Aerodynamics-AeroEngineeringMODULE 2

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 2: Steady Unpowered, Powered, and Level Flight
LEARNING MODULE 02:

Steady Unpowered,
Powered, and Level
Flight
AE 321 – AERODYNAMICS II
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref. no Page
Introduction to Flight Performance 1 5
Equations of Motion 1 7
Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight 1 9
Thrust Available and Maximum Available 1 16
Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight 1 18
Power Available and Maximum Velocity 1 24
Altitude Effects on Power Required and Power Available 1 27
Sample Problems 30
Plate No. 1 33
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TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd Edition) [E-book].
1
McGraw-Hill Book Company
Jones, B. (1939). Elements of Practical Aerodynamics (2nd Edition) [E-
2
book]. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics [E-book]. Pitman Publishing Limited. 3
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th Edition)
4
[E-book]. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Figures and Tables No.

Figures 2.1-2.19 are taken from the reference above. 1
Note that tables presented are made for organizing purposes only.
TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Materials Time (min)
Modules
Introduction to Flight Performance 34
Equations of Motion 44
Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight 54
Thrust Available and Maximum Available 34
Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight 54
Power Available and Maximum Velocity 34
Altitude Effects on Power Required and Power Available 44
References
Anderson, Jr., J. D. (1989). Introduction to Flight (3rd
185.2
Edition) [E-book]. McGraw-Hill Book Company
Activities Time (min)

Sample Problems 100
Plate No. 1 180
Quiz No. 2 180
TOTAL 943.2 min (15.72 hrs)
HONESTY CLAUSE
As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and
uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. The institution assumes as a
basic and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters that students be honest
at all times and that they submit for credit only the products of their own efforts.
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Program Learning Outcomes (PLO)
Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)
PLO 1: Apply knowledge of Module Learning Outcomes (MLO)
mathematics, physical CLO 1: Valuing the study of Topic Learning
sciences, engineering subsonic aerodynamics and Outcomes (TLO)
MLO 1: Introduce concepts
sciences to the practice of its application on the aviation involving aircraft performance TLO 4: Discuss concepts
aeronautical engineering. industry through through discussions presented involved in aircraft performance
through theoretical discussions.
PLO 4: Function in multi- aerodynamic computations in the module. TLO 5: Explain and identify
disciplinary and multi-cultural on aircraft performance. MLO 2: Explain force diagram forces acting on an aircraft
during steady, level,
teams CLO 3: Quantify for steady, level, unaccelerated unaccelerated flight through
PLO 5: Identify, formulate, aerodynamic forces along flight through discussions force diagram and definition of
terms.
and solve aeronautical flight using aerodynamic presented in the module. TLO 6: Explain the thrust
engineering problems. MLO 3: Explain thrust required for an aircraft to fly in
equations derived from steady, level, unaccelerated flight
PLO 8: Understand the required, power required for
Newton’s Second Law of through using the force diagram
level unaccelerated flight of an aircraft.
impact of aeronautical Motion. TLO 7: Formulate working
through discussions presented
engineering solutions in CLO 4: Utilize knowledge in equations for thrust required and
in the module. its minimum conditions through
global, economic, airplane performance by MLO 4: Derive working the use of equations of motion
obtained from the force diagram.
environmental, and societal applying theories and equations for thrust required TLO 8: Solve for the thrust
context principles of flight in solving and power required and its required and its minimum
conditions through the
PLO 9: Recognize the need problems. minimums using the equation application of derived working
for, and engage in life-long CLO 5: Display analytical of motions. equations and aerodynamic
considerations.
learning skills by performing MLO 5: Solve problems TLO 9: Explain the
PLO 11: Use techniques, computations in flight involving thrust required and difference of thrust required and
thrust available through the
skills, and modern power required and its
performance problems. discussion of their definitions.
engineering tools necessary minimum conditions through TLO 10: Explain the concept
CLO 9: Display professional of power and its application to
sample problems and/or
for aeronautical engineering commitment to ethical power required of an aircraft
module activities. through theoretical discussions.
practice practice by showing sense of TLO 11: Formulate working
MLO 6: Differentiate thrust equations for power required and
PLO 12: Knowledge and responsibility in complying required and thrust available its conditions through the
understanding of and compiling academic through theoretical discussions application of the concept of
power and the equations of
engineering and requirement. and considerations. motion.
management principles as a MLO 7: Differentiate thrust TLO 12: Solve for the power
required and its minimum
member and leader in a available between propeller conditions through the
application of the derived
team, to manage projects and jet driven aircraft through working equations and
and in multidisciplinary illustrations and aerodynamic aerodynamic considerations.
environments. data. TLO 13: Explain the

