Agreement Errors
Subject and verbs have to agree in number. That means a singular subject must be matched to a
singular verb form, and a plural subject must be matched to a plural verb form. Mistakes in
subject - verb agreement sometimes occur in the following situations:
1. When words come between the subject and the verb
2. When verbs come before subject
3. With compound nouns and
4. With indefinite pronouns
1. When words come between the subject and the verb
Words that come between the subject and the verb do not change subject verb agreement.
Example: The sharp fangs in the dog‟s mouth look scary.
To easily make subject – verb agreement you may cross out the word that appear between the
subject and the verb.
Example: The piece of salt in the shakers needs to be changed.
An old chair with broken legs has sat in our basement for years.
2. Verb before subject
A verb agrees with its subject even when the verb comes before the subject. Words that may
precede the subject include: here, there, and in questions: who, which, what and where.
Example: There are wild dogs in our neigbourhood.
In the distance was a billow of black smock.
Here is the newspaper.
Where are the children‘s coats?
3. Compound Subjects
A compound subject is two subjects separated by a joining word, such as and. Subjects joined by
and generally take plural verb.
 Example: A patch work quilt and sleeping bag cover my bed in the winter.
Tewodros and Saron are contented couple.
When subjects are joined by either … or, neither … nor, not only … but also, the verb agrees
with the subject closer to the verb.
Example: Neither the negotiator nor the union leaders want the strike to continue.
The nearest subject ‗leaders‘ is plural and so is the verb.
Neither the union leaders nor the negotiator wants the strike to continue.
In this case the nearest subject ‗the negotiator’ is singular and so is the verb.

If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the other
singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject.

 The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on Valentine's Day.
 It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
 It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot

Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The phrase
introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in this case), but it
does not compound the subjects (as the word and would do).
The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.
The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.
4. Indefinite Pronoun
The following words listed in the table, known as indefinite pronoun, always take singular verbs.

word endings -one word endings -body word endings -thing others
One Nobody Nothing Each
Anyone Anybody Anything Either
Everyone Everybody Everything Neither
Someone somebody Something
No one
Note; the word both always takes plural verb.
Example: Everyone has done his or her homework.
Somebody has left her purse.
Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.
Neither of the two traffic lights is working.
Some indefinite pronouns — such as some are singular or plural depending on what they're
referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful choosing a verb to accompany
such pronouns.
Some of the beads are missing.
Some of the water is gone.
On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or plural; it
often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb — unless something else in the
sentence determines its number. (Writers generally think of none as meaning not any and will
choose a plural verb, as in "None of the engines are working," but when something else makes us
regard none as meaning not one, we want a singular verb, as in "None of the food is fresh.")

 None of you claims responsibility for this incident?

  None of you claim responsibility for this incident?
 None of the students have done their homework.(In this last example, the word their
prevent the use of the singular verb.

Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and anything those words
can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not add s-endings.
He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . . .
Exceptions:
Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require singular verbs.
 The news from the front is bad.
 Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless plural and
require a plural verb.
 My assets were wiped out in the depression.
 The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.
 Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.

The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb: the Miami Heat have
been looking …. The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent …. See the section on plurals
for help with this problem.

In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these pronouns are
followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is particularly true of interrogative
constructions: "Have either of you two clowns read the assignment?" "Are either of you taking
this seriously?" Burchfield calls this "a clash between notional and actual agreement."*

Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural when they're
really singular and vice-versa. Consult the section on the Plural Forms of Nouns and the section
on Collective Nouns for additional help. Words such as glasses, pants, pliers, and scissors are
regarded as plural (and require plural verbs) unless they're preceded the phrase pair of (in which
case the word pair becomes the subject).

 My glasses were on the bed.

 My pants were torn.
 A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.

Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are sometimes
singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The same is true, of course, when all,
any, more, most and some act as subjects.) Sums and products of mathematical processes are
expressed as singular and require singular verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly enough)
takes a singular verb: "More than one student has tried this." Look at the following examples:

 Some of the voters are still angry.

 A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
 Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
 Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
 Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
 Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.
  Two and two is four.
 Four times four divided by two is eight.

Exercise: Underline the correct verb from the ones provided in the bracket in each statement.
1. Neither of those hair styles (suit, suits) the shape of your face.
2. Somebody with much sensitivity always (mention, mentions) my birthmark.
3. Both of the puppies (is, are) cute in their own ways.
4. One of these earrings constantly (fall, falls) off my ear.
5. A crusty baking pan and a greasy plate (sit, sits) on the table.
6. Not only the assistant managers but also the secretary (know, knows) about my work.
7. Either the trash can or those socks (smell, smells) horrible.
8. There (is, are) dozens of furious shoppers waiting for the store to open.
9. Some members of the parent association (want, wants) to ban certain books from the library.
10. Misconception about apes like gorilla (has, have) turned a relatively peaceful animal in to a
terrifying monster.
F. Faulty Parallelism
The other error which affects the clarity of our sentences is faulty parallelism. But before we
directly proceed to faulty parallelism let‘s see what a parallelism is.
Parallelism is a basic principle of effective writing. Sentences that have coordinated clause
phrases or words are considered as having parallel structures (parallelism) when matching ideas
are expressed in similar ways. Parallelism is useful for constructing effective sentences, for
combining successive sentences to achieve economy and clarity, and for maintaining coherence
through out an entire paragraph. When you coordinate two or more elements in a sentence, the
writer is expected to state them parallel, that is, to state them in the same grammatical form.
Noun should be matched with noun, verb with verb, phrase with phrase, and clause with clause.
On the other hand, lack of parallelism can throw a reader off and produce ineffective sentences.
FAULTY: This product is sturdy, light and costs very little.
PARALLEL: This product is sturdy, light and inexpensive.
FAULTY: Ms. Kramer told us to check the value of the property and that our insurance
should be increased
PARALLEL: Ms Kramer told us that we should check the value of the property and
that we should increase our insurance.
OR Ms. Kramer told us to check the value of the property and to increase our insurance.
Parallel elements after a pair of correlative conjunctions
Parallelism works not only for pairs of words but also for pairs of conjunctions. Whenever it is
not awkward, have the correlative conjunctions taken parallel positions within a sentence; where
ever possible, and use parallel elements after both parts of conjunctions used in pairs. For
example, If not only is followed by a noun, but also should be followed by a noun;
If either is followed by a modifier or by a verb or by a whole clause, or should be followed by
a modifier or by a verb or by a whole clause. Elements so joined should be of equal weight.
FAULTY: The man gave not only money, but also advised me.
(Not only is followed by a noun; but also is followed by a verb)
PARALLEL: The man gave me not only money, but also advice.
 (The terms on both sides of the coordinating conjunctions match.)The man not only
gave me money but also advised me.
FAULTY: Our president not only visiting the casualties but also arranges immediate aid.
PARALLEL: Our president not only visits the casualties but also arranges immediate aid.

Exercise
INSTRUCTION: Revise the following sentences, rewording as necessary to express coordinate
ideas in parallel grammatical form.
1. My job includes checking the inventory, initialing the orders, and to call the suppliers.
________________________________________________________________
2. Lola likes to ride her moped, to do needlepoint, and playing games on her personal
Computer.
________________________________________________________________
3. Chocolate makes me gain weight, lose my appetite, and breaking out in hives.
________________________________________________________________
4. Adam convinced most of the audience because he argued logically, calmly, and was
reasonable.
________________________________________________________________
5. Curling over grown vines, porch furniture that was rotted, and sagging steps were my first
impressions of the neglected house.
________________________________________________________________
6. The jewel thief saw the diamonds on display and for the next morning planning the robbery.
________________________________________________________________
7. He is either visiting the buildings or work in his office.
________________________________________________________________
8. I like baking and to eat them.
________________________________________________________________
9. England, the USSR, and Americans were allies in WWII.
________________________________________________________________
10. The doctor advises plenty of green vegetables, relaxing sensibly, and to sleep eight hours
daily.
________________________________________________________________
11. The insurance policy neither covers fire nor theft.
________________________________________________________________
12. Ellen has neither the dedication nor does she have the management experience for that job
________________________________________________________________
13. Either Halima will fly to Addis or drive there.
________________________________________________________________
G. Shift in Point of View

1. Shift in Pronoun

An incorrect shift in person between two pronouns

Along the hiking trail, they unexpectedly found a place where you can picnic and swim.
I believe that one should take responsibility for their actions.
If one sets priorities carefully, you will usually succeed.

Incorrect pronoun shifts occur when a writer or speaker uses a pronoun in one person and then
illogically shifts to a pronoun in another person.
Solution A: Replace the incorrect pronoun with a pronoun that agrees with its antecedent.
Along the hiking trail, they unexpectedly found a place where they could picnic and swim.
I believe that one should take responsibility for one‘s actions.
If one sets priorities carefully, one will usually succeed.
Solution B: Replace the incorrect pronoun with an appropriate noun.
Along the hiking trail, they unexpectedly found a place where hikers could picnic and swim.
I believe that people should take responsibility for their actions.

2. Shift in Verb Tense

Problem 1
An unnecessary shift in tense
Every day Lily walks the dog and fed the cat.
Ari swung, and he gets a hit.
When two or more events occur at the same time, be sure to use the same verb tense to describe
both events.

Solution
Every day Lily walks the dog and feeds the cat.
Ari swung, and he got a hit.

Problem 2
A lack of correct shift in tenses to show that one event precedes or follows another
By the time the plane finally took off, we sat on the runway for an hour.
When events being described have occurred at different times, shift tenses to show that one event
precedes or follows another.

SOLUTION Shift from the past tense to the past perfect tense to indicate that one action began
and ended before another past action began. Use the past perfect tense for the earlier of the two
actions.
By the time the plane finally took off, we had sat on the runway for an hour.

15
Exercise
Correct shift in point of view problems in following statements.
Example: Dog owners should put tags on their dogs in case you lose their pet
1. Senait dedicated her book to the teacher who encouraged her long ago.
2. These days people never seem to get the recognition they deserve no matter how hard you try.
3. I would like to go to school where one can meet many people who are different from me.
4. When I first began t work as a waitress, I was surprised at how customers were to you.
5. They survived hardships and now looked forward to a better life.
6. When you drive on the highway, I got disgusted at the amount of trash I see.
7. We had already signed the contract when he arrived.
8. Students may not leave the exam room unless you have turned in the exam.
9. By the time the ticket office opened, a line of twenty-five people was formed.
10. The immigrants traveled a great distance, and they wanted to rest and settle down.

1.4 Diction– Choice of words

Vague - something which is not clear or ambiguous

One of the errors which affect the clarity of a sentence is vague diction. Vagueness is one of the
major weaknesses in diction. Words are vague when, in context, they do not convey to a reader
one specific meaning. We may have a word with several meanings. And any word that has more
than one meaning is bound to cause trouble. Consider this sentence:
Example:
I could tell by the funny look on her face that she was mad.
If you take the word mad
very angry: affected by great displeasure or anger
go mad when she finds out.
mentally ill: affected with a psychiatric disorder
exciting: very exciting or boisterous
passionate about something: very fond of, enthusiastic about, or interested in something, often to
the exclusion of everything else
I‟m not mad about the color.
mad
markedly aggressive: unusually aggressive or ferocious (refers to animals; offensive in some
contexts)
Words like ―funny‖ and ―mad‖ can have quite specific meanings, but not in this context. What
does ―mad‖ mean here ? Certainly not ―insane‖, which it might mean in another sentence. ―angry‖,
then, or ―annoyed‖, ―irritated‖ , ―offended‖? A reader cannot be sure. But the writer can remove
any doubt by using more specific diction:
I could tell by the way her face stiffened that she was offended.
In order to make our messages clear, when we choose words, we should deserve special caution,
i.e., the words we choose should be which give one clear interpretation; they should be free from
vagueness.
The other major weakness in diction is jargon. Jargon is a language that is used by a particular
group, profession, or culture, especially when the words and phrases are not understood or used by
other people. The chief characteristic of jargon is: highly abstract diction, often technical, with a
fondness for ―learned‖ rather than popular words.

