Chapter 2 – Fundamental Design

and Runoff Quantity Estimation

Zarina Md Ali, Dr Mohd Shalahuddin Adnan and

Dr Siti Nazahiyah Binti Rahmat
Outline of Chapter 2
2.1 Introduction
2.5 Estimation of Runoff,
Flow and Routing

2.2 Concept of
Chapter Hydrology Design
2
2.4 Design Rainfall

2.3 Fundamental of Hydraulic

2.1 Introduction
This chapter provides the fundamental and appropriate methods required for
designing stormwater quantity facilities. Hydrology and hydraulic concepts are
applied in rainfall, flow and routing estimation.

Calculations are focused on:

Rainfall estimation

Outflow and peak flow estimation

Routing estimation
2.2 Concept of Hydrology Design
• The design of drainage and stormwater facilities are not limited to the natural passage of
water resulting from storm events, but also in land development and the construction field.
• When clearing land for development, it is important to provide sediment control to ensure
that eroded soil does not enter into waterways and wetlands. This is depends on the area of
the land being cleared, the amount of rainfall that can be expected during the period where
the soil will be exposed to rainfall impact and site characteristics such as the slope and soil
type.
• In addition to hydrologic considerations during the land development stage, site development
must also consider drainage patterns after development.
• The main objectives of hydrologic analysis and design are to:
• estimate peak flow rates and/or flow hydrographs for the design of conveyance and
quantity control facilities
• estimate annual runoff volumes for approximating pollutant loads in the design of water
quality control facilities.
 ARI & AEP
Rainfall and subsequent discharge estimates is based on the selected value of frequency or
return period, termed as the average recurrence interval (ARI). ARI is strongly recommend to be
used for the designed drainage system in minor and major stormwater quantity systems.

ARI is the average length of time between rain events that exceed the same magnitude, volume
or duration and is expressed as : 1
Tr = x100
P
Where, Tr = Average Recurrence Interval, ARI (year)
P = Annual exceedance Probability, AEP (%)
Additionally, the probability concept can be applied in determine the
N
 1
i) Probability exceeds for n years: P = 1 − 1 − 
 Tr 
N
 1
ii) Probability not exceeds for n years: P = 1 − 
 Tr 
Example 2.1 Example 2.2

Calculate the probability of a peak flow in Calculate the probability of not having a
100 years? peak flow within 100 years?

1 1
𝑇r = 𝑥100 𝑇r = 𝑥100
𝑃 𝑃

1 1
𝑃= = 0.01@1% 𝑃 =1− = 0.99@99%
100 100
Example 2.3 Example 2.4

Determine the probability of a 100-year A highway drainage is designed to accommodate

flood that may occur for a 30-year service storm water with the expected 30-year service
life of the constructed structure of life. Determine return period that should be
stormwater. N
used as the basis for designing the structure if
 1 the allowed hydrological risk is 0.10 (or 10%).
P = 1 − 1 − 
 Tr   1
N
30 P = 1 − 1 − 
 1   Tr 
P = 1 − 1 −
 100   1
30

𝑃 = 0.26 @ 26% 0.1 = 1 − 1 − 

 Tr 
𝑇𝑟 = 285 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
 Design Flood & Actual Flood

There are differences between design floods and actual floods in flood estimation exercises.
Although the same mathematical procedures may be involved in both cases, the implications and
assumptions involved and the validity of application are quite different.
Design Flood Actual Flood
• A design flood is a probabilistic or statistical • The approach to estimating an actual flood from a
estimate, being generally based on some form of particular rainfall is quite different in concept and is
probability analysis of flood or rainfall data. of a deterministic nature.
• For the design flood, the conditions are not • All causes and effects require consideration.
known and must be assumed, often implicitly in • The actual antecedent conditions prevailing at the
the design values that are adopted. time of occurrence of the rain are very important
• The design methods given in this Manual have and must be allowed for in estimation of the
been constructed so that the ARI of the design resulting flood. No real information is given
rainfall and design runoff can be assumed to be regarding the probability of the actual flood.
equal.
 Major & Minor system