difference of thrust available for
PLO 13: Apply acquired MLO 8: Explain the effect of propeller driven and jet driven
altitude on power required and aircraft through the discussion of
aeronautical engineering the presented aerodynamic data.
power available through TLO 14: Discuss the effects
knowledge and skills for
formulation of working of altitude on power required and
national development. equations.
power available through
formulation of working equations
MLO 9: Solve problems that illustrate the effects using
existing derived working
involving altitude effects on equations.
power required through TLO 15: Solve for power
required at altitudes using
problem sets and/or module derived working equations.
activities.
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CONTENT
I. Introduction to Flight Performance
In the discussion of the fundamentals of aerodynamics, the physical
phenomena of producing lift, drag and moments of an airplane were
introduced. It was emphasized that aerodynamic forces and moments
exerted on a body moving through a fluid came from two sources which
acts over the body surface:
1. Pressure Distribution
2. Shear Stress Distribution
This module will consider the airplane as a rigid body on which is exerted
four natural forces: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Concerns will be focused
on the movement of the airplane as it responds to these forces and such
considerations form the core of flight dynamics.
The study of flight dynamics will no longer be concerned with aerodynamic
details, rather we will generally assume that the aerodynamicists have
done their work and that the pertinent aerodynamic data for the airplane
are provided for us. These data are usually packaged in the form of drag
polar equation for the airplane.
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷,𝑒 + (1)
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
The drag polar equation above includes the drag coefficient for the whole
airplane. CD represents the total drag for the whole airplane, while C L is
the total lift coefficient, including the small contributions from the horizontal
tail and fuselage; CD,e is defined as the parasite drag coefficient which
contains the profile drag of the wing, skin friction drag and pressure drag
of the tail surfaces, fuselage, engine nacelles, landing gear, and other
aerodynamic component of the airplane which is exposed to the airflow.
Note that at transonic and supersonic speeds, the parasite drag coefficient
also contains wave drag.
TOTAL DRAG
SUBSONIC SUPERSONIC
INDUCED DRAG INDUCED DRAG
PARASITE DRAG PARASITE DRAG
 PROFILE (FORM)  PROFILE (FORM)

DRAG DRAG
 SKIN FRICTION  SKIN FRICTION
DRAG DRAG
Figure 2.1
 INTERFERENCE Components of  INTERFERENCE
DRAG Total Drag DRAG 5|P a ge
 WAVE DRAG
Recall that from the fundamentals of aerodynamics, it was stated that the
presence of friction in a flow (or for viscous flows) produces two source of
drag from an aerodynamic body which is: skin friction drag due to shear
stress and the pressure drag due to separation (sometimes identified as
form drag or profile drag). In addition to this, the drag produce by wing tip
vortices or downwash on a finite wing is the drag due to lift or induced
drag.
Recall also that, the drag divergence Mach number is the Mach number
where the onset of drag increase is imminent due to the transition to
supersonic flows and that for supersonic flows, wave drag is present
because of the difference in pressure ahead and behind the shockwave
which gives a net effect in the direction of the greater pressure acting in
the drag direction. This drag is needed to overcome by the aircraft
powerplant.
Interference drag is a type of drag generated from the mixing of airflow

streamlines between airframe components which causes eddies,
turbulence or restrictions for smooth airflow. Some examples of this ire the
connection of the fuselage and the wing, and the connection of the tail
boom and the horizontal stabilizer.
Because of the changes in the flow field around the airplane, especially
changes in the amount of separated flow over parts of the airplane as the
angle of attack is varied, CD,e will change with the angle of attack, that is
CD,e is a function of lift coefficient. A reasonable approximation for this
function is given by:
𝐶𝐷,𝑒 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝑟𝐶𝐿2 (2)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Substituting equation (2) to the drag polar equation above:
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷,𝑒 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝑟𝐶𝐿2 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
1
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + (𝑟 + ) 𝐶𝐿2 (3)
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
In equations 1 and 3, e represents the span efficiency factor which is
accounting for non-elliptical wing planforms. Redefining e in the equation,
we can rewrite the equation as:
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𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + (4)
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Where:
CD,o = Parasite drag coefficient at zero lift
𝐶𝐿2
= Includes the induced drag and contributions of parasite drag due to
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
lift
Equation 4 now includes the effects of empirically defined constant (r) to

span efficiency factor (e) and is called the Oswald’s Efficiency Factor.
Note that equation 4 describes basic aerodynamic properties of the
airplane and consider that CD,o and e as known aerodynamic quantities.
𝐶𝐿2
We will continue to designate as CDi which has an expanded
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
interpretation as the coefficient of drag due to lift, including both
contributions due to induced drag and the increment in parasite drag due
to angle of attack different than zero lift angle of attack. For compactness,
CD,o will be designated simply as the parasite drag coefficient although we
know it as parasite drag coefficient at zero lift.
II. Equation of Motions
Figure 2.2 Flight Diagram of an Airplane
Consider an airplane in flight as illustrated by the figure above. The flight

path of the airplane is inclined at an angle ϴ with respect to the horizontal
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axis (x-axis). The flight path and relative wind are illustrated to be in the
same direction while the chord line is inclined at a geometric angle of
attack α with the flight path direction. By inspection there are four physical
forces acting on the airplane:
1. Lift (L), which is perpendicular to the flight path direction