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A word in one profession may give a different meaning in the other profession.
Medical jargon Common Use
Patient patient
Stool stool
Examination room examination room
Patient (ordinary use) - capable of waiting, able to tolerate difficult circumstances
Patient (jargon) - somebody who is being given medical treatment
Stool (ordinary use) - a simple seat with three or four legs and no back or arm rests
Stool (jargon) - a piece of excrement
Stool (jargon) - the base of a plant, a clump of shoots or suckers
Examination room (ordinary use) – a place where students are evaluated with paper and pencil.
Examination room (jargon) - a place where a patient is investigated for a disease.
Note:
During diction - Know your audience.
- Don‘t use jargons in ordinary writing.
- Use common words which give one clear interpretation for all peoples.
Over involved sentence structure:
The other failure in clarity comes from over-involved sentence structure. The following example
deals with the lack of clarity that comes from trying to handle too many ideas in one sentence.
Last month while I was visiting the federal buildings in Washington
on a guided tour, we went to the National Art Gallery, where we had been for an hour
when the rest of the group were ready to move on to the Treasury Building and I
told a friend with the group that I wanted to stay in the Art Gallery a while longer
and I would rejoin the group about half an hour later, but I never did, even though I
moved more quickly than I wanted to from room to room, not having seen after about
four hours all that there was to see.

As written, this sentence of 106 words consists of three main clauses and eight subordinate clauses
.This involved structure is hard going for both writer and reader. The revision should seek to
simplify the structure by reducing the number of clauses per sentence. This can be done by either
or both of two methods; by distributing the clauses into two or more sentences, or by omitting
material not necessary to the statement. The second method depends on the writer‘s view of what
is necessary. There are several ways of revising the sentence. Let us consider two:

While visiting the National Art Gallery with a tour group last month, I stayed for four
hours after the group left. Even then I did not see all I wanted to.

This version reduces the original eleven clauses to four and condenses the 106-word sentence to
thirty-one words in two sentences.

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 Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs
2. Fundamentals of Paragraph Writing
1.1 Definition
A paragraph is a group of sentences that form a distinct unit developing one major idea. It
usually begins with an indentation, and its length varies according to the complexity of the main
idea to be developed. A typical paragraph quite often has about one hundred – hundred fifty
words and seven to ten sentences in which every point in the paragraph having a useful role to
play in fulfilling the purpose of the paragraph. Generally, a paragraph is a group of sentences
that form a distinct unit developing one main idea or point.
N.B A good paragraph is well organized, properly linked and fully developed
2.2 Organic Elements of a Paragraph (parts of a paragraph)
A paragraph, despite its length, should include the following parts:

2.2.1 Introduction 2.2.2 Body 2.2.3 Conclusion

Note: A: The topic sentences introduce the main idea of a paragraph.
B: The supporting sentences develop the paragraph.

C: The concluding (terminating) sentences end the paragraph.

2.2.1. Introduction
The introductory sentence is an opening sentence in a paragraph. This sentence identifies the
topic for the reader and makes a statement of some kind about the topic. This sentence leaves the
reader with the feeling that more information will follow. The reader expects that there will be
some description or explanation within the paragraph that tells how many, which one, what kind
of, when, where, how, why, etc. But what these always happen is when Example:

Suppose you want to write a paragraph about Police Work. The introductory part (topic sentence)
of your paragraph might look like:
Police officers perform many important services. _____________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________.
Notice that this sentence is rather general as it stands. When we say general, the sentence by
itself does not tell enough about: What are these services? Why are they important? Who
performs them? When and where are they performed? And so on. But you should know that
though this sentence doesn't answer such questions, it introduces an overall idea that you want
to discuss later in the paragraph.
Topic Sentence
Each paragraph has a clear topic sentence. The topic sentence alerts readers to the essence of the
paragraph by stating the central idea and by expressing the writer‘s attitude toward it.
A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. It tells the reader
what to expect about the information that will follow. Without the use of a topic sentence,
developing a paragraph can be difficult.

18
Positions of Topic Sentences
As it has been said earlier, a topic sentence is a sentence whose main idea claims or controls the
rest of the paragraph; the body of a paragraph explains, develops or supports with evidence the
topic sentence‘s main idea or claim.
Topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph, but not necessarily. It may come, for
example, after a transition sentence; it may even come at the end of a paragraph. In other words,
topic sentences can appear at several points in a paragraph.
Position(s) of topic sentence(s) in a paragraph can be:
 the beginning of the paragraph
 the middle of the paragraph
 the end of the paragraph
 the beginning and the end of the paragraph
Here are some examples of a topic sentence in different positions of a paragraph (in bold
print):
1. There were a variety of reasons why people said they went to football games. Some of
the fans said they went to games because they felt it would help their team to win the series.
Others considered going to foot ball games more exciting than watching them on TV. A few
felt that purchasing tickets to football games would ensure the financial success of the game
and, thus, its continuance. And a very small number explained that going to football games
was strictly a social occasion.
2. Homework is one of those necessary evils of being a student. The one sure way that
a teacher knows how to measure your progress in his/her course is to assign homework that tests
your knowledge of the information that is taught. Some instructors, however, seem to use
homework as a way of reassuring themselves that they have ―taught‖ the information to the
students. Many students, aware of these ideas about homework, tend to treat homework as a
chore, putting little or no thought into the work that is turned in. However, like any
designated task, homework is a reflection not only on you as a student, but also on you as
an individual. When an employer has to decide whether or not to hire you, he or she has to
consider your ability to complete the demands of the working world. For many employers,
the way that you handle your ―homework‖ in college often indicates the way that you will
handle your homework on the job. For example, often your grade in a class is determined by
the quality of the homework that you do. That homework grade can be a significant part of
your final grade for the course. In fact, many students can attest to an experience where the
homework grade made the difference in their final course grade. Once you leave college and
attempt to find a job, those homework grades translate into final GPAs for your major.
Those final GPAs show up on resumes and job applications and employers look to see if you
have done your ―homework‖ in school as a key factor in determining if you will do your
―homework‖ on the job.
1. In Arab countries, where women do not have equal rights, men commonly cut in front of
women at ticket window. In Britain and the United States, where ―first come, first served‖ is
almost an obsession, many businesses have customers take numbers to ensure that ―first
come‘ is really ―first served.‖ By contrast, in southern Europe, where people don‘t like
businesses regulating their behavior, lines are disorderly, with lots of pushing and shoving
for the best position; the strongest or most aggressive win. Anthropologists who study line-

19
 forming behavior have concluded that the way people wait in line reflects cultural values
about fairness.
2. The wonder of omelets is that so many things can be put into them. Take cheese, for
example. All sorts of cheese, like Swiss or provolone, feta or mozzarella, slide deliciously
into the omelet's fold, enhancing the texture of the eggs. And vegetables, from the
predictable onions and green peppers to the less common spinach and kohlrabi, add vital
flavor. Still more lavish, for those who are not vegetarians, is the addition of a meat,
possibly pepperoni or bacon or ham. But the omelet's most exotic components might be the
fruits that give it tang: raisins and avocados. Maybe someday an enterprising chef will
figure out how to mix liquor and candy with eggs to produce vodka – and – fudge omelets.
NOTE
Topic sentences are not the only way to organize a paragraph, and not all paragraphs need a topic
sentence. For example, paragraphs that describe, narrate, or detail the steps in an experiment do
not usually need topic sentences. Topic sentences are useful, however, in paragraphs that
analyze and argue. Topic sentences are particularly useful for writers who have difficulty
developing focused, unified paragraphs (i.e., writers who tend to sprawl). Topic sentences help
these writers develop a main idea or claim for their paragraphs, and, perhaps most importantly,
they help these writers stay focused and keep paragraphs manageable.
Summary
1) Topic sentence expresses the main idea of a paragraph
2) A topic sentence usually states a definite opinion or attitude.
3) A topic sentence provides the reader with a clear understanding of what a paragraph is
about.
4) A topic sentence gives direction to a paragraph that both the writer and reader can follow.
5) A topic sentence often begins a paragraph or is found near the beginning of a paragraph.
6) Other sentences within a paragraph relate to the topic sentence
7) The final " wrap - up " sentence in a paragraph often reinforces the topic sentence
Exercise
Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph: the sentence that expresses the paragraph's
main idea. [Remember: The topic sentence may not always be the first sentence in the
paragraph.]
1. The weather in March was unpredictable. One day there was heavy ground fog, and the next
day was clear. It rained for a few days and cleared up and then it rained again. One day the
temperature ranged from 45 degrees to 75 degrees, and the next day the temperature stayed
around 55 degrees all day long. It was difficult to plan activities or know what to wear with
such un- predictable weather.
2. Your sweaters are quite colorful. I like the bright red one you wear to football games. I also
like the purple turtleneck sweater you wear every Friday. My favorite is the red, white, and
blue striped one you wear on holidays. But the wildest one has to be the fluorescent orange
pullover with the pink and black polka dots. I couldn't believe that you wore it to church last
Sunday.
1.Freddie is very shy. At parties he sits in a corner by himself all night. When he is in a crowd,
you would never notice him. When you talk to him, he looks at the ground and stammers out
one-word replies. He never speaks in class, and I've never seen him talk to a girl .He is a nice
person but few people ever get to know him

20
 2.The sky is a clear blue. Sparrows chirp in the early mornings. The fruit trees in the backyard
are beginning to bloom. The hills are turning green, and purple and yellow wildflowers are
appearing in the fields. The snow on top of Camel Mountain has all melted. It must finally be
spring.
3.The sidewalks in our neighborhood are filthy. The melting snow has left a muddy film on the
concrete. Garbage is piled up because of the collectors' strike. Packs of dogs have left their
waste everywhere. Old newspapers carpet the sidewalks, and neighborhood drunks have left
their bottles piled against the buildings. You can't walk anywhere without stepping on
something.