• The minor system is designed to convey Major System Minor System

runoff from a minor storm, which occurs Reduced injury and loss of life Improved aesthetics
relatively frequently, and would otherwise
cause inconvenience and nuisance Reduced disruption to normal Reduction in minor traffic
business activities accidents
flooding. The major system, on the other Reduced damage to Reduced health hazards
hand, comprises the many planned and infrastructure services (mosquitoes, flies)
unplanned drainage routes, which convey Reduced emergency services Reduced personal
runoff from a major storm to waterways costs inconvenience
and rivers. Reduced flood damage Reduced roadway
maintenance
• The design objectives of the major and Reduced loss of production -
minor systems are tabulated in the table. Reduced clean-up costs -
Increased feeling of security -
Increased land values -
Improved aesthetics and -
recreational opportunities
2.3 Fundamental of hydraulic
This chapter briefly discusses concepts, principles and formulae that are inherent in more modern
urban stormwater system including for open channels, pipes, ponds, porous media and other
structures.
General Principles:
a) Basic definition: Fluid properties & Fluid flow
b) Governing equation of motion: Continuity, energy and Momentum equation
Steady Open Channel Flow:
a) Uniform and non-uniform flow
Steady Pressure Pipe Flow:
a) Laminar & turbulent flow
b) Compound and branching pipe
Unsteady Shallow Surface Flow: All hydraulic routing principles and some important
computer models involve solution of unsteady flow equations.
a) Kinematic waves equation
b) Dynamic waves equation
c) Hydrodynamics of ponds and small reservoirs
Porous media flow : The techniques of stormwater infiltration/retention analysis are based on
understanding of the physical processes mathematically.
a) Darcy’s law
b) Saturated and unsaturated flow
c) Steady well flow hydraulics

Pollutant transport and settling process: In order to investigate environmental concerns, stormwater
specialists are usually called upon to study the transport, settlement and retention of various substances in
surface water and porous media.
a) Transport processes
b) Particulate settling (involve with drag force)
2.4 Rainfall design & estimation - Introduction
• Rainfall is the driving force behind all stormwater studies and designs. An understanding of
rainfall processes and the significance of the rainfall design data is a necessary pre-requisite for
preparing satisfactory drainage and stormwater management projects.
• Rainfall design methods, which have been developed in other countries, may not always be
suitable for application in Malaysia. The design calculations for these methods have been
adjusted in this Manual to suit Malaysian conditions.
• Design storm duration is an important parameter that defines the rainfall depth or intensity for a
given frequency, and therefore affects the resulting runoff peak and volume.
• Recommended practice for catchments containing storage is to compute the design flood
hydrograph for several storms with different durations equal to or longer than the time of
concentration for the catchment, and to use the one which produces the most severe effect on
the pond size and discharge for design.
2.4 Rainfall design & estimation - IDF curve
• An Intensity-Duration-Frequency curve (IDF Curve) is a graphical representation of the probability
that a given average rainfall intensity will occur or a mathematical function that relates the
rainfall intensity with its duration and frequency of occurrence.
• The data are normally presented as curves displaying two of the variables, such as intensity and
duration, for a range of frequencies.
• These curves are commonly used in hydrology for flood forecasting and civil engineering for
urban drainage design. Figure below shows an example of typical IDF curve.