2. Drag (D), which is parallel to the flight path direction
3. Weight (W), which acts vertically toward the center of the earth (and
hence is inclined at an angle ϴ with respect to the lift direction)
4. Thrust (T), which in general is inclined at an angle 𝑎 𝑇 with respect to
the flight path direction
Consider the flight path taken by the airplane in the figure above is drawn
as a straight line since we are focusing on the airplane itself. However,
looking at a bigger picture, we see that the airplane follows a curved path
since the Earth is spherical. This is obviously true if the airplane is
maneuvering, even if the airplane is flying straight and level with respect to
the ground. The airplane still travels a curved path with a radius of
curvature equal to the absolute altitude (ha).
An object that moves along a curved path has a curvilinear motion, while
those that follows a straight line have a rectilinear motion. The Newton’s
Second Law of Motion holds for either case. Now, imagine a curvilinear
path and we set up two perpendicular axes in the direction of the flight
path (parallel) and another normal (perpendicular) to the direction of the
flight path.
Applying Newton’s Second Law we have:
𝑑𝑉
∑ 𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
Where:
∑ 𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ
𝑑𝑉
𝑎= = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ
𝑑𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Applying Newton’s Second law:

𝑚𝑉 2
∑ 𝐹ꓕ =
𝑟𝑐
Where:
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∑ 𝐹ꓕ = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ
𝑉2
= 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑐
𝑟𝑐
𝑉2
Note that is also known as the centrifugal force.
𝑟𝑐
Performing the summation of forces for parallel and perpendicular

directions: Upward (+) ; Downward (-)
𝑑𝑉
∑ 𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 = 𝑚
Parallel Direction 𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑉 2
Perpendicular Direction ∑ 𝐹ꓕ = 𝐿 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑇 − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 =
𝑟𝑐
The equations presented above are the equations of motion for an

airplane in translational flight, i.e. it describes the general two dimensional
motion of an airplane in an accelerated flight. However, for the first part of
flight performance, we are primarily concerned about unaccelerated flight
conditions (where acceleration is zero). This is called the static
performance of an airplane.
Therefore, for level, unaccelerated flight, (where ϴ = 0 and 𝑎 = 0) we have:
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 = 0
Parallel Direction 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 𝑇 = 𝐷 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎 𝑇 ≈ 1
𝑇=𝐷
𝐿 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑇 − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 = 0
Perpendicular Direction 𝐿 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑇 = 𝑊 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑇 ≈ 0
𝐿= 𝑊
The equations above are the equations of motion for level, unaccelerated
flight of an aircraft. By inspection of the figure, we can see that in order for
an aircraft to be level and steady in the air, the lift should support the
weight of the aircraft. Likewise, the aerodynamic drag should be balanced
by the propulsive thrust of the aircraft.
III. Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Consider an airplane in steady level flight, at a given altitude and velocity.
For flight at this velocity, the airplane’s powerplant must produce a net
thrust which is equal to drag. Note that if the net thrust is greater than the
drag, the aircraft will accelerate. From the equations of motion given above
we have:
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𝑇 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷
𝑊 = 𝐿 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Dividing the equations for thrust and weight above, we have:

𝑇 𝐶𝐷
=
𝑊 𝐶𝐿
The thrust required for an airplane to fly at a given velocity in level,

unaccelerated flight is given by:
𝑊 𝑊
𝑇𝑅 = =
𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 𝐿/𝐷
The thrust required TR at a given altitude, varies directly with velocity 𝑉∞ . A

thrust required curve is a plot illustrating this variation and is given below:
Figure 2.3 TR vs 𝑽∞ of an Airplane
To calculate a point on this curve, the steps are given by:

1. Choose a value of 𝑉∞
2. From L = W, calculate the lift coefficient (CL):
𝑊
𝐶𝐿 =
1 2
2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆
Where:
𝜌∞ = 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
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𝑆 = 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝐶𝐿 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿 = 𝑊
3. Calculate the total drag coefficient CD from the drag polar equation
given by:
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷,𝑜 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Where:
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 2
4. Calculate the lift to drag (L/D) ratio:

𝐶𝐿
𝐿/𝐷 =
𝐶𝐷
5. Calculate the thrust required (T R) given by:

𝑊 𝑊
𝑇𝑅 = =
The value of thrust required calculated in step 5 is the value of thrust

needed to fly at a specific velocity chosen in step 1. The figure given
above is the locus of all the points taken for all velocities in the flight range
of the airplane.
The value of TR depends inversely as the L/D ratio and, thus the minimum
thrust required (TRmin) will be obtained when the airplane is flying at a
velocity where the lift to drag (L/D) ratio is a maximum as illustrated by the
minimum point in the graph above. The lift to drag (L/D) ratio is an
important measure of the aerodynamic efficiency of an airplane. As stated
above, to obtain the minimum thrust required (TRmin) the lift to drag (L/D)
ratio must be of maximum value. This is why the lift to drag (L/D) ratio is
an important aerodynamic consideration in airplane design. Further
emphasis on this parameter will be done on the succeeding sections of
this module.
It is important to remember that the lift to drag (L/D) ratio is a function of
angle of attack, where in for most conventional subsonic airplanes, lift to
drag (L/D) ratio reaches a maximum value at some specific value of 𝑎
usually on the order of 2⁰ - 5⁰. Therefore, when the value of thrust required
(TR) is minimum, it is flying simultaneously at an angle of attack for
maximum lift to drag (L/D) ratio as shown on figure 1.4 below.
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Figure 2.4 L/D vs 𝒂 of an Airplane
In addition to the discussion above, let us take a look at the variation of the
thrust required to velocity and angle of attack by examining the graph
shown in figure 1.5 below.
Figure 2.5 TR vs 𝑽∞ of an Airplane
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Different points on the thrust required curve corresponds to different