2.2.2 Body
The body section of a paragraph is the part of the paragraph which provides details that refer
back to the introductory sentence. The job of providing the specific information that answers
questions about the introductory (topic) sentence is carried out by the other sentences in the
paragraph. These other sentences are usually called "supporting sentences". The information
they give is commonly called "details" or "supporting details".
Supporting sentences can supply information about the topic in a number of ways. They may
answer the question what kind of? by defining or explaining something in the topic sentence, or
by offering examples or a description of it. They may answer the question why? by giving
reasons that will help the reader to understand or agree with the idea suggested by the topic
sentence. In answering some other questions, they may describe the causes or origins of the
topic sentence, draw a conclusion from it, predict new events or ideas, or compare certain ideas
with other ideas. They may also accomplish several of these purposes at the same time.
Let's refer to our example about police work to review more thoroughly how supporting
sentences can add information. Notice how the writer has added some details after the opening
(topic) sentence:
Police officers perform many important services. They may be involved in solving
crimes. They may find themselves helping lost children. Often police officers are
also called upon to calm frightened people or to assist someone who has been
wronged. They may give aid to motorists whose cars have broken down or who have
been in accidents.
The details the writer has added explain How? or In what ways? police officers can perform
important services. A writer needs to be sure that most of the details that are included in the
material refer directly back to the topic sentence. Other details may be indirectly related; that is,
they may describe one of the directly related details.
If we go back to our sample paragraph on police work, for example, "helping children" is a
directly related detail because it answers the question How? about police work The word "lost"
describes children, however, rather than police work, and is therefore an indirectly related
detail. The details in this paragraph all refer back to the topic either directly or indirectly. So it is
clear, as you read the entire paragraph, exactly what the topic is.
In this part of technical writing, you are required to focus on developing each paragraph
effectively (providing enough details to support fully the points in the body paragraph),
arranging paragraph in logical sequence (the paragraph should progress logically from one
idea to another by using time order, emphatic order, and spatial order)., and connecting

21
paragraphs with transitions-(you should be thinking about ways to organize and connect those
details).

2.2.3 The Conclusion

The concluding sentence draws the paragraph to a close, and reflects the ideas, expressed in
the topic sentence. In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of the
paragraph which summarizes the information that has been presented. .
Here is a sample paragraph in which the concluding sentence summarizes the information
presented by the supporting sentences.
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada
has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a
reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by
well–trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally,
Canada‘s cites are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots
of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.
Note:
3. The concluding (clincher) sentence restates the main idea, rather than merely repeating
it, in terms of the nature of the development of the paragraph.
4. Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph is
very short. However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a concluding
sentence.
5. A concluding sentence may not be the last sentence of a paragraph, as the writer may
want to end within a sentence that leads to the point of the next paragraph.
Stages in paragraph writing ( planning paragraph)
Before we are going to write a paragraph, we must follow the following steps;
1. Think & choose the topic or become sure you understand the given topic.
2. Write a general statement or prepare topic sentences for the topic.
3. Jot down possible details that answer questions about the topic sentences or list points that
develop your paragraph in note form.
4. Check your final list and cross out any point not directly relevant.
5. Arrange the points (details) according to relevancy, logical order, chronological etc.
6. Develop these details in to complete sentences or draft your first paragraph. I.e. put the ideas
in sentences form.
7. Read through and check to make whatever changes example; you may check for grammar,
diction, punctuation, and concentrate on correcting any language mistakes.
Example 1 :
A: Topic: Honey in Ethiopia _ Honey production in Ethiopia
_ Honey production in Tigray
_ Honey production in and around Mekelle
_ Honey production in Kelamino
B: Topic sentences: Honey production in Kelamino.
Back ground
No of beehives
Facilities
Market potential etc.

22
Example 2 : A: topic: Rural areas of Ethiopia
B: topic sentences: Rural areas in Ethiopia have three problems.
C: What these three problems?
The answer to this question is used for writing the details.
Point 1- poverty
Point2- lack of education
Point3- poor medical care
Activity
In the above example, a topic sentence with possible details is given. Write a complete paragraph
by writing complete sentences of the details. You may start with the topic sentence followed by
details like this:
Rural areas in Ethiopia have three problems. One of these is poverty. It………..
………………………………………………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………………………...

2.3. Principles of Paragraph Construction

2.3.1 Unity
A paragraph is a group of sentences that develops one main point or idea. One important feature
of an effective paragraph is unity: all sentences, supporting sentences, the detail sentences, and
the concluding sentences within the paragraph are related to the main point and simply means
oneness of ideas in the paragraph.
Note : if your paragraph contains a sentences that are not related to the main topic, then we say
that the paragraph ;‗lacks unity ‘’( off-topic)
Here is an example of a unified paragraph. The first sentence expresses the main point of the
paragraph and the rest of the sentences relate to the main point.
1. Your sister is an attractive woman. Her large, dark eyes are beautiful. Her complexion is
flawless, and she has a lovely big smile. Her long, black hair is full and shiny. She is tall and
slender, and her every movement is graceful. She also dresses stylishly, and her assortment
of passant skirts and loose- fitting blouses look great on her.
The main point of the paragraph (how attractive the woman is) is supported by a number of
specific details: beautiful eyes, flawless skin, a lovely smile, beautiful hair graceful movements,
and stylish dress. Notice that there is even more specific detail to describe some of these
features; large, dark eyes, full, shiny black hair, and passant skirts and loose- fitting blouses.
2. We had a terrible storm last night. The winds blew up to fifty miles an hour and it rainedvery
hard. Eucalyptus trees by the river blew over, and one tree hit a power line and blacked out
the area for five hours. Downtown the main street was flooded; the cars were left stranded in
the bumper- deep water. Before morning the river flooded its banks and people living nearby
were forced to flee their homes with whatever belongings they could gather. It was the worst
storm in the country since 1958.
The main point of the paragraph is that the storm was terrible. The rest of the sentence relate to
the main point by showing how bad the storm was. It knocked down trees, flooded Main Street,
caused a blackout, and forced people from their homes. The paragraph is unified because all the
sentences relate to the main point of the paragraph.
2. The housing industry in Omaha is not doing well. House sales are down 65 percent from
two years ago. The average length a house is on the market before being sold is two years.
The average house price has actually dropped $5,000 this year. There has also been no

23
 new housing construction within the city limits in the last six months. Two building
contractors have gone out of business, and the carpenter's union has sixty-five
unemployed members. Lumber sales have dropped over 35 percent, and the local mill has
sold three logging trucks and laid off twenty- five workers. It has been the worst period for
the housing industry in over thirty years.
The main point of the paragraph (the housing industry is doing badly) is supported by a number
of specific facts: sales are down, house prices are down, construction has stopped, carpenters are
unemployed, and lumber sales are down. The last sentence concludes the paragraph by
reinforcing just how bad the housing situation is. But the following paragraph has sentences that
are not related to the main idea.
4. When I was growing up, one of the places I enjoyed most was the cherry tree in the back
yard. Behind the yard were an alley and then more houses. Every summer when the cherries
began to ripen, I used to spend hours high in the tree, picking and eating the sweet, sun-
warmed cherries. My mother always worried about my falling out of the tree, but I never did.
But I had some competition for the cherries- flocks of birds that enjoyed them as much as I
did and would perch all over the tree, devouring the fruit whenever I wasn‟t there. I used to
wonder why the grown-ups never ate any of the cherries; but actually when the birds and I
had finished, there weren‟t many left.
No sentence is completely irrelevant to the general topic of this paragraph (the cherry tree), but
the sentences Behind the yard was an alley and then more houses and My mother always worried
about my falling out of the tree, but I never did do not develop the specific idea in the first
sentence: enjoyment of the cherry tree.
Exercise 1
Circle the letter of one sentence in each group that is not clearly related to the topic for that
group of sentences.
1. Topic: I am sick of eating 'Ambasha' 3. Topic: Bahir Dar is a pleasant place to
a. I've been eating 'Ambasha' twice a day all live
semesters. a. There are three movie theaters in town.
b. It is starting to taste like dog food b. The people are friendly.
c. I love Injera very much. c. There is very little crime.
d. I'm getting fat from eating 'Ambasha'. d. There is a bad smell coming from the town
e. I get a stomachache just thinking about dump.
eating another 'Ambasha' e. There are many places to shop for clothes.
2. Topic: There are many ways to study for 4. Topic: The baby isn't hungry this
a test. morning.
a. You can review a few hours the night a. She keeps spitting out her food.
before the test. b. She keeps playing with her food.
b. You can study an hour a night the week of c. She turns her head when I try to feed her
the test d. Her stomach looks stuffed.
c. You can study with friends and help each e. She loves rice pudding for lunch.
other 5. Topic: Registration this semester was
d. You can get up early the morning of the confusing.
test and study a. Many of the classes I wanted were closed.
e. You can improve your grades by attending b. I had to go to six different buildings to
class regularly register.

24
c. I couldn't find the teachers whose e. The computer for registration worked very
signatures I needed. well.
d. I had to fill out three different applications
Exercise 2
Each of the following paragraphs contains one sentence that is not clearly related to the
topic for that paragraph. Cross out the unrelated sentence so that the paragraph becomes
unified.
1. We had a short spring this year. The weather was cold through March and into April due to
storms moving down from Canada. There was still snow on the mountains in late April hugely. It
is usually gone by the end of March. We had only two nice weeks in May with the temperatures
in the low 70s. The winter was unusually mild, however ... But by Mid- May temperatures were
in the 90s, and it was hot from then on.

2. The dormitory rooms were unusually large. They were sixteen - foot - high ceilings added to
the feeling of spaciousness, as did the light - colored walls and the mirrored closet doors. There
was space in the rooms for two double beds, dressers, a console television, and a sofa and
chair. The cupboard space was small and cramped. They looked twice the size of your average
dormitory rooms.
3. My brother is driving me crazy. First he borrows my razor and doesn't put it back. Then he'll
sneak into the kitchen and eat the pancakes I've cooked for myself. He helps me with my
homework, which I appreciate. Then he borrows
my car and returns it with the gas tank empty. Finally, he borrows money from me and never
pays it back. I‟ll be glad when he moves out of the house.
Exercise 3
Each of the following paragraph topics is followed by two sentences that relate to the topic.
Add two more sentences of your own that are also related to the topic, and hence, would
make a unified paragraph
Example
1. Topic: Mildred's front yard is full of 3.Topic: The library is a good place to study:
flowers. a. It's quiet most of the time.
a. There are rose bushes below the kitchen b.The lighting is very good.
window. c.
b. Blooming sweet pea vines cover a trellis to d.
the north of the living room window 4. Topic: It's difficult going to school and
c. Petunias cower the bed in front of the low working at the same time.
d. Pansies glow in pots on the front parch a. There is no time for any social life.
2. Topic: Abe rash enjoys living away from b. It is easy to get tired and run - down
home. c.
a. She is glad to be closer to the University. d.
b.She likes being away from the younger 5. Topic: I hate the desks in room 36.
brothers a. The seats are hard and cold.
c. ___________________________________ b. The desks squeak constantly.
d.___________________________________ c.
d.

25
2.3.2 Coherence
Literally, the word to cohere means to hold together. A paragraph is said to have coherence
when its sentences are woven together or flow into each other smoothly from one sentences to
the next sentences. If a paragraph is coherent, the reader moves easily from one sentence to the
next without feeling that there are gaps in the thought, puzzling jumps, or points not made. If a
paragraph lacks coherence the reader will feel that he is reading a collection of separate
statements rather than an integrated discussion. Therefore, the notion behind coherence is related
to having natural flow of ideas in the paragraph.

