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Paleozoic oil/gas shale reservoirs in southern Tunisia: An overview
Article in Journal of African Earth Sciences · July 2014

DOI: 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.07.009
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 100 (2014) 450–492
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of African Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jafrearsci
Paleozoic oil/gas shale reservoirs in southern Tunisia: An overview

Mohamed Soua
Entreprise Tunisienne d’Activités Pétrolières, 26 Rue Mohamed Badra, Immeuble Zouila, Montplaisir 1001, Tunisia
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: During these last years, considerable attention has been given to unconventional oil and gas shale in
Received 25 April 2014 northern Africa where the most productive Paleozoic basins are located (e.g. Berkine, Illizi, Kufra, Murzuk,
Received in revised form 3 July 2014 Tindouf, Ahnet, Oued Mya, Mouydir, etc.). In most petroleum systems, which characterize these basins,
Accepted 8 July 2014
the Silurian played the main role in hydrocarbon generation with two main ‘hot’ shale levels distributed
Available online 24 July 2014
in different locations (basins) and their deposition was restricted to the Rhuddanian (Lllandovery: early
Silurian) and the Ludlow–Pridoli (late Silurian). A third major hot shale level had been identified in the
Keywords:
Frasnian (Upper Devonian). Southern Tunisia is characterized by three main Paleozoic sedimentary
Paleozoic gas/oil shale reservoirs
Southern Tunisia
basins, which are from North to South, the southern Chotts, Jeffara and Berkine Basin. They are separated
Unconventional plays by a major roughly E–W trending lower Paleozoic structural high, which encompass the Mehrez-Oued
Berkine Basin Hamous uplift to the West (Algeria) and the Nefusa uplift to the East (Libya), passing by the Toug-
Jeffara Basin gourt-Talemzane-PGA-Bou Namcha (TTPB) structure close to southern Tunisia. The forementioned major
Southern Chott Basin source rocks in southern Tunisia are defined by hot shales with elevated Gamma ray values often exceed-
ing 1400 API (in Hayatt-1 well), deposited in deep water environments during short lived (c. 2 Ma) peri-
ods of anoxia. In the course of this review, thickness, distribution and maturity maps have been
established for each hot shale level using data for more than 70 wells located in both Tunisia and Algeria.
Mineralogical modeling was achieved using Spectral Gamma Ray data (U, Th, K), SopectroLith logs (to
acquire data for Fe, Si and Ti) and Elemental Capture Spectroscopy (ECS). The latter technique provided
data for quartz, pyrite, carbonate, clay and Sulfur. In addition to this, the Gamma Ray (GR), Neutron
Porosity (UN), deep Resistivity (Rt) and Bulk Density (qb) logs were used to model bulk mineralogy and
lithology. Biostratigraphic and complete geochemical review has been undertaken from published papers
and unpublished internal reports to better assess these important source intervals.
! 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
1.1. Generality and background Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
1.2. Presentation of the area of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
1.2.1. The Southern Chott Basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
1.2.2. The Berkine and Jeffara Basins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
2. Geological setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
2.1. The Cambrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
2.2. The Ordovician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
2.3. The Silurian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
2.4. The Devonian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
3. Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
3.1. Well logging tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
3.1.1. Spectral Gamma Ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
3.1.2. SpectroLith logging tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
3.1.3. Wireline logs and TOC estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
3.2. Methods of interpreting the mineralogical composition and elemental geochemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
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M. Soua / Journal of African Earth Sciences 100 (2014) 450–492 451
3.2.1. Normalization and enrichment factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

3.2.2. Clastic input, productivity and paleoredox conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
3.2.3. Fe-enrichment and pyrite formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
4. Main gas/oil shale plays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
4.1. Early Silurian organic-rich Hot Shales strata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
4.1.1. Lithostratigraphic characteristics and main well logging features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
4.1.2. Biostratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
4.1.3. Mineralogic composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
4.1.4. Organic geochemistry, thermal maturation and environment of deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
4.1.5. Carbone isotopic chemostratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
4.2. Frasnian organic-rich Hot shale strata distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
4.2.1. Lithostratigraphy and main well logging features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
4.2.2. Organic richness and maturity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
4.2.4. Molecular geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
4.2.5. Mineral composition of the Frasnian hot shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
4.3. Late Ludlow–Geddinian Fegaguira/Oued Ali Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
4.3.1. Distribution of the Ludlow hot shales and main characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
4.3.2. Main well logging features, organic richness and thermal maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
4.3.4. Mineral composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
4.4. Other potential oil/gas shale reservoirs: a brief review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
5. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
5.1. Stratigraphy and distribution outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
5.2. Definition of the prospective gas/oil shale areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
5.2.1. Depositional environment and mineral composition of the Hot Shales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
5.2.2. Depth of the shale play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
5.2.3. Total organic carbon (TOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
5.2.4. Thermal maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
5.3. Main characteristics of the Hot Shale units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
5.3.1. Rhuddanian Hot Shales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
5.3.2. Late Ludlow–Pridoli Hot Shales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
5.3.3. Frasnian Hot Shales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
5.4. Play fairway mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
1. Introduction (chemostratigraphy) based on trace and major elemental data is

used in many basins of the world in order to assess gas shale plays
1.1. Generality and background Information (e.g. Arthur and Sageman, 1994; Soua, 2010; Ratcliffe et al., 2012;
Davies et al., 2013).
During the last two decades, shale gas production in the US Recent studies completed by the American Energy Information
experienced a very rapid development due to the United States Administration (EIA) (Kuuskraa et al., 2011) estimate global techni-
strategy that allowed a huge increase in its natural gas production cally recoverable shale gas reserves, which need in turn extensive
from several formations such as the Marcellus Formation, the Hay- geological data to be revealed (Fig. 1). This study has involved tech-
nesville Formation, the Eagle Ford Formation, Woodford shale and nically recoverable global shale gas reserves per continent and per
Barnett shale (e.g. Jarvie et al., 2007; Ruble et al., 2012; Ratcliffe individual country (Fig. 1). The study also took into account South-
et al., 2012). These plays have rapidly become important hydrocar- ern Tunisia where important gas reserves were revealed from
bon targets. This is why the possibility has been raised that shale unconventional plays.
gas basins in other countries may exist and therefore may be com- Southern Tunisia comprises three main basins (Fig. 2), which
mercially profitable. This has far reaching implications for energy could bear therefore unconventional shale plays. These basins
markets across the world including North Africa. are: (1) the Southern Chott Basin (late Silurian-lower Devonian
Previous geological and petroleum researches in North African Fegaguira/Oued Ali Formation), (2) the Jeffara Basin (early Silurian
Paleozoic basins (Berkin, Illizi, Kufra, Hamra, Tindouf, etc.) have Hot Shale of the Argiles Principales ‘‘=Tannezuft’’ Formation) and
demonstrated the existence of potential shale gas plays (3) the Berkine Basin (Frasnian Hot shale of Aouinet Ouinine For-
(Cunningham, 1989; Daniels and Emme, 1995; Ghenima, 1995; mation ‘‘AO III’’ and early Silurian Hot Shale of Argiles Principales
Aissaoui et al., 1996; Macgregor, 1998; Boote et al., 1998; Echikh, Formation) (Fig. 2). The southern Chotts Basin is geologically sep-
1998; Lüning et al., 2000a, 2000b; Ferjaoui et al., 2001; Lüning arated from the Berkine Basin by lower Paleozoic uplift, which is
et al., 2003; Dardour et al., 2004; Belhaj and Saidi, 2010; Rezouga named in this contribution the Touggourt-Talemzane-PGA-Bou
et al., 2012a; Soua and Chihi, 2014). Generally, shales are assumed Nemcha structural high (e.g. Cunningham, 1989; Echikh, 1998;
to be an important unconventional hydrocarbon resource but their Gabtni et al., 2009; Soua, 2012a) (Figs. 2 and 3). It represents max-
reservoir characteristics remain problematic. Sometimes, the imum uplift of the basement in the PGA-1 well, and therefore it is
application of traditional reservoir characterization methods on the natural continuity of the Nefusa Arch situated in the Libyan
the organic-rich fine-grained and homogenous shales is side (Craig et al., 2008; see the Fig. 3 for location). The Jeffara Basin
impracticable. New methods such as inorganic geochemistry is separated from the Berkine by the Jeffara flexure zone (Burollet
452 M. Soua / Journal of African Earth Sciences 100 (2014) 450–492
Fig. 1. Global Risked Gas In-Place of Shale Gas Resources (TCF). Southern Tunisia is characterized by three main basins (Fig. 2) in, which the Berkine Basin bears Risked Gas In-
Place about 61Tcf and technically recoverable resource about 18Tcf.
and Desforges, 1982; Ben Ayed, 1986; Bouaziz et al., 2002; Gabtni event. Large epirogenic movements affected the northern part of
et al., 2009; Soua, 2012a). the Gondwana craton during Late Ordovician (e.g. Lüning, 2005;
Fabre et al., 2006; Craig et al., 2008; Le Heron and Craig, 2008;
1.2. Presentation of the area of interest Soua, 2013). This event is called the ‘‘Taconic’’ or Taconian uncon-
formity (e.g. Guiraud, 1998). In many places, the Taconic unconfor-
Oil/gas shale exploration is mostly with a great interest in mity erosional surface was merged with the one of the glacial
southern Tunisia due to the relative tectonic stable character of erosion at the base of the Caradocian (Fig. 5).
the Saharan platform (Fig. 4) when compared to the Atlas and Tel- According to Fabre (1976) and Fabre et al. (2006), unconformi-
lian geological settings (Central and northern Tunisia), which are ties and tectonic movement nature of the so-called ‘‘Taconic
more complicated and represented by several features including phase’’, which took place in the Sahara at this time, remain poor
thrust systems, half-grabens, compressive structures, subsalt understood, showing in general epeirogenic, extensional or com-
structures, extrusive Triassic rocks and more. In general, Paleozoic pressional characters. In fact, Fabre et al. (2006) suggested the exis-
rocks do not crop out in Tunisia except for subreefal Middle Perm- tence of tectonic extension or epeirogenic transients related
ian and continental upper Permian outcrops (Tebaga Group of essentially to the role of positive isostatic adjustment of the Saha-
Memmi et al., 1986) near Toujane area (see Soua, 2012a for a syn- ran crust after the Ordovician ice melting, which favored vertical
thesis). However, Paleozoic rocks have been encountered in the movements or block tilting, and either rifted blocks. In addition,
subsurface (e.g. Bonnefous, 1963; Berry and Boucot, 1973; Jaeger thermal subsidence phases have been identified, at the early and
et al., 1975; Memmi et al., 1986; Cunningham, 1989; Ben Ferjani late Silurian as well as at the Frasnian, confirming the opening
et al., 1990) in the following three basins (Fig. 2). regime of the Saharan Basin (Fabre et al., 2006).
Generally speaking, sea level rose at the end of the Ordovician,
1.2.1. The Southern Chott Basin the North African platform was flooded and covered by a transgres-
During the Paleozoic time, important hiatuses had been sive marine, shale-dominated, facies. A long-term upper Silurian
recorded within this special zone (Fig. 5), which is situated north- (Ludlow to Geddinian) anoxic event is marked by deposition of
wards to the Touggourt-Talemzane-PGA-Bou Nemcha uplift sys- thin but regionally extensive organic-rich shales of Fegaguira/Oued
tem (TTPB) (Fig. 3). Although the two main source rocks known Ali Formation to the North of TTPB High (Cunningham, 1989;
in the Berkine Basin, which have been deposited during the Early Belhaj and Saidi, 2010; Rezouga et al., 2012b). Lüning et al.
Silurian (Llandoverian: Hot Shale) and Late Devonian (Frasnian: (2000b) identified similar but longer (in age) Silurian–early Devo-
Aouinet Ouenine ‘‘AO III’’ black shales) peak transgressions, a dif- nian sequence in Morocco presenting important organic matter
ferent one has been preserved within the southern Chotts Basin, amounts in the late Silurian–early Devonian section within the
which is Ludlovian–Gedinnian in age (Late Silurian–Early Devonian Tadla Basin. This may continued through to the end of the Silurian
Fegaguira or Oued Ali Formation) overlying unconformably the to earliest Devonian without deposition of a northerly-prograding
Ordovician (Fig. 5). This major time gap recorded between the marine shelf to coastal fluvio-deltaic system, represented by the
Azzel shale and Fegaguira/Oued Ali shale: Caradocian–Asghill until diachronous ‘‘Alternances argilo-greseuses’’ Formation (Massa
lower Ludlovian (Late Ordovician–late Early Silurian) implies a and Jaeger, 1971) known as Acacus Formations (Desio, 1936) by
time gap of more than 40 Ma (Fig. 5). The time-gap was probably most of the petroleum companies. The upper part of the Fegagu-
in relation with a major unconformity related to a phase of basin ira/Oued Ali Formation is overlain by Permian to Triassic series
deformation (Fig. 6), which occurred before the Asghillian glacial (Fig. 7) implying another time gap related to the Devonian
Fig. 2. The three main sedimentary basins characterizing the southern Tunisia: southern Chotts, Jeffara and Berkine basins.
Caledonian Unconformity (Cunningham, 1989; Echikh, 1998; Boote The early Silurian, organic-rich, Hot shale has served as a major
et al., 1998; Dardour et al., 2004; Lüning, 2005; Craig et al., 2008). source rock for many of the conventional oil and gas fields in south-
ern Tunisia as well as the Frasnian Aouinet Ouinine ‘‘AO III’’ Shale has
1.2.2. The Berkine and Jeffara Basins also served as an important source rock for the Devonian (Tahara)
The southern Tunisian Berkine Basin (Fig. 2) presents progres- and Triassic TAGI conventional reservoirs in the same area
sive truncated Paleozoic series going from Silurian up to Permian (Aissaoui et al., 1996; Boote et al., 1998; Dardour et al., 2004;
due to the Hercynian and Caledonian unconformities, especially Ferjaoui et al., 2001; Rezouga et al., 2012a).
near the southern flank of the E–W trending TTPB structure where
only Precambrian/Cambrian to early Ordovician series subcrop 2. Geological setting
(Fig. 3). These strata are overlain by Triassic to Cretaceous (Santo-
nian–Campanian) series (Fig. 4). Widespread deposition of the two The Ghadames Basin (=Berkine Basin) is related to the whole
shale plays (early Silurian and Frasnian Hot Shales) is recorded Gondwanian geodynamic evolution through the Paleozoic tectonic
within this part of Berkine Basin. In contrary the subsident Jeffara events. This is the reason why it is recommended to overview the
Basin seems to have remained uplifted and consequently the Devo- common geodynamic evolution of this large domain during the
nian sequence has not been deposited (Burollet and Desforges, Cambrian–Devonian interval in order to encompass the main
1982; Aissaoui et al., 1996; Gabtni et al., 2009). source rock levels sedimentation and potential evolution (Fig. 6).
Fig. 3. Hercynian subcrop map of the Ghadames Basin (Soua, 2012a and reference therein): Paleozoic geology and main structural features, 1. Precambrian, 2. Cambrian, 3.
Ordovician, 4. Early Silurian, 5. Ludlow–Pidoli–Geddinian, 6. Late Silurian, 7. Devonian, 8. Carboniferous, 9. Permian, 10. structural paleohigh, 11. subbasin.
2.1. The Cambrian et al., 1996; Lüning et al., 2000b; Craig et al., 2008; Le Heron
and Craig, 2008; Vecoli et al., 2009; Chambers, 2008; Gabtni
During the Cambrian times over such a large region of North et al., 2009; Soua, 2013). These sedimentary unconformities had
African basins the beginning of the sedimentation was admitted been observed widely along the northern African Paleozoic basins
to be diachronous along this span of time (Beuf et al., 1971; such as in the Tindouf and Kufra basins (Boote et al., 1998;
Fabre, 1988; Guiraud et al., 2005). Generally speaking, along the Hallett, 2002; Lüning et al., 2003; Dardour et al., 2004; Guiraud
Tunisian Berkine Basin, fluvial sandstones had been deposited over et al., 2005).
the area (Fig. 5), with especially the so called Sidi Toui Formation
and admitted to be the equivalent of the Hassaouna Formation in 2.2. The Ordovician
the Kufra and Murzuk basins in Libya (Fig. 5), and equivalent to
Menkel sandstone unit of Illizi Basin (Figs. 5 and 6). This series Along the early Tremadocian period, marine transgressions
grades into Tinezoul shales toward Morocco (Guiraud et al., (Fig. 8) affected the Northern African platform (Fig. 5). These
2005). The giant Hassi Messaoud oil-field is characterized by five transgressions grew and interposed with slight regressions epi-
major reservoir levels, which are productive from the Upper Cam- sodes up to the early Ashgill (Pogacsas et al., 1996; Guiraud,
brian to Arenig (Lower Ordovician) Hamra Quartzite (Pogacsas 1998; Boote et al., 1998; Carr, 2002; Chambers, 2008, Fig. 8).
et al., 1996; MacGregor, 1998; Lüning, 2005). The early Ordovician sedimentary sequences are represented in
The end of the Cambrian is admitted to be occurred with a the southern Tunisia (Berkine Basin), by the Sanghrar Formation,
regional uplift called Sardinian tectonic deformation (Fabre, which is essentially made by dark gray to black shale and argilla-
1988), which is in turn recorded with a brief drop in sea level ceous marl deposited during local anoxic phase and grading
(Guiraud et al., 2005). This event was responsible for many strati- upward into silt and fine grained sandstone sequence
graphic gaps or slight hiatuses and unconformities in the three (Chambers, 2008). It is admitted to be the equivalent of the Unit
studied basins of southern Tunisia (i.e. Southern Chotts, Jeffara III-1 in Illizi and Algerian Berkine basins and Haouez in Libyan
and Berkine; Figs. 3 and 7) (Massa and Jaeger, 1971; Jaeger Ghadames and Kufra basins (Wennekers et al., 1996; Rusk,
et al., 1975; Massa, 1985; Memmi et al., 1986; Cunningham, 2001; Hallett, 2002). This sequence grades up to shales toward
1989; Ben Ferjani et al., 1990; Aissaoui et al., 1996; Pogacsas Morocco (Guiraud et al., 2005). Some authors (e.g. Fabre, 1976,
Fig. 4. Four differently oriented geoseismic cross sections showing the main structural styles affecting the Berkine and Jeffara Basins: (1) SW-NNE cross section passing from
southern Algeria through the Jeffara Basin; (2) N–S to E–W cross section passing from Algeria through southern Tunisia and Western Libya; (3) NW–SE to E–W Cross section
from Algeria to Libya and (4) N–S cross section from southern Libya to Jeffara Basin.
1988; Guiraud and Bosworth, 1999; Guiraud et al., 2005) noted 2.3. The Silurian
that the existing unconformity between the Sanghar and Sidi Toui
formations is caused principally by the pre-Caradoc tectonic The early Silurian strata are dominantly characterized by a
event. It is overlain by the Kasbah Lenguine (Llandeilian to Llan- sequence of dark gray to black, graptolitic shales with intercala-
virnian), which is composed generally by two terms. The first tions of siltstone and fine grained sandstones often forming rhyth-
term consists of a quartz sandstone correlated generally to the mical alternations, well known from the drilling wireline logs (in
Hamra Sandstone (Chambers, 2008; Soua, 2013) and a second the Berkine Basin of southern Tunisia), which represents the broad
term consisting of a widespread ‘‘ferroan oolite’’ or sandstone marine transgression of the Silurian sea over the North African cra-
(Chambers, 2008; Soua, 2013). This sequence is overlain by the ton (Klitzsch, 1969; Wennekers et al., 1996; Lüning et al., 2000a;
Bir Ben Tartar Formation, which is unconformably overlain by Guiraud et al., 2005; Craig et al., 2008; Abuhmida, 2013). This typ-
the Jeffara Formation. This latter formation is composed of a ical facies presents in its base a special radioactive organic-rich ser-
lower shale unit, which is equivalent to the Azzel Shale in the ies (up to 12.15% TOC in southern Tunisia, Rezouga et al., 2012a,
Southern Chott Basin and Algeria marking a transgressive systems see Fig. 1) called Hot Shales Unit. These strata are labeled tradition-
tract. This sequence is generally graded upward into micaceous ally Tannezuft Formation, which was first introduced by Desio
shoreface to offshore storm sandstone deposits (Chambers, 2008). (1936) as named after Oued Tanezzuft area near Al Ouinet area
Fig. 5. Simplified lithostratigraphic correlation of the Paleozoic of southern Tunisia and neighboring countries (modified and updated from Craig et al., 2008). Intention is
given for the three studied sedimentary basins of southern Tunisia (southern Chotts, Jeffara and Berkine) and distribution of the three hot shale units (Rhuddanian, Ludlow–
Pridoli and Frasnian Hot shales) through these basins.
in Libya (Tawadros, 2011; Abuhmida, 2013) on an incomplete sec- organic carbon values of up to 12% have been deposited (Hawa-
tion (Hallett, 2002) then reevaluated by Klitzsch (1965). In contrary, 1, see Fig. 2 for location). Lüning et al. (2000a) stated that early
some other regions received fluvial to continental sandstone depo- Silurian organic-rich shales are estimated to be the origin of 80–
sition, which prevailed in uplifted areas (Echikh, 1998; Boote et al., 90% of all Paleozoic-sourced hydrocarbons in North Africa. This
1998; Dardour et al., 2004; Lüning, 2005; Guiraud et al., 2005; organic-rich and graptolitic black shale facies is recorded also in
Craig et al., 2008). In southern Tunisia, the total thickness of these large area of the north African margin (Algeria, Morocco, Libya,
shales, which are termed Argiles Principales Formation by Jaeger Figs. 5 and 11) and also in the Arabian Peninsula (Saudi Arabia, Jor-
et al. (1975) and Massa (1985) is generally random (Fig. 9), this dan, Iraq) (Jaeger et al., 1975; Massa, 1985; Boote et al., 1998;
could be due to the Caledonian uplift and erosion, which affected MacGregor, 1998; Lüning et al., 2000a, 2005; Craig et al., 2008;
original and post-erosional thickness (Sebastian Luning, personal Vecoli et al., 2009; Loydell et al., 2009).
communication). It increases north-westwards from 394 m in the The sedimentation was then interrupted by the Silurian–Devo-
proximal Jeffara Basin (CEM-1, see Figs. 2 and 9 for location), nian transition, as a result of tectonic instability (Caledonian event)
through 454 m in the El Borma area (northern Ghadames Basin), and a drop in global sea level (Guiraud et al., 2005, see Figs. 5 and
however, 490 m thick is also recorded in the southeastern part of 8). This event was responsible for frequent angular unconformities
Tunisia (SET-1, see Fig. 9 for location). This could reflect the north- underlying Devonian formations, which is believed to be the prin-
westward progradation of the overstepping sandy deltaic system cipal cause of the Aouinet Ouinine partial to total erosion in south-
of the shallow-marine ‘‘Alternances argilo-gréseuses’’ (=Acacus) ern Tunisia and the adjacent areas (e.g., Klitzsch, 1965; Guardia,
Formation deposited during the mid-Llandovery to Pridolian times 1975; Deynoux et al., 1985; Wennekers et al., 1996; Semtner
(Massa, 1985; Ben Ferjani et al., 1990; Lister, 1995; Lüning, 2005). et al., 1997; Boote et al., 1998; Crossley and McDougall, 1998;
The early Silurian Argiles Principales (=Tannezufft) Formation is Guiraud and Bosworth, 1999; Piqué, 2001; Coward and Ries,
generally organically lean (0.5%TOC in average), except for the base 2003; Guiraud et al., 2005, Figs. 4 and 7), the reason why, a part
of the Formation, which is characterized by the Hot Shales unit from the southernmost Tunisia (Jeffara and northern Berkine Basin
(Rhuddanian to maybe early Aeronian in age, see Fig. 5) when are deprived from the Frasnian sections (Fig. 4).
anoxic phases occurred (Lüning et al., 2000a; Vecoli et al., 2009). Within the Southern Chott Basin (Fig. 2) the Llandovery to early
During these phases, organically rich, black shales with total Ludlow section is almost missing (Fig. 5). The late Silurian is
Fig. 6. Main sedimentary basins characterizing the Northern African margin (modified from Lüning et al., 2000a; Craig et al., 2008).
Fig. 7. E–W (Algeria) and N–S (southern Tunisia) composite cross-section showing different lithostratigraphic relationship and structural styles characterizing the Berkine
and southern Chotts basins.
represented by a Hot Shale level called traditionally the Fegaguira marine shales to fluvial–continental facies in some basins belong-
Formation, which is equivalent to the Oued Ali Formation. These ing to eastern and central North Africa (Fig. 6) represented in Tuni-
shales may attain the Gedinnian (ALG-1, HBR-1, FNG-1; sia mainly bythe Tadrat and Ouan Kasa Formations equivalent to
Dummond and Rasul, 1985). Reservoir F6 of Illizi Basin (Fig. 5), which forms important hydro-
carbon deposit in the area (Carr, 2002; Guiraud et al., 2005;
2.4. The Devonian Lüning, 2005). The Middle and Late Devonian are characterized
by transgressive sequences, which occurred during two wide-
During the latest Silurian–Early Devonian, the Ghadames Basin spread major Frasnian anoxic events labeled commonly Kellwasser
and especially southern Tunisia was characterized by a major gen- events of typical bituminous limestones and shales, along the
eralized eustatic sea-level fall, causing an abrupt change from open North African (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya) basins (Massa
Fig. 8. Different stage nomenclature used for the Ordovician through Devonian plotted against the global eustatic curve during these key periods. General sea-level change,
coastal onlaps and sequence terminology are compiled from Hardenbol et al. (1998), Haq and Al-Qahtani (2005), Haq and Shutter (2008) and Snedden and Liu (2010). The
Ordovician glaciation and eustatic curve data are provided from Loydell (1998), Nielsen (2004) and Achab and Paris (2007).
Silurian partially eroded