values of angle of attack, which is emphasized by considering two points
(a and b) from the curve shown above. Considering point (a), since the
velocity at that point is so high, the dynamic pressure will in turn be also
high. Since the dynamic pressure is directly proportional to the formula of
lift, we have:
𝐿 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Most of the required lift by the aircraft at point (a) is obtained by the high
dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) and since it is inversely proportional to lift
coefficient (CL), the value of angle of attack (𝒂) should be small, so as to
produce a small value of the lift coefficient (CL). That is why, the angle of
attack (𝒂) from the high values of velocity is increasing going to the left
direction (moving towards low velocities). In addition to this, drag is
relatively large because the dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) is large in value.
As we move to the left direction, since the velocity (𝑉∞ ) and, hence, the
dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) is decreasing, the coefficient of lift (CL) and the
angle of attack (𝑎) should increase to a value enough to generate lift to
support the weight of the aircraft. Because, the dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ )
decreases, drag and thrust required (TR) in turn decrease initially from
point (a) to lower values of velocity (𝑉∞ ).
Recall that the drag due to lift is a component of total drag and that the
induced drag coefficient (CDi) varies directly to CL2 and at low velocities
(𝑉∞ ) such as point (b), the dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) is low and the coefficient
of lift (CL) is large. In these conditions, CDi increases rapidly more than the
decreasing dynamic pressure (𝑞∞ ) and, hence, drag (D) and thrust
required (TR) increases. That is why from point (a), the thrust required (TR)
initially decreases and then goes through a minimum value and starts to
increase again as the velocity further decrease in value.
Also, recall that the total drag of an airplane is the sum of its parasite drag
and drag due to lift and from the equations of motion for level,
unaccelerated flight we have:
𝑇 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 )
𝐶𝐿2
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Where:
𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐶𝐿2
𝑞∞ 𝑆 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
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Figure 2.6 Breakdown of TR vs 𝑽∞ of an Airplane
The figure above shows that the induced thrust required is decreasing with
increase in velocity and that the parasite thrust required is increasing with
increase in velocity. The question is, why does it behave like that?
In relation to the discussions above, the coefficient of lift is decreasing with
increase in velocity since the presence of dynamic pressure 𝑞∞ is high
enough to create majority of the lift and since the coefficient of lift is small,
the induced thrust required consequently decreases. In addition to that,
since the dynamic pressure 𝑞∞ is high, the parasite drag increases. Recall
that parasite drag is a combination of profile (form) drag, skin friction drag,
and interference drag.
Recall that:
𝑊
𝐶𝐿 =
𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝐶𝐿2
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝑞∞ 𝑆
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑊2
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 +
𝑞∞ 𝑆 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
From calculus, we see that the point of minimum T R corresponds to the

point where:
𝑑𝑇𝑅
= 0 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑇𝑅 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑑𝑉∞
14 | P a g e
𝑑𝑇𝑅
= 0
𝑑𝑞∞
Deriving the equation of TR with respect to the dynamic pressure we have:

𝑑𝑇𝑅 𝑊2 1
= 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 − ( 2)=0
𝑑𝑞∞ 𝑆 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝑞∞
𝑊2 1 2
𝑊2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = ( 2 ) 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝐿 = 2 𝑆2
𝑆 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝑞∞ 𝑞∞
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = = 𝐶𝐷𝑖
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
The equation highlighted above shows that at TRmin conditions, the
parasite drag is equal to the induced drag as shown by their respective
coefficients. This was readily shown by the graph given above, since the
point of intersection of the parasite thrust required and induced thrust
required intersected at a point corresponding to velocity for T Rmin where
the lift to drag (L/D) ratio is a maximum.
Minimum Thrust Required and Minimum Drag:

From the discussions of maximum C L/CD ratio, we know that:
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑊 𝑊
𝑇𝑅 = =
𝑊
𝑇𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝐿 = √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 2𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐶𝐿 √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 1 𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 1 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

( ) = = √ 2 = √
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝐶𝐷𝑜 2 𝐶𝐷𝑜 2 𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑊 𝑊
𝑇𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = =
(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2 √ 𝐶𝐷𝑜
15 | P a g e
𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑇𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑊 √ 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑇 = 𝐷
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑊 √
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Velocity Corresponding to Minimum Drag:

1 2
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊
2
2𝑊
𝑉2 =
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐿 = √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆 √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
IV. Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity
The thrust required discuss in the previous section is dictated by the