You can achieve coherence in your paragraph by using several cohesive devices. The followings
are some of these devices.
2.3.2.1 Pronouns: Since each pronoun must refer to an antecedent, a pronoun and its antecedent
form a link. You can often make a paragraph coherent merely by using pronouns properly. On
the other hand, incorrectly used pronouns can weaken coherence. In the following examples,
notice how pronouns in the second sentence of each pair provide coherence by referring to the
important subjects in the first.
Example:
 Self-help books continue to proliferate. They appeal to anxieties of our middle-
aged society.
 Patients must fast for twelve hours before the test. They should also avoid red meats for
seventy-two hours before coming in.
2.3.2..2 Repetition: Substituting a pronoun for a noun is actually a kind of repetition. Direct
repetition of a word or expression will also produce a similar effect. In other words, you can
achieve coherence by repeating some key words.
Example: Exposure to too much sun can damage the skin. This damage is irreversible and can
result in skin cancer.
- Use direct repetition with care. Overdoing it will give an awkward, immature ring to your
writing.
Example: Daily receipts are taken to the central office. Daily receipts are then tallied….
Using synonyms: You can get much the same transitional effect by using synonyms or slightly
altered forms of the repeated expressions.
Example: Bill Clinton has been somewhat distant since leaving the White House. The former
president has settled in to a life of privacy.
2. 3. 2. 3 Transitional markers: Transitional terms make a paragraph coherent by relating ideas.
They are referred to as the ‗glue‘ to hold ideas together. Like pronouns, many of these terms
come to mind automatically, but you should carefully choose among them. The commonest
markers are the simple connectives and, or but, for, which serve as a bridges over which the
reader may easily pass from one sentence or clause to the next. Others - sometimes called
transitional connectives - indicate the direction, which the new sentence is about to take and to
prepare the reader for what is to follow. Here is a partial list of common transitional terms:
Common Transitional Words/ Phrases for Coherence
1. Addition
again besides further more like wise then too
also finally in addition more over thirdly
and fourthly in addition to this secondly too
and then further in like manner similarly

26
2. Comparison
at the same time In the same way
in like manner Like X, Y [verb]….
in the same way X and Y are similar in that (they)…..
like wise X is similar to Y in that (they)…..
similarly One way in which X is similar to Y is (that)…..
Another way in which X is similar to Y is (that)…..
3. Concession
but I know that of course
granted that to be sure now
4. Contrast
otherwise in contrast where as /while but
conversely instead not withstanding yet
however inversely on the contrary though
in another sense never the less on the one hand to be sure
in contrast with this nonetheless on the other hand still
yet at the same time despite it turning now to another matter. even so
5. Emphasis
above all I repeat likewise
add to this in any event moreover
and also indeed that is
besides in fact too
even more in other words
6. Enumeration
finally further second then again
first next then
7. Illustration
all things considered incidentally thus thus it follows
as you will see in connection with that is take the case of
for example in this way therefore as an example of this
for instance just as to illustrate in particular
8. Parenthesis
by the way incidentally to digress
coming back to parenthetically to resume
9. Progression
as (in consequence) hence on that account
for that reason in the first place therefore
further in the next place
further more more over
10. Retrospection
as has already been suggested hitherto up to this point
if what I have said is correct so far
11. Similarity
by the same token in similar manner similarly
in like manner likewise
12. Succession in time or place

27
 after this (incident) beyond presently to the left
afterwards later then
before this (event or place) next to the right
13. Time and Sequence
after this while
after wards eventually here up on next
at last formerly in the mean time now
at length forth with meanwhile previously
at the same time from now on immediately since then
subsequently there after there upon where upon
14. Summary
as has been said indeed in short in retrospect
for these reasons in fine in sum to sum up
in a word in general we now see
in brief in other words to recapitulate
15. Result/ conclusion
accordingly consequently in fine there up on
after all finally later thus
as a consequence hence so
as a result in conclusion then
at last in consequence therefore

Example of the Transitional Words/ Phrases used for Coherence in a writing

Indulgences developed from the medieval church's concept of penance

Time as a substitute for punishment due to sin. At first, the penitent was
iim
Contrast required to make a pilgrimage or perform an act of charity. But such
activities were only substitutes for the real punishment, and it was a
simple step to make further substitutes for the original ones. For
Example example, the sinner could make his penance by paying the cost of
going on a pilgrimage rather than actually making a trip. In an age
Repetition when travel was both expensive and dangerous, such a monetary

Effect substitution was sensible. As a result, the sinner suffered

Effect financially, and the church could use his money for acts of charity.
Repetition Thus indulgences were born. The opportunities for abusing this

Contrast practice of giving money in place of penance, however, were

Repetition numerous. Indulgences were frequently criticized, and Luther’s

Pronoun famous attack on them was one among many. Yet the principle is Contrast
sound and difficult to attack without undermining the entire theology
of penance.

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2. 3. 2. 4 Sequencing for Coherence
Suppose you have many notes about your ideas for a writing assignment. How do
you put all these ideas together in a logical way that will make sense to the reader?
The sentences should follow each other in the most sensible order for developing the
main idea of the paragraph. This process of putting things in their proper order is
called Paragraph sequencing.
 There are several possible orders for sequencing:
A. Chronological sequencing
B. Spatial sequencing
C. Generality sequencing, and
D. Sequence in importance
A. Time order (chronological order)
In telling about an event the clearest way to present the moment is to give the
details in chronological order. You should use this sequence for related details or
examples when you want to state them in the time order in which they occur. In
other words, you will list the earliest details first in your paragraph and the latest
or most recent details toward the end of your paragraph. This is a very common
sequence for a series of events. The details in a paragraph of this kind tend to
answer such questions as what happens first. And then what happens last?
Paragraphs that relate either a series of incidents or steps in a process often follow
such chronological order; in this way is mostly used in narrative paragraphs or
essays. The following paragraph, for example, is narrative. (The details are
arranged in chronological order)
Example:
Sunday was a long day. I had to get up at 5:00 am to attend an Easter sunrise service.
Then I had duties at the church the rest of the morning. In the afternoon, I visited the
Manor Rest Home and talked to shut–ins who seldom has visitors. Then I went to my
aunt’s for dinner and played cards with Uncle Herman until about 9:00 pm. Then I
drove up in to the hills with my family for a special Easter midnight chapel service in the
pines. We stayed in a mountain cabin with ten other people that night and did not get to
sleep until after 2:00 a m. I was exhausted after twenty-one hours of activity.
B. Spatial Order
If you want your readers to be able to picture a scene or object you are describing,
you could use a spatial sequencing of details. This sequence describes a scene or
object by going from one part of it to another in an organized. For instance if you
intended your details to describe a building of some kind you might want to
sequence the details so that you went from the bottom to the top of the building by
answering such questions as what is on the first floor ? the second floor ? the third
floor? and soon, until you had covered all the floors .or you might wish to go in the
opposite direction ,beginning at the top and proceeding down , floor by floor, to the
lowest floor. Or you might describe the same building by going from side to side;
answering questions like what is on one side of the building? the section in the
middle ? the other side of the building ? And, of course ,you could move in any
direction inside the building; left to right , north to south, up to down, side to side,
near to far, or whatever.

29
Example 1:
As you enter the library, you are greeted by paintings on each side of the
door. The painting on the right is of the town’s high school, and on the left
is a watercolor of the town’s city hall. There are several other works of art
in the main body of the building. As you face the archway on the left, you
discover pieces of pottery enclosed in a glass case. A ceiling mural appears
over the archway, and on the right a wall hanging has been hung. The
entire library is filled with works of art.

Expressions which help to answer the details question “where?” such as:
Over On top (of)
Under On bottom (of)
In front of Along side (of)
Behind Outside (of)
Near Inside (of)
Far from
C. General Sequencing:
1. Specific-to-General
2. General-to-Specific
1. Specific-to-General
Specific terms give more information than general ones. For example, surgeon implies doctor,
but doctor does not identify a person as a surgeon. If you find yourself writing people when you
mean college students or taxi drivers, you are not asking yourself this important question: am I
identifying what I am referring to as specifically as I should? The following list shows how little
effort it takes to become more specific.

Example 1
General Specific More Specific
Vehicle car Toyota Cressida
Religion Christianity Roman Catholicism
Building hotel Sheraton Hotel
Example 2
General: The vegetables were prepared.
Specific: We chopped the tomato, diced the carrots, and sliced the onions.
Specific: We steamed the carrots and baked the Idaho potatoes.
Example 3 (At paragraph level).
If a paragraph begins with specific details involving many layers of details and examples and if
it is closed with a general statement at the end, it is reasonable to say that the paragraph is
organized from specific-to-general.

30
 They should be good listeners. They should also be good talkers, since they have to
sum up and restate what both sides say. They have to promise to keep private what
is said at a mediation session. They also need to be able to encourage others to open
up and say what is on their minds. These are the qualities of good mediators.

2. General-to-Specific
When writing about a topic that involves many layers of details, you can start the paragraph with
a general statement, followed by supporting details and examples that become more and more
specific.
Example 1: When a paragraph begins with a general statement and followed by specific details,
it is logical to say the paragraph is organized from general-to-specific.
In the future, a young woman trained to be an engineer will not only improve her own life
but may also make our country a better place for everyone. She may, for instance, devise a
new kind of automobile engine that does not require gasoline at all. That would make our
country less dependent on other nations for oil imports. Her invention would also serve the
cause of world peace, because our country truly free from pressure by other countries would
be stronger politically, economically, and militarily and would be better able to resist threats
to world peach. She also involves in any activities of the society as many women engineers of
today step through factories‘ corridors in greater numbers than ever before.
D. Sequence in Importance (emphatic order)
You generally sequence the points by their importance; you should use this sequence when you
want to give several details or examples and wish to start your paragraph with the most important
or more interesting ones. You may do this in order to attract the attention of your readers at the
very start, especially readers who may be impressed for time or who may be uninterested in your
subject.
To start with the least important and to lead to the most important , for example, a comparison of
two cars might start with the engine and its importance , then work outward to the passenger
compartment, its dimension and comfort, ending with the sporty exterior and sunroof. You must
decide which sequencing method is best for your purpose and audience.
Example: Suppose you wanted to write a paragraph for this topic sentence:
When I returned to my old neighborhood, I was sad to see how many things had changed.
-Mr. Lewis, my old history teacher, had died in a car accident.
-Mike‘s Pizzeria, a local hangout, was destroyed in a fire.
-The park bench where I spent hours reading was gone.
From the incidents, because it seems to be the most important would best be first in the
paragraph, it would be best discussed first in the paragraph.
Example:
Our department needs lots of fixing-up. Though it may be difficult to fix-up all of them at the
same time, we have got to fix the leaky roof first before the September rains come. Next, we
need to patch the big holes in the bed room walls and then strip the peeling paint off the walls.
Then we can repaint the apartment. After the walls are painted, we can work on replacing the
linoleum squares in the kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later, the living room carpet needs
shampooing, and we should replace that old swaybacked sofa. Then we won‘t be embarrassed to
have company over once in a while.

31
Of course, only the writer himself could determine which was most or least significant. The
writer can follow the opposite approach, for example, the least important ones come first in the
paragraph, the important next and the most important details come last. This arrangement allows
you to build up your reader‘s interest gradually (to create suspense if it is in fiction writing), with
your final details providing a climax.
2.3.3 Completeness
Completeness is relative. How much explanation an idea requires depends on how much the
reader needs. This is a decision the writer must make out of knowledge of the subject and of the
audience. It is an error to give either too much explanation or not enough. Usually the latter is the
more serious. Giving a reader unnecessary explanation may be boring but giving too little may
block communication. Consider the following example.
Pregnant women sometimes attempt to mold the character of an unborn child by
studying poetry, art, or mathematics. What we know of prenatal development makes such
attempts seem utterly impossible. How could such extremely complex influences pass
from mother to child?
This statement is incomplete. If the writer stops here, all he has given his readers is an
unsupported judgment that these attempts will have no influence on the child. But that is not
enough. Readers still need to know why the attempts will not work. The rest of the paragraph
explains why not.
There is no connection between their nervous systems. Even the blood vessels of mother
and child do not join directly. They lie side by side and the chemicals are interchanged
through the walls by a process that we call osmosis. An emotional shock to the mother
will affect her child, because it changes the activity of her glands and so the chemistry of
her blood. Any chemical change in the mother's blood will affect the child. But we cannot
see how a liking for mathematics or poetic genius can be dissolved in the blood and
produce a similar liking or genius in the child.
(William H. Roberts, Psychology)
The following example illustrates the same fault and the way to correct it.
Television programs can be classified into three main categories: Entertainers, cultural
Enhancers, and Eye Openers. The Entertainers are created simply for Entertainment-nothing
more. They make us laugh or cry, for a moment. Sitcoms are prime examples as we laugh at or
with the characters as they struggle through life, and might even identify with the characters.
For momentary pleasures, watch the Entertainers. Cultural Enhancers involve some kind of
“culture “or highbrow activity, such as opera, theater, dance, or song. Also included here are
the movies made from the classics or literary fiction, such as Moby Dick or any of
Shakespeare‟s plays. These programs are often concerned with universal themes or issues: love,
evil, power. They can be found on “arts” cable stations such as A&E and Bravo, as well as the
public Broadcasting system. For a taste of culture, watch Cultural Enhancers.

As you observe in the above paragraph, the writer's intention was to classify the kinds of
television programs grouping in to three. But he has mentioned only two of them. Since he didn't
say anything about the third one, the paragraph is incomplete. To provide a fuller explanation,
the following sentence gives the remaining information.

A third category, Eye Opener programs, includes topics about science and nature, history, true
crime, and other information. They are often found on cable channels: the Discovery Channel,

32
the Learning Channel, and the History Channel. The Public Broadcasting System, on the
network side, also provides these programs. A viewer might learn about tornadoes, or the legend
of Robin Hood, or the African crested crane. Often this information, such as programs about
strong storm systems, is interesting because it is relevant to viewers‟ lives. Television has much
to offer viewers, and it is our choice what we watch.
NOTE:
A good paragraph is fully developed. Here are the main qualities of a well-
developed paragraph.
 It provides enough supporting points for the main idea expressed in
the topic sentence to be clearly understood.
 It provides enough specific details and examples to be interesting and
informative.
 It does not leave the readers with unanswered questions that could be
cleared up with a little more detail or an additional example or two.
 It concludes with a sentence that clearly" wraps up" the paragraph and
relates to the topic sentence in some manner.
2.3.4 Sentence Variety
Effective writers have the ability to use a variety of sentence structures to express their thoughts.
Less experienced writers tend to use a few basic structures over and over, which weakens their
expressive powers and leads to a monotonous writing style. The confidence and skill to use a
variety of sentence structures helps you convey your ideas to readers. Consider the following
paragraph. Notice the variety in length and structure of the seven sentences that make up the
paragraph.

Complex One of the great paradoxes in history is that the truest

expression of Christianity is to be found not in the West but
Complex in the East. In India countless millions of people are living
out the ideas of Christ, though they do not call themselves
Christians and are unfamiliar with Christian theology. They
Simple are the poor, the meek, the merciful, and the pure in heart.
Compound They regard life as sacred and they will not harm it in any
Simple of its forms. They practice renunciation. They believe in
Compound- Complex nonviolence and they worship the memory of a human
being who perhaps has come closer to enacting Christianity
than anyone in modern history. Interestingly enough,
Simple Gandhi‘s struggle was directed against a Western Christian
nation.
- Norman Cousins, Human Options

Notice how pleasing this paragraph is to the ear. By using a variety of sentence structures, the
writer changes the tempo of the writing, avoiding monotony.

33
 Unit Three: Basic Paragraph Types
There are four types of paragraphs; these are Descriptive, Argumentative, Narrative and
Expository
3.1 Description – is a verbal picture of a person, place, or thing. It is the kind of writing which
attempts to appeal to the reader's sense, recreating for him the author's original impression of the
subject being described. It is very much concerned with sensory impressions (sight, sound, smell,
taste, touch). Description can be objective or impressionistic. Description rarely appears alone in
modern writing. It is most often used with narration.
We have special sensory words which are very much concerned with description. Some words
refer to sensory experiences: to what we see, hear, touch, taste and smell. Because these words
call up sensory images, they are particularly effective in description. In the following list, some
words could fit into more than one sensory category.
Touch : chill , clammy , cold , corrugated, grainy, gritty, harsh, jarring, knobby, moist, nubby,
numb, plushy, rough satiny, slimy, slithering, smooth, sting, tingle, tickly, velvety.
Taste: bland, biting, bitter, nutty, peppery, salty, sour, spicy, sweet, tainted, vinegary, yeasty,
brackish, briny, metallic, minty
Smell: acrid, fetid, greasy, moldy, musky, musty, pungent, putrid, rancid, rank, reek, stench,
sulphurous, woodsy.
Sound: bellow, blare, buzz, chatter, chime, clang, clatter, clink, crackle, crash, creak, gurgle,
purr,ruttle,rustle,screech,snap,splash,squeak,swish,tinkle,whine,whisper,hiss, hum,
murmur, pop.
Sight: blaze bleary, bloody, burnished, chalky, dappled, ebony, flame, flash, flicker, florid,
foggy, gaudy, glare, glitter, glossy, glow, golden, grimy, haze, inky, leaden, lurid, muddy,
roiled, sallow, shadow, smudged, spark, streak, tawny, turbid.
Well-chosen sensory words help a reader to experience what a writer is recording. Notice the use
of such words in this description of what two boys smelled, saw, and heard in a dawn visit to the
circus grounds.
Example 1
And to all these familiar sounds of birds, car ,people, pet animals, … chirps, engine-noise,
chatter, barks,… to all the sharp and thrilling odors of the trains-the smell of cinders, acrid
smoke, of musty, rusty freight cars, the clean pine-board of crated produce, and the smells of
fresh stored food-oranges, coffee, tangerines and bacon, ham and flour and beef-there would be
added now, with an unforgettable magic and familiarity, all the strange sounds and smells of the
coming circus….He was looking at the great iron-gray horses, four and six to a team, which
would be plodding along the road of thick white dust to a rattling of chains and traces and the
harsh cries of their drivers….Then, on the circus grounds , the tents were going up already with
the magic speed of dreams. All over the place( which was near the tracks and the only space of
flat land in the town that was big enough to hold a circus)…

I. Descriptions of People
In order to write an interesting description of somebody we must use suitable nouns and
adjectives. When we describe persons, we are concerned with their physical appearance and
with their personality. Certain noun and adjectives help us to describe the persons accurately.
Here are some examples:

34
 A. Useful nouns for describing a person's appearance
Age: baby, toddler, youngster, youth, boy, girl, teenager, man, woman, lady, young man,
young woman, old man, old woman, elder
Parts of the Face: forehead eyes, eyebrows, nose, nostrils, ears, cheeks, mouth, lips, jaw chin
Parts of the Body: head, neck, shoulders arms lands, legs, feet
Hair: hairstyle, plaits, braids, beard, moustache
Clothes: cloth, fabric; shirt, teeshirt, tie, coat, jacket, trousers, jeans, socks, pullover, sweater;
suit overcoat, raincoat, dress, blouse, skirt, shawl, scarf; shoes, sandals, boots, hat,
glasses, spectacles.
Jewellery: Necklace bracelet, ring, earrings, anklet
B. Useful adjectives for describing a person's appearance
Age: young, middle-aged, old, elderly; in his/her early thirties / mid forties / late fifties etc,
Face: long, round, oval, attractive, beautiful, un-shaven
Hair: long, medium-length, short; straight, curly, wavy; dark, black, blonde, gray, fair, white,
plaited, bald
Forehead: high, low
Eyes: blue, brown, gray
Ears: big, small
Nose: long, pointed, turned-up
Body Build: tall, short, fat, plump, over -weight, thin, slim, slender, skinny, under-weight,
broad-shouldered, muscular
Clothes: cotton, woolen, hand-woven, leather, traditional, western, colorful
General appearance: handsome, good-looking; beautiful, lovely, pretty, attractive, well-
dressed, smartly-dressed, dressed
C. Useful adjectives for describing a person's personality
happy, cheerful unhappy, sad, miserable
friendly, pleasant, amusing unfriendly, unpleasant
kind unkind, cruel
hard-working lazy
reliable, trustworthy unreliable
polite, well-mannered impolite, rude, ill-mannered
honest, truthful dishonest, crafty
unselfish, generous selfish, mean
clever, intelligent, wise stupid, silly, dull
quiet talkative
shy confident
modest, humble proud, boastful, arrogant
Sample of Descriptive Paragraph for Persons
I am forty years old, rather tall and I have blue eyes and short black hair. I wear casual clothes
as I teach students in a relaxed atmosphere. I enjoy my job because I get to meet and help so
many different people from all over the world. During my spare time, I like playing tennis which
I play at least three times a week. I also love listening to classical music and I must admit that I
spend a lot of money on buying new CDs! I live in a pretty seaside town on the Italian coast. I
enjoy eating great Italian food and laughing with the likable people who live here.

35
II. Descriptions of Places
As a writer, you have to observe a scene around you with great care; and you have to present it
faithfully so readers know exactly what you see. Selecting some places filled with colors, noises
and people in the midst of actions, you will present a scene that is clear and vivid for any reader
to appreciate.
Describing Places (location)
The following words can help you to write a good description paragraph.
Properties Measurement Analogy Location
size height is like in
colour length resembles above
shape width below
purpose mass/weight beside
speed near
outside
north/east/south/west
Location: In: Above: Outside: Near: North / east / south / west:
Properties: Size: Colour: Shape: Purpose:
Measurement: Height: Length: Width: Mass / weight: Speed:
Analogy: Is like: Resembles:
Example 1:
My bedroom is very cozy. It is a small room with thick carpeting and light blue walls. Below the
north window is my double bed covered with an imitation of leopard skin bedspread. To the left
of the bed against the wall is a nightstand with a reading lamp, an alarm clock, and a portable
radio. At the foot of the bed is a wooden stand holding my black-and-white TV. Behind the
wooden stand and in front of the closet are three comfortable armchairs. On the east and west
walls posters of famous historical and geographical sites are plastered. The holy cross bearing
the crucifixion of Christ is hung to the wall alongside the portrait of Virgin Mary embracing
infant Christ...

3.2 The Narrative Paragraph

Narration - is a discourse in which a writer tells the story of something that happened. It is
concerned with describing a series of events, happenings or incidents which may be either real or
imaginary that lead to a conclusion. It is the kind of writing most people habitually turn to
recreation, it is found in short stories and novels as well as in news stories and essays. Rarely
does narrative writing occur in pure form; most often it includes description and exposition for
additional interest. It usually involves some kind of conflict, its resolution and conclusion.

Brief Summary of how to write a Narrative Discourse:

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Purpose: The narrative paragraph tells about one main incident or happening. The author brings
the incident to life so the reader shares the experience. It should be written in logical order. It
describes what a person does over a period of time.

How to Write the Narrative discourse

 Have a topic sentence that arouses the reader's interest. You can describe a scene or
introduce characters.
 Build your paragraph around one main incident. Here is where your action takes place.
 Write the event in the order that it occurred. Do not skip around.
 Your ending should satisfy your reader's expectations. Bring your paragraph to a close.

Signal Words and Phrases:

 next, then, while, after, first

 after while, a little later, at the same time, during the morning, later that night

Example1.
Yesterday evening I got home from school around 4 o'clock. My mother had dinner prepared
which we ate as soon as Dad came home from work. After eating, I helped mother clear the
table and do the dishes. After we got the kitchen cleaned, I had to sit and do my homework.
Mother always says, "No television until your homework is done". I finally got my math
finished, so I went into the family room and turned on the television. I was watching American
Idol, when the phone rang. It was my best friend, Amy. I talked to her for awhile then it was
time for bed. I put on my pajamas and turned on my favorite cd. I finally started to get sleepy
around 9:30. The next thing I knew, mother was calling me to get ready for school.

3.3 Argumentative paragraph – patterns of development in which the writer attempts to

support a controversial point or defend a position on which there is a difference of opinion.
When one writes argumentation, his main purpose is to convince his reader about some issue, to
persuade his reader to take some action. The writer presumes that he and his readers hold
different position on a subject. The writer attempts to convince readers through logical
reasoning. This argumentation is a process of reasoning in which a series of facts and judgments
are arranged to establish a conclusion.
Look at the following model argumentative paragraphs, and notice how they are organized.

Topic: The government should introduce tighter gun controls

Jack Spring thinks (argue) that everyone should have the right to own a gun and people like
him think that the government is infringing our democratic rights when it restricts gun
ownership. They think that most people who own guns are responsible citizens who keep
the guns for sport and recreation. They also think that the police are unable to stop violent
crime and we need guns to protect ourselves. But I don't agree with him I agree with
Josephine Bluff who thinks that guns increase the amount of violent crime in the community.
I also think that human life is worth more than sporting shooters right to go shooting on the
weekend. And I also think that many of the guns that are kept around the house end being
used in violent domestic disputes or teenage suicides.

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Steps to develop an argumentative Discourse
1. So, what do you write about? Pick a well-defined, controversial issue.
2. A clear position should be taken by the writer.
3. Your argument should be convincing.
4. Your premises should be reasonable.
5. Once your paper has been written, check every quotation in it for accuracy.

3.5 Exposition - is patterns of development that expresses or explains an idea, object or

phenomenon. In expositions, the material which is communicated is primarily information,
i.e., the writer provides information about and explains a particular subject. So when you
write exposition, your purpose is to make clear to the reader that how something works, how
something is made, or how something happened. patterns of development within exposition
include giving examples, detailing a process of doing or making something, analyzing causes
and effects, comparing and/or contrasting, defining a term or concept, and dividing
something into parts or classifying it into categories.

There are five basic ways in which authors may choose to organize information in expository
text:

1. Description-- in which a topic is introduced and followed by its attributes;

2. Sequence-- in which a topic is introduced and followed by details that need to be
presented in an order;
3. Cause/effect-- in which an event or act and its effects are described;
4. Comparison/contrast-- in which the similarities and differences in two or more things are
presented;
5. Problem/solution-- in which a problem is presented followed by one or more solutions.

For example, consider the following introductory paragraph from Microsoft‘s Encarta, a
multimedia encyclopedia; provides information about and explains how the body works: The
Circulatory System

Blood from the entire body is transported to the right auricle through two large veins: the
superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. When the right auricle contracts, it forces the
blood through an opening into the right ventricle. Contraction of this ventricle drives the blood
to the lungs. Blood is prevented from returning into the auricle by the tricuspid valve, which
completely closes during contraction of the ventricle. In its passage through the lungs, the blood
is oxygenated, that is, saturated with oxygen; it is then brought back to the heart by the four
pulmonary veins, which enter the left auricle. When this chamber contracts, blood is forced into
the left ventricle and thence by ventricular contraction into the aorta. The bicuspid, or mitral,
valve prevents the blood from flowing back into the auricle, and the semi-lunar valves at the
beginning of the aorta stop it from flowing back into the ventricle. Similar valves are present in
the pulmonary artery.

38
 Unit Four: Techniques of Paragraph Development
We can develop an idea in to a paragraph by using varieties of paragraph development methods.
The common methods of paragraph development are: Definition, Exemplification ( Illustration),
Classification, Cause, Effect, Cause-effect, Comparison, Contrast and Comparison-contrast

The following section attempts to present a detailed discussion of these paragraph development
methods.
4.4.1 Definition
One way to make a term or idea clearer is to answer the question What does the term or idea
mean. To answer this question, you can give a sentence defining the term or idea, followed by
examples. Or you can try to answer the question by relating the term or concept to some term or
idea the reader already knows about or understands.

Suppose, for instance, that the topic of a paper you are writing is empathy and that the statement
you plan to make about it is the basis for all good public relations. A reader who does not know
the meaning of the term empathy will find the paper difficult to understand. To help your reader
to follow and to accept the ideas about empathy expressed in your paper, you will need to supply
a paragraph of definition.

Read the paragraph below and notice that the term ―empathy‖ appears in the first sentence and
that a definition immediately follows the term in the same sentence. The writer has chosen to
follow the definition with a list of several examples of how empathy helps in police work, using
a simple topical- listing sequence details. The writer‘s purpose in this paragraph is to help the
reader understand more fully the meaning of the term ―empathy‖.
Example 1
Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person‘s point of view. It is a great asset
in police work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being closed- minded. It will
help them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy eliminates bias
and, instead, introduces tolerance, understanding and sympathetic human relations.

4.4.2 Exemplification
An example paragraph is one that uses specific examples to illustrate a point made in the writing.
An example can be a fact, a historical example, a statistic, an event or a behavior.
Here is a sample paragraph:
Computer software programs come in a variety of types, each offering different functions to
users. The programs most often used are word processors. These programs can produce letters,
reports, articles, announcements as well as other documents. Another kind of computer program
is the database, which allows the users to sort all kinds of information in a variety of ways. You
might put on a database a library catalog, all the business products in inventory, or all the
names and addresses of students attending a school. Another kind of program is the
communications program, which allows the user to connect to the Internet and to send electronic
mail to others. If you can access the Internet, you can search thousands of databases, files, and
Web sites for information. You can access university libraries, company Web sites, government

39
information agencies. The computer offers many kinds of programs for users, each with a
distinct function or benefit to the users.

In this sample paragraph three main examples of computer software programs are given: word
processors, data bases, and communications programs. Within each main example are more
specific examples that further explain and illustrate the writer‘s ideas.

4.4.3 Comparison And/or Contrast

A writer uses this pattern when he/she wants to make something clearer to his/ her reader by
showing how it is like or unlike something else. When using this pattern, the writer would need
to answer these questions for his or her readers:
- How is (something) similar to (something else)?
- How is it different from (something else)?
In a paragraph a writer may be discussing two or more topics. These could be two objects,
events, places, persons, or ideas, or some aspects of these. Usually the writer will want to discuss
their similarities only, or their differences only, within a single paragraph. The paragraph is
called a comparison paragraph when it describes similarities and it is called a contrast paragraph
when it describes differences.
Some writing topics will ask you to consider the relationship between two things, for example,
your hometown (that is, the town where you were born or grew up) and your university town.
Such topics may allow you to organize your paragraph either around the similarities between
these two subtopics (for example, between your hometown and your university town) or around
the differences between them. If you write about the similarities, the paragraph will be a
comparison paragraph. On the other hand, if you want to write about the differences, your
paragraph will be a contrast paragraph.

This lesson will show you some ways in which you can structure sentences to write a comparison
or contrast paragraph. We will first look at comparison paragraph and then briefly look at
contrast paragraph.

Sample Comparison Paragraph 1

My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are small rural
communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of only about 10,000
people. Similarly, my college town, subnormal, consists of about 11,000 local residents. This
population swells to 15,000 people when the college students are attending classes. A second
way in which these two towns are similar is that they are both located in rural areas. Gridlock is
surrounded by many acres of farmland which is devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans.
In the same way, Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and
cattle…

Organizing Contrast Paragraph

As mentioned above, a contrast paragraph discusses the differences between (at least) two things.
You can organize contrast paragraphs in much the same way that you can organize comparison
paragraphs, that is, you can organize them either according to points of similarity or according to
sub topic. Here is an example of such a paragraph organized by subtopic. Notice the contrastive
expressions in bold letters.

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 Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S., they are strikingly
different in many ways. For example, the physical size of each state is different. Arizona
is large, having area of 114,000 square miles, where as Rhode Island is only about a tenth
the size, having an area of only 1, 214 square miles. Another difference is in the size of
the population of each state. Arizona has about four million people living in it, but
Rhode Island has less than one million. The two states also differs in the lands of natural
environments that each has. For example, Arizona is a very dry state, consisting of large
desert areas that do not receive much rainfall every year. However, Rhode Island is
located in a temperate zone and receives an average of 44 inches of rain per year. In
addition, while Arizona is a landlocked state and thus has no seashore, Rhode Island lies
on the Atlantic Ocean and does have a significant coastline.
4.4.4 Classification
Classification is the process of putting a large number of items or behaviors into smaller, well-
defined groups. Each group‘s members or items share similar traits or characteristics that are
unique; no other group has the same traits. The writer should put similar looking or acting items
or behaviors into the same group and describe one group‘s unique traits, behaviors, attitudes, or
other characteristics.
Many classification systems are already in place; for example, movies are classified by genre:
Western, Romance, Science Fiction, and Thriller; subjects in school are classified by discipline:
Science, Mathematics, English, and Home Economics. Since this categories, already exist, they
do not present much challenge to the reader. In English classes, it is more fun and creative to
come up with your own topic and classification system. For example, if a hotel prepares various
foods, you might group them by type of food: vegetables, fruits, meat, cookies, cheese and so
forth. you might group drinks in to beverages, alcohol, soft drink. Or you might put the original
groups such as those prepared in home, and in factories. Or each can be classified, for example,
soft drinks, can be further classified as: Coca Cola, Sprite, Pepsi, Fanta, Mirinda, Seven-Up,
Mineral Water and so on.
Example 1
Homework assignments can be categorized according to the various emotional traits they
produce. For example, “The I- Will-Do-It-Later-Tonight” assignment is a relatively easy
assignment which takes no more than five or ten minutes and causes the student little
inconvenience or worry. Related to this type is “The- I- Thought-I-Could-Do-It-Later-Tonight”
assignment, which seems simple but is in reality much more than the student bargained for. This
type often causes a sleepless night for the panicking student. “The-Impossible-Dream”
assignment also causes the student a certain amount of panic. These assignments also is known
as semester projects , are designed to take the majority of the semester to complete , and they
seem to hang over the students head like a dark cloud of doom .mach like this assignment , but
perhaps ever more traumatic ,is “ The -I„m- Going To- Fail –This- Course” assignment. The
purpose of this one is to read the instructor of It is the process of putting a large number of items
or behaviors into smaller, well-defined groups. Each group‟s members or items share similar
traits or characteristics that are unique.

4.4.5 Cause and Effect

At times making an important idea or event fully understood in writing may require the writer to
offer information which readers may need or want to know what led up to the event or idea--that

41
is, what caused it to become what it is now. Or they may need or want to know the effects of the
idea or event-- that is, the results or consequences. In other words , the readers will want the
writer to give the answers to one or both of these questions: What caused the event or idea ?
What effects or consequences does event or the idea have? The writer should then include in
his/her paper a paragraph that has a cause pattern or effect pattern or a combined cause/effect
pattern. The supporting sentences will then answer one or both of these questions about the event
or idea.
Cause Paragraph
Here is an example of a writing topic asking for causes of a particular phenomenon.
These days, the spread of deserts across the world is increasing in alarming rate.
You will get the details in the following paragraph. Notice that the first sentence identifies
the topic- desertification is expanding so large- and that all the supporting sentences describe
the causes of this phenomenon described in the first sentence. In other words, if the topic
sentence introduces an effect, the supporting sentences all describe causes for the described
event in the topic. The paragraph below illustrates the cause pattern.
These days, the spread of deserts across the world is increasing in alarming rate.
There are many reasons for this occurrence. First, the clearing of vegetation cover to
get new land for farming resulted in rapid loss of forests. This depletion of forests
degraded wild life and soil. Second, the rapid growth of population made peoples to
push cultivation into areas that were entirely unsuitable for agriculture. These
activities of man on highly sensitive and delicately balanced ecosystem led to a
progressive decline in the vegetation cover. Third, the pastoral nomads are the other
protagonists in the tragedy for the fact that far more animals are building up than the
system can maintain, i.e., the number of animals is increasing beyond the potential of
land. Finally, the progressive destruction of the third world‟s stock of trees for the
existing demand for firewood and timber as building material is accelerating soil
erosion and reducing its capacity to feed and employ people. If forests continue to be
depleted in such ways, it is inevitable that the problem aggravates and our globe will
be affected by desertification much more higher than the present.

Effect Paragraph
Here is an example of a writing topic asking for effects of a particular event.
The last night storm caused a great damage.
You will get the details in the following paragraph. Notice that the first sentence identifies the
topic - a storm caused a great damage - and that all the supporting sentences describe the effects
of this phenomenon described in the first sentence. In other words, if the topic sentence
introduces a cause, the supporting sentences all describe effects for the described event in the
topic. The paragraph below illustrates the effect pattern.
The last night storm caused a great damage. The winds blew up to ninety four miles an hour
and it rained very hard. Eucalyptus trees by the river blew over, and the trees hit the power
lines and blacked out the areas for five hours. Before morning, as the river overflowed its
banks, homes were flooded, roofs caved in, and thousands of families living nearby were
forced to flee their homes with whatever belongings they could gather. Downtown, the main
street was flooded; the cars were left stranded in the bumper-deep water, and even some
automobiles floated over the streets.

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 Unit Five: Essay Writing
5.1 What is an Essay?
An essay is an extended writing with a focused subject of discussion. It is a relatively
short, but longer than a paragraph, prose composition on a limited topic. It is longer than a
paragraph in a sense that it gives an opportunity to treat the subject of discussion in a more
detailed fashion. It usually consists of introduction (introductory paragraph), body (developing
paragraphs) and conclusion (terminating paragraph).
5.2 Basic Essay Structure
A. Thesis Statement for Essay
The main task of the thesis statement of any essay is to show the reader the author‘s
position on the discussed topic. It is the argument of the highest priority for the essay due
to the fact that it is the thesis statement that is to be proven throughout the paper. In the
thesis statement the author makes his own point in the context of the essay topic and
delivers it to the reader by means of a logical chain. It is usually presented in one single sentence.
B. How to Write a Good Thesis Statement
In order to create a strong thesis statement it is necessary to keep in mind its specific
features:
A good thesis statement is always an affirmation.
It does not make an announcement or ask a question but asserts a definite point of view.
It should always reveal a plan of development in its contents; reveal what concrete arguments
will be analyzed in the paper.
The thesis statement needs to correspond to the length of the paper. If it is very long and the
paper is limited to three pages it is impossible to prove it and to persuade the reader that
the author has a point.
A short thesis statement -> short essay;
A substantial thesis statement ->long essay.
It can be neither too narrow nor too broad.
A thesis statement does not present the author‘s point as a subjective position but as an argument
to prove.
The thesis statement itself gives the direction and the jumping-off point for the essay. That is
the reason it is so important to make it right as the professionalism of the future essay
absolutely depends on it.
Sample thesis statement
Being a successful psychologist (Part 1) requires a lot of knowledge and tolerance (Part 2).
Introduction
Introduction of any essay should be no longer than 1/10 o f its length. If the essay itself must
be of a significant size the introduction may have several paragraphs; in the rest of the
cases it consists o f o ne solid paragraph. The contents of an always introduction has a
deductive nature, as it leads the reader from the general views or positions on the
analyzed topics to the specific narrow theme of the essay. A goo d introduction requires several
elements:
Opening sentences introducing to the topic of the essay
Background information on it (gradually leading to the analyzed aspect o f the theme).
Literature techniques to grab the reader‟s attention.

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A strong Thesis statement defining and stating the point the author is making in the essay, the
paper‘s main argument.

How to Write an Introduction to Essay

The main purpose of the introduction is to give the reader a clear idea of the essay‘s focal
point. It must get the reader‘s attention as it is the part when he decides if the essay is
worth reading till the end or not. The introduction should be written according to the following
scheme: general information, attention grabber, information on the topic leading to the thesis
statement and thesis statement

Genera l information of the topic must be presented in verifiable data. The best way to attract
the attention of the reader in the introductory part of any essay is to use special
literature passages. The go al o f these passages is to make the reader pay attention to the
introduction and the who le essay by means of introducing a fact that is absolutely new to
him/her. This fact has to reveal the point of the author explicitly and vividly. An appropriate
anecdote o n the topic can make a good job in getting the attention of the reader. This is a story
that will support the author ‘s main argument but to make it effective it has to be highly
relevant to the topic of the essay. A suitable dialogue technique can also be used in the
introduction. Two or three speakers are used to clarify the author‘s point to the reader.
The transition to the thesis statement is accomplished by dint o f several sentences
describing the topic of the essay in the general character and gradually narrowing to the
thesis statement.
Thesis statement finished the introduction paragraph and proved the reader with a
crystal clear understanding of the author‘s main argument on the topic o f the essay. This
structure of the essay introduction gives the writer the ability to gradually initiate the reader
into the topic analysis and conclude with a strong thesis statement revealing the very essence of
the essay.
Body paragraphs: Body paragraph 2, Body paragraph 3, Body paragraph 4, etc.
The body of a basic essay may have as many body paragraphs as it is necessary to prove the
author‘s argument of the thesis statement. It is vital to keep in mind that each paragraph is
supposed to have one main argument to analyze and has to reveal it in one solid thought in a
sentence called the topic sentence. Therefore the amount of the body paragraphs equals the
amount of topic sentences. Each body paragraph must be connected to following one with a
logical link.
Conclusion
It is usually written in one solid paragraph. The conclusion always deals with summing up the
essays arguments revealed in the topic sentences and the therefore present substantial evidence to
prove the thesis statement. It is also important to mention the importance of the general
conclusion of the essay. Concluding paragraph consists of four main elements:

A reference to the way the introductory paragraph was constructed

Thesis restatement without word for word repeating.
The summary of the three arguments presented in the body of the essay.
The major final statement, implying all the mentioned above and clarifying the true essence of
the essay.

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Example:
Stephen King, creator of such stories as Carrie and Pet Sematary, stated that the Edgar Allan
Poe stories he read as a child gave him the inspiration and instruction he needed to
become the writer that he is. Poe, as Stephen King does, fills the reader's imagination with the
image that he wishes the reader to see, hear, and feel. His use of vivid, concrete visual
imagery to present both static and dynamic settings and to describe people is part of his
technique. Poe's short story "The Tell-Tale Heart" is a story about a young man who kills an
old man who ca res for him, dismembers the corpse, then goes mad when he thinks he
hears the old man's heart beating beneath the floor boards under his feet as he sits and
discusses the old man's absence with the police. In "The Tell-Tale Heart," a careful reader can
observe Poe's skillful manipulation of the senses.
The sense of sight, the primary sense, is particularly susceptible to manipulation. In "The Tell-
Tale Heart, " Poe uses the following image to describe a static scene: "His room was as
black as pitch with the thick darkness ..." Poe used the words "black, " "pitch," and
"thick darkness" not only to show the reader the condition of the old man's room, but also
to make the reader feel the darkness." "Thick" is a word that is not usually associated with
color (darkness), yet in using it, Poe stimulates the reader's sense of feeling as well as his
sense of sight.
Further on in the story, Poe uses a couple of words that cross not only the sense of
sight but also the sense of feeling to describe a dynamic scene. The youth in the story has
been standing in the open doorway of the old man's room for a long time, waiting for
just the
right moment to reveal himself to the old man in order to frighten him. Poe writes: "So
I opened it [the lantern opening]- -you cannot imagine how stealthily, stealthily--until, at
length, a single dim ray, like the thread of the spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full
upon the vulture eye." By using the metaphor of the thread of the spider ( which we all
know is a creepy creature) and the word "shot," Poe almost makes the reader gasp, a s
surely did the old man whose one blind eye the young man describes as "the vulture eye."
The reader does not know much about what the old man in this story looks like except that he
has one blind eye. In the second paragraph of "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe establishes
the young man's obsession with that blind eye when he writes: "He had the eye of the
vulture- -a pale blue eye, with a film over it." This "vulture eye" is evoked over and
over again in the story until the reader becomes as obsessed with it as does the young man.
His use of the vivid, concrete word "vulture" establishes a specific image in the mind of
the reader that is inescapable.
"Thick darkness," "thread of the spider" and "vulture eye" are three images that Poe used
in "The Tell- Tale Heart" to stimulate a reader's senses. Poe wanted the reader to see and
2 feel real life. He used concrete imagery rather than vague abstract words to describe 5
settings and people. If Edgar Allan Poe was one of Stephen King's teachers, then readers
of King owe a debt of gratitude to that nineteenth -century creator of horror stories.

45
The introductory paragraph includes a paraphrase of something said by a famous per so n
in order to get the reader's attention. The second sentence leads up to the thesis statement
which is the third sentence. The thesis statement (sentence 5) presents topic of the paper to the
reader and provides a mini- outline. The topic is Poe's use of visual imagery. The mini- outline
tells the reader that this paper will present Poe's use o f imagery in three places in his
writing: (1) description of static setting ; (2) description of dynamic setting; and (5)
description of a per son. The last sentence of the paragraph uses the words "manipulation"
and "senses" as transitional hooks.

In the first sentence of the second paragraph (first paragraph o f the body ) the words
"sense" and "manipulation" are used to hook into the end of the introductory paragraph.
The first part o f the second sentence provides the topic for this paragraph --imagery in a
static scene. Then a quotation from "The Tell-Tale Heart" is presented and briefly
discussed. The last sentence o f this paragraph uses the expressions "sense of feeling" and
"sense o f sig ht" as hooks for leading into the third paragraph.

The first sentence of the third paragraph ( second paragraph of the body ) uses the
words "sense of sight" and "sense o f feeling" to hook back into the previous paragraph.
Note that in the second paragraph "feeling" came first, and in this paragraph "sig ht" comes first.
The first sentence also includes the topic for this paragraph--imagery in a dynamic scene.
Again, a quotation is taken from the story, and it is briefly discussed. The last sentence
uses the words "one blind eye" which was in the quotation. This expression provides the
transitional hook for the last paragraph in the body o f the paper.

In the first sentence o f the fourth paragraph (third paragraph in the body ), "one blind
eye" is used that hooks into the previous paragraph. This first sentence also lets the reader
know that this paragraph will deal with descriptions of people: "... what the o ld man looks like.
..." Once again Poe is quoted and discussed. The last sentence uses the word " image" which
hooks into the last paragraph. ( It is less important that this paragraph has a hook since
the last paragraph is going to include a summary o f the body of the paper.)

The first sentence of the concluding paragraph use the principal words from the quotations
from each paragraph of the body of the paper. This summarizes those three paragraphs. The
second and third sentences provide observations which can also be considered a summary, not
only of the content of the paper, but also offers personal opinion which was logically drawn as
the result of this study. The last sentence returns to the Edgar Allan Poe-Stephen King
relationship that began this paper. This sentence also provides a "wrap-up" and gives the paper a
sense of finality.
5.5 Types of Essay
a) Expository Essay
b) Descriptive Essay
c) Argumentative Essay
d) Narrative Essay
These types of essays, listed above, have no difference with the ones explained in the paragraph

46
types; therefore, for details of them you can refer unit three.
Sample Expository Essay
The Family Bathroom
There are five of us in my family- my Mo m, my Dad, my twin sisters and myself. We only
have o ne bathroom in the house, which isn‘t a problem most of the time. However, we all have
to be at school or work about the same time, and we all like to shower. From 6:00 A. M. to 7:00
A.M. every morning is by far the busiest room in our house.

First, Mom goes into the bathroom at about 6:00. She showers before anyone else is up, and she
goes to make breakfast while the rest of us start stirring. She is always out of the bathroom by
6:15, so she is no problem to anyone. In fact, I never even hear her in there.

Next, my nine-year- old twin sisters roll out of bed and into the bathroom. They shower and
brush their teeth together, which saves some time but uses a lot of water. They always take at
least twenty minutes in the bathroom, but sometimes they start messing around in the shower and
Mom has to yell at them to get moving. They always leave their marks on the bathroom before
they leave-shower water o n the floor and the toothpaste left out with the cap nowhere to be
found.

After the twins get out, Dad trudges into the bathroom. He takes quite a while because he
showers, shaves and reads some of the paper while he sits. There is no rushing him in the
mornings because he likes to take his time. He sings and whistles and sounds like he‘s having a
good all time in there. The only good thing is that you can always depend on him taking the same
amount of time because he has to catch the bus at 7:50 at the corner every morning.

Finally, it is my turn in the bathroom. By then, the bathroom mirror is fogged up and there is
a strange mixture o f smells. The floor is slippery, and there is seldom a dry towel
anywhere. When I climb into the shower, I know I am going to have to hustle because I get
the tail end o f the hot water. I bath and wash my hair fast, and if there is some ho t
water left, I‘ll shave in the shower. The last one in the bathroom obviously gets the
worst deal, but that‘s the price I pay for getting to sleep by half hour beyond the others.
(Guth, 1989)

Sample Descriptive Essay:

Lou’s Place
It is at least twenty years later and I can still remember my first visit to Lou‘s Café.
Stopping in to see if anyone could tell us where to locate the turn we had missed, my
husband and I received a large dose of culture shock. It seemed as if we had opened the
door to the decades: a place where generations came and went, a place where time stood
still and passed by at the same time.

Miss Lou Dixon owns and runs that restaurant in the middle o f the town of Sun bright,
Tennessee. Miss Lou has been in business at that location since 1954. Even though the
place looks a little squalid, it is not for lack of car e; in fact, Lo u is proud of how clean
she keeps her place. She has often been heard to say, with the strongest East Tennessee accent,

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―It don‘t matter how pore a body is. They can be clean.‖ She is proud o f her ―A‖ rating and
prominently displays it.

It is not a fancy restaurant. The hundreds o f booted loggers, railroad workers, and oil field
roughnecks trekking through have worn the carpet thin. Chunks are missing from the
carpet at the favorite tables of the workers. The hardened veneer on some of the tables is
missing a notch here and there. The paint on the walls has cracks and there is a
perennial smell o f hamburgers permeating the air. The casual observer could be forgiven for
thinking the place is about to fold financially; instead, what we found that night was a
well camouflaged center of social activity and the finest, most accurate, information available.

When entering the door at Lou‘s, two things are immediately noticeable: the place is rarely
empty and seems to consist of a maze of rooms. The first room, through the door, is
the main p art of the restaurant. There is another, rarely used, dining room off to the rig
ht. It was added during the oil well boom of the seventies. Through the main dining room is
yet another room; it guards the door leading into the kitchen. This room contains the most
coveted table in the place. The highest tribute Lou can bestow on anyone is to allow them
access to seats at this table. This table is the family table; it is reserved for Lou‘s, and
her daughter Karen‘s, immediate family and treasured friends.

When entering the main dining room, whether by design or by custom, there is a definite
pecking order involved in the seating arrangements. The first table on the left, presided
over by an elderly gentleman with Basset Hound eyes, belongs to the old men of the town.
The table sits in front of one o f two large windows; the old men can see and are able
to comment on the ―do ins of them young‘uns running the town these days.‖ It is amusing to
discover that the average age of the people under discussion is at least fifty and they
took over their businesses from the same old men looking over them now.

On the right side, the other large window is dominated by the ―women‘s information
league.‖ In other towns they would be known as busybodies or gossips. At Lou‘s, they are part
of the complicated information gathering process. They bring all the information from the
night before and are linked to the rest of the town thro ugh the old fashioned rotary
telephone hanging outside Lou‘s kitchen door. The phone rings constantly: someone wants to
call in an order, someone wants to leave a message for a person the caller knows is
going to be there sometime during the day, and someone else wants to know where the
police and the ambulance were going last night. Along with all the calls coming in for the
special o f the day are also calls delivering the latest events of the day. The o ld men on the
other side of the room will be giving a running commentary on the family of the latest
newsmaker, their history in the community, arrest record if any; the who, what, when,
where, and why, o f the story, with an accuracy to equal any television or newspaper
reporter.

In the evenings, when Lou‘s daughter Karen gets in from school, she brings a change o f
atmosphere. Even though the news branch never stops, it is replaced in importance by the
young people, heralding the evening. The old juke box, reigning in the corner, is brought to
life and starts blasting tunes that cover at least twenty years of change in musical tastes.

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The place fills up with the town‘s young people. Whether the kids are flirting, giggling,
strutting around, being manly for the girls, or hiding in the darkest corner to profess
undying love for each other, the restaurant beg ins its shift as the town‘s social center.

All of the activity at Miss Lou‘s is conducted in a haze of aromas, guaranteed to make the mouth
water. The smell is never the same; it depends entirely on what is cooking at the time.
Whether it is roast for tomorrow‘s lunch special, a cake someone asked Lou to make, the
spices o f an apple pie, or the ever present odor of hamburgers, it is a well known fact, it will
taste as good as it smells. The best part of being at Lou‘s is not her food, however; it is the
feeling of being part of her extended family, being part of a tradition, when traditions are
hard to come by.

The last time I was in Lou‘s, I experienced another trip through time‘s door; it was as if
nothing had changed, nothing, except the amount of gray in her hair. Some of the old men had
passed on; they have since been replaced by two or three of the ―young ‗uns‖ they used
to keep their eyes on. The phone still rings constantly, the women still gather their news,
and a new bunch of kids take over at nig ht. Everything is the same, everything is different.

Sample Argumentative Essay:

Thou Shall Not (You Shall Not)
In spite of strong current infavour of the death penalty, capital punishment violates several basic
principles underlying the American system of justice.

Most basic to our legal system is our belief in even-handed justice. We believe that equal crimes
should receive equal punishment. However, the death penalty has always been notorious for its
―freakish unfairness.‖ In the words of one study, ―judicial safeguards for preventing the arbitrary
administration of capital punishment are not working.‖ Judges and juries apply widely differing
standards. In one celebrated case, two partners in o ne crime were convicted of the same cap ital
crime on identical charges. One was executed; the other is in prison and will soon be eligible for
parole.

We believe that all citizens are equal before the law. Justice should be ―blind‖ to wealth, race
and ethnic origin. However, poor defendants are many times more likely to receive the death
penalty than wealthy ones protected by highly paid teams of lawyers who se maneuvers
stymie the prosecution and baffle the jury. Minority groups convicted of capital crimes
have a much higher statistical chance of being executed than white defendants.

Fairness demands that the judicial system make provision for correcting its own error s. If
someone has been unjustly convicted, there should be a mechanism for reversing the
verdict and setting the person free. However, in the case of death penalty, such a correction of an
error is aborted. We are left with futile regrets, like the prosecutor who said, ―Horrible as
it is to contemplate, we may have executed the wrong man.‖
(Guth, 1989 as cited in Alamrew, 1995)

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Sample Narrative Essay:
Small-Town Terror

Situated between majestic mountains and rolling hills, Benton is much like any other small
eastern Tennessee settlement. It was election day, and looking forward to a visit to the ice
cream shop, I accompanied my grandfather as he drove the ten-mile journey to town.

Country life offered little excitement, but that day an air of uneasiness replaced the usual
contentment one felt while passing aged buildings, their drabness contrasted sharply by a
few colorful, modern improvements. Having spent the first ten years of my life here, it was easy
to detect any change in the town's mood.

I pondered the worried expression on the faces o f the few people we saw on the streets. It
seemed ever anyone was in a hurry. There were not the usual groups gathered to exchange local
gossip. Most noticeable was the absence of children.

As my grandfather's dilapidated Ford approached the town's only traffic light, we were
greeted-not by flashing red, yellow or green--but by uniformed National Guardsmen armed
with guns and appearing much out of p lace in such placid surroundings. As our vehicle
slowed to a stop, I was aghast as I saw before me a hug e machine gun, pointed in our
direction. A young guardsman walked briskly to the car and explained, almost apologetically,
"Sorry Sir, but we'll have to search your car. Just routine procedure."

As the car was being searched, we learned the reason for such drastic precautionary measures. A
man whom we knew and who was a candidate for the sheriff's office, had been brutally
murdered in the presence of his wife and daughter. It was rumored that the opposing party
was responsible for the fatal shotgun blast, and other rumors stated that explosives would be
brought into town to bomb the courthouse.

As this unbelievable information was being given, I sat petrified, trying to convince myself that
this was the same town where, only yesterday, old men in dirty over alls lounged around
the courthouse, spitting tobacco and discussing the forthcoming election. Dogs and children had
romped freely on the sidewalks, while women browsed in the stores for hours without buying
anything. Strangely, all this had changed overnight, and the preconceptions I had about our
peaceful country and the glorious right to vote were beg inning to sound as a sour note.
Marching through the streets, guards with guns gave the appearance o f towns I had seen in the
mo vies. Towns which did not know freedom, but captivity.

"He'll probably go home," I amused to myself as my grandfather began changing the gear s to
move on. Surely no one could be so stupid as to go into that courthouse now! Thinking ho w
wonderful it would be to get back to the safety of our farmhouse, I was somewhat taken aback
when Grandpa parked near the entrance of the threatened building. The lines in his face seemed
to be carved with determination, and with unfaltering stride he quickly mounted the steps to the
building. A man had died at the hands of those who tried to control a county's right to vote. That
"right" was now even more precious. Grandpa would vote.

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