BZ-1 OMZ-1
SNN-1 BAD-1
50
140
KEE-2
BRT-1 AMG-1 SN-1
RA-1 bis ED-1
KEE-1 ESD-1
DRA-1
25
130
ZN-1
EHD-1 RH'-1
ANR-1
KA-1 bis
ZHA-1
EBNE-1 EBR-2
DN-1
CEM-1
EXPLANATION
120
Early Silurian Hot Shales Thickness

EB-1 EBP-1
75 RZ'-1
EBP-1 CEMSW-1
EB-407
Less than 25m

110
DH-1
EAT-1 LA-1
ELB-1
ZTE-1 AB-1
HDA-2
100 HTB-2
SB-1
LD-1 HDA-3 OZ-1
100 Between 50-25m
LIBYA
AMC-1
JNN-1 EZ-2 HDASE-1
25
RBR-1
RER-1
HYT-1 OK-1
MG-1 90 Between 100-50m
RR-1 HWA-1
CS-6
MAB-1
HR-1 80 More than 100m
ARBN-1 EC-3
Nawara-1
FES-1
RSH-1 bis
CS-2
EC-2
HZ-1 Sourour-1
Ahlem-1 70 Fault
ECS-2
TR-1
60 Well
ALGERIA
GEAN-1
RY-1 50 SET-1
75
75 50 Contour map
GEA-1 LD-1
0
10 100 TE-1
40
BK-2 100
30
TUNISIA
20
10
12
MZL-1
5
REH-1
Fig. 9. Thickness map of the early Silurian (Rhuddanian Hot shale unit).
and Jaeger, 1971; Jaeger et al., 1975; Massa, 1985; Memmi et al., maturity and isobath maps of these units in each sedimentary
1986; Lazreq, 1992; Aissaoui et al., 1996; Boote et al., 1998; basin. Positions of the wells and some seismic lines helped in gen-
Ferjaoui et al., 2001; Lüning et al., 2003; Bond et al., 2004; eration of large scale cross sections between the basins (Figs. 4 and
Riquier et al., 2005) and deposited the organic-rich shales termed 7).
‘‘Argiles Radioactives’’ Formation in the Algerian side (Beuf et al., Biostratigraphic investigations have been carried out in Tunisia
1971) and Aouinet Ouinine Formation in the Lybian side (e.g. Gha- especially through palynological analysis by petroleum companies
dames Basin, Kufra Basin, Lelubre, 1946). Generally speaking, the (internal reports) operating in different basins (Sitep, SEREPT,
Frasnian Event is an important goniatite extinction biotic event AMOCO, ENI, Marathon, Union Texas Maghreb) as well as by
occurred during a generalized phase of anoxia, which led to impor- Deunff (1966) for the Frasnian of southern Tunisia. Graptolites bio-
tant organic-rich shales deposition in various places across North stratigraphic scheme for the early Silurian had been traced earlier
Africa. In the Algerian, Tunisian, and Libyan Ghadames Basin (=Ber- by Bonnefous (1963) and Jaeger et al. (1975). Although palynolog-
kine, Illizi and Hamra basins), Frasnian black shales contain up to ical investigation (acritarchs, chitinozoans and spores) had been
16% organic carbon and represent an important hydrocarbon undertaken in Algeria, Libya and Egypt (e.g. Massa and Collomb,
source rock (Boote et al., 1998; Echikh, 1998; Ferjaoui et al., 1960; Massa and Jaeger, 1971; Massa and Moreau-Benoit, 1976;
2001; Lüning et al., 2000b; Lüning, 2005). The Aouinet Ouinine For- Massa, 1988) including studies of Graptolites and Conodonts (Mor-
mation is composed generally of four terms (going from AOI, AOII, occo and Algeria), little biostratigraphic data is available from
AOIII toAOIV) and the Frasnian is located generally in Tunisia southern Tunisia (e.g. Bonnefous, 1963; Jaeger et al., 1975; Vecoli
within the AOIII term (Ghenima, 1995; Aissaoui et al., 1996; et al., 2009). This explains why southern Tunisian basins had been
Ferjaoui et al., 2001; Lüning et al., 2000b), which is dominated by not included to any large extent in regional biostratigraphic corre-
type II kerogen with an average TOC content of 5% and Hydrogen lations (example in Lüning et al., 2000a, 2003; Craig et al., 2008).
indices up to 700 mgHC/g TOC (Ferjaoui et al., 2001; Rezouga Regional distribution maps of the hot shale units have been carried
et al., 2012b). out from different well data (depth, thickness and gamma ray
responses). Some old data such as the Frasnian of the southern
3. Materials and methods Tunisia had been thought for a long time as pertaining to the Eifel-
lian. However, due to the typical Hot shale response (GR), high TOC
The main purpose of this paper is to assess and review Paleozoic and palynological review it has been recalibrated in this contribu-
oil/gas shale reservoirs from a geological viewpoint (i.e. their dis- tion. Geochemical investigations (TOC, maturity, molecular geo-
tribution, thickness, organic-richness, maturity, mineral composi- chemistry) for the early Silurian and Ludlow–Pridolian Hot shales
tion, etc.). The study focuses on the southern Chott, Jeffara and have been published recently (Belhaj and Saidi, 2010; Rezouga
Berkine basins of southern Tunisia (Fig. 2). Published papers and et al., 2012a, 2012b) while some TOC analysis for the Frasnian
unpublished petroleum reports had been used in this review in are present from unpublished petroleum reports. Mineralogical
order to evaluate geological and biostratigraphical investigations. investigation (Quartz, Illite, Kaolinite, Chlorite) had been analyzed
In addition some new data have been acquired in order to up-to- on early Silurian Hot Shale samples (Abdeljaoued, 2009) however
date the general knowledge and the state-of-art of the Tunisian mineralogy from traditional well log data have been previously
Paleozoic basins. For this purpose, wireling log data (Gamma Ray, generated (e.g. Soua, 2009a; Rezouga et al., 2012a) using Depth,
Spectral Gamma Ray, SpectroLith logging data, etc.) for more than Gamma Ray (GR), Neutron Porosity (UN), deep Resistivity (Rt)
70 wells from Tunisia and Algeria were used to estimate organic and Bulk Density (qb) log data, which are needed for generating
richness as well as primary productivity and paleoredox condi- the mineral composition (Quartz, clays and other minerals). In this
tions. In addition pyrolisis data, depth intervals and thickness of contribution, Spectral Gamma Ray, Elemental Capture Spectros-
the hot shale units (early Silurian, Ludlow–Pridolian and Frasnian) copy (ESC) and analysis on the SpectroLith logging, mineral compo-
have been used for the compilation of the distribution, isopach, sition (Quartz, Carbonate, pyrite and clay minerals), major (Al, Fe,
Fig. 10. Lithostratigraphic description of the Rhuddanian Hot shale level from El Borma-407(Soua, 2009a): (1) general aspect of the organic-rich Rhuddanian Hot shale unit;
(2) pyrite framboids; (3) iron concretion; (4) different pyrite framboid sizes distribution; (5) quartz and (6) Graptolites, quartz and iron concretion.
Si, Ti and K) and trace elemental composition (U and Th) have been (Lüning et al., 2000a). Generally speaking, high presence of ura-
used here for the evaluation of the early Silurian and Frasnian Hot nium (U) concomitant with low concentrations of potassium (K)
Shales units. and thorium (Th) are suggestive of organic-richness preserved
within reducing environments. However, the presence of almost
3.1. Well logging tools equal K, Th and U concentrations may suggest that the K and Th
contributions are associated with the clay content of the shale,
The well logging tools are applied generally as proxies for many while the U is associated with the organic-rich source deposited
purposes such as mineral composition, total organic carbon, as during redox conditions. In addition, elevated K and Th concentra-
well as major and trace elemental geochemistry, evaluating there- tions occurring with low U content generally indicate organic-
fore the productivity and paleoredox conditions during such anoxic leaner shale. The Hot Shales unit presents high Gamma ray
events. Their main parameters could be evaluated from the well reaching up to 1450 API in the Tunisian Berkine Basin (Figs. 17,
logging tools. 18 and 26), which reflects therefore high TOC values (Lüning and
Kolonic, 2002). The high GR reading is generally due to enrichment
3.1.1. Spectral Gamma Ray in uranium (U, Figs. 14, 17, 18 and 26), which values reach up to
High total gamma ray readings are generally indicator of 135 ppm in Hawa-1 well (Fig. 18) and 160 ppm in Hayatt-1 well
organic-rich Hot shales especially in these Paleozoic sediments (Fig. 17). Generally speaking, under reducing conditions soluble
Fig. 11. Early Silurian Argiles principales Formation and its equivalents distribution and facies in Algeria, Tunisia and Libya (modified after Craig et al., 2008).
U6+ is converted to insoluble U4+ (e.g., Wignall and Myers, 1988; microprobe and SEM studies have shown that it only occurs in
Lüning et al., 2005; Tribovillard et al., 2006; Soua, 2010; Soua heavy minerals, which may be of clay-silt grade. The association
et al., 2011). Basically, uranium is removed from seawater and pore with kaolinite may probably be a statistical link caused by the
waters into organic-rich sediments (Anderson et al., 1989; Barnes breakdown of feldspars derived from granites to kaolinite (Neil
and Cochran, 1990; Klinkhammer and Palmer, 1991). According Craigie, personnel communication) with Th-bearing zircons also
to some authors (e.g., Algeo and Maynard, 2004; McManus et al., being abundant in the host rock. Therefore increased Th/U ratios
2005; Tribovillard et al., 2006; Soua et al., 2011 and references where it is believed to indicate both relatively low sedimentation
therein) U enrichment does not occur in the water column but rates and sensitive indicator of a euxinic water column.
rather took place mainly in the sediment, while Zhang et al.
(2002) hypothesized that U may occur by the combination of iron 3.1.2. SpectroLith logging tool
and sulfate reduction. The oxidized soluble uranium form is SpectroLith logging has been used in this contribution from
reduced and fixed within euxinic basin sediments in its tetravalent Hayatt-1 well (HYT-1, Figs. 2 and 17), which penetrated the Fras-
form (Anderson et al., 1989; Arthur and Sageman, 1994; Lüning et nian and early Silurian Hot shales. It serves generally to the evalu-
al., 2000a; Tribovillard et al., 2006; Soua, 2011, 2012b). However, ation of converted elemental concentrations from Elemental
high levels of U6+ are also noted in organic matter accumulating Capture Spectroscopy (ECS) tool to mineral composition groups
under oxic conditions (Neil Craigie, personnel communication). (clay, carbonate, quartz, sulfur, pyrite, elements, etc.) (Lewis
This is due to the fact that U is influenced by both anoxia and et al., 2004; Cluff and Miller, 2010). In fact the ECS tool provides
the original supply of organic matter. in-situ geochemical analysis by calculating clay and quartz vol-
Several authors supposed that in euxinic environments, where umes, as well as sulfur and pyrite content to yield a prediction of
U is assumed to be fixed in sediments, the Th/U ratio is believed shale gas content. It provides also Si, Ca, Fe, S, Ti, Gd, K, Mg and
to be sensitive to the relative inputs of Th-bearing clay minerals Al concentration measurements (Lewis et al., 2004).
(e.g. Zelt, 1985; Wignall and Myers, 1988; Doveton, 1991; Arthur
and Sageman, 1994; Lüning and Kolonic, 2002; Soua, 2011, 3.1.3. Wireline logs and TOC estimation
2012b), but detailed studies by Hurst (1999, and references It is assumed now that visual interpretation as well as quick
therein) proved that Th is exclusively concentrated in heavy min- looks of wireline logs is not evident for the evaluation of shale
erals, which may occur in the clay grade fraction. The only excep- gas as the case is for conventional oil and gas reservoirs (Cluff
tion to this is biogenic phosphate, which can incorporate Th under and Miller, 2010). In fact, first indicators of shale gas are inferred
exceptional circumstances. In reality, Th has a very stable 4+ state generally from elevated resistivity and gamma ray values, due to
that is almost exclusive to heavy minerals such as monazite, apa- the increased organic richness, concomitant to low density. This
tite and zircon in particular. It has been confused by the fact that is why conventional methods using well logs are not advisable
Th occurs in close association with clay minerals but detailed for shale gas evaluation (Cluff and Miller, 2010; Naslin, 2013).
Fig. 12. Distribution of the Gamma ray and TOC (inferred from well logging tools) of four different wells: LASE-1, CEM-1, HYT-1 and SET-1 (after Rezouga et al., 2012a).
During these last decades multiple techniques had been used in 3.1.3.2. Equation for TOC estimation. The TOC content could be
order to evaluate total organic carbon from wireline logs due to inferred from logging tools as follows:
the great number of samples to be analyzed.
D log R ¼ log 10ðR=Rbaseline Þ þ 0:02ðDt % Dtbaseline Þ ð1Þ
3.1.3.1. TOC and thermal maturation (Ro%) estimation. A practical where Rbaseline is the shale baseline resistivity and Dtbaseline is the
method using well logs has been developed by Passey et al. shale baseline Dt.
(1990), the Dlog R, for identifying and calculating total organic car- TOC ðwt%Þ ¼ D log R & 10ð2:297%0:1688&LOMÞ ð2Þ
bon in organic-rich black shales. The method overlays a porosity
log onto a resistivity (Rdeep) curve, which express a separation where LOM: level of organic maturity is inferred from Dlog R vs.
between the two curves when they are plotted against organic-rich TOC plot.
rocks. Therefore, the Dlog R curve is related to total organic carbon
(TOC) but it links to the level of organic maturity (LOM), which can 3.1.3.3. Estimation of Ro from Tmax. In general, the Tmax is measured
be inferred from a simple Dlog R vs. TOC plot, or simply obtained in degrees centigrade and it is assumed that it is the Rock–Eval
from geochemical analyses (Tmax or Ro%). equivalent of vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) indicating the level of
Fig. 13. Correlation of the early Silurian shift between Gamma ray and TOC.
Fig. 14. Mean Uranium enrichment factor [EF(U)] and Gamma ray distributions (A) EF(U) distribution map, maximum values are interpreted as maximum redox conditions,
(B) Gamma ray distribution.
maturity. Jarvie et al. (2007) made the conversion of Tmax to vitri- (Hawa-1 well, Hayatt-1 well, in the Tunisian Berkine Basin).
nite reflectance possible by using the following formula: Lüning et al. (2000a) defined these shales as Hot when the
gamma values exceed 200 API and seem to be correlatable
Ro% ¼ 0:018 & T max % 7:16 ð3Þ
approximately with TOCs of 3% in the Ghadames (=Berkine)
Through this contribution, the maturity countour maps have Basin. The same characteristics are used in this review. These
used converted Ro values from Tmax data (Figs. 20, 23 and 36) in Hot Shales are deposited on several paleogeographical basins of
order to ensure a better thermal level division (i.e. oil and gas the Gondwana margin including the Berkine and Jeffara Basins
windows). (Fig. 2). These laminated organic-rich beds are believed to have
been deposited under anoxic conditions (e.g. Lüning et al.,
3.2. Methods of interpreting the mineralogical composition and 2000a; Vecoli et al., 2009; Soua, 2009a). The preservation
elemental geochemistry of such amounts of organic carbon was recorded worldwide
around the early Silurian stage and especially in the Rhuddanian
The mineral composition from the SpectroLith logging and the of Northern Africa and Arabia (Lüning et al., 2005; Loydell et
Elemental Capture Spectroscopy (ECS) tool provides clay, quartz, al., 2009) as a response to the paleoceanographic conditions
sulfur and pyrite content. This data may be used to model prevailing at that time. In southern Tunisia, the Hot shales unit
changes in depositional environment. These unconventional res- of the Argiles Principales Formation is the source rock for
ervoirs are defined as highly organic-rich sediments expressing most of the Paleozoic hydrocarbons discovered to date in the
elevated Gamma ray values, which could reach 1450 API Berkine–Jeffara domain (Cunningham, 1989; Inoubli et al., 1992;
Fig. 15. Early Silurian (Rhuddanian Hot Shale) organic carbon distributions (%TOC) (data compiled after Ghenima, 1993; Daniels and Emme, 1995; Macgregor, 1998; Boote
et al., 1998; Echikh, 1998; Saidi et al., 1998).
Fig. 16. Early Silurian Argiles principales Formation composite section. Gamma ray and TOC are from OZ-1 well (Soua, 2009a), biostratigraphy is taken from Lg-3, ST-1 and Tt-
1 (Bonnefous, 1963; Jaeger et al., 1975 and Vecoli et al., 2009) and the d13Corg curve is from the Tt-1 well (Vecoli et al., 2009). (See above-mentioned references for further
information.)
Ghenima, 1995; Saidi et al., 1998; Boote et al., 1998; Lüning et al., anoxic events in the history of the earth, most of biotic habitat
2000a; Dardour et al., 2004; Rezouga et al., 2012a). Within the (Graptolites, Conodonts, Trilobites, Acritarchs, Chitinozoans,
Silurian, considered among the most severe Paleozoic oceanic Algae) experienced mass and/or step by step extinctions due to
Gamma Ray (GAPI) Uranium (ppm) Thorium (ppm) U/Th

Hayatt-1
0 400 800 1200 1400 1600 0 40 100 160 0 30 60 90 120 150 0 4 8 12 16 20
Uranium average shale line

Ludfordian
3880
Ludlow
CGR
SGR
3920
Mulde or Lau Events

are not present
Homerian
3960
Argiles Principales Formation

4000
Wenlock
Scheinwoodian
Probable Ireviken Event

4040
murchisoni
Early Silurian
4080
Rhuddanian Aeron Telichtian
turriculatus
4120
Llandovery
4160
Hot Shales Unit
cyphus maaximum paleoredox conditions

4200
Jeffara
Ordovician
Fig. 17. Spectral gamma-ray log of the organic-rich early Silurian Argiles Principales Formation in well HYT-1 (Berkine Basin) (Fig. 2, for location). Generally speaking, the Hot
shale interval is enriched in uranium, with maximum concentrations of 154 ppm, whereas thorium and potassium values remain rather constant. CGR is computed gamma-
ray (Th and K radiation), SGR = spectral gamma-ray.
HAWA-1 Spectral
Gamma Ray (API) Uranium (ppm) Thorium (ppm) Potassium
(%)
0 400 800 1200 0 40 80 120 0 20 40 0 2 4 6
Argiles Principales Formation (s.s)
3940
Argiles Principales Formation (s.l)
CGR
3945
3950
3955
A
Hot Shales
3960
Jeffara
Fig. 18. Spectral gamma-ray log of the organic-rich early Silurian Argiles Principales Formation in well HWA-1 (Berkine Basin) (Fig. 2, for location). Generally speaking, the
Hot shale interval is enriched in uranium, with maximum concentrations of 116 ppm, whereas thorium and potassium values remain rather constant. CGR is computed
gamma-ray (Th and K radiation), SGR = spectral gamma-ray.
three known Anoxic events: Ireviken, Mulde and Lau Events (e.g. and Saltzman, 2005, 2007; Cramer et al., 2006), the Baltic region
Jeppsson, 1997; Munnecke et al., 2003; Cramer and Saltzman, (Kaljo et al., 1997; Munnecke et al., 2003; Martma et al., 2005),
2005, 2007; Kaljo and Martma, 2006; Loydell, 2007; Vecoli and Australia (Talent et al., 1993).
et al., 2009), which are identified with precaution in this contri-
bution in southern Tunisia and seem to be with global character 3.2.1. Normalization and enrichment factor
since they have been recorded in several areas in the Gondwa- The element concentrations have been normalized to Al, which
nian margin such as North America (Saltzman, 2001; Cramer is considered as the best and most valuable method to estimate
Fig. 19. SpectroLith logging and Elemental Capture Spectroscopy (ECS) providing Quartz, Pyrite, Carbonate and Clay contents as well as major elements (e.g. Al, Fe, Si, K, Ti) for
the early Silurian Hot shale interval in the HYT-1 well.
element enrichment relative to reference sediment. Since the refer- (1) A detrital fraction derived from terrigenous sources carried
ence shales present generally a diagenetic component, calculation to the sea by rivers and winds, the main proxies for clastic
of enrichment factors EF may be somewhat incorrect (Riquier et al., input are for example Al, Ti and Th.
2005; Tribovillard et al., 2006; Soua et al., 2011). So, the use of EF to (2) A biogenic fraction composed of carbonate, silica or OM. The
evaluate limited enrichment and/or depletion may be delicate. In main trace element proxies are Ba, Ni, and Cu and because
this paper we calculated the uranium (U) Enrichment Factor as no analyses had been taken yet on such elements Si would
follows: be a good proxy for the primary productivity.
(3) An authigenic fraction, mainly composed of sulfides, organo-
EFðUÞ ¼ ðU=AlÞsample =ðU=AlÞaverage shale ð4Þ
metallic complexes and insoluble oxy-hydroxides, the main
If EF(U) is greater than 1, then U is enriched relative to average proxy for paleoredox conditions of, which is for example U
shales, however, if EF(U) is less than 1, so it is depleted due to the lack of Mo and V. Aluminum (Al) is used here
(Brumsack, 2006; Tribovillard et al., 2006; Soua et al., 2011). as a proxy for the land-derived aluminosilicate fraction of
the sediments.
3.2.2. Clastic input, productivity and paleoredox conditions
According to several authors (e.g., Brumsack, 1989, 2006; 3.2.3. Fe-enrichment and pyrite formation
Riquier et al., 2005; Scopelliti et al., 2006; Tribovillard et al., The early Silurian and Frasnian point out a slight Fe enrichment
2006; Soua, 2010 and references therein), the sedimentary geo- in the Hot Shale units that seem to be unrelated to clastic abun-
chemical signal records the influence of three types of fractions dance (Al, K or Ti), where origin could be inferred by comparison
(Table 2): to the average shale values (see Tribovillard et al., 2006 for a
KEE-2 RA-1 bis ED-1 ESD-1

KEE-1
DRA-1
indow
BRT-1 AMG-1
Immature
LIBYA
ZN-1
Oil W
EHD-1 RH'-1
ZHA-1
ANR-1 CEM-1
0.65
KA-1 bis EBNE-1 EBR-2
DN-1
EB-1 EBP-1 RZ'-1
EBP-1 CEMSW-1
Peak Oil
EB-407
EAT-1
DH-1
LA-1 2.1
1.1 ZTE-1 AB-1
EXPLANATION
HTB-2 HDA-2
SB-1
LD-1 HDA-3 OZ-1
2
AMC-1
1.1 0.8
JNN-1 EZ-2 HDASE-1
Late Oil 5
RER-1
MG-1
RBR-1 HYT-1 OK-1
5
RR-1 HWA-1
1.3 CS-6
MAB-1
HR-1 1.9
ARBN-1 EC-3
Peak
Oil Nawara-1
1.8 - Immature <0.6% Ro

RSH-1 bis
CS-2
Lat Sourour-1
FES-1 EC-2 eO Ahlem-1
il/W
1.6
HZ-1
ECS-2
e t Ga
GEAN-1
RY-1
s TR-1
1.7 - Oil window 0.6-1.1% Ro

We
Pre t Gas
GEA-1
1.8 ser
vat r
o LD-1
SET-1
5
5
ion
1.3
1.6 - Wet gas window

BK-2
1.85
TE-1
1.1-1.4% Ro
TUNISIA
1.6
2
Dry Gas 1.5
- Dry gas window 1.4-~3.2% Ro
1.4
MZL-1
Dry Gas
Maturity values R0 (%)

REH-1
- Gas destruction >~3.2% Ro (?)

Wet 1.3
Gas
or Pr
eserv
ation 1.2
1.6
Figure explanation
Lat 1.1
1.
Immature >0.65
eO
85
1.3
il 5 Oil Window 0.65-1.1
1
ALGERIA 1.1 Peak Oil 0.8-1.1
0.9
Late Oil
Late Oil/Wet Gas 1.1-1.35
1.6
Peak 0.8 Wet Gas/Preservation 1.35-1.75

Oil
Dry Gas 1.75-2.1
0.7
0.6
Fig. 20. Maturity Contour map of the early Silurian Hot shale level (Ro%). Vitrinite reflectance has been converted from Tmax values.
Table 1 Table 3
Thickness, organic-richness (TOC), Tmax, relative vitrinite reflectance and source type Major and trace elements normalized to Al and mineralogical composition of the early
of the early Silurian Hot shale from selected wells (data compiled from Rezouga et al., Silurian Hot shale from Cherouq-1; Hayatt-1 and Hawa-1.
2012a). Relative Vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) is calculated as demonstrated by Jarvie
et al. (2007); see Eq. (3). Elements Hayatt-1 Cherouq-1 Hawa-1
Wells Thick (m) TOC Tmax Ro (%) Source type Si 0.3 0.26
Al 0.12 0.07
AMC-1 53.5 1.82 440 0.8 Type II Fe 0.13 0.11
EB-407 23 4.5 442 0.8 Type II Ca 0.26 0.13
EBP-1 20 15 440 0.76 Type II Ti 0.01 0.00
OZ-1 33 5.78 436 0.7 Type II K 0.04 0.01 0.05
HWA-1 23 12.15 439 0.75 Type II Si/Al 4.17 3.63
CEM-1 30 6.87 435 0.7 Type II Fe/Al 2.08 1.95
RA-1 bis 14 4.94 438 0.72 Type II Ca/Al 7.67 6.64
Ti/Al 0.14 0.11
K/Al 0.80 0.57
U 158.30 108.27 131.42
Table 2 Th 27.32 27.29 22.35
Main fractions and their relative proxies. U/Th 10.56 10.53 9.48
U/K 122.61 98.58 107.36
Fraction Main proxy Elements used for proxies
Th/U 54.65 34.62 51.59
Detrital fraction Clastic input K, Ti, Th, Al Carbontae 0.70 0.57
Biogenic fraction Primary productivity Si Clay 0.65 0.42
Authigenic fraction Paleoredox conditions U Quartz 0.57 0.54
Pyrite 0.21 0.19
Siderite 0.05 0.02
Sulfur 0.18 0.12
synthesis). Lyons et al. (2003) proposed that presence of relatively
important syngenetic pyrite amount could therefore explain
enrichment in iron such recorded in these Hot shales and reported (Rickard, 1975; Wilkin and Barnes, 1996; Bond et al., 2004). Pres-
earlier from different core or well description (e.g., Jaeger et al., ence of the sulfur species (S) may be provided by H2S, which is gen-
1975; Massa, 1985; Chandoul, 1989; Ben Ferjani et al., 1990; erally available in or near the redox boundary by several species
Lüning et al., 2000a; Soua, 2009a; Rezouga et al., 2012a). It is such as O2, NO3%, MnO2, FeOOH, which is believed to be an elemen-
assumed that reactions of bacterial sulfate-reduction, which are tary intervention for the formation of pyrite (Middelburg, 1991;
mandatory for the formation of pyrite (Riquier et al., 2005) gener- Suits and Arthur, 2000; Riquier et al., 2005). Several authors admit
ate sulfide ions (HS%) that combine with reactive iron (Berner, that pyrite forms in the redox boundary as well as in euxinic set-
1984). Sedimentary pyrite forms often a metastable FeS (Riquier tings of water column (Calvert and Karlin, 1991; Middelburg,
et al., 2005), which react therefore with oxidized intermediate sul- 1991; Riquier et al., 2005). Pyrite framboid size is also important
fur species and transform consequently into a stable form of Fe2S in detecting redox boundary and euxinic conditions (Bond et al.,
2004; Riquier et al., 2005). Relative important size of framboids are dark black containing also abundant graptolites and pyrite fram-
suggested to be formed in anoxic–dysoxic conditions while small boids presence (Fig. 10).
sized framboids are thought to be formed during euxinic condi- Organic-rich early Silurian strata occur in many places in south-
tions (Fig. 10; Wilkin et al., 1996, 1997; Wignall and Newton, ern Tunisia and are grouped into the ‘‘Argiles Principales’’ Forma-
1998; Bond et al., 2004; Riquier et al., 2005). tion that was defined by Jaeger et al. (1975) in the Southeastern
part of Tunisia (SEREPT area of Lüning et al., 2000a) in the Jeffara
4. Main gas/oil shale plays Basin (Bonnefous, 1963; Massa and Jaeger, 1971; Jaeger et al.,
1975; Memmi et al., 1986; Ben Ferjani et al., 1990). These strata
4.1. Early Silurian organic-rich Hot Shales strata have been grouped earlier into the Tannezuft Formation by Desio
(1936) then it was given by several authors for the whole Gha-
4.1.1. Lithostratigraphic characteristics and main well logging features dames (Berkine, Illizi and Hamra) Basin including Tunisia (e.g.
Generally, along the Ordovician and Silurian time span, the Memmi et al., 1986; Ben Ferjani et al., 1990; Boote et al., 1998;
Earth was composed generally by four main palaeocontinents Echikh, 1998; Lüning et al., 2000a). It is used also by almost all
(Gondwana, Siberia, Laurentia, and Baltica). These palaeoconti- the petroleum companies operating in southern Tunisia (e.g. ENI,
nents were separated by three main palaeo-oceans represented Txas Union, Pioneer, OMV, Storm Venture, etc.). Some authors
by the Panthalassa, Paleotethys and Iapetus Oceans (Cocks, 2001; (e.g. Ben Ferjani et al., 1990; Troudi et al., 2011) confused the ele-
Scotese, 2004; Ruban et al., 2007; Craig et al., 2008; Le Heron vated Hot shales gamma ray response of the Fegaguira Formation
et al., 2009; Abuhmida, 2013). located in Southern Chott Basin with the typical early Silurian
During this period, Tunisia and especially the Ghadames Basin one although palynological investigations made by Dummond
(=Berkine Basin) were belonging to the Gondwana supercontinent. and Rasul (1985) confirmed the late Silurian–early Devonian age
Generally speaking, this large stable ensemble, which encompasses (see later in the text).
most of the world’s land masses including Africa, South America, The regional distribution of the main early Silurian facies type is
Florida, Arabia, India, Antarctica, New Guinea and most of Australia shown in the Fig. 9. The organic-rich early Silurian exists in the two
(Cocks, 2001; Cocks and Torsvik, 2002; Fortey and Cocks, 2003) basins (Jeffara and Berkine) (see Fig. 2 for location). Several neigh-
started to move toward the south to join the southern pole, which boring drilled wells have identified hot shale deposition or have
was located within North Africa during the latest Ordovician confirmed the extension of the Hercynian unconformity (Figs. 4
(Scotese et al., 1999; Cocks and Torsvik, 2002; Fortey and Cocks, and 5). These data give new insight on the distribution of the
2003; Ruban et al., 2007; Craig et al., 2008; Le Heron et al., 2009; organic-rich provinces of Jaeger et al. (1975) and Lüning et al.
Soua, 2013). During the well known short-lived Late Ordovician (2000a), however, the exact boundaries still remain unclear, espe-
glaciation, ice sheets grew up on the Western Gondwana platform cially toward the southern Gulf of Gabes and in the Pelagian Sea
(Sutcliffe et al., 2000; Ghienne et al., 2007; Le Heron and Craig, due to the deepness, which increase rapidly.
2008) and reached the present day North African basins such as A comparison with the palaeogeographic map (Fig. 11) suggests
Berkine, Illizi, Ahnet, Taoudeni, Kufra, and Hamra (e.g. Beuf et al., that the distribution of the organic-rich early Silurian may repre-
1971; Fabre, 1988; Ghienne and Deynoux, 1998; Lüning et al., sent impingement of an oxygene minimum zone (OMZ) onto the
2003). Recently, Le Heron and Craig (2008) demonstrated that Berkine Basin (Fig. 2). The ‘‘Argiles Principales’’ Formation is
the uppermost glacial unit (Dalle de M’kratta) reached also the approximately 100–350 m in thickness, with a maximum thick-
southern Tunisia (northern Berkine Basin) and this was clearly ness of about 466 m in the SE part of southern Tunisia (SET-1,
proved by Soua (2013) who discussed the presence of paleovalleys see Fig. 2 for location). However, the early Silurian black shale
and illustrated sub-glacial fluvial channels within the area. During package does not exceed 55 m thick (e.g. AMC-1, SET-1 wells,
this period, shallow marine and offshore marine sediments mainly Fig. 9). In Jeffara Basin, the equivalent time span is also represented
micro-conglomeratic shale (with glaciogenic origin) were depos- by hemipelagic black shales interbedded with finely laminated
ited along the north Saharan platform (Carr, 2002; Guiraud et al., limestones (Vecoli et al., 2009).
2005; Vecoli et al., 2009). This sequence is represented in southern In southern Tunisia (i.e. Jeffara and Berkine basins) the Hot
Tunisia mainly by the Jeffara Formation (Jaeger et al., 1975; Massa, Shale unit of the ‘‘Argiles principales’’ Formation can be easily
1985), which is admitted as the equivalent of Memouniat in the identified in well logs (Figs. 12 and 13) because of its high natural
Kufra Basin and Unit IV in the Illizi Basin (Fig. 5). These formations radioactivity of up to 1450 API in Hawa-1 and Hayatt-1 wells and
constitute major hydrocarbon reservoirs in Algeria and Libya even more in other wells (see Fig. 2 for location). Uranium enrich-
(Lüning, 2005). This short lived but severe glacial climatic event ment factor (EF[U]) distribution has been conducted in this study
(Fig. 8) was directly followed by the so-called Taconic tectonic using the Uranium of the Spectral Gamma Ray (SGR) (Fig. 14) as
event, which characterizes generally the Ordovician–Silurian tran- mentioned in the Material and Methods section (Eq. (4)), which
sition. This event is responsible for many hiatuses and unconformi- attained 160 ppm (HYT-1 well) and the Aluminum inferred from
ties between the Silurian and Ordovician series where the early SpectroLith logging data. In the Tunisian wells, the Hot Shales
Silurian strata overlay panoply of facies represented generally by show a EF(U) mean value of 2.5 (Fig. 14) with a maximum reaching
uplifted or tilted blocks and glacial series (Stump et al., 1995; up to 4.6 in around Hawa-1 well area (Table 3). U enrichment
Crossley and McDougall, 1998; Guiraud and Bosworth, 1999; when compared with the average shale value of 0.2 ppm (Gromet
Klitzsch, 2000; Lüning et al., 2000a; Hallett, 2002; Guiraud et al., et al., 1984) may indicate severe anoxic tendency at the water–
2005; Le Heron and Craig, 2008; Craig et al., 2008), this is why sediment interface during the base of the ‘‘Argiles principales’’
the early Silurian is not always represented by high Gamma radia- (Hot Shale unit) Formation deposition. The same tendencies had
tion (Lüning et al., 2000a). However, it is assumed that the melting been stated by Lüning et al. (2005) in Jordan. The Fig. 14 shows
of the Late Ordovician icecap induced the early Silurian sea-level the lateral evolution of the EF(U) implying maximum anoxia
rise (Fig. 8), which caused the sedimentation of an organic-rich characterizing deposition of the early Silurian Hot Shales. This
shale unit the base of the Silurian in many places of North African enables identification of potential gas/oil shale plays.
and Arabian basins, ranging in color1 from dark grayish brown to Generally, the Hot Shales consist of two units. The lower unit
generally contains silty bioclastic to peloidal bioclastic wackestone
1
For interpretation of color in Figs. 10 and 12, the reader is referred to the web and packstone delivering diversified graptolites (Jaeger et al., 1975)
version of this article. with scarce quartz grains (Fig. 12). This unit passes laterally toward
HTB-2 HDA-2
Frasnia
N
ZTE-1 SB-1
ed
HDA-3 OZ-1
n
erod AMC-1
or totall partially
lly
RER-1
y erode
or tota JNN-1
EZ-2 HDASE-1
LIBYA
d
ally
arti
75m HYT-1 HWA-1 224m
p Scale
ian
RD-1 RR-1 OK-1 MG-1
s n
Fra EXPLANATION 297.6
CS--66
CS-6
BRN-1
BRN-1 EC-3 MAB-11 HR-1
284.4
87.5m
87
8 7..5
5m
BBK-1 Na
N
Nawara-1
HBE-1 S
Sourour-1
271.2
AK
AKF
KF CS-
CS
CS
S-2
--22
CS-2 T
291 hick 150m
134m 159 EC
EC-
EC
C-22
EC-2 n Ahlem-1
Ahlem
m-1
m 258
BRSW-1
BRS 160m
m EC
EC
CS-
S
S-2
--22
ECS-2
es
s in
cre
HZ-1 Verified Thickness of the
244.8
as
Frasnian Hot shales
75
7
75m
5
5mm
eo
fH
Thickness of Frasnian
ot
Sh 258 R-1
TR-1 231.6
RY-1
RY-11 ale
s 218.4
n 119m
119m
19
Thickness of the Frasnian
nia
nian
235m
205.2
Fras SET-1
T
Hot Shales (or organic
192
f 225
rich Frasnian section)
Fras
BK-2
s eo RRM-1 LD-1
from literrature 178.8
rea
126
inc
111m
165.6
f
ase o
ss Assumed offshore 152.4
e TE-1
TE
TE-1
ic kn 19
sedimentation (ans not 139.2
Th
WT-2 2
Hot shales)
incre
RMD-1
177m
TUNISIA 126
112.8
Increasing trend of the
ness
MLF-1
99.6
126
Frasnian thickness
15
93
9
86.4
ALGERIA
Thick
HAD-1
HFR-1 73.2
117m Faults 60
Fig. 21. Thickness map of the Frasnian Hot shale level.
the southwest (Algeria) to organic-lean and thinner bioclastic deposition of the Silurian Argiles Principales (=Tanezzuft) Forma-
limestone that alternates with clayey limestone, silt, clay, and fine tion. In the Libyan side and especially in the Murzuk Basin (Fig. 6
sandstone. The upper unit consists of mudstone to wackestone for location), the Hot shale unit of the Tannezuft Formation has
containing graptolites and diversified chitinozoans. This unit been dated as the early Llandovery (Davidson et al., 2000) and also
passes toward the southwest to dolomitic and bioclastic carbonate, calibrated as Rhuddanian age (Hallett, 2002). Graptolites analysis
with rare beds of marl and clayey limestone. The first unit is gen- suggests a Rhuddanian through earliest Aeronian age for the For-
erally characterized by a regular alternation of dark colored shales mation in Tunisia and Libya (Jaeger et al., 1975; Memmi et al.,
and laminated carbonates and nodular black and grayish lime- 1986; Štorch and Massa, 2006; Paris et al., 2012; Loydell, 2012)
stones and marls with high TOC values of up to 12.5% (Inoubli as well as the palynological and palynofacies analysis, which assign
et al., 1992; Saidi et al., 1998; Ferjaoui et al., 2001; Lüning et al., it to S. fragilis and L. nuayyimensis biozones and the chitinozoan
2000a; Rezouga et al., 2012a) (Figs. 12, 13 and 15). A single 16% Belonechitina postrobusta (Butcher, 2013).
TOC value was reported by Daniels and Emme (1995) from the El A review of the Bonnefous (1963)’ Silurian graptolites species in
Borma area (see Fig. 2 for location). The vertical distribution of Lg-3 and ST-1 (Erg Lguine and Sidi Toui wells respectively) could
limestone vs. marl in the different localities depends on the help to calibrate the age of the Tunisian Hot shale Unit (Fig. 16).
position on the palaeoshelf dip (Lüning et al., 2000a). A general He reported from Lg-3 Hot shale samples, species indicative of
overview of the paleogeography during the early Silurian black Zones 18–22 such as Climacograptus extremus, which is reported
shale levels may explain that generally in proximal settings it in the literature as Pseudoclimacograptus [Metaclimacograptus]
acquires more carbonaceous deposition with bioclast richness undulates (Churkin and Carter, 1970), and range in the Upper Rhud-
and contrary become dominated by marls in distal settings. danian Cyphus Zone. Climacograptus rectangularis, ranging from
Particularly, in AMC-1 well (Fig. 2) and neighboring locality the acuminatus to gregarious (i.e. 6–19 zones) is also cited (see
lower 20 m of the Unit, where TOC values in calcareous and Fig. 16) and concomitant to Rhaphidograptus toernquisti, which first
laminated beds generally are locally organic-lean (0.2–1.82%; appearance occurs in the vesiculosis zone (zone 17) indicative of a
Rezouga et al., 2012a). Rhuddanian age as indicated earlier by Lüning et al. (2000a) in Alge-
In the LASE-1 (see Fig. 2 for location), typical range observed ria but unfortunately not reviewed for the Tunisian Hot shales unit.
include pattern with a sudden sine shape increase and gradual In the Tunisian part of the Berkine and Jeffara Basins, palynolog-
decrease of values (Fig. 12). A close inspection of the Hot Shale ical data from some petroleum exploration wells have been
spiky TOC pattern in combination with typical alternations of dark assessed in order to determine the biostratigraphic age of the early
colored shales, organic-rich marls with light beds highlights the Silurian hot shales (Tt-1, CEM-1, AMC-1, HWA-1, EB-1, SET-1; see
significance of anoxic and dysaerobic environments cycles during Fig. 2 for location). These data are issued from unpublished petro-
deposition of the early Silurian sediments. leum reports (SEREPT, Pioneer, ENI and OMV), Bonnefous (1963),
The early Silurian low TOC values described from some wells Jaeger et al. (1975), Massa (1985), Memmi et al. (1986), Ben
could be explained by either the absence of the basal part of the Ferjani et al. (1990), Vecoli et al. (2009), Tawadros (2011). It
Hot Shale interval (typically organic-rich, Figs. 12 and 13) or depo- appears that the early Silurian palynomorph biostratigraphic
sition of this level on relatively uplifted zone (Lüning et al., 2000a). schemes are of only low resolution due to the well sampling reso-
lution (path) during drilling, so that comparisons with the grapto-
4.1.2. Biostratigraphy lites based, well-dated, organic-rich strata elsewhere are
Lüning et al. (2000a) estimated that the lower-most part of the complicated (Fig. 16).
organic-rich Silurian succession began after the melting of the late A Rhuddanian age for the base of the organic-rich, high gamma
Ordovician ice sheets, which led to a major marine transgression ray interval in southern Tunisia is characterized by graptolites of
that spread from the north, culminating in a highstand with the vesiculosus zone (early Llandovery) (Jaeger et al., 1975;
AMC-1
nian
EZ-2 HDASE-1
RER-1 JNN-1
Fras ed
HYT-1 HWA-1
a l l y Erod RR-1 OK-1 MG-1 Explanation

part i 29
00 2650
CS-6 HR-1
BRN-1 EC-3 MAB-1
Northern limit of the Frasnian
31
BBK-1 50 Nawara-1 Hot shales deposition
HBE-1 Sourour-1
AKF CS-2
EC-2 Ahlem-1
BRSW-1 ECS-2 HZ-1
Wells
3400 34
00
Contour map
TR-1
3650 RY-1 Maximum depth is encountered
in eastern Algerian Berkine basin
36
3900
50
SET-1
while the NE part of the southern
BK-2 LD-1
Tunisia marks the shallowest values
RRM-1
4150
Tunisia
4300
TE-1 4200
4100
WT-2 4000
00
RMD-1
Frasnian Depth isopachs

3900
34
3800
3700
MLF-1 3600
Algeria 3500
3400
HAD-1 3300
3200
3100
3900 0 3000
315 2900
2800
2700
Libya
3650 2600
2500
2400
3400
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
Fig. 22. Depth map of the Frasnian Hot shale level.
Memmi et al., 1986; Vecoli et al., 2009) and is indicated by variable investigation, it may be speculated that they are equivalent to
biostratigraphic evidence, which, for example, in well Tt-1 the organic-rich unit in Bir Ben Tartar and surrounding area (i.e.
(Fig. 16), includes an age characteristic acritarch assemblage com- Erg Leguine and Sidi Toui) described by Jaeger et al. (1975),
prising of rare acritarchs encompassing triangular Veryhachium Massa (1985) and Vecoli et al. (2009), which has been dated using
spp. and Evittia spp., and Prasinophytes (Algae) are also rare, repre- graptolites, chitinozoans and acritarchs. A graptolite study of Tuni-
sented by, Tasmanites, Leiosphaeridia and Cymatiosphaera found in sian subsurface samples from petroleum exploration wells is
cutting samples. Antagonist relationship between prasinophycean needed in order to ameliorate correlations of the early Silurian
algae and acritarchs is observed and within the interval that corre- (Rhuddanian) hot shale unit in Tunisia.
sponds to the more organic-rich shales as well as the highest val-
ues of Gamma Ray, abundance of the algae is more observed. 4.1.3. Mineralogic composition
Prasinophyte (Dictyotidium spp., Quadratitum spp., and Mineralogical investigation of the early Silurian Hot Shales has
Duvernaysphaera spp.) species are very abundant and reach an been given by Abdeljaoued (2009) using XRF analysis and by
abundance peak around the hot shale interval almost in all of the Rezouga et al. (2012a) using well logging analysis. Based also on
wells (Massa, 1985; Memmi et al., 1986), a microfloral occurrence, Spectral Gamma Ray (U, Th and K) (HWA-1 and HYT-1 wells,
which is known to be typical for the Rhuddanian of the region. Fig. 2 for location; Figs. 17 and 18), Elemental Capture Spectros-
However, the hot shale interval in southern Tunisia encom- copy (ESC) and analysis on the SpectroLith logging (Schlumberger)
passes generally the sedgwikii graptolite Zone (Jaeger et al., 1975; (HYT-1 well; Fig. 19), mineral composition (quartz, carbonate, pyr-
Vecoli et al., 2009), which indicates Aeronian age. The murchisoni ite and clay minerals), major (Al, Fe, Si, Ti and K) and trace elemen-
and rigidus graptolites zones assemblage are present generally tal composition (U and Th) have been used here for the evaluation
within and just above the high Gamma ray peak (Fig. 16), which of the Rhuddanian Hot Shales unit (Table 2; Fig. 19). The elements
can indicate a Sheinwoodian age (early Wenlock) (Jaeger et al., have been normalized to Al (e.g., Gromet et al., 1984; Calvert and
1975; Memmi et al., 1986; Vecoli et al., 2009). Just above the Pedersen, 1993; Tribovillard et al., 2006; Soua et al., 2011) as
high natural radiation peak the occurrence of acritachs species described in the Material and Methods section and the interpreta-
such as Ammonidium microcladum, Oppilatala sp., Tylotopalla sp., tion had been divided into clastic input (K, Ti) productivity (Si) and
Quadraditum fantasticum may indicate an early to middle Silurian paleoredox (U, U/Th) conditions (Fig. 19).
(Telychian–Wenlockian) age (Sebastian Luning, personnel commu-
nication; Fig. 16). In addition, chitinozoans are represented by 4.1.3.1. Classical analysis. It is assumed that marine-deposited
Spinachitina fragilis (which is indicative of the basal Rhuddanian, shales tend to have low clay content and tend to be high in brittle
Paris, 1996), Spinachitina maennili and Conochitina edjelensis edjel- minerals such as quartz, feldspar and carbonates, which respond
ensis (indicating a latest Rhuddanian–middle Aeronian age, Paris, favorably to hydraulic fracking. In the case of the early Silurian
1996; Vecoli et al., 2009) and Angochitina longicollis (which may the fine-grained quartz-richness could underline possible
indicate a range scheme from Telychian to lower Sheinwoodian, reworked ancient deposition through a transgressive interval. This
Vecoli et al., 2009). While the exact age of the early Silurian (Rhud- is why petroleum operators are searching such properties within
danian) hot shales in southernmost Tunisia currently remains gas/oil shale plays. Shales including a high percentage of quartz
unclear due to lack of high resolution biostratigraphic and carbonate tend to be brittle. The shale matrix will be affected
LA-1
EXPLANATION
ZTE-1 DH-1
nian
AB-1
EAT-1
Fras
HTB-2 HDA-2
SB-1
r HDA-3
ally o
OZ-1
AMC-1
parti
- Immature <0.6% Ro
ed HDASE-1
Erod
EZ-2
JNN-1
y
RER-1
o t a l l HYT-1 HWA-1 - Oil window 0.6-1.1% Ro

t 1 RR-1
287m
OK-1 MG-1
- Wet gas window 1.1-1.4% Ro
0.85
0.7
CS-6
EC-3 MAB-1 HR-1 - Dry gas window 1.4-~3.2% Ro
306m Nawara-1
CS-2 Sourour-1
270m
Ahlem-1
- Gas destruction >~3.2% Ro (?)
EC-2
271m HZ-1
1.15 Oi Figure explanation
l S ECS-2
ha TR-1
Immature >0.65
le Oil Window 0.65-1.1
1 RY-1
Peak Oil 0.8-1.1
1 SET-1
Late Oil/Wet Gas 1.1-1.35
Gas Shal
e LD-1 Wet Gas/Preservation 1.35-1.75
1.15 Dry Gas 1.75-2.1
Explored well data
1.3
TE-1
BK-2
Well
1
1.15
1.33
1.3
1.27
1.24
1.21
1.18
1.15
Vitrinite (R0%) Maturity

1.12
1.09
1.06
1.03
1
0.97
0.94
0.91
0.88
0.85
0.82
0.79
0.76
0.73
0.7
0.67
0.64
0.61
0.58
0.55
Fig. 23. Maturity Contour map of the Frasnian Hot shale level (Ro%).
by hydraulic pressure and energy when injected into the matrix to (1) a development of a carbonate-rich level at the base of the Hot
the borehole; consequently it will induce small fractures, which Shale unit, which could reach approximately 70%, (2) taking place
enlarge the flow paths. In contrast, highly enriched clay shales tend of the well known large scale Gamma ray ‘‘event’’, which is caused
to be ductile instead of brittle and deform instead of shattering. almost entirely by the uranium, (3) the development of a slight
These characteristics will induce few fractures with limited flow peak of clays (illite, kaolinite and chlorite), which attains more
paths. than 50% within a thin interval, which would not have a detrimen-
tal effect on frakability, (4) the development of Quartz peak, which
4.1.3.2. Well logging tools. Rezouga et al. (2012a) used well logging ranges about 40% (Table 3; Fig. 19). All these peaks are situated
(Neutron-Density-Resistivity) tools in order to trace mineral com- within the early Rhuddanian (the base of the Gamma ray shift)
position of the Argiles Principales Formation (Fig. 12). The Hot and thought to occur just before the well-known Ireviken anoxic
shale unit shows generally mineral composition characterized by Event (Fig. 16), which could occur earlier in the Berkine Basin
relatively important portions of quartz with slight predominance rather than in the Jeffara Basin. Consequently the early Silurian
over clay minerals, which are represented by illite, kaolinite and Hot shale unit presents a relative richness in quartz and carbonate
rare chlorite (Fig. 12). This predominance is not always evident that may help to be brittle and shatter.
from lateral distribution point of view. The samples analyzed show
also pyrite feldspars and carbonates (see Figs. 10 and 19). The rel- 4.1.4. Organic geochemistry, thermal maturation and environment of
ative quartz-rich hot shale unit has been also described from Lg-3 deposition
and ST-1 wells (Fig. 2) by Bonnefous (1963) and Jaeger et al. (1975). Comprehensive organic geochemical description of the early
The same authors consider the occurrence of thin dolomitic and Silurian Hot shales unit in Tunisia was given earlier by Inoubli
carbonate layers interbedded within the early Silurian hot shales, et al. (1992), Ghenima (1995); Aissaoui et al. (1996), Saidi et al.
which has been also noted by Vecoli et al. (2009) in Tt-1 well (1998), Lüning et al. (2000a), Saidi (2001); Ferjaoui et al. (2001);
(Jeffara Basin; Fig. 2). Inoubli (2010) and Rezouga et al. (2012a).
In the most southern Tunisian wells (e.g. CEM-1, EB-1, Amic-1,
4.1.3.3. SpectroLith logging. Our own interpretation of the Spectro- OZ-1, SNN-1 and HWA-1) where the Hot shale unit of the Argiles
Lith logging data (mineral composition, clay minerals as well as Principales Formation is penetrated, it is assumed that good to
major elements) suggests therefore the chronology of five main excellent source rock properties are found (Table 1). The organic-
mineral events (Fig. 19). These events are summarized as follows: rich Hot Shales are characterized by planktonic marine Type II
kerogen (IH between 200 and 500 mg HC/g TOC) with TOC concen- authors depicted the two major early Sheinwoodian (basal Wen-
trations of up to 12.5%, indicating good source rock qualities for oil lock) and Ludfordian (late Ludlow) carbon isotope positive excur-
and gas with a single 16% value has been given by Daniels and sions, which are thought to reflect global palaeoceanographic
Emme (1995). A sufficient maturity level of these black shales is changes and are associated with well known biotic events (Irevi-
confirmed by the OM thermal maturity, which presents a rather ken and Lau events, respectively), identified for the first time in
homogeneous distribution with Tmax ranging between 435 and Gondwanan high-latitude settings (North Africa).The isotopic data
442 "C and vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) ranging from 0.6% up to imply that the Ireviken event (Fig. 16) occurred on a later stage in
0.8% (Fig. 20, Table 1). According to the Ro% and Tmax data, this high-latitude settings. The authors did not depict the Mulde event
sequence has reached the oil generation peak; in particular, high (Gorstian, early Ludlow) due to probable unconformity or maybe
maturity values have been recorded in the EB-1 (Tunisia) and its superposition with the Lau event (Ludfordian, late Ludlow).
REN-1 (Algeria) wells (Ro% range = 0.91–1.25; Rezouga et al., Extensive black shale deposition does not correlate with this
2012a, Fig. 20). The computed transformation ratio (TR) is in good event, recording thus no change within the scheme of levels of pri-
agreement with these observations. Organic petrological and paly- mary productivity during the event (oligotrophic conditions).
nological studies on these sediments indicate that kerogen is dom- The 13Corg subpeaks in Tunisia do not correlate with the TOC
inated by an amorphous organic matter (AOM), despite the strong maxima and do not confirm the excursion’s worldwide strati-
marine influence, and the preservation of microspores suggesting graphic significance (e.g. Munnecke et al., 2003; Cramer and
minimal transport and probable autochthonous origin. The early Saltzman, 2005; Kaljo and Martma, 2006; Loydell, 2007). In Tunisia
Silurian Hot Shales display a kerogen, which is generally domi- higher TOC values generally develop well before the onset of the
13
nated by graptolites, chitinozoans and prasinophyceae algae. Corg excursion.
Vecoli et al. (2009) stated in addition that the Hot Shale unit In this way, and taking into consideration the positive correla-
AOM is slightly degraded with relative elevated fluorescence. It tion between uranium vertical distribution and TOC, these three
shows that Rhuddanian (early Silurian) acritarch assemblage expe- events have been detected with some discretion in the Hayatt-1
rienced a drastic decrease in diversity and a notable elevation in well (Fig. 17) and Hawa-1 well (Fig. 18).
the prasinophyceae algae occurrence. The elevated fluorescence
suggests enhanced preservation of organic matter (Tyson, 1995). 4.2. Frasnian organic-rich Hot shale strata distribution
The high HI values consistent with the increased fluorescence of
the AOM as well as the high Gamma ray values (=high Uranium Until today, no published detailed descriptions have been yet
values, Fig. 14) also indicate better preservation of AOM (Tyson, set for the Frasnian hot shales in Tunisia. Rather Aouinet Ouinine
1995) and establishment of severe bottom-redox conditions within Formation data with some low TOC values has been already inter-
the sediments. The high abundance of prasinophyceae algae preted by several authors for Tunisia (Ben Ferjani et al., 1990;
recorded with low acritarch diversity suggests therefore enhanced Ghenima, 1995; Daniels and Emme, 1995; Aissaoui et al., 1996;
primary productivity and eutrophic conditions in the early Silurian Echikh, 1998; Boote et al., 1998; Saidi et al., 1998; Ferjaoui et al.,
seawater (Combaz, 1966; Revill et al., 1994). This may imply 2001; Saidi, 2001). Lüning et al. (2000c) presented well data from
upwelling conditions during high surface productivity and anoxia Algeria in order to interpret the Frasnian relationship with the
in the water column and in the bottom sediments for the origin southern Tunisian area. They stated therefore that detailed study
of the Tunisian Silurian hot shale unit (Lüning et al., 2000a; of this horizon in Tunisia and NW Libya in conjunction with infor-
Vecoli et al., 2009). The differences in hydrogen index can largely mation from Algeria should be taken to better the knowledge of
be attributed to differences in preservation. this good source quality in Tunisia. In the Algerian side of the Ber-
The higher molecular weight n-alkanes reveal a wide range of kine Basin, these black shales are labeled ‘‘Argiles Frasniennes
normal alkanes extending from nC20 to nC30. The moderate molec- Radioactives’’ (e.g. Fabre, 1988; Guiraud, 1998; Lüning et al.,
ular weight n-alkanes and acyclic isoprenoids such as pristine and 2003; Guiraud et al., 2005; Craig et al., 2008) termed also the Aou-
phytane occur in low concentrations in the early Silurian black inet Ouinine Formation, which is defined earlier in Murzuk Basin
shales (Ghenima, 1993). In addition, they display a smooth homol- by Lelubre (1946) and then upgraded to a group by Massa and
ogous series within the higher molecular weight n-alkane suggest- Moreau-Benoit (1976) who divided it into four different forma-
ing a significant input of higher land plant organic matter into tions (from AOI to AOIV). In southern Tunisia, the Aouinet Ouinine
these sediments. The presence of pristine and phytane in low Formation is also subdivided into four terms. The Frasnian Hot
amounts within these sediments, inferred from the Pr/Ph ratio shale is generally situated within the third Term (AOIII) (Ben
(1.09; Rezouga et al., 2012a) is indicative of an anoxic environment Ferjani et al., 1990; Ghenima, 1995; Aissaoui et al., 1996;
and reflect significant input from algae and photosynthetic bacte- Ferjaoui et al., 2001; Lüning et al., 2003).
ria as well as from archaeobacteria (Cooper, 1990). In addition,
the organic matter presents a slight predominance of C27 steranes 4.2.1. Lithostratigraphy and main well logging features
over C28 and C29 concentrations, which may indicate an origin of The relative exact boundaries of the Frasnian hot shale have
the oils derived mainly from marine organic source (Moustafa been contoured in this study (Figs. 21–23). The extension of the
and Morsi, 2013) with more contribution from terrestrial organics Frasnian hot shale in the Tunisian Berkine Basin seems to be not
(Walples and Machihara, 1991), high proportions of diasteranes, a as much as of the Rhuddanian black shales in a distribution point
C29/C30 hopane ratio near to 0.8 which may indicate clastic vs. car- of view. These Hot shales are characterized by high gamma-ray
bonate lithology (Waples and Kamata, 1993), and a light 13Corg val- values of commonly reaching more than 200 API (Echouech and
ues around %29.5‰ (Ghenima, 1993; Saidi, 2001; Vecoli et al., Chouech Essaida fields; see Fig. 24).
2009), which is considered as diagnostic of contemporary micro- They range in thickness from 75 m to more than 250 m (Fig. 21)
bial habitats characterized by extreme environments. and become interestingly thicker toward the southeast (HZ-
1 = 150 m, SET-1 = 300 m) more than the northwestern part (EC-
4.1.5. Carbone isotopic chemostratigraphy 1 = 75 m, CS-1 = 87.5 m, ECS-1, see Fig. 21 for location). In general,
Unfortunately, only one carbon isotopic study has been com- the Frasnian hot shale thickness in the Algerian Berkine Basin
pleted on for the early Silurian in southern Tunisia (Jeffara Basin; could reach 180 m (Fig. 21). However, these black shales rapidly
Vecoli et al., 2009). The 13Corg values of the Bir Ben Tartar (Tt-1) become thinner over the Ahara high and in the Illizi Basin reaching
well section range between %30.79‰ and %27.42‰ (Fig. 16). The 4 m.
HZ-1 EC-2 RR-1 CS-1 SET-1

Gamma Ray (API) Gamma Ray (API) Gamma Ray (API) Gamma Ray (API) Gamma Ray (API)
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Gamma Ray Cut-off

Calibrated Hot Shale
3075 3100
Gamma Ray Cut-off

Gamma Ray Cut-off
2650 Verrucosisporites
2550 2500
bulliferus
Gorgonisphaeridium spp.
Verrucosisporites sp
Gamma Ray Cut-off

3100 3125
2675
12m 2575 2700 Frasnian Unconformity (?)
Styliolina sp
Styliolina sp Gorgonisphaeridium spp.
14m
Verrucosisporites sp
3125 Agoniatites 3150 8m
Aouinet Ouinine "OA III"
2700 Aouinet Aouinine Aouinet Ouinine Aouinet Ouinine Aouinet Ouinine Aouinet Ouinine
Frasnian located Frasnian located 2600 Frasnian located Frasnian located Frasnian located
at 2709m at 3156m at 2605m at 3164m 2900 at 2910m
Datum
Rhabdosporites sp
Devonian
3150 3175
Frasnian
2m
2725 Grandispora spp First Hot Styliolina sp
15m 2625
Styliolina sp Shale Term Rhabdosporites sp
3000
First Hot
3175 3200 Shale Term
2750 First Hot
2650
Shale Term
3200
3200 3225
First Hot
2775 Shale Term
2675
3400
Gamma Ray Cut-off
3250
2800
2700
3600
2825
Fig. 24. Well correlation of the Frasnian in the southern Tunisia (HZ-1, EC-2, RR-1, CS-1 and SET-1). The Frasnian shales exhibit two different Hot shale levels winferred from
the increased gamma-ray values. The gamma-ray cutoff line represents 125 API in wells with a shale baseline of 80–90 API.
The Frasnian hot shale (AOIII) in southern Tunisia occur gener- seem to be evident for other basins in Algeria (Ahnet, Oued Mya,
ally beneath the Frasnian unconformity (Fig. 24, see also Fig. 40). Illizi, etc.). In Morocco, the two Frasnian Kellwasser events, which
Variation in thickness of the Frasnian hot shale has been observed have been fully described from several sections of the Anti-Atlas
by Realini et al. (1970) and had been related to the palaeorelief (Wendt and Belka, 1991; Belka et al., 1999; Ellwood et al., 1999;
structure by denoting a change in the Frasnian paleogeographical Lüning et al., 2003; Riquier et al., 2007), seem to be equivalent to
point of view where they observed a goniatites level (Fig. 25) near the Frasnian Hot shales in southern Tunisia developed also into
the Frasnian Hot shales, described for the first time in Tunisia. two distinguished levels (Fig. 24).
The hot shale gamma-ray curves of the Frasnian in Tunisia
(Figs. 24 and 25) are characterized by two high-frequency meter- 4.2.2. Organic richness and maturity
scale cycles. Gamma Ray values could reach more than 250 API The Frasnian hot shales unit is considered since the nineties
(RR-1, Fig. 24; see Fig. 2 for location) suggesting less amplitude (90’) as an important petroleum source rock in southern Tunisia
than that recorded in eastern Algeria and reported by Lüning (El Borma, Echouech, Chouech Essaida, and southeastern part,
et al. (2003). Spectral Gamma Ray (SGR) investigation has been Inoubli et al., 1992; Ghenima, 1995; Aissaoui et al., 1996; Saidi
recorded in HYT-1 well where organic-rich Frasnian sediments et al., 1998; Lüning et al., 2000c) primary because of its high
have been encountered and thus ameliorated our knowledge on organic matter content, which could attain up to 10% (Ghenima,
the distribution of these Hot shales. The SGR has been used to 1995, p. 4) and even 15%, (Aissaoui et al., 1996; p. 9) and secondly
check the relationship between the Gamma Ray and the Uranium for its significant thickness, which could exceed generally 100 m
content, which seems to be the principal component of the increas- (over 230 m in SET-1 well, see Fig. 21). Boote et al. (1998) reported
ing values of the GR and consequently increases in the organic values of up to 8–14% TOC of oil-prone type I–II kerogen from the
matter content (Fig. 26). Fig. 27 also shows a comparison between Ghadames Basin, confirming the same organic richness of the
the TOC vertical distribution and the gammaray curve implying basin. A maturity contour map for the Frasnian hot shales is estab-
that this relationship is as well confirmed for the Frasnian shales lished in this study (Fig. 23) and confirms the large trends of
of southern Tunisia as the case for the early Silurian Hot shales. Daniels and Emme (1995). The thermal maturity of the Frasnian
The 125 API gamma-ray cut-off value correlates with TOC values Hot shales is thought by many authors to be a mirror of the early
of about 2.5% (Fig. 27). Silurian shales (Ghenima and Espitalié, 1992; Ghenima, 1995;
It is important to emphasize that a second organic-rich interval Boote et al., 1998; Lüning et al., 2003). The organic richness
is well developed in southern Tunisia (Figs. 25–28), but it is char- (Table 4) express a remarkable decrease toward the Northeastern
acterized by a thinner interval and relatively lower GR values (up part (Fig. 28) and near the Illizi Basin for example, TOC may reach
to 170 API) as well as TOC values (2.1%TOC) than the first Frasnian 2% (Daniels and Emme, 1995, see Fig. 28). In the southernmost
hot shales level. This interval also exhibits a positive correlation Tunisia, high TOC values are the most recorded near Echouech
between high total gamma values and high TOC content. The pal- and Chouech Essaida area (Fig. 27, Table 4). Generally oil-prone
ynological investigations of this second hot shales interval denote kerogen with almost Type II is predominantly recorded for the
middle to latest Frasnian age (and maybe near to the Fammenian Frasnian Hot shales (Ghenima, 1995). The Fig. 23 shows an increas-
boundary) (Fig. 25). Significantly, the same level has been ing trends toward the southwestern part of the basin (Algerian
described from the eastern Algerian Berkine Basin, which traces side) where 1.3 vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) value is recorded con-
the continuity of the event (Lüning et al., 2000c), but it does not firming the data obtained also by Daniels and Emme (1995, Fig. 7).
Echouech EC-2 EC-1

Field Gamma Ray (API) Gamma Ray (API)
Realini et al. (1970)
0 50 100 150 200 250 Kilani (1999) 0 50 100 150 200 250
3140
3075 Gorgonisphaeridium spp.
3150 Verrucosisporites sp
Middle - Upper
Gorgonisphaeridium spp. 3160
Verrucosisporites sp Styliolina sp-rich bed
3100 3170
Ancyrochitina ancyrea
Aouinet Aouinine "Term III"
Ancyrochitina ancyrea Zone

12m
Agoniatites level
3180
Devonian
Frasnian
Tentaculites (Styliolina sp)-rich bed 3190
Assemblage E
WD8 - WD9
3125 Ancyrochitina ancyrea Ramochitina sp
Ancyrochitina fragilis 3200 Angochitina sp
Agoniatites level Rhabdosporites sp
3210
Buchiola sp.
3150 3220
Lower
Verrucosisporites
bulliferus
3175
Rhabdosporites sp
Grandispora spp
Styliolina sp
3200
Fig. 25. Biostratigraphic correlations of the Frasnian Hot shales in the EC-1 and EC-2 wells (data are compiled from Realini et al., 1970).
EC-2 Gamma Ray (API)

0 50 100 150 200 250
Total Organic carbon Mineralogy
3075
Kaolinite
Chlorite
Illite
Qtz
0 (%) 100
3100
12m
Devonian
Aouinet Aouinine "Term III"
3125
Aouinet Aouinine
Frasnian
Frasnian located
at 3153m
3150
15m First Hot

Shale Term
3175
Gamma Ray Cut-off
0 5
3200
TOC
(%)
Fig. 26. Spectral gamma-ray log of the organic-rich early Silurian Argiles Principales Formation in well HYT-1 (Berkine Basin) (Fig. 2, for location). Generally speaking, the
Frasnian Hot shale intervals are enriched in uranium, with maximum concentrations near 35 ppm, whereas thorium and potassium values remain rather constant. CGR is
computed gamma-ray (Th and K radiation), SGR = spectral gamma-ray.
Hayatt-1 : Frasnian Hot shales

Gamma Ray (GAPI) U (ppm) Th (ppm) U/Th
2800
SGR
2700
CGR
Second Hot Shale
2600
DEPTH
Calculated cut-off
2500
2400
maximum paleoredox conditions
2300
First Hot Shale
2200
0 100 200 300 400 500 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
Fig. 27. Gamma ray, total organic carbon and mineralogy (quartz, chlorite and illite) vertical distribution in the EC-2 well (Soua, 2009a).
RER-1
nian
EZ-2 HDASE-1
JNN-1
Fras ded
HYT-1 HWA-1
t i a l l y Ero RR-1 OK-1 MG-1 Explanation

par CS-6
2650
HR-1
BRN-1 EC-3 MAB-1
Northern limit of the Frasnian
BBK-1
HBE-1
Nawara-1
Sourour-1
Hot shales deposition
AKF CS-2
EC-2 Ahlem-1
BRSW-1 ECS-2 HZ-1
Wells
Contour map
TR-1
RY-1 Maximum TOC is encountered
in eastern Algerian Berkine basin
SET-1
while the NW Libya marks the
BK-2 LD-1
lowest values
RRM-1
Tunisia
TE-1
WT-2
RMD-1
Total Organic Carbon
TOC 0-0.5
MLF-1
Algeria TOC 0.5-2

HAD-1
TOC 2-5
TOC 5 to more
Libya
Fig. 28. Frasnian Hot Shales organic carbon distributions (%TOC) (data compiled after Ghenima, 1993; Daniels and Emme, 1995; Macgregor, 1998; Boote et al., 1998; Echikh,
1998; Saidi et al., 1998).
4.2.3. Biostratigraphy in order to evaluate the biostratigraphic age of the Frasnian hot
Palynological investigations from several Devonian samples shales easily recognizable by its high gamma ray signature (CS-2,
taken from some southern Tunisian wells had been used in order RR-1, EC-1, JNN- 1; see Fig. 2 for locations). Unfortunately, within
to trace an adequate zonation for this stage (Bonnefous, 1963; these reports the hot shales unit had been assigned to Eifelian
Deunff, 1966; Nautiyal, 1976; Massa, 1988) other petroleum inter- age without taking into consideration the palynoflaura
nal reports revealed valuable informations for this porpuse (Realini distribution.
et al., 1970; Kilani, 1999). In fact, four petroleum exploration wells Gueinn and Rasul (1986) defined the WD8 (Givetian–Frasnian)
in the southern Tunisian part of the Berkine Basin have been used and WD9 (Frasnian–Fammenian) zones to illustrate the spores
Table 4 ammonoids (Agoniatites) and tentaculites labeled by petroleum

Thickness, organic-richness (TOC), Tmax, relative vitrinite reflectance and source type staff Agoniatites level and tentaculites beds (Realini et al., 1970).
of the Frasnian Hot shale from selected wells.
This level yielded also Ancyrochitina species (A. ancyrea, A. fragilis)
Wells Thick (m) TOC Tmax Ro% Source type (Figs. 24 and 25). The second Hot Shale level is characterized by the
CS-1 277 2.18 434 0.65 Very good type III/II presence of Gorgonisphaeridium sp. and Verrucosisporites sp.
EC-2 302 1.67 435 0.67 Very good type III/II (Realini et al., 1970; Kilani, 1999).
HZ-1 240 2.08 432 0.61 Very good type III/II Lüning et al. (2003) stated that the abundance of Gorgonisphae-
ridium spp. occurs around the hot shale interval in all of the wells
studied in Algeria, which is a known microfloral occurrence typical
behavior and biozones in the Western Desert (Egypt) area, which for the Frasnian of the region. This is in good agreement for the
seems to be reliable to the northern African scheme (Tawadros, North African Frasnian sediments (Jardiné et al., 1974; Massa and
2001). They are correlated to zone 8 of Massa and Moreau-Benoit Moreau-Benoit, 1976; Tawadros, 2011).
(1976) and L6 of Jardiné et al. (1974).
Palynological investigations of the cited wells from the high 4.2.4. Molecular geochemistry
gamma ray interval (Hot Shale unit) indicate a Frasnian age Organic petrological and palynological studies on these sedi-
inferred from the presence of Baltisphaeridium sprucegrovensis, ments indicate that the kerogen is dominated by an amorphous
which is reported by Deunff (1966) and occurs commonly in the organic matter (AOM) (Inoubli, 2010).The Frasnian Hot Shales in
middle to upper Devonian sequences of Tunisia (Nautiyal, 1976) the surrounding Ghadames Basin display also a kerogen, which is
and was recorded from the Frasnian of Libya (Snape, 1993). The generally dominated by chitinozoans and prasinophyceae algae
presence also of Veryhachium (Polyedryxium) pharaonisis, cited also (Tawadros, 2011). The organic matter is also made exclusively of
by Deunff (1966), occurs abundantly in the Frasnian shales of the very fluorescent Tasmanites algae suggesting enhanced preserva-
Algerian Sahara (Jardiné and Yapaudjian, 1968). Deunff (1966) tion of organic matter recorded with better preservation of fluores-
has cited also the presence of three species of Cymatiosphaera from cent AOM, which exhibit high HI values. This may indicate
the Frasnian intervals (Figs. 24 and 25). In addition, Kilani (1999) establishment of severe bottom reducing conditions within the
reported age characteristic assemblage in JNN-1 well (2645– water–sediments contact. The high abundance of prasinophyceae
2675 m where maximum Frasnian Gamma ray values are reached) algae (Tasmanites) recorded suggests therefore enhanced primary
comprising of Multiplicisphaeridium ramusculosum, Polyedryxium productivity and eutrophic conditions in the Frasnian sea water
pharaonis, Rhabdosporites parvulus, Geminospora lemurata, Grandis- (Combaz, 1966; Revill et al., 1994) with implication of upwelling
pora sp, Verrucosisporites bulliferus. conditions during high surface productivity and anoxia in the
Several of these species has been reported from Egypt and Libya water column and in the bottom sediments for the origin of the
as well as from Algeria (Tawadros, 2011) and they are also cited Tunisian Frasnian hot shales.
from the Frasnian carbonate platform areas of central Alberta The higher molecular weight n-alkanes reveal a wide range of
(Nautiyal, 1972). In addition Realini et al. (1970) reported from normal alkanes extending from nC20 to nC30. The moderate molec-
the Echouch (EC-2) and Chouech Essaida (CS-1) wells (Fig. 25; ular weight n-alkanes and acyclic isoprenoids such as pristine and
see Fig. 2 for location) diversified palynoflaura characterized by phytane occur also in low concentrations in the Frasnian black
Rhabdosporites sp, Grandispora, with abundant tentaculites (Stylio- shales displaying a smooth homologous series within the higher
lina sp.) within the first Hot shale level (Fig. 25). This level is molecular weight n-alkane. This may suggest a significant input
overlain by a carbonate interbedded with shaly levels containing of higher land plant organic matter into these sediments. The
Hayatt-1: Frasnian Hot shales
Organic-richness proxy Primary productivity Pyrite Clastic influx
Gamma Ray Si/Al Fe/Al Ti/Al K/Al

2800
SGR Antagonist character between Ti/Al and K/Al

2700 CGR
Second Hot Shale

2600
DEPTH
Biogenic silica Average shale Average shale

Calculated cut-off
2500
2400 Average shale
2300
First Hot Shale
2200
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 5 10 15 20 25 300 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 40 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4
0 0,5 1 1,5 2
Gamma Ray Quartz Carbonate Clay Pyrite

2800
2700 SGR
CGR
80% Qtz 10-20% clays

Second Hot Shale
2600
80% Carb
DEPTH
14% pyrites
Calculated cut-off
2500
2400
80% Carb
2300 50% carb

10% pyrites
First Hot Shale 70% Qtz 30% clays
2200
0 100 200 300 400 0
500 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 0 0,5 1 1,5 20 0,5 1 1,5 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4
Fig. 29. SpectroLith logging and Elemental Capture Spectroscopy (ECS) providing Quartz, Pyrite, Carbonate and Clay contents as well as major elements (e.g. Al, Fe, Si, K, Ti) for
the Frasnian Hot shale intervals in the HYT-1 well.
Table 5 In fact, the pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph) ratio is a geochemical

Major and trace elements normalized and mineralogical composition of the Frasnian parameter used as a proxy of the redox conditions in the deposi-
Hot shale from Hayatt-1. tional environment and source of organic matter (Powell and
Elements Hayatt-1 McKirdy, 1973; and Didyk et al., 1978). In addition, the organic
Si 0.43
matter present a slight predominance of C27 steranes over C28
Al 0.14 and C29 concentrations, which may indicate an origin of the oils
Fe 0.17 derived mainly from marine organic source (Moustafa and Morsi,
Ca 0.30 2013) with more contribution from terrestrial organics (Walples
Ti 0.01
and Machihara, 1991), high proportions of diasteranes, a C29/C30
K 0.07
Si/Al 28.33 hopane ratio near 0.8 (Ghenima, 1993), which may indicate clastic
Fe/Al 4.41 vs. carbonate lithology (Waples and Kamata, 1993), and a light 13C
Ca/Al 223.49 values between %28.5‰ and %29‰ (Ghenima, 1993; Saidi, 2001),
Ti/Al 0.15 which is considered as diagnostic of contemporary microbial hab-
K/Al 12.91
U 34.72
itats characterized by extreme environments. Ghenima (1995) and
Th 44.46 Boote et al. (1998) suggested that these sediments mirror the early
U/Th 2.13 Silurian Hot shales but differ slightly in some parameters.
U/K 17.46
Th/U 51.62
Carbontae 0.85
4.2.5. Mineral composition of the Frasnian hot shale
Clay 0.75 Using well-logging techniques (ECS, SpectroLith, SGR, Resistiv-
Quartz 0.90 ity, Sonic, etc.) as specified for the early Silurian, the Frasnian
Pyrite 0.13 Hot shales unit is shown to yield higher proportion of quartz than
Siderite
in the early Silurian with slight predominance over clay minerals,
Sulfur 0.23
which are represented by illite, and chlorite without recording kao-
linite (Fig. 27). This predominance is not always evident from lat-
eral distribution point of view, where ammonoid shaly facies is
bitumens show a low Pr/Ph ratio (1.26; Ghenima, 1993), suggest- recorded near the Algerian side (Realini et al., 1970). Pyrite, feld-
ing that he presence of pristine and phytane was in low amounts spars and carbonates are also described from Frasnian Hot Shales
within these sediments, which is indicative of a redox environment unit (Ghenima, 1993). The mineral composition of the Frasnian
and reflect significant input from algae and photosynthetic bacte- Hot shales inferred from the spectroLith logging and ECS tool from
ria (Cooper, 1990). the Hayatt-1 well is shown in the Fig. 29. Four main events in the
Algeria
Melghir - Chotts trough
Melg
Tunisia
hir t
roug Mediterranean
h
sea
Morocco Bir Yagres
Chotts basin
urt
Hassi Touila El Franig
o
Tougg
mt
Southern limit of
Tougghourt
e Sabria
Tilrh
Fegaguira/Oued Ali shales
El Hammamit
Hassi Bedda Semhari Telemza
Hassi Bir Rekaiz n e
PGA
gh Hassi Bir Romana Rhourde Seffar Bou
rou
d
ud T Djofara
Nemcha
Bio
o
Ben
Hassi
El
Allal high Messaoud

z-O ued field
Bechar M ehre
t
uplif Hassi Messaoud Field
Basin ous
Ham Gourara - Jebel El Hèche Oued Mya Balducchi & Pommier (1971)
Legrand (1985)
Basin Late Silurian black shale
Legrand (1962)
Type Section
Fegaguira Clay
Pridoli
Ludlow
Libya
of Fegaguira Hassi
late Lllandovery-Pridoli Fegagguira Timmoun Gourara Berkine
Basin Basin
Ou
g
Ran arta
Tindouf
Basin
ge Bouhadida
BD-3
EXPLANATION
Az
ze Hamra
ne
hi Mouydir Basin
Kriz (2008) gh
Sbaa
Oued Ali clay Formation Basin Distribution of Ludlow-
lower Ludlow Illizi
Berry & Boucot (1973) Geddinian shales
Reggane
Oued Ali clay Formation Basin
lower Ludlow
Basin The continuity of theAtchan
Fega-
Amguid
uplift
guira shales through Algeria
on uplifted area
Ludlow-Geddinian : Oued Ali
Kriz (2008) Near Amguid - El Biod Fegaguira
Tihemboka
Oued Ali clay Formation Ahnet Heybroek (1963)
Argiles à Grap.
Arch
0 Scale 250 lower Ludlow
Basin Fegaguira shales
Pridoli - Geddinian
Fig. 30. Ludlow–Pridoli organic rich (Hot) shales distribution in southern Tunisia and neighboring countries (data compiled after Legrand, 1962; Heybroek, 1963; Balducchi
and Pommier, 1970; Berry and Boucot, 1973; Legrand, 1985; Kriz, 2008; Belhaj and Saidi, 2010; Rezouga et al., 2012b).
ALGERIA TUNISIA
ELF-1 RS-1 HB-1 SMR-1 SEM-1 SMRE-1 EHT-1 TO-1 FNG-2 FNG-1 SABN-1 SAB-1 HBR-1 BGL-1 OS-1
Cretaceous
Tertiary
Tertiary
Cretaceous Cretaceous Jurassic
ssic
Jurassic Tria
Cretaceous
A Cambrian
Triassic C
Gassi
V
m ian
Jurassic Per
l. Silurian - E. Argileux
Fegaguira
Devonian
carbonaté
Ordovician Fegaguira
Argile microconglo Sidi Toui
Volcanics TAGI
onglo Cambrian
e mic
roc Atchane sandstone Triassic Evaporites Azzel
Argil
AtchaneQtzsandstone
Hamra
Gassi shale
Gassi shale
Hercynian Unc.
EXPLANATION
Cambrian Fegaguira
Triassic Late Silurian-
Cambrian N Argileux
Permian Early Devonian
Ordovician Cambrian
ALGERIA
Carbonate
Sidi Toui
TO-1 FNG-2
FNG-1
Evaporitic Shales and carbonates Fegaguira Formation
SABN-1 Formation
Taconian Unc. SAB-1
HBR-1 with reefal in outcrop with high radioactive
response mainly from
BGL-1
TAGI
CHR-1
SEM
SMRE-1 OS-1 Uranium and high TOC
Precambrian
SMR-1
EHT-1 Volcanics values
HB-1
RS-1 TUNISIA
BLF-1
Fig. 31. E–W geoseismic cross section within the southern Chotts Basin and southwards Melghir trough showing the principal structural styles dominating the area.
First Hot shales Unit could be detected from the mineral composi- content (80%). Quartz in the second hot shales unit is present with
tion, which are chronologically: (1) richness in the amount of clays important percentage (80%) with mean values around 50%
composed essentially from chlorites and illites (Fig. 27 EC-2), (2) a (Table 5). The Th/K was used in order to detect the Frasnian uncon-
development of a peak in Quartz content, which could reach up to formity (see Fig. 40), which is situated in the HYT-1 well near
70%, (3) increase of the Pyrite content around 10% and (4) a devel- 2720 m.
opment of carbonate composition with almost 50%. The second Consequently the Fasnian Hot shales, which present two dis-
Frasnian Hot shales unit expresses increasing values in Pyrite tinctive units, present a relative richness in quartz and carbonate
(14%), which may be indicative of anoxic to euxinic condition that may help to be brittle and shatter, which is good parameter
development concomitant to increasing and important carbonate for hydraulic fracturing.
SMR-1 SMRE-1 TO-1

Gamma Ray (API) Gamma Ray (API) Gamma Ray (API)
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
3680
3600
Triassic
TAGI
3730
3700
3650
Silurian-Dev.
Silurian
Fegaguira
3720
Cambrian
Dalle M'kratta
Dalle M'kratta
3750
microcong.
3740
Argiles
Argiles micro..
3700
Hamra Quartzite
Ordovician
3760
Hamra Quartzite
Hamra Quartzite
3750
3770
3780
El Atchan
Cam.
Fig. 32. Well correlation of the Ludlow–Pridoli Hot shale level in the southern Algeria (SMR-1, SMRE-1 and TO-1 wells).
FNG-1 ALG-1 HBR-1
GR TOC
0 300 0 18 GR 0 TOC 8 GR TOC
0 00 0 350 0 12
3679
Hercynian 2900
3427
3700 Unconformity Hercynian Unconformity
3450
Hercynian 2937.5
Unconformity 2950
Fegaguira
3750
3500 3000
Fegaguira
Upper Silurian -
3800 3050 Lower Devonian
3550 Hot Shale
3100
3850
3600
3136
3150 Taconic
Fegaguira
Fegaguira
Unc.
Azel
3900
3650
3200
3925 3209
Taconic Arenegian
3950 Unconformity Unconformity
El Atchane
El Gassi
3700 3250
Azel
4000 3300
3750
4050
3800
3850
3853
Taconic
Unconformity
Azel
3900
Azel
3950
Nm-1
OS-1
N
BGL-1
Perm
HBR-1 s
ian
SAB-1
ou
ace
SABN-1
t
FNG-2 FNG-1 Cre
sic
ras Fegaguira
Q
Cretaceous Ju
Precambrian
Cretaceous
HERCYNIAN UNCONFORMITY
Sanghar salt
s
rbonate
ss ic ca
Tria Jeffara
Jurassic
Sidi Toui TUNISIA
Jurassic
ALGERIA
Mediterranean Sea
ian
Upper Silurian
Fegaguira Fm
Perm B'
Perm
Cambro-Ordovician ian
Tunisia
TAGI Lower Silurian
Hot Shale C
Trias.
El Gassi shale Algeria
TACONIAN UNCONFORMITY LIBYA

an
Triassic Evaporites
Sidi Toui
ni
Lib
L. Dev.
U. Sil.-
vo
Fegaguira
ya
B
Carboniferous
De
n-
ria
lu
Ordov.
Si
Azel
D
E
0 200 km
Camb.
Hamra - El Atchane
Fig. 33. Gamma ray and total organic carbon vertical distribution in FNG-1, ALG-1 and HBR-1 wells (southern Chotts Basin) (TOC are from cunningham, 1989; Belhaj and
Saidi, 2010; Rezouga et al., 2012b). A. Vertical distribution of the GR (API) and TOC (%), B. regional cross section showing the lateral distribution of the Fegagguira/Oued Ali
Formation.
4.3. Late Ludlow–Geddinian Fegaguira/Oued Ali Formation 1975). The Silurian-Lower Devonian (late Ludlow–Pridoli through
Geddinian) Fegaguira black shales have been defined in Hassi Feg-
4.3.1. Distribution of the Ludlow hot shales and main characteristics aguira (Algerian Sahara) between Timimoun and Ougarta Range
The late Silurian-Lower Devonian black shales of the Fegaguira (Fig. 6; Legrand, 1962). There it has been described from the
Fomation have been considered for a long time as the lower Silu- Amguid-El Biod uplift complex structure (Heybroek, 1963)
rian hot shales unit of the ‘‘Argiles Principales’’ (Jaeger et al., (Fig. 30). Age equivalent shales had been described from Hassi
Table 6 Sphaeromorph acritarchs (marine microplankton) with rare

Thickness, organic-richness (TOC), Tmax, relative vitrinite reflectance and source type
Acanthomorph/Polygonomorph acritarchs can be frequently
of the Ludlow–Pridoli Hot shale from selected wells (data compiled from Belhaj and
Saidi, 2010), relative Vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) is calculated as demonstrated in Eq. observed in core materials of CHR-1 well for example (Dummond
(3). and Rasul, 1985; see Fig. 2 for location). The lower radioactive
shale layer is frequently observed just above the underlined
Wells Thick (m) TOC Tmax Ro% Source type
unconformity (Fig. 33). Its thickness varies from 15 m (CHR-1) up
SABN-1 48 5.16 437 0.7 Type II
to 108 m (ALG-1) and it can reach 18% in TOC values (FNG-1)
FNG-1 52 9.59 445 0.85 Type II
FNG-2 49 2.44 436 0.68 Type II (Table 6) (Dummond and Rasul, 1985; Cunningham, 1989; Belhaj
ALG-1 108 2.84 444 0.83 Type II and Saidi, 2010; Rezouga et al., 2012b). In cores, this level shows
BGL-1 89 5.13 443 0.81 Type II black laminated shales with pyrite framboids as the case for the
HBR-1 86 3.81 451 0.96 Type II
early Silurian Hot Shales (Argiles principales formation). In the pre-
CHR-1 15 2.84 434 0.65 Type II
vious nomenclature, this series has been also named in the eastern
Algerian domain ‘‘Gothlandian’’ but unfortunately also recently it
was called by the same name (Gothlandian) in Mejri et al. (2006)
Messaoud oil field (South-central Algeria), which are thought to be without taking into consideration the stratigraphic updates where
the principal source for the Cambrian reservoirs and are named the they described the formation sometimes as the lateral equivalent
Late Silurian shales (Balducchi and Pommier, 1970, p. 484). In addi- of the the Acacus (p. 31) and sometimes as the equivalent of the
tion, the age equivalent Oued Ali shales, which present the same Tannezufft (p. 139). This may constitute a great flaw from these
lithologic characteristics, had been also described by Berry and authors. In the Southern Chott Basin as well as in the eastern Alge-
Boucot (1973) in a regional Silurian synthesisas well as recently rian domain (Figs. 30 and 32), the late Silurian–early Devonian sec-
by Kriz (2008). Several wells on the southern Melghir trough (the tion is usually underlined by the Taconic Unconformity and is lying
natural continuity of the Tunisian Chotts Basin, Fig. 31) have pen- on the Lllanvirnian Azzel Formation (Fig. 33).
etrated the Fegaguira shales (TO-1, SMR-1, SMRE-1, EHT-1, RS-1, Lüning et al. (2000a) reported also the age-equivalent black
see Fig. 30 for location, Figs. 31 and 32) confirming the continuity shale units deposited in Morocco and Algeria where source rock
of the southern Chotts Basin (Fig. 33). In the Tunisian side (south- potentiality is evaluated (e.g. Balducchi and Pommier, 1970;
ern Chotts Basin), the ‘‘Fegaguira’’ term has been given by the Lüning et al., 2000b).
petroleum companies during the 1980s (e.g. Lizotte and Chebbi,
1983). In spite of the several palynological investigations, Gothlan-
dian Hot shales have been described by Cunningham (1988, 1989) 4.3.2. Main well logging features, organic richness and thermal
in the same area where he confused it with the high gamma ray maturity
values of early Silurian Hot shales situated southwards to the TTPB Comprehensive organic geochemical description of the Fegagu-
structural high. In the Southern Chott Basin (northern flank of the ira Hot shales unit in southern Tunisia was given earlier by
TTPB structure) tilted fault block closures and erosional pinch-outs Cunningham (1988), Inoubli et al. (1992), Saidi et al. (1998),
have been described by Lizotte and Chebbi (1983) and Ben Ferjani Belhaj and Saidi (2010) and Rezouga et al. (2012b).
et al. (1990) forming an exploration fairway (Fig. 33). These black The Ludlow–Pridolian Hot Shale unit of the Fegaguira Forma-
shales consist of radioactive hot shale layers alternating with silty tion can be easily identified in well logs (Fig. 33) because of its high
gray shales, showing a lesser amount of radioactivity. Abundant natural radioactivity of up to 250 API and even more in other wells
3000
Late Silurian - Early Devonian
Fegaguira/Oued Ali Formation
Fegaguira/Oued Ali
3100
Hot Shale
Depth
3200
3300
EXPLANATION
FNG-1
3400
ALG-1
HBR-1
BGL-1
1 10 20
TOC (%)
Fig. 34. Total organic carbon (%TOC) of the Ludlow–Pridoli Hot shale vs. depth in the southern Chotts Basin using BGL-1, HBR-1, ALG-1 and FNG-1 (data compiled after,
Cunningham, 1989).
(Fig. 32). Distribution of these organic rich black shales seems to be and phytane concentration is present in low amounts (Pr/Ph
extended into southern Algerian Sahara (Fig. 30). The important ratios = 0.9), which could indicate severe redox conditions during
TOC values (Fig. 34) concomitant with high Gamma Ray values sedimentation and reflect significant input from algae (Tasma-
(Hot Shales) is probably also due to enrichment in uranium. nites) and photosynthetic bacteria.
Alternatively, several neighboring drilled wells have identified
black shale deposition or have confirmed the extension of the 4.3.3. Biostratigraphy
Hercynian unconformity (Fig. 7). These data give new insight on Late Silurian–earliest Devonian section in the southern Chotts
the distribution of the organic-rich provinces of the Fegaguira/ Basin is described from SABN-1; SAB-1 (Sabria field), FNG-1,
Oued Ali Formation (Fig. 30). However, the exact boundaries still FNG-2 (El Franig field), ALG-1, HBR-1, CHR-1 wells (e.g. Lizotte
remain unclear also, especially toward the north of the Chott Basin and Chebbi, 1983; Chebbi and Lizotte, 1985; Chandoul, 1989;
and toward the Gulf of Gabes as well as in the Pelagian Sea. Cunningham, 1989; Soua, 2009b; Belhaj and Saidi, 2010; Rezouga
The basal part is characterized generally by a regular alterna- et al., 2012b, Fig. 35). The material comprises fine, well indurates
tion of dark colored shales and laminated carbonates and nodular sandstones and siltstones, which pass downward into sapropelic
black and grayish limestones and marls with high TOC values of claystones exhibiting radioactive organic-rich shales comparable
up to 9.59% (Belhaj and Saidi, 2010; Rezouga et al., 2012b) to those of the Hot Shales unit of the Argiles Principales Formation,
(Fig. 34). The vertical distribution of limestone vs. Marl in the dif- which they are not age coeval.
ferent localities depends on the position on the palaeoshelf dip. It has been fully studied from a biostratigraphical point of view
Particularly, in FNG-1 (El Franig) well and neibouring locality in Sabria–El Franig area (Fig. 35) (e.g. Deunff, 1966; Wilkinson,
(Fig. 33) the lower 20 m of the Unit, TOC values in calcareous 1979; Lizotte and Chebbi, 1983; Dummond and Rasul, 1985). The
and laminated beds generally are locally organic-lean. In the upper Hot Shales unit of the Fegaguira Formation is characterized
HBR-1, typical range observed include pattern with a sine shape by Dictyotidium sp. and Cymatiosphaera sp. suggesting the Pridolian
abrupt increase and gradual decrease of values (Fig. 33). H biozone of Jardiné et al. (1974, Fig. 35) which is equivalent to the
In the Southern Chott Basin wells (e.g. SABN-1, FNG-1, ALG-1, VC/LG biozone of Richardson et al. (1981). Chitinozoa are com-
HBR-1, CHR-1 wells) where the Hot shale unit of the Fegaguira For- monly occurring with diverse assemblage represented by Ancyro-
mation is penetrated, it is assumed that good to excellent source chitinaancyrea and Desmochitina erratica. The lower Hot shales
rock properties are found (Fig. 34; Table 6). The organic-rich Hot unit of Fegaguira Formation where maximum radioactive shales
Shales are characterized by planktonic marine Type II kerogen are occurring miospore abundance of the Apiculatiretusispora,
(IH between 100 and 860 mg HC/g TOC, in CHR-1 well) with TOC Retusotriletes and Emphanisporites species is remarkably reduced
concentrations of up to 9.59%, indicating good source rock qualities due to anoxic conditions. To the southeastern portion of the South-
for oil and gas with a single 16.02% value has been reported by ern Chott Basin (CHR-1, HBR-1, ALG-1; Fig. 2) palynological inves-
Saidi et al. (1998). A sufficient maturity level of these black shales tigation by Dummond and Rasul (1985) show that the studied
is confirmed by the OM thermal maturity, which presents a rather samples taken from the Fegaguira Formation are characterized by
homogeneous distribution with Tmax ranging between 434 and a restricted microflora dominated by common to abundant Sphaer-
456 "C equivalent to vitrinite reflectance (Ro%) of 0.65% up to omorph acritarchs (which are indicators of marine microplankton)
0.95% (Fig. 36; Table 6). According to the Ro% and Tmax data, this with rare Acanthomorph/Polygonomorph acritarchs and land
sequence has reached the oil generation peak; in particular, high derived spores. These palynomorphs have been recorded with
maturity values have been recorded in the HBR-1 (Tunisia) and sapropelic kerogen in the formation. The same authors denoted
in Hassi Messaoud (Algeria) wells (Ro% range = 0.91 and over the presence of the Cymbosphaeridium pilaris (forma B) acritarch
1.25 respectively; Fig. 36). The computed transformation ratio is and related this species to the Gedinnian age (Early Devonian) as
about 0.78% (Rezouga et al., 2012b). Organic petrological and pal- pertaining to the I biozone of Jardiné et al. (1974, Fig. 35). Within
ynological studies on these sediments indicate that kerogen is the lower part of the hot shale unit, samples yielded in addition
dominated by an amorphous organic matter (AOM) and the preser- to Cymbosphaeridium spp. other acritarchs including Diexallophasis
vation of microspores suggesting minimal transport and probable remotum, Gorgonisphaeridium sp. and Goniosphaeridium sp. These
autochthonous origin. The late Silurian (Ludlow–Pridolian) Hot cited species are also associated with rare land derived spores such
Shales display a kerogen, which is generally dominated by chitin- as Retusotriletes sp. and ?Archaeozonotriletes sp. (Dummond and
ozoans and prasinophyceae algae (Tasmanites) (Saidi et al., 1998; Rasul, 1985). The presence of Gorgonisphaeridium cf. saharicum
Rezouga et al., 2012b). The elevated fluorescence suggests acritarch might indicate the latest Ludlow age pertaining the G5
enhanced preservation of organic matter. The elevated HI values biozone of Jardiné et al. (1974), when associated with ?Archaeozon-
consistent with the increased fluorescence of the AOM as well as otriletes sp., Emphanisporites spp., Ancyrochitina ancyrea and Des-
the high Gamma ray values (=high Uranium values) also indicate mochitina erratica. In summary the Hot shale unit of the
better preservation of AOM and establishment of severe bottom- Fegaguira/Oued Ali Formation is attributed to the late Ludlow–
redox conditions within the sediments. The high abundance of pra- Pridoli age pertaining to the G5 biozone through I biozone of
sinophyceae algae recorded with low acritarch diversity suggests Jardiné et al. (1974) while the remaining Fegaguira/Oued Ali
in the Hot shales unit therefore enhanced primary productivity sequence reaches up to the Geddinian age (early Devonian).
and eutrophic conditions in the upper Silurian sea water, implying
therefore probable upwelling conditions during high surface pro- 4.3.4. Mineral composition
ductivity concomitant to generalized anoxic conditions in the Fekirine and Abdallah (1998) stated that fissile mudstones com-
water–sediments interface toward the Northern TTPB structural monly referred to as the graptolitic Hot shales belonging to late
High. The differences in hydrogen index (HI) seen between CHR- Silurian Oued Ali Formation in Ougarta Range (Legrand, 1969;
1 and SABN-1 for example (implying high values such as 860 mg Askri et al., 1995; MacGregor, 1998) and, which directly overlie
HC/g TOC) can largely be attributed to differences in preservation. the Upper Ordovician sandstone are rich in pyrite and composed
The higher molecular weight n-alkanes reveal a relative wide of nearly equal amounts of kaolinite and illite. In the Southern
range of normal alkanes extending from nC15 to nC25 (Saidi et al., Chott Basin, Rezouga et al. (2012b) stated that the Fegaguira For-
1998). The moderate molecular weight n-alkanes and acyclic iso- mation could bear more than 16% quartz (Fig. 37). At HBR-1 it is
prenoids such as pristine and phytane occur in low concentrations composed by 86 m thick bed, which consists of marine sublittoral
in the late Silurian (Ludlow–Pridolian) black shales. The pristine to bathyal surface consisting of massive black carbonaceous and
FNG-1 GR Cunningham Jardiné et al.

(API) (1989) (1974)
0 200
Hercynian
Unconformity
3679
Early Devonian
3700
Fegaguira / Oued Ali Formation
Cymbosphaeridium
I Biozone
pilaris
(forma B)
3750
(Haj Brahim Fm)
Ludlow - Gedinnian
Diexallophalis remotum
3800
Goniosphaeridium sp
3850
H Biozone
Late Silurian
Gorgonisphaeridium
saharicum
3900
G5 Biozone
3925
Taconic
Azel
3950 Unconformity TOC

0 (%) 25
Fig. 35. Biostratigraphy of the Ludlow–Pridoli–Geddinian Fegaguira/Oued Ali (Haj Brahim) Formation (acritarch assemblages and biozones by Dummond and Rasul, 1985).
pyritic shales with occasional micaceous and often dolomitic silt- the Berkine Basin by the shaly part of the Jeffara Formation, which
stone to very fine sandstone layers as well as common thin carbo- exhibit TOC values ranging from 0.84 to 1.72 (Table 7, Fig. 39) (Ben
naceous limestone interbeds (HBR-1, BGL-1ALG-1 and CHR-1). This Ferjani et al., 1990; Chambers, 2008). This interval comprises
unit is overlain by micaceous and pyritic siltstones with subordi- anoxic to poorly-oxygenated sediments representing a marine
nate shales and occasional fine siliceous level interbeds (Chebbi flooding event and may contain shales with some source potential
and Lizotte, 1985). The sedimentary significance of the (Chambers, 2008). In addition, the lowermost Ordovician in the
fine-grained siltstone and sandstone layers could be attributed to southern Tunisian Berkine Basin is represented also by the Trem-
tempestite levels suggesting perhaps shoreface to offshore storm adocian Sanghrar Formation, which consists of gray, dark gray to
sandstone deposits. black shales and argillaceous marls deposited within local anoxic
The carbonaceous character of the Ludlow–Pridolian hot shale, environments and grading upward into silt and fine grained sand-
concomitant to some richness in quartz content, may help to brit- stones registering a high gamma ray signature. However, no petro-
tle, thence being favorable for hydraulic fracturing. leum potential has been yet reported through the lower
Ordovician.
Alternatively, geochemical investigations within the Southern
4.4. Other potential oil/gas shale reservoirs: a brief review Chott Basin (the Permian Basin, Fig. 2) had showed good potential
(Fig. 38B) of dark to black shales intercalated within the Permian
Potential oil/gas shale reservoirs are also present in both south- deposited during local anoxic phases.
ern Chott and Berkine Basin but do not present effective focus due
to their organic-leaner petroleum potential when compared to the
Rhuddanian, Ludlow and Frasnian Hot shales. Within the Southern 5. Discussion
Chott Basin, the Ordovician black shales are represented by the
Azzel shales (Fig. 38), equivalent to the argillaceous and organic- 5.1. Stratigraphy and distribution outlook
rich part of the Bir Ben Tartar Formation, and El Gassi shales, which
correspond to the shaly part of Sanghar Formation (Soua, 2013). This review has a main focus, which is essentially the evaluation
The supposed organic-rich Ordovician strata are represented in of the Paleozoic oil/gas shale potential of southern Tunisia, which
N
Pr
Feg obabl
FNG-1 agu e ex
ira/ t
Ou ension BZM-1
ed
Ali of the
For
ma
tion
SABN-1
0.92
ZMT-1
7
HMD-1
0.8
ALG-1
TFA-1
0.
3
87
0.8
Scale 50km HBR-1 Dz-1
0
ZKH-1
Explanation
0.83
Limit of the Fegaguira/Oued Ali Formation BGL-1
towards northern Touggourt-Telemzane -
PGA - Bou Nemcha complex uplift Southern limit of
Ludlow-Geddinian
Southern part of Chott Jerid extension Maturity R0 (%)
Well penetrated the Fegaguira/Oued Ali Fm. Touggourt - Telemzane - PGA -
0.64
0.659
0.678
0.697
0.716
0.735
0.754
0.773
0.792
0.811
0.83
0.849
0.868
0.887
0.906
0.925
0.944
Possible existence of the Fegaguira/Oued Ali Bou Nemcha uplift
Fig. 36. Maturity Contour map of the Ludlow–Pridoli Hot shale level (Ro%).
pertains geologically to three main basins (southern Chott, Jeffara significant name came from the Libyan Murzuk Basin by Desio
and Berkine basins). These sedimentary basins had experienced (1936). Unfortunately, it presents rather small area of extension
different structural styles and sedimentation patterns (Figs. 4, 5 (in southern Tunisian) southwards the southern flank of the TTPB
and 7). The most significant source rock is the early Silurian (Rhud- structural high (Figs. 9, 11, 14 and 15). Northern extension of the
danian and maybe through Aeron age in southern Tunisian Berkine Rhuddanian Hot Shales reaches the Jeffara Basin (e.g. ST-1, Tt-1
Basin) Hot shale unit, which is the lower part of the Argiles Princi- wells, Fig. 2) and pinches out toward the Sidi Toui – Melaab uplift
pales Formation of Jaeger et al. (1975) commonly and traditionally (Fig. 2), which are thought to be the natural continuity of the
labeled Tannezuft Formation by Petroleum geologists due to its Nefusa uplift (eastern Libya). Recent recoverable gas assessments
ALG-1
Kaolinite
GR (API) GR (API) TOC (%)

Chlorite
0 200 0 200 0 10
Illite
Qtz
3350
Computed Hot Shale Cut-off
Triassic
3450
3750
3550
Quartz content
Fegaguira
3650
3750
3850
3850
Azel
Hamra
3950
Fig. 37. Gamma ray, TOC and mineralogical composition vertical distribution in the ALG-1 well (data compiled after Cunningham, 1989; Belhaj and Saidi, 2010; Rezouga
et al., 2012b).
Ordovician oil/gas shale reservoir assessment 312

1.43
Thickness
TOC
N
433 Tmax maturity
Mediterranean
Jerba
Sea
Southern
Chotts Basin
FNG-2
20
NF-1 12 0.42? EXPLANATION
ALGERIA
4.33 441
428 Incrasing maturity 40
trend
10
15 73
SABN-1 ALG-1 2.42 15 2.26 TOC less than 1.5%
70
Incra 438 451
S sing
(Bi outhe
HBR-1 TOC between 1.5-3%
TOC
rB tren BGL-1
en rn lim
d
52 CHR-1 TOC more than 3%
Tar i
Telemzane tar) t of A
KLF-1
1.86
dis zzel 439
trib
utio Limit of distribution
n
TUNISIA Contour map of Azzel
Scale KGH-1
0 30km
A Bou Nemcha (Bir Ben Tartar)
Figure 38
Permian oil/gas shale reservoir assessment 312
1.43
Thickness
TOC
N
433 Tmax maturity
Mediterranean
Jerba
Sea
Southern 120
Organic-lean black shales
Chotts Basin inc Ma
0.37
MAR-1 450
324 rea tur
0.15KGF-1 sin ity
NF-1
439
gt
ren
d Jeffara Basin
ALGERIA
FNG-2
Organic-rich
312black shales
ZMT-1
45 1.43
SABN-1 ALG-1 433 173 KJD-1
1.26
1.34
453
HBR-1 447
We BGL-1 108 EXPLANATION
Telemzane bla ster 0.37
CHR-1 KLF-1
ck n li 433
sh mit Organic-lean TOC less than 1%
ale o
s d f Pe
black shales
ist r TOC more than 1%
TUNISIA rib mian KGH-1
uti
0 Scale 30km on
B Bou Nemcha Limit of distribution
Fig. 38. Other oil and gas shale reservoir potential in southern Chotts Basin (southern Tunisia); (1) Ordovician oil/gas shale reservoir assessment and (2) Permian oil/gas shale
reservoir assessment.
Table 7 while toward the south and especially within the Berkine Basin
Thickness, organic-richness (TOC), Tmax and source type of the organic-rich upper
and partially within the Jeffara Basin, the coeval sedimentation
Ordovician from selected wells.
had been characterized by shallow marine sublittoral sands envi-
Wells Thick (m) TOC Tmax Source type ronment, which are subject sometimes to anoxic/dysoxic phases
BZ-1 59 1.13 442 Type II without reaching therefore euxinic conditions. These sand-rich
CEM-1 66 1.19 434 Type II sediments are described as encompassing thick sand bodies corre-
HAW-1 96 0.81 443 Type II
sponding to regional Ludlow stacked bar sequence within a regio-
Amic-1 31 1.35 439 Poor type II
SNN-1 92 0.8 431 Type II nal regressive phase, which is overlain by marine inner shelf muds
and sands (Lister, 1995). These sediments have been assigned to
the ‘‘Alternances argilo-greseuses’’ Formation (Massa and Jaeger,
have been established (Kuuskraa et al., 2011; Rezouga et al., 2012a; 1971) or Acacus Formation, defined by Desio (1936) earlier in Libya
Bacon et al., 2013) marking good gas retention with risked gas in (spelled Akakus) but used abusively by petroleum geologists in
place around 60Tcf and technically recoverable resource around southern Tunisia. The palynological investigation made by Lister
20Tcf (Fig. 1). However, in this contribution we will not discuss (1995) on the ‘‘Alternances argilo-greseuses’’ Formation confirms
the proven and estimated gas/oil reserves within these shale plays the time equivalence even partially to the Fegaguira/Oued Ali For-
but we will discuss only the geological potentiality (distribution, mation. In addition, the Jeffara Basin seems to have remained
biostratigraphy, wireline logging characters, mineral, chemostrati- uplifted during the Devonian times due probably to the collision
graphic and depositional environment) point of view. These three with Laurasia (Gabtni et al., 2009). However, Rhuddanian Hot
main gas/oil shale plays (Fegaguira/Oued Ali, Argiles Principales shales have been deposited locally without exceeding Erg Leguine
and Aouinet Ouinine Formations) are characterized by special lat- area (missing in Lg-1 and Lg-2 only, Fig. 2) and interpreted as
eral and vertical distribution in the above cited studied basins. The deposited on the Ordovician paleohigh (Fig. 6). In general, this
main interesting character is the preservation of an important Basin is considered as a zone of pronounced and progressive subsi-
organic matter in the northern flank of the TTPB uplift system, dence phases (Burollet and Desforges, 1982; Ben Ayed, 1986;
which permitted the deposition of Hot shales pertaining to the Feg- Aissaoui et al., 1996; Gabtni et al., 2009; Soua, 2012a). Several
aguira/Oued Ali Formation during the late Ludlow–Pridoli times Mesozoic and Paleozoic tectonic events modeled the Jeffara
BZ-1
OMZ-1
1.26 SNN-1 1.72 BAD-1
KEE-2
AMG-1 SN-1
RA-1 bis ED-1
KEE-1 ESD-1
DRA-1
ZN-1
EHD-1 RH'-1
ZHA-1
KA-1 bis EBNE-1 EBR-2 CEM-1
DN-1 1.28
EB-1 EBP-1 RZ'-1
EBP-1
CEMSW-1
EB-407
DH-1
LA-1
ZTE-1 AB-1
HTB-2 HDA-2
SB-1
HDA-3 OZ-1
AMC-1
1.61
ALGERIA
JNN-1 EZ-2 HDASE-1
0.81 MG-1
HYT-1 OK-1
RR-1 HWA-1
MAB-1
CS-6 HR-1
EC-3
Nawara-1
CS-2 Sourour-1
Ahlem-1
EC-2
HZ-1
ECS-2
TR-1
EXPLANATION TUNISIA
TOC distribution LD-1
SET-1
TOC 0.0 - 0.9 TE-1
TOC 1.0 - 1.500
TOC 1.51-1.70
LIBYA
TOC 1.71-2.0
Fig. 39. Ordovician oil and gas shale potential in the Berkine Basin (southern Tunisia) inferred from TOC distribution of the upper Jeffara organic rich shales.
structure, which could produce the well known Permian Basin environment and mineral composition (Quartz, clay, calcite, etc.),
with deposition of organic-rich Permian section (Fig. 2) bounded (2) depth of the shale play, (3) organic richness of the shale and
by a large E–W uplift system (TTPB structural high) toward the (4) level of maturity.
West (Fig. 3). This uplift system is a natural continuity of the
almost E–W Talemzane – Touggourt – Tilrhemt uplifts, which con-
tinue toward the West to the ENE–WSW Mehrez-Oued Hamous 5.2.1. Depositional environment and mineral composition of the Hot
uplift. The Fig. 30 shows that this large-scale uplift system is Shales
bounded toward the south by three important structural highs, In general, oil/gas shale plays have to be brittle to respond pos-
Amguid-El Biod, Allal high and Azzene high. These almost N–S ori- itively to hydraulic fracturing and for this reason prospective
ented uplifts received on their margin (=basins and not on their shales must have lower clay content and high in brittle minerals
tops) an organic rich sedimentation characterized by Hot shales such as quartz, feldspar and carbonates.
during the late Ludlow–Pridoli times defined as Fegaguira/Oued
Ali Formation (which is the same Formation defined in different
basins in Algeria). The same Fig. 30 shows that the distribution 5.2.2. Depth of the shale play
of the Fegaguira Formation has restricted extension as discussed The depth of the prospective area for a shale play must be
above near the large scale early Paleozoic structural highs. The encompassed between 1000 and 5000 m because areas shallower
eastern limit of the Fegaguira is recorded in the eastern part of than 1000 m are characterized generally by high water content,
the Southern Chott Basin (HBR-1 well). No reference has been cited low pressure as well as low gas concentration and in areas deeper
yet for the Libyan side describing such organic rich sedimentation than 5000 m, permeability become much reduced and fracturing
during late Ludlow–Geddinian times. job will cost much higher.
5.2. Definition of the prospective gas/oil shale areas

5.2.3. Total organic carbon (TOC)
The best prospective area for oil/gas shale plays encompass in In general, the TOC of the organic-rich black shale must be
general four main parameters, which are: (1) the depositional higher than 2%.
5.2.4. Thermal maturity gas/oil shale potential for the Rhuddanian Hot shale play in south-
The thermal maturity of the shale plays is given generally by the ern Tunisia where the depth is ranging from 3200 m in the north-
vitrinite reflectance and Tmax values (Tables 1, 4, 6 and 7 Figs. 20, ern part (CEM-1) to maximum of 4475 m recorded in southeastern
23 and 36). In general values higher than Ro 1.0% are much appre- part (SET-1) (see Fig. 2 for location).
ciated, which lead to the presence of nanopores contributing to
additional porosity in the shale matrix.
5.3.2. Late Ludlow–Pridoli Hot Shales
The late Ludlow–Pridoli Hot shales are very comparative to the
5.3. Main characteristics of the Hot Shale units Rhuddanian organic-rich hot shale. They are developed only north-
wards to the TTPB structural high and represent the principal
5.3.1. Rhuddanian Hot Shales source rock of the Southern Chott Basin. These Hot shales are also
The Rhuddanian Hot Shales in southern Tunisia are distributed believed to be the principal source for the giant Hassi Messoud oil
southwards to the TTPB structural high within the Berkine and Jeff- field (Heybroek, 1963; Balducchi and Pommier, 1970) labeled late
ara Basins (Fig. 2). The thickness of these hot shales is given in the Silurian shales or Fegaguira Shales. It has been assumed that they
Table 1 and Fig. 9 and range from 0 m to 160 m in general. In the have the same sedimentological characteristics of Oued Ali Forma-
southern Tunisian Berkine Basin they range between 25 m and tion. In the Southern Chott Basin, their presence is important in
125 m while in the Jeffara Basin they range between 25 m and petroleum point of view but the chosen name (Lizotte and
35 m. From mineral point of view, the Rhuddanian Hot shales are Chebbi, 1983) is not reliable because of the large distance of the
characterized by brittle minerals such as 40% of quartz, 50% car- type section (Hassi Fegaguira, Fig. 30) in one hand and the different
bonate, 35% clays (chlorite, kaolinite, illite) and 20% of pyrite as country of origin in the other hand (Algeria). As it is the case for the
mean percentages (Table 2; Fig. 19). The uranium enrichment fac- Silurian shales where it has been chosen to label them Argiles Prin-
tor, calculated for the Basin in this contribution is shown in the cipales Formation instead of Tannezufft Formation, it is proposed
Fig. 14 and could expect values ranging between 1 and 4.6, which in this contribution to confine the term ‘‘Fegaguira/Oued Ali For-
are very correlatable with the iso-values of Gamma ray (Fig. 14). mation’’ for the Algerian side and suggest ‘‘Haj Brahim Formation’’
This is interpreted as the area of maximum redox condition, which inferred from HBR-1 well where it has been the best studied bio-
expect maximum of organic-richness. This is evident from the stratigraphically and geochemically (Chebbi and Lizotte, 1985;
Fig. 13, which compares the vertical evolution of GR and TOC from Dummond and Rasul, 1985; Cunningham, 1989; Belhaj and Saidi,
the four different wells of Berkine Basin (AMC-1, HWA-1, OZ-1 and 2010; Rezouga et al., 2012b). The late Ludlow–Pridoli Haj Brahim
SNN-1) and from the Fig. 15, which allows distinguishing the lat- shales are highly radioactive characterized by up to 250 API (GR),
eral evolution of mean TOC within the Basin. Maturity vitrinite which allow attributing to them the Hot Shale character (Fig. 33).
reflectance (Ro%) ranges between 0.65 and 1.85 (Fig. 20) denoting Their thickness ranges (where they are identified) from 15 m
five maturity zones in southern Tunisian Berkine Basin, which are: (CHR-1) to 100 m (ALG-1) with a mean depth of 3500 m in the
(1) immature to the north and near the TTPB structural high, (2) oil Southern Chott Basin. It becomes deeper toward the North where
window, which characterizes the median part, (3) peak oil, (4) late the Chott Basin is thought to be more subsiding. The Haj Brahim
oil/wet gas and (5) wet gas or preservation and maybe it goes Hot Shales are also characterized by thermal maturity ranging
through dry gas zone (Fig. 20). All these parameters allow good between 0.7 and 1 (Ro%) making it within oil window and peak
Hayatt-1 Spectral Gamma Ray Thorium/Potassium Ratio

(gAPI) (Th/K)
2800
2720
sudden change in depositional environment

Frasnian unconformity
Second Hot Shales Unit
enrichment
2640
Frasnian
2560
Regular mean of Th/K ration

DEPTH
2480
2400
2320
First Hot Shales Unit

2240
0 100 200 300 400 0 10 20 30 40
Fig. 40. Spectral Gamma Ray and Th/K ratio showing the position of the Frasnian unconformity just above the two Hot shale levels equivalent of the Kellwasser anoxic events.
Fig. 41. playfairway maps of the studied oil/gas shale plays, (A) the early Silurian Hot shale, (B) the Frasnian Hot shale and (C) the Ludlow–Pridoli Hot shale.
oil state (Fig. 36). Mineralogical composition shows high brittle time from southern Tunisia issued from the SpectroLith logging
minerals such as Quartz content (Fig. 37; Rezouga et al., 2012b). and ECS tool denoting vertical variation of Quartz, Pyrite, Carbon-
ate and clay (Fig. 29). It shows high content in brittle minerals
5.3.3. Frasnian Hot Shales and low content in clay within the Hot shale interval in addition
The Frasnian Hot shales are almost studied and presented for to the vertical variation of Si, Fe, Ca, K, U, Th major and trace ele-
the first time in southern Tunisia from biostratigraphical and log- ment concentrations, which allowed to define better the deposi-
ging characteristics point of view. Previous studies (Lüning et al., tional environment of the Frasnian Hot shale in southern Tunisia.
2000c and Lüning et al., 2003) have interested mainly on the Fras- This mineral distribution is used in order to better correlate the dif-
nian of the Algerian Berkine Basin due to lack of data from the ferent environmental events with the North African Frasnian level.
Tunisian side. Other studies (e.g. Ghenima, 1995; Aissaoui et al., In addition, the use of the Th/K ratio has clearly marked the Fras-
1996; Ferjaoui et al., 2001) have compared the Frasnian potential nian unconformity (Fig. 40) well documented in the Algerian Ber-
to the Silurian one from geochemical point of view without giving kine Basin and other North African Paleozoic basins (Boote et al.,
more interest on the Frasnian Hot shale depositional environment 1998; Lüning et al., 2003; Guiraud et al., 2005). The thermal matu-
and radioactive characteristics (Figs. 24 and 27). The Frasnian Hot rity level of the Frasnian Hot Shale (Fig. 23) ranges between 0.55 in
shales are generally characterized by two Hot shale levels (Fig. 24) the northeastern part and ca. 1.2 (Ro%) toward the southwestern
and admitted to be the recording of the two Kellwasser anoxic part which characterizes the transition from late oil to wet gas
events identified in Morocco (e.g. Riquier et al., 2007). Mineral state. The Fig. 22 shows the depth range of the Frasnian Hot shales,
composition of the Frasnian Hot shales are presented for the first which traces an interval between 1900 m and 3500 m. All these
Quartz (Q)
EXPLANATION
90
Rhuddanian Hot Shale
10
Cherouq
Hayatt
20 80
Frasnian Hot Shale
Hayatt
30 70
40 60
High Quartz
50 50
60 40
70 30
High calcite
Low Clay
80 20
90 10
Calcite (C)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Clay (Cly)
Fig. 42. Ternary diagram (quartz–calcite–clay) of the Cherouq-1 and Hayatt-1 wells (early Silurian Hot shale) and Hayatt-1 well (Frasnian Hot shale) showing the
mineralogical compositions for the gas/oil shale potential.
parameters allow the Frasnian to be good oil, and with less inten- shale units normally display elevated quartz contents concomitant
tion, gas shale plays in southern Tunisia. with moderate clay percentage and high pyrite. The pyrite fram-
boid size distribution observed within the early Silurian hot Shale
unit are moderate and are suggestive of euxinic conditions occur-
5.4. Play fairway mapping
ring during that time. This is generally explained by the fact that
relative important size of framboids is commonly formed in
In this contribution, play fairway maps (superposition and eval-
anoxic–dysoxic environment while small-sized framboids are
uation the main hydrocarbon parameters improving the potential
thought to be formed during euxinic conditions. In addition, sev-
of basins) have been established on the basis of the mineral com-
eral Si/Al ratio peaks marked the Rhuddanian and Frasnian hot
position, mean organic carbon distribution, mean Gamma ray val-
shale levels without correlative peaks of clastic proxies such as
ues and mean porosity distribution of different hot shale units
Ti/Al and K/Al. In this case, the increased Si abundance could be
(Rhuddanian, late Ludlow–Pridoli and Frasnian). The Figs. 41 and
linked probably to the echo of a local increased biogenic productiv-
42 show that commonly the best prospective area for the different
ity by silica-secreting organisms (mainly radiolarians, which have
oil/gas shale plays is situated in intersection area composed by
not experienced severe turnover during these times). This is
high quartz content, low clay percentage, high gamma ray, ele-
inferred from comparison with the average shale values. The
vated TOC and good porosity distribution.
recorded terrigenous materials in some levels should have been
reworked by the marine transgression during Rhuddanian, Gors-
6. Conclusion tian and Frasnian times and these clastic influx proxies (Ti and K)
give information on nutrients released from the early Paleozoic
The review of the three Paleozoic hot shale levels in southern emerged lands that could be combined to the OM. Basically, the
Tunisia centers on the highest quality Paleozoic source rocks of anoxic conditions inferred from U and U/Th ratios affected proba-
the country. The deposition of the organic-rich black shales has bly on the beginning of the redox conditions and productivity
often been associated with intensification and expansion of an oxy- increase, which means that preservation of organic matter
gen minimum zone (OMZ) along the Gondwana margins. In most increased with time, triggered by the onset of reducing conditions.
cases, the deposition of these organic-rich hot shales is accompa- The mineral composition, organic carbon, maturity, depth and
nied with initial transgression phases resulting from different thickness of the hot shale levels have been used in the play fairway
mechanisms (melting of ice, tectonics, or mixing mechanisms) mapping in order to suggest the limit between oil and gas shale
prior and/or within short-lived severe anoxic events (Ireviken, exploration. In general, southern Tunisia has excellent oil/gas
Mulde, Lau and Kellwasser anoxic and mass–extinction events). shale potential distributed within three different Paleozoic basins.
Although these anoxic events are recorded within the Argiles Prin- The maturity levels as well as the organic-carbon richness of the
cipales (=Tannezuft) and Aouinet Ouinine Formations and detected Rhuddanian and the Frasnian source rocks display two main
by the mean of wireline logs (spectral Gamma Ray, SpectroLith, productive (oil and gas) zones, while in contrast to this, the Ludlow
ECS, etc.), no large scale carbon-isotopic investigation or high res- Hot shale maturity distribution exhibit only oil prone source. The
olution biostratigraphic analysis have been conducted in order to exceptional enrichment in quartz and carbonate fraction help each
correlate these worldwide. The mineral composition of the hot play to be more brittle and consequently to be excellent for
hydraulic fracturing. These parameters are consistent with good Burollet, P.F., Desforges, G., 1982. Dynamique des bassins neo crétacés en Tunisie:
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Paleozoic oil/gas shale reservoirs in southern Tunisia: An overview

Article in Journal of African Earth Sciences · July 2014

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

Paleozoic oil/gas shale reservoirs in southern Tunisia: An overview

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3.2.1. Normalization and enrichment factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

1. Introduction (chemostratigraphy) based on trace and major elemental data is

Silurian partially eroded

Early Silurian Hot Shales Thickness

Less than 25m

JNN-1 EZ-2 HDASE-1

Gamma Ray (GAPI) Uranium (ppm) Thorium (ppm) U/Th

Uranium average shale line

Mulde or Lau Events

Argiles Principales Formation

Probable Ireviken Event

Hot Shales Unit

cyphus maaximum paleoredox conditions

KEE-2 RA-1 bis ED-1 ESD-1

1.8 - Immature <0.6% Ro

FES-1 EC-2 eO Ahlem-1

1.7 - Oil window 0.6-1.1% Ro

1.6 - Wet gas window

Maturity values R0 (%)

- Gas destruction >~3.2% Ro (?)

Peak 0.8 Wet Gas/Preservation 1.35-1.75

Fig. 21. Thickness map of the Frasnian Hot shale level.

a l l y Erod RR-1 OK-1 MG-1 Explanation

Frasnian Depth isopachs

Fig. 22. Depth map of the Frasnian Hot shale level.

o t a l l HYT-1 HWA-1 - Oil window 0.6-1.1% Ro

1.15 Dry Gas 1.75-2.1

Explored well data

Vitrinite (R0%) Maturity

HZ-1 EC-2 RR-1 CS-1 SET-1

Gamma Ray Cut-off

Gamma Ray Cut-off

Gamma Ray Cut-off

Echouech EC-2 EC-1

Ancyrochitina ancyrea Zone

Tentaculites (Styliolina sp)-rich bed 3190

EC-2 Gamma Ray (API)

Total Organic carbon Mineralogy

Aouinet Aouinine "Term III"

15m First Hot

Hayatt-1 : Frasnian Hot shales

Second Hot Shale

First Hot Shale

t i a l l y Ero RR-1 OK-1 MG-1 Explanation

Algeria TOC 0.5-2

Table 4 ammonoids (Agoniatites) and tentaculites labeled by petroleum

Hayatt-1: Frasnian Hot shales

Organic-richness proxy Primary productivity Pyrite Clastic influx

Gamma Ray Si/Al Fe/Al Ti/Al K/Al

SGR Antagonist character between Ti/Al and K/Al

Second Hot Shale