aerodynamics and weight of the airplane which is an airframe-associated
phenomenon. On the other hand, the thrust available T A is strictly
associated with the engine of the airplane, which is the propulsive thrust
provided by an airplane propeller combination, a turbo jet, etc.
The figure below shows the variation of thrust available for a reciprocating
engine and a turbo jet engine commonly used in modern aviation. It is
important to remember that the thrust available produced by a piston
engine with propellers is a maximum at zero velocity (static thrust) and it
decreases with forward velocity. At near sonic flight speeds, the tips of
propeller blades suffer the effects of compressibility (stalling) where the
thrust available deteriorates rapidly. On the contrary, the jet engine
produces a relatively constant thrust with respect to its velocity.
16 | P a g e
Figure 2.7 Piston Engine-Propeller Combination vs. Turbojet Engine
Figure 2.8 TR vs 𝑽∞ for a Turbojet Engine
17 | P a g e
Consider a jet airplane flying at a steady, level flight at a given altitude and
velocity V1. The point 1 on the thrust required curve gives the value of T R
for the airplane to fly at a velocity V1. The pilot has adjusted the throttle
such that the jet engine provides thrust available just equal to the thrust
required at this point: TA = TR. If the pilot now pushes the throttle forward
and increases the engine thrust to a higher value TA, the airplane will
accelerate to a higher velocity. If the throttle is increased to full position,
maximum TA will be produced by the jet engine. In this case the speed of
the airplane will further increase until the thrust required equals the
maximum TA as indicated by point 2. This point indicates that the aircraft
can no longer fly at a faster velocity, otherwise the thrust required would
exceed the maximum thrust available from the powerplant. Hence, the
intersection of the TR curve (airframe dependent) and the T A curve (engine
dependent) defines the maximum velocity Vmax of the airplane at the given
altitude.
Take note that, conventional jet engines are rated in terms of thrust
(usually in lbs) while the piston engines are rated in terms of power
(horsepower), hence TA and TR are inconvenient for propeller driven
aircrafts. Power required and power available are used for propeller driven
aircrafts.
V. Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Power is a defined mechanical term that is energy per unit time. The
power in a moving object can be illustrated by a block moving at a
constant velocity V under a constant force F and through a time interval (t 2
– t1) covered by distance d. We assume that an opposing force equal in
magnitude is stopping the block from accelerating as represented by the
figure below. Work is the force multiplied by the distance through which
the force moves. Work is energy and hence, have the same units as
energy.
Figure 2.9 Diagram of an object in motion
From the definition of Power:

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
18 | P a g e
From the diagram above we have: where d/∆t = V

𝑑
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹 ( ) = 𝐹𝑉
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
The equation above demonstrates that the power associated with a force
exerted on a moving object is the product of force and velocity.
Recall from the equations of motion, for an airplane in level, unaccelerated

flight at a given altitude with velocity 𝑉∞ and a thrust required 𝑇𝑅 we have:
𝑇𝑅 = 𝐷
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑉 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞
𝑊
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞ = 𝑉
𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 ∞
But from the formula of Lift:
1 2𝑊
𝐿 = 𝑊 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉∞ = √
2 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
Substituting to the formula of power:
𝑊 2𝑊
𝑃𝑅 = √
𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅 = √
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿3
The equation of power required above shows that it is inversely
proportional to the ratio:
1
𝑃𝑅 ∝ 3/2
((𝐶𝐿 )/𝐶𝐷 )
Remember that the thrust required varies inversely to the lift to drag ratio
𝐶𝐿
which is different from the lift to drag ratio of the power required.
𝐶𝐷
The power required curve is defined as a plot of the Power Required (P R)

versus velocity (𝑉∞ ) as shown in the figure below. Qualitatively, it
resembles the thrust required curve in a sense that the power required will
decrease, hit a minimum and increase again. The minimum point
3/2
corresponds to the maximum lift to drag ratio (𝐶𝐿 )/𝐶𝐷 .
19 | P a g e
Figure 2.10 Power Required Curve
Analogous to thrust required, but different relations hold at minimum power

required. Recall from power required:
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞ = 𝐷𝑉∞
𝐶𝐿2
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆(𝐶𝐷𝑜 + )𝑉
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 ∞
𝐶𝐿2
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑉∞ + 𝑞∞ 𝑆 𝑉
Where:
𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑉∞ = 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐶𝐿2
𝑞∞ 𝑆 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
The power required, as the case for the thrust required, can be split into
the respective contributions needed to overcome parasite drag and drag
due to lift. The conditions for minimum power required is given by the
𝑑𝑃
slope of the equation of the power required curve given above (𝑑𝑉𝑅 = 0).
∞
20 | P a g e
Figure 2.11 Breakdown of a Power Required Curve
1 𝑊
Recall that: 𝑞∞ = 𝜌 𝑉 2 and 𝐶𝐿 = 1
2 ∞ ∞ 𝜌 𝑉2 𝑆
2 ∞ ∞
Substituting to the equation of power required:
2
𝑊
(1 )
𝜌 𝑉 2𝑆
1 1 ∞ ∞
𝑃𝑅 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝑉∞ + 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆 2 𝑉∞
2 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝑊2
1
1 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆
𝑃𝑅 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 2
3
2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
Deriving with respect to 𝑉∞ :
𝑑𝑃𝑅 3 𝑊2 1
= 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑜 −
𝑑𝑉∞ 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 1 𝜌 𝑉 2 𝑆
2 ∞ ∞
2
𝑑𝑃𝑅 3 𝑊 1 𝑊
= 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆 [𝐶𝐷𝑜 − ] 𝐵𝑈𝑇 𝐶𝐿 =
𝑑𝑉∞ 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 3 𝜌2 𝑉 4 𝑆 2 1 2
4 ∞ ∞ 2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆
1 2
𝑑𝑃𝑅 3 𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿2
= 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆 [𝐶𝐷𝑜 − 3 ]= 0 𝐵𝑈𝑇 𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
𝑑𝑉∞ 2 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
1
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑅
3
Note that point 1 in the figure above corresponds to C Do = CDi that is
minimum TR, hence the velocity for minimum PR is less than that for the
minimum TR.
21 | P a g e
The point on the power required curve that corresponds to minimum T R is

easily obtained by drawing a line through the origin and tangent to the P R
curve. This can be proved by the illustration below that shows a sketch of
a broken line from the origin intersecting the PR curve. The slope of this
line is PR/V and as we move to the right, the slope of the PR curve
decreases, reach a minimum (tangent point) and then again increase. The
point of tangency corresponds to the minimum slope, thus a minimum
value of PR/V.
𝑃 𝑇 𝑉
𝑑(𝑉𝑅 ) 𝑑( 𝑅𝑉 ∞ ) 𝑑𝑇
∞ ∞ 𝑅
= = = 0
𝑑𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑉∞ 𝑑𝑉∞
The results above show that the point of tangency is equal to the
mathematical criterion for minimum T R and correspondingly, L/D is a
maximum at this point.
Figure 2.12 Slope for minimum Thrust Required
Minimum Power Required:

From the discussion of maximum
𝑃𝑅 = 𝑇𝑅 𝑉∞ = 𝐷𝑉∞
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅 = √
2𝑊 3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√ 𝐶3
𝜌∞ 𝑆 ( 𝐿2 )
𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
1 3/2
𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ((𝐶𝐿 )/𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥
3
22 | P a g e
𝐶𝐿2
3𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐿 = √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 3𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐶𝐷 = 4𝐶𝐷𝑜
2𝑊 3 (4𝐶𝐷𝑜 )2
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ 3
𝜌∞ 𝑆(√3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)
2
2𝑊 3 (16𝐶𝐷𝑜 )
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
3
𝜌∞ 𝑆 [√27𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋 3 𝑒 3 (𝐴𝑅)3 ]
4
2𝑊 3 (√𝐶𝐷𝑜 )
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√
3
𝜌∞ 𝑆 [√27𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋 3 𝑒 3 (𝐴𝑅)3 ]
4
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ √ 3
𝜌∞ 𝑆 27𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋 3 𝑒 3 (𝐴𝑅)3
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ √ 3
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
2𝑊 3 1 𝐶𝐷𝑜 2𝑊 3 1 √𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ ∗ √ 3
= 4√ ∗ ∗
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅) 𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 √3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
Rationalizing, we have:
2𝑊 3 1 √𝐶𝐷𝑜 √3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ ∗ ∗[ ∗ ]
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 √3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3 √3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
2𝑊 3 1 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ ∗ ∗[ ]
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 3(𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
2𝑊 3 1 1 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ ∗ ∗ [ ]
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 3 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
2𝑊 3 1 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4√ ∗ 2∗[ ]
𝜌∞ 𝑆 3 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
4 2𝑊 3 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ ∗[ ]
3 𝜌∞ 𝑆 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
23 | P a g e
4 2𝑊 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊√
Minimum Velocity for Power Required:
1 2
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊
2
2𝑊
𝑉2 =
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊
𝑉𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐿 = √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆√3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
VI. Power Available and Maximum Velocity

A. Reciprocating Engine – Propeller Combination
A reciprocating engine generates power by burning air and fuel inside
the cylinders and using this energy to move the pistons which delivers
power to the crankshaft. The shaft brake power P is defined as the
power delivered to the propeller by the crankshaft. The term brake
stems from a method of laboratory testing which measures engine
power by loading it with calibrated brake mechanisms. It is important to
remember that the shaft brake power is available to drive the airplane,
some of it is lost by friction, heat, and inefficiencies of the propeller
itself. The Power available is given by:
𝑃𝐴 = ⴄ𝑃
Where:
ⴄ = Propeller efficiency which is less than 1
P = shaft brake power
24 | P a g e
Figure 2.13 Shaft Brake Power
Propeller efficiency is an important quantity and is a direct product of

the aerodynamics of the propeller which is always less than unity.
Remember that:
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
1 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 550 = 746 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑠
With the system of units above, it is common to use shaft brake
horsepower, BHP in place of P and horsepower available h PA instead
of PA which gives us:
ℎ𝑃𝐴 = ⴄ ∗ 𝐵𝐻𝑃
The power available curve for a piston engine and propeller

combination is given below.
25 | P a g e
Figure 2.14 Power Available Curve of a Piston Engine – Propeller Combination
B. Jet Engine
The jet engine derives its thrust by combustion heating an incoming
stream of air and then exhausting this hot air at high velocities through
a nozzle. The power available for a jet engine is reasonably constant
with respect to its forward velocity. Thus the power available varies
linearly with velocity as shown by the figure below.
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑇𝐴 𝑉∞
Figure 2.15 Power Available Curve of a Jet Engine
26 | P a g e
For both piston engine-propeller combination and jet powered aircraft

the maximum flight velocity is determined by the intersection of the
power available and power required curve.
VII. Altitude Effects on Power Required and Power Available

Defining the effects of altitude for power required and available may be
done using the formulas for velocity and power required. The ratios for sea
level and altitude conditions are used to graph and visually see the effects
of altitude on the power required and power available curves.
For Sea-Level Conditions we have:
2𝑊
𝑉0 = √
𝜌0 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅0 = √
𝜌0 𝑆𝐶𝐿3
For at an altitude, we have:

2𝑊
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = √
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑙𝑡 =√
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿3
For the purposes of calculations, let CL and CD remain fixed. We have the
following relations for sea level values and values at an altitude:
1
𝜌0 2
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 𝑉0 ( )
𝜌
1
𝜌0 2
𝑃𝑅𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 𝑃𝑅0 ( )
𝜌
Plugging in values in the equations above, the results will be conforming to
an upward and rightward translation along with a clockwise rotation as
shown in figure 1.16 below:
27 | P a g e
Figure 2.16 Effects of Altitude for Power Required
Figure 2.17 Effects of Altitude for Power Available of Propeller Driven Aircraft
28 | P a g e
Figure 2.18 Effects of Altitude for Power Available of Jet Propelled Aircraft
The power available for altitudes experiences a reduction in power

because of low air density at that altitudes. Assuming power available and
thrust available to be proportional to ambient density, the impact on aircraft
performance is illustrated in figure 1.17 and 1.18 for propeller driven
aircraft and jet propelled aircraft, respectively.
From the intersection of the PA and PR, figure 1.19 shows that at an
altitude, the minimum velocity can be greater than the actual stalling
velocity. This means that the aircraft at an altitude would stall beyond the
minimum velocity point depicted in the graph.
29 | P a g e
Figure 2.19 Intersection of Power Available and Power Required Curve
VIII. Sample Problem

1. Constructing thrust required versus velocity curve. A light, single-
engine, propeller driven airplane has the given specifications listed
below, at SSLC conditions:
b = 35.8 ft.
S = 174 ft.2
W = 2950 lbs
Fuel Capacity = 65 gal. of aviation gas
c = 0.45 lb/HP-hr
CDo = 0.025
e = 0.8
ⴄ = 0.8
Calculate the coefficient of lift and drag, lift to drag ratio and the thrust
required for a velocity of 100 ft/s.
Solution:
1
𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊
2
2𝑊 2(2950)
𝐶𝐿 = = = 1.43
𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆 0.002377 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 ∗ (100)2 ∗ 174
𝑓𝑡 3
30 | P a g e
𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 +
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
(1.43)2
𝐶𝐷 = 0.025 + = 0.135
35.82
𝜋(0.8)( 174 )
𝐿 𝐶𝐿 1.43
= = = 10.59
𝐷 𝐶𝐷 0.135
𝑊 2950
𝑇𝑅 = = = 278.56 𝑙𝑏
𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 10.59
2. For problem #1, calculate the minimum drag and the velocity for
minimum drag.
Solution:
𝐶𝐷𝑜
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑊 √
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
0.025
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2(2950)√
35.82
𝜋(0.8)( 174 )
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 216.82 𝑙𝑏
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆 √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2(2950)
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√ 35.82
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ √0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ ( 174 )
𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 144.81
𝑠
3. For problem #1, calculate the power available, and power required if
the engine is rated at 150 HP.
𝑃𝐴 = ⴄ𝑃
𝑃𝐴 = 0.8 ∗ 150 = 120 𝐻𝑃
2𝑊 3 𝐶𝐷2
𝑃𝑅 = √
2(2950)3 (0.135)2
𝑃𝑅 = √
(0.002377)(174)(1.43)3
𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏 1 𝐻𝑃
𝑃𝑅 = 27815.61 ∗ = 50.57 𝐻𝑃
𝑠 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏
550 𝑠
31 | P a g e
4. For problem #1, calculate the minimum power required and its
corresponding velocity.
4 2𝑊 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 (𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅)3
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊√
2 3
√3 ∗ 0.025 (𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ (35.8 ))
4 2(2950) 174
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (2950) 3
3 0.002377 ∗ 174 35.82
(𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ ( 174 ))
√
𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡 1 𝐻𝑃
𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 27546.75 ∗ = 50.08 𝐻𝑃
𝑠 𝑓𝑡𝑙𝑏
550 𝑠
2𝑊
𝜌𝑆 √3𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
2(2950)
𝑉𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
√ 35.82
0.002377 ∗ 174 ∗ √3 ∗ 0.025 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.8 ∗ ( )
174
𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑃𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 110.03
𝑠
5. For 100 ft/s of sea level velocity, what is the velocity required needed
to fly an aircraft, steady and level at 10000 ft.
@10,000 ft. 0.001755 slug/ft3
1
𝜌0 2
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 𝑉0 ( )
𝜌
1
0.002377 2
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 100 ( )
0.001755
𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 116.38
𝑠
IX. Plate No. 1

1. An airplane weighing 5000 ln is flying at standard sea level with a
velocity of 200 mi/h. At this velocity, the L/D ratio is a maximum. The
wing area and aspect ratio are 200 ft.2 and 8.5, respectively. The
Oswald efficiency factor is 0.93. Calculate the total drag on the
airplane.
2. Consider an airplane patterned after the Fairchild Republic A-10, a
twin-jet attack aircraft. The airplane has the following characteristics:
wing area = 47 m2, aspect ratio = 6.5, Oswald efficiency factor = 0.87,
32 | P a g e
weight = 103,047 N, and parasite drag coefficient =0.032. The airplane