The IDF can be developed from the historical rainfall

data to estimate peak flow or discharge and available
for most geographical areas in Malaysia. The IDF curve
development is shows in figure can be refered in
MSMA (2012) and Hydrology Procedure 1 (HP1)
(2015).
 The step of collecting rainfall data and test for quality or
consistency have been discussed in Hydrology. While, the next
steps can be explained using frequency distribution method
which is statistical method. After that, follow steps
accordingly. Lastly, the IDF curve is plotted as follows:
5.00

4.00 10-year

Intensity (in/hr)
20-year
3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Duration (min)

Typical steps to develop IDF curve

IDF curve for 10 years and 20 years return period
 5 10 15 30 45 60 120 180 360 540 720 900 1440
1980 20.2 35.3 40.8 53 59.8 65.4 72.5 72.5 72.5 72.5 72.5 122.4 123.5
1981 34.3 41 45.2 49.5 62.6 65.2 76.1 87.2 97.5 113 113 113 114.5
Develop IDF curve for 2, 5, 10, 1982 22.3 26.3 35.9 54.9 64.3 69.1 89 89 89 89 89 89 102.5
1983 12.5 15.7 23.5 46 65.7 84.7 111 111 111 113 113 113 119.5
20, 50 and 100 years ARI using 1984 38.9 44.5 50.2 67.2 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5 84 90.8 92.5 93 93
1985 50.1 50.4 50.7 51.6 52.8 58.1 74.8 83.5 84 84 84.5 89.5 118.5
the annual maximum rainfall 1986 32.2 36.5 36.5 38.2 54.3 59 77.9 89.5 101.7 107 108.8 135.2 181.5
data of 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 180 1987
1988
8.4
34.5
11
34.5
12.7
34.5
25.4
53.3
35
69.5
46.7
85.5
64
103
64
103
64
103
64
103
64
103
64
103
74
103
350, 540, 720, 900, and 1440 1989
1990
11.9
18.7
23.7
33
31.5
33
31.5
33
38.6
42.4
42
54.4
56.8
59.5
64.5
59.5
78.5
61
83.1
66
91.5
66
111
66
115.5
88
minutes duration station 1991
1992
5.2
8.8
10.4
17.5
15.6
23.7
31.2
28.9
40
42
47.7
51.7
63.2
89.7
68
107
86
107
86
107
86.5
107
86.5
107
95.2
107
located at Ampang, Selangor. 1993
1994
10.1
17
20.3
20.4
30.1
24.9
54.8
43
71.4
49.8
86.3
54.2
105
72
119
72.1
121.5
77
121.5
77
121.5
77
122.4
77
124.5
77
1995 27.5 30.2 34 42.5 50.9 57.4 65.5 66 66.5 66.5 67 67 82.5
1996 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87 87
1997 31.3 39.2 47.1 48.5 48.5 50.3 65.4 79.2 109.3 113.5 113.5 113.5 113.5
solution 1998 25.5 29.5 31.8 41.8 51.1 56 59 59.5 59.7 59.8 60 60.1 61.6
1999 26.9 30.2 33.5 44.3 57.6 69.3 84.5 103.5 112.5 112.5 1125 112.5 119
2000 21.1 26.9 35.3 49.8 58.4 54.6 97.3 104.6 111.6 111.7 111.9 112 116.1
2001 20.5 29.5 39 66.9 87.2 95.6 113.7 114.1 118.1 118.4 119.1 119.3 140.1
2002 19.6 33.4 41.1 61.7 81.3 94 115.8 117.5 118.4 118.7 119.1 138.6 139
2003 16.5 25.6 35.5 66 95.7 102.7 110 110.5 110.7 110.9 111 111 133.4
2004 58.5 58.5 58.5 58.5 67.8 77.9 89.7 91.9 92.3 92.5 92.5 92.5 128.2
2005 14.6 27 36.7 62.1 70.5 83.2 90.8 91 99.4 103.6 104.3 105 110
2006 15.1 28.2 39.2 68.7 87.6 111.6 140.7 142.9 144.3 144.6 144.7 144.9 145
2007 18.3 29.8 42.8 69.8 90.5 103.2 133.1 137.3 137.7 138 138.1 138.3 191.9
2008 18.2 27.6 34 61 81 87.6 90 90.1 90.3 90.5 98.1 98.3 98.5
2009 11.8 21.5 27.1 45.5 61.7 72.4 76 76.1 76.3 76.4 117.8 139.1 139.4
 Answer

1000

2 5 10 20 50 100
Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr)

100

10

1
1 10 100 1000 10000
Duration (min)
Empirical IDF Curve

Empirical equation can be used to

minimize error in estimating the rainfall
values from the IDF curve. It is expressed
as

Refer MASMA (2012)

 Example 2.5 – IDF Curve
Find the 24 hr duration future design rainfall with the return period of 100 years at Station JPS
Ampang (3117070).

Solution:

Refer to Table 2.B1 for IDF constants,

λ K θ η
Ampang 65.809 0.148 0.156 0.837

, i = 9.1 mm/hr

Calculate rainfall depth,

rainfall depth = i x d
= 9.1 x 24hr = 218.4 mm
Refer to Climate Change Factor (CCF) for Station 3117070 Ampang is CCF = 1.25

Calculate future design rain depth

Rainfall depth = current design rainfall depth x CCF

= 218.4 x 1.25
= 273.0 mm
 2.4 Rainfall Estimation – Temporal Pattern
Temporal Patterns are intended for use in hydrograph generation of design storms. The
standard time intervals recommended for urban stormwater modeling are listed in table below

Various methods can be used to develop design rainfall temporal pattern. However, design patterns
are not derived from complete storms, but from intense bursts of recorded rainfall data for selected
durations.
 Temporal Patterns Development Steps

Select the required storm duration and

find about 10 dates when extreme 01
rainfall occurred
Collect the rainfall amounts from nearby
02 stations for the required intervals
Assign rank for each interval based on
the rainfall amount 03
Determine the percentage of rain
04 occurred in each interval

Calculate the mean ranks and

percentage of rainfall for each interval 05
Assign the mean percentage of rainfall
06 for each interval based on the new
Convert the percentage rainfall into mean rank
fraction of total rainfall and plot the 07
temporal pattern
Multiply the fractional values with the
08 design rainfall amount to get the
distribution of rainfall in each interval
Example 2.6 – Temporal Pattern
Determine the design rainfall temporal pattern for the raw data given in Table
below;
Example 2.6 – Answer
Solution
2.5 Runoff estimation - Peak Discharge Estimation
The recommended methods for runoff estimation are

01 Rational Method
.

02 Hydrograph Method
.

03 Time Area Method

 Rational Method

Rational Method is used to compute the peak run-off, Q, following a rainfall event. According to
MSMA (2012), this method is the most frequently used in Malaysia and other countries. The
equation gives satisfactory result for small drainage catchments and expressed as,

where;
Q = peak flow (m3/s),
C = run off coefficient,
i = average rainfall intensity (mm/hr), with the return period of Tr years and with rainfall
duration equal to tc which is derived from frequency analysis of recorded rainfall.
A = drainage area (ha)

This method is known for its simplicity, however, now that computerized procedures for
hydrograph generation are readily available and making computation/design by computerized
method or software is also simple.
 Rational Method

Assumptions used in Rational Method, (RM) are as follows;

1. peak flow occurs when the entire catchment is contributing to the flow,
2. rainfall intensity is uniform over the entire catchment area, and
3. rainfall intensity is uniform over a time duration equal to tc

The Rational Method is not recommended to be applied where;

1. catchment area greater than 80 ha

2. ponding of stormwater in the catchment might affect peak discharge, and
3. design and operation of large facilities and involve storage.
 CALCULATE PEAK FLOW RATE
Calculate peak flow rate using peak flow rate
equation.

ESTIMATE RUNOFF COEFFICIENT CALCULATE AVE. RUNOFF

Estimate C values for each COEFFICIENT
segment if there are different Apply average runoff coefficient
landuse

DETERMINE AVE. RAINFALL

DISCRETISE SUB-CATCHMENT INTENSITY
Divide sub-catchment into
segment of homogenoues Calculate i for design ARI
landsue & slope

SELECT DESIGN ARI

ESTIMATE TIME OF CONCENTRATION
Select design ARI for - Estimate overland flow time
drainage system . - Estime flow time for other flow, fg, fd and etc with
sub-catchemnt.

General Procedure for Estimating Peak Flow using Rational Method

 Time of Concentration
Time of concentration tc is the travel time of runoff flows from most hydraulically remote point
upstream in the contributing catchment are to the discharge point under consideration
downstream.

Time of runoff flow

Rainfall occurred during the tc is directly related to peak flow rate. Normally, design storm
duration will be choose as equal or greater that the time of concentration. tc can be estimate by

tc= 𝑡o + 𝑡𝑔 + 𝑡d

Where, the overland flow time (to) and the times of travel in street gutters (tg) or roadside swales,
stormwater drains, drainage channels, small streams (td)
• Calculation of tc is subject to the catchment properties, particularly length, slope and roughness
of drainage path. Catchment roughness, length and slope affect the flow velocity and
subsequently overland flow time, to.
Alternatively, the overland
flow time can easily be
estimated using the Design
Chart
Example 2.7 – Tc
Calculate time of concentration, tc for:
• Overland: average grass surface, 100 m length and slope of 3%,
• Drain: 1000 m length, slope of 0.2% and trapezoidal shape with side slope of 1.5,
Example 2.7 – Answer
Overland flow, n = 0.045

107.n.L1/3 107x0.045x1001/3
to = 1/5
= 1/5
= 17.94min
S 3

Drain flow, n = 0.032 (given)

A = By + zy 2 = (5x2) + (1.5x22 ) = 16m2

P = B + 2y 1 + z2 = 5 + (2x2) 1 + 1.52 = 1.31m

A 16
R= = = 1.31m
P 12.21
n.L 0.032x1000 32
td = 2/3 1/2
= 2/3 1/2
= = 9.96min
60R S 60x1.31 x(0.002) 3.213

Time of concentration, t c = t o + t d = 17.94 + 9.96 = 27.9min

 Runoff coefficient, C
• The most critical part of using Rational Method is to Soil moisture
make a good estimation of the runoff coefficient, C.
Soil type
• Value of C depend mainly on landuse of the catchment
area. The value of C normally varies due to certain Rainfall intensity
factor such as;
• Segments of different landuse within sub-catchment Slope
can be combined to produce an average runoff Vegetation type
coefficient. For example, if a sub-catchment consists of
segments with different landuse denoted by j = 1, Others
2,……, m; the average runoff coefficient, C is:
where;
m

C A
j =1
j j Cavg = average runoff coefficient,
Cavg = m
Cj = runoff coefficient of segment j,
A j
Aj = area of segment j (ha)
j =1 m = total number of segments
Table below shows recommended runoff coeficients for various landuses which can be used as a
guide for designer. The near-field runoff coefficient for any single or mixed landuse should be
determined based on the imperviousness of the area.
Example 2.8 – Coefficient of Runoff, C
Calculate runoff coefficient for 20 years ARI based on land use of catchment area.

Land use Area (ha)

Roads 8
Lawn 17
Residential area - 50
condominium
Industrial area 10

Average runoff coefficient, Cavg

m

C A
j =1
j j
[(0.95 x 8) + (0.5 x17) + (0.8 x 50) + (0.95 x10)]
Cavg = =
m
[8 + 17 + 50 + 10]
A
j =1
j

7.6 + 8.5 + 40 + 9.5

= = 0.77
85
Example 2.9 – Rational Method
By using Rational Method procedure, calculate a 20 years ARI peak discharge from a
sub-catchment area of 40.7 ha in Wangsa Maju KL. Develop the runoff hydrograph
using the RHM for drain AB on 5 and 10 minute durations design storm.
Calculate the time of
concentration for each
sub catchment.

Solution
Example 2.9 - Answer
Sub-catchment 1 (example):
Applying Horton’s formula, calculate to
Time of Concentration, tc
tc = tc + tc

tc = 6.0 min
to = 4.6 min

Applying Horton’s formula, calculate to

td = 1.4 min
Example 2.9 - Answer

Sub- Length, Slope, to, min Ld A P R S, m/m td, min tc, min
Catchm Lo S
ent
1 53.5 3.74 4.6 200 0.18 1.342 0.134 0.02 1.4 6.0
2 97.67 46.1 3.4 474 0.18 1.342 0.134 0.11 1.4 4.8
3 64.82 30.85 3.2 491.2 0.18 1.342 0.134 0.15 1.2 4.4
4 98.93 50.54 3.4 1054 0.18 1.342 0.134 0.06 4.1 7.5

** assume that the channel geometry is triangular with the slope of 1:2, depth and
width of channel is 0.3m and 1.2m respectively.
Solution
 Rational Hydrograph Method
• Extended version of RM to the development of runoff hydrographs. This method is
recommended for the development of inflow hydrograph on-site detention (OSD) and small
detention pond.
• Two types of hydrograph are to be used for the sub-catchment using the RHM procedure.
Each hydrograph is a function of the length of the rainfall averaging time, d, with respect to
the sub-catchment time of concentration, tc.
• Type 1 (d is greater than tc): resulting trapezoidal
hydrograph has a uniform maximum discharge Q, as
determined from the Rational Method. The linear
rising and falling limbs each has a duration of tc.
• Type 2 (d is equal to tc): resulting triangular
hydrograph has a peak discharge Q. the linear rising
and falling limbs each have a duration of tc.
• Hydrograph type in the RHM is determined by the r/ship between rainfall duration & the time
of concentration of sub-catchment. The peak discharge is determined using Rational method.
 Time Area Method

• Assume that the outflow hydrograph for any storm is characterized by separable sub-
catchment translation and storage effects. Determination of direct runoff to the outlet
via drainage network can be described using channel travel time, resulting in an outflow
hydrograph that ignores storage effects.

• Catchment will be divided into a number of isochrones or lines of equal travel time to
the outlet (Figure 2.4b). Derivation of isochrones is very crucial. The area between
isochrones are then plotted against the travel time (Figure 2.4c).

• Figure 2.4a should be applied (after deducting losses) to the entire catchment, the runoff
from each sub-area reaches the outflow at lagged intervals defined by the time-are
histogram.
To determine the hydrograph
ordinates qi expressed by using
following equation;

Figure 2.4 Time Area hydrograph Method

Rainfall Excess
Total rainfall should be deducted by losses, initial or
continuous to calculate the rainfall excess which will be result
in the surface runoff hydrograph. The rainfall losses can be
assumed constant (simplicity) or decaying (more practical).

Recommended loss values for rainfall excess

estimation suggested by Chow et al., 1988.
The value of loss as shown in the following
table.
Example 2.10 – Time Area Method

By using Time Area Method,

Calculate a 20 years runoff
hydrograph from a 97 ha
mixed urban area located in
Wangsa Maju, KL.
 Catchment area with the
Create a grid system to developed Isochrones Lines
calculate tc
 Please refer to excel file for further solution
Rainfall Excess (mm) Hydrogra
Time Area
ph
(min (m2)
3.34 8.36 25.72 9.57 5.98 4.08 (m3/s)
0 0 0.00 0.00
5 44449 0.04 0.00 0.04
10 79304 0.07 0.10 0.00 0.18
3.00
15 229404 0.21 0.18 0.32 0.00 0.71
20 213852 0.20 0.53 0.57 0.12 0.00 1.42 2.50

25 160342 0.15 0.50 1.64 0.21 0.07 0.00 2.57

Runoff (m3/s)
2.00

30 45306 0.04 0.37 1.53 0.61 0.13 0.05 2.73 1.50

35 0.11 1.15 0.57 0.38 0.09 2.29 1.00
40 0.32 0.43 0.36 0.26 1.37
0.50
45 0.12 0.27 0.24 0.63
0.00
50 0.08 0.18 0.26 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
55 0.05 0.05 Time (minutes)
2.5 Flow estimation - Outflow Control
Outflow Control such as orifices and weir are typically used as outlet control structures for ponds
and their characteristics must be specified when performing reservoir routing calculations.

Orifices flow can be determined by using following equations;

Coefficient of discharge, Cd for square-edged, ragged edged and circular edged are 0.6, 0.4
and 0.6
 Orifices
Free outfall – effective head measured from the centerline of orifice to the upstream water
surface elevation

Submerged – effective head is different in elevation of the upstream and downstream

water surface

The calculation of runoff for circular edged can be determine by using

 Sharp Crested Weirs

Figure show a sharp crested weir (FHWA, 1996)

Contracted weir can be contracted at both ends (number of contraction n = 2) or only one
end (n = 1). For suppressed weir, n = 0.
Two end One end Zero end
contraction contraction contraction

n=2 n=1 n=0

The calculation of runoff for sharp crested weir can be determine by using following eq.

As indicated above, the value of coefficient Cscw is vary depend on ratio of H/Hc. The
following eq. can be applied if the ratio of H/Hc is less than 0.3 with the constant of Cscw is
1.84.
 Broad Crested Weirs

The most common type of structure for outflow control is broad crested weir. The
transverse cross-section is trapezoidal in shape for ease of construction. Flow rate can be
determine by using following eq.

The discharge coefficient Csp varies as function of spillway base width and effective head.
Following Eq. can be used to compute the critical velocity and critical slope
 For a given effective head Hp, flattening the exit slope Se to less than Sc decreases spillway
discharge, but steeping Se greater than Sc does not increase discharge. If a slope Se steeper than
Sc is used, the velocity Ve in the exit channel will increase according to the following relationship

Figure shows a spillway design schematic (FHWA, 1996)

 Drawdown Time

To estimate the time it would take to drain stored water volume of a pond through orifice
system. The following Eq. may be used to check the storage does not take too long time to
empty the pond or to return to the normal water level, after the storm ends;

Where the water surface are is constant, time to empty can be simplified to
2.5 Routing estimation
The most common methods used for routing are
1. Modified puls method – pond/reservoir
2. Muskingum method – river/channel

1. Modified puls method – pond/reservoir

This method begins with the continuity equation which state that the inflow minus the
outflow equals the change in storage (I - O = ΔS). The difference in storage with respect to
time can be computed as
 The storage indication between any
two time steps, t1 and t2 during the
reach routing can be expressed as the
left-side quantity:

I1 + I 2 O1 + O2 S 2 − S1
− =
2 2 t

 2 S1  2S2
I1 + I 2 +  − O1  = + O2
 t  t

Figure show a development

of the storage – discharge
functions for hydrologic
pond/reservoir routing
Example 2.11
Given the following hydrograph and the 2S/∆t + O curve, find the outflow
hydrograph for the reservoir assuming it to be completely full at the beginning of the
storm.
(1) The following hydrograph is given:
(2) Create the table as follows:

(3) Next, using the hydrograph and interpolation, insert the (discharge) values. For
example at 1 hour, the inflow is 30 cfs.
(4) Next, add the inflow to the inflow in the inflow in the next time step.

(5) For the first blank inflow at 0 is added to the inflow at 1 hour to obtain a value of
30. This is then repeated for the rest of the values in the column.
(6)The 2S / t + O column can then be calculated using the following
n n +1

equation:  2S  2S
I1 + I 2 +  1 − O1  = 2 + O2
 t  t

Note: 2 S n / t − On and On +1 are set to 0. Example,

30 + 0 = 2 S n / t + On +1
(7) Then, using the curve provided outflow can be determined. In this case, since ,
2 S n / t + On +1 = 30

outflow = 5 based on the graph provided.

(8) To obtain the final column, 2 S n / t − On, two times the outflow is subtracted
from . Example
30 − 2 x5 = 20
(9)The same steps are repeated for the next line. First 90 +20 = 110
From the graph, 110 equals an outflow value of 18. Finally 110 – 2 x 18 = 74.

(10)This process can then be repeated for the rest of the columns. Now a list of
the outflow values has been calculated and the problem is complete.
Muskingum Method
2. Muskingum method – river/channel
• The method models the storage volume of flooding by
combination of wedge and prism storages.
• Assuming that the cross-sectional area of the flood flow is
directly proportional to the discharge at the section, the
volume of prism storage is equal to KO where K is a
proportionality coefficient, and the volume of wedge
storage is equal to KX(I − O), where X is a weighting factor
having the range 0  X  0.5.
• The total storage is therefore the sum of two components,
S = KO + KX (I − O )
which can be rearranged to give the storage function for the
linear-model Muskingum method:
S = K  XI + (1 − X )O 

66
Values of storage at time j and j+1 can be written, respectively as

S j = K XI j + (1 − X )O j 

S j +1 = K XI j +1 + (1 − X )O j +1 
The change in storage over time interval t is
  
S j +1 − S j = K  XI j +1 + (1 − X )Q j +1 − XI j + (1 − X )O j 
or from continuity equation,
S j +1 − S j =
(I j + I j +1 )
t −
(O j + O j +1 )
t
2 2

67
Combining both,
O j +1 = C1I j +1 + C2 I j + C3O j

where t − 2KX
C1 =
2K (1 − X ) + t

t + 2KX
C2 =
2K (1 − X ) + t

2K (1 − X ) − t
C3 =
2K (1 − X ) + t

also C1 + C2 + C3 = 1
Example 2.13 Muskingum Method
Route the inflow hydrograph tabulated in the table through
a river for x = 0.2 and K = 20 hours. Assume O1 = I1 and Δt =
12 hours
O j +1 = C1I j +1 + C2 I j + C3O j
2.6 Critical Storm Duration
Critical Storm Duration.

Determination of critical storm duration is important to make the stormwater

management facilities safe. Critical storm duration is a function of rainfall intensity,
antecedent moisture condition, rainfall temporal pattern and etc.

Therefore, it is strongly recommended that the engineer or authority should look

into various scenarios that can produce critical storm duration.

Through the critical storm duration, the highest flow rate in conveyance system
and the highest water level in the storage facilities were used in designing the
drainage system.
1. Conveyance System

The critical storm duration of a conveyance system is usually close to time of

concentration value. However, depend on several factors the critical storm duration
might be significantly different with tc. The factor might be

1 2 3 4 5 6

Storm & Land

Antecedent Temporal Impervious
wind development Slope
moisture pattern surface
direction distribution
Two options can be used to determine the critical storm duration for conveyance
which are;

1- simple calculation for catchment < 80 ha,: critical storm duration = tc with
possible check s for partial area effects, and

2- Computer model for catchment > 80 ha: run model for carious storm duration
and plotting the calculated peak flow rates for various durations to find the critical
storm duration as shown in the following figure.
Figure shows Determination of
Critical Storm Duration for
Conveyance
2. Storage System

The critical storm duration of any storage facility (OSC, Detention Pond, Wetland ,
etc) mainly depend on the event runoff volume, inflow-outflow relationship,
initial water level in the system and etc.

Runoff volume is more critical, instead of just the intensity of the rainfall. Hydrologic
and hydraulic routing of various storm duration is required to define the maximum
water level in the storage facility.

The designer must then plot the simulated highest water level in the storage
facilities against the storm duration to find the critical storm duration.
Figure shows Determination of
Critical Storm Duration for
Storage facility