is equipped with two jet engines with 40,298 N of static thrusts each at
sea level.
(a) Calculate and sketch the power required curve at sea level.
(b) Calculate the maximum velocity at sea level.
(c) Calculate and plot the power required curve at 5 km altitude.
(d) Calculate the maximum velocity at 5 km altitude. (Assume the
engine thrust varies directly with free stream density.)
3. Consider an airplane patterned after the Beechcraft Bonanza V-tailed,
single engine light private airplane. The characteristics of the airplane
are as follows: aspect ratio = 6.2, wing area = 181 ft. 2, Oswald
efficiency factor = 0.91, weight = 3000 lb, and parasite drag coefficient
= 0.027. The airplane is powered by a single piston engine of 345 hp
maximum at sea level. Assume the power of the engine is proportional
to free stream density. The two-bladed propeller has an efficiency of
0.83.
(a) Calculate the power required at sea level.
(b) Calculate the maximum velocity at sea level.
(c) Calculate the power required at 12,000 ft. altitude.
(d) Calculate the maximum velocity at 12,000 ft. altitude.
4. Consider an airplane patterned after the twin-engine Beechcraft Queen
Air executive transport. The airplane weight is 38,220 N, wing area is
27.3 m2, aspect ratio is 7.5. Oswald efficiency factor is 0.9 and parasite
drag coefficient CDo = 0.03. Calculate the thrust required to fly at a
velocity of 350 km/h at (a) standard sea level and (b) an altitude of 4.5
km.
X. Quiz No. 1
1. Consider a Gulfstream IV twin turbofan executive transport. Calculate
the thrust required curve at an altitude of 30,000 ft flying at 500 ft/s,
assuming a weight of 73,000 lbs. Other pertinent data are given as:
S = 950 ft.2
AR = 5.92
CDo = 0.015
K = 0.08
CD=0.015+0.08CL2
2. For problem #1, calculate the minimum thrust required and the velocity
corresponding to minimum drag.
3. For problem #1, calculate the L/D ratio for a velocity of 400 ft/s.
4. For a steady, level flight of a Gulfstream IV aircraft, flying at an altitude
of 30,000 ft at a velocity of 500 ft/s, has a weight of 73000 lb and S =
950 ft.2. The drag polar equation is given as:
𝐶𝐷 = 0.015 + 0.08𝐶𝐿2
33 | P a g e
Find the minimum power required and the velocity corresponding to it.
5. An airplane is weighing 11,200 lb, with a wing area of 365 sq. ft. A wind
tunnel test of an accurate model shows that the drag polar equation is
very close to a parabola given by:
𝐶𝐷 = 0.023 + 0.0445𝐶𝐿2
Calculate the following:
(a) Power required at a velocity of 100 mph.
(b) Minimum power required
(c) Velocity corresponding to minimum power required.
34 | P a g e

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING MODULE 02:

Figures and Tables No.

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Activities Time (min)

environments. data. TLO 13: Explain the

INDUCED DRAG INDUCED DRAG

PARASITE DRAG PARASITE DRAG

 PROFILE (FORM)  PROFILE (FORM)

Interference drag is a type of drag generated from the mixing of airflow

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Equation 4 now includes the effects of empirically defined constant (r) to

II. Equation of Motions

Figure 2.2 Flight Diagram of an Airplane

Consider an airplane in flight as illustrated by the figure above. The flight

1. Lift (L), which is perpendicular to the flight path direction

∑ 𝐹𝐼𝐼 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

Applying Newton’s Second law:

∑ 𝐹ꓕ = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ

Performing the summation of forces for parallel and perpendicular

The equations presented above are the equations of motion for an

Therefore, for level, unaccelerated flight, (where ϴ = 0 and 𝑎 = 0) we have:

III. Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Dividing the equations for thrust and weight above, we have:

The thrust required for an airplane to fly at a given velocity in level,

The thrust required TR at a given altitude, varies directly with velocity 𝑉∞ . A

Figure 2.3 TR vs 𝑽∞ of an Airplane

To calculate a point on this curve, the steps are given by:

𝑆 = 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

4. Calculate the lift to drag (L/D) ratio:

5. Calculate the thrust required (T R) given by:

The value of thrust required calculated in step 5 is the value of thrust

Figure 2.4 L/D vs 𝒂 of an Airplane

Figure 2.5 TR vs 𝑽∞ of an Airplane

Different points on the thrust required curve corresponds to different

Figure 2.6 Breakdown of TR vs 𝑽∞ of an Airplane

From calculus, we see that the point of minimum T R corresponds to the

Deriving the equation of TR with respect to the dynamic pressure we have:

Minimum Thrust Required and Minimum Drag:

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷𝑜 + 𝐶𝐷𝑖 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝐷𝑜 = 𝐶𝐷𝑖

𝐶𝐿 √𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 1 𝐶𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅 1 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

Velocity Corresponding to Minimum Drag:

IV. Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity

The thrust required discuss in the previous section is dictated by the

Figure 2.7 Piston Engine-Propeller Combination vs. Turbojet Engine

Figure 2.8 TR vs 𝑽∞ for a Turbojet Engine

V. Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Figure 2.9 Diagram of an object in motion

From the definition of Power:

From the diagram above we have: where d/∆t = V

Recall from the equations of motion, for an airplane in level, unaccelerated

The power required curve is defined as a plot of the Power Required (P R)

Figure 2.10 Power Required Curve

Analogous to thrust required, but different relations hold at minimum power

Figure 2.11 Breakdown of a Power Required Curve

The point on the power required curve that corresponds to minimum T R is

Figure 2.12 Slope for minimum Thrust Required

Minimum Power Required:

Minimum Velocity for Power Required: