LESLIE MACNEIL WEBER 2009 DESIGN ETHNOGRAPHY:

STRATEGY FOR VISUAL

COMMUNICATIONS
 DESIGN
ETHNOGRAPHY:
STRATEGY
FOR VISUAL
COMMUNICATIONS
 pg. 03
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Leslie MacNeil Weber Many thanks to the University of Washington design faculty who have helped immensely in the
2009 Graduate Thesis creation of this thesis, especially Kristine Matthews, Dominic Muren, and Axel Roesler. I would
also like to thank my fellow MFA colleagues, with whom I have formed great friendships over the
Visual Communication Design last two years. Special thanks to Preetham Kolari, who guided me through the process of creating
Division of Design experience collages, and who helped to bring a researcher’s perspective to this thesis. I am also
University of Washington grateful to all of the designers, anthropologists, and researchers who participated in the collages
and interviews required by this thesis. Special thanks to Linda Norlen, who helped tremendously
with the development of my writing.

A gracious thank you to my husband, Jason, who has provided incredible support during my
graduate school experience. And to my mom and dad, for continually providing me with
encouragement and guidance. Finally, an enthusiastic thank you to Karen Cheng, my thesis chair,
who spent countless hours reading (and re-reading) this document, providing valuable feedback
week after week. It was an honor to be able to work with you.

Thesis Committee
Karen Cheng Department Chair Thesis Chair
Kristine Matthews Assistant Professor, VCD
Dominic Muren Lecturer, Design Studies

Advisors
Preetham Kolari Senior Experience Researcher
Linda Norlen Design Educator, Writer
Axel Roesler Assistant Professor, IxD
 pg. 05
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

1 THE VALUE OF 1.1 Overview of Ethnography

ETHNOGRAPHY
1.2 Overview of Design Research Taxonomies

1.3 Techniques for Design Research

1.4 Ethnography as Design Research

1.5 Ethnography as a Basis for Design Strategy

1.6 Case Studies

1.7 Conclusion

2 INCORPORATING 2.1 Overview of Ethnographic Techniques

ETHNOGRAPHY
INTO VISUAL 2.2 The Ethnographic Design Process
COMMUNICATIONS
2.3 Experience Collages

2.4 Collaboration Model

 pg. 07
PEOPLE AND
CULTURE ARE
INCREDIBLY
COMPLEX.
ETHNOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION
(AIGA/Cheskin; 2006)

“People and culture are incredibly complex. Ethnography offers a way to make sense of this

OFFERS A WAY
complexity. It lets us see beyond our preconceptions and immerse ourselves in the world of others.
Most importantly, it allows us to see patterns of behavior in a real world context—patterns that
we can understand both rationally and intuitively.”1

Ethnography, a field of anthropological study and a research technique, helps visual communication

TO MAKE SENSE
designers create materials that evoke meaning and inspire action in their audiences. Ethnography
enables a designer’s understanding by uncovering cultural contexts and social norms.

This thesis examines the intersection between the fields of ethnography and visual communication
design. First, the thesis describes the value of ethnography in developing effective strategies for

OF THIS
visual communication design. Second, the thesis describes how designers can most effectively
collaborate with ethnographers in all phases of the design process.

1 AIGA and Cheskin. An Ethnographic Primer, 2006.

INTRODUCTION
COMPLEXITY.
CCOO
NNTT
EEXX
TT

pg. 09
 pg. 11
SECTION 1:
THE VALUE OF In design research, ethnography is

ETHNOGRAPHY a tool for uncovering cultural insights.

Insights inform design strategy.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

1
 Ethnography: the study of culture conducted in natural Bronislaw Malinowski: known for his work with ethnographic
Malinowski’s goal: “to grasp the native’s point of view,

pg. 13
settings. Data is gathered from a range of sources, but mainly research, Malinowski is considered one of the most important
from observation and/or relatively informal conversations. anthropologists of the twentieth century. Malinowski taught

his relation to life, to realize his vision of his world.” anthropology at the London School of Economics, and is the
author of Argonauts of the Western Pacific. He is pictured here
conducting field work in the Trobriand Islands.

1.1 OVERVIEW OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Ethnography, a specialized field with roots in about natives, the Kula, in Papua New Guinea
anthropology and sociology, provides tools for by living in the Trobriand Islands for extended
learning about specific cultures. Anthropologists periods of time, observing behaviors and actions
study meaning that is manifested as shared systems within their natural environment. Malinowski
of understanding and patterns of behavior with- originally went to New Guinea to study a series
in a society; providing organization and guiding of prophetic cults, however, he never made
action in people’s daily lives.2 Anthropologists it to his original destination of Mambare. He
use ethnography to understand the social and stopped in the Trobriand Islands on his way to
cultural structures of people across societies. Mambare, and ended up staying.4 The goal of
his work was “to grasp the native’s point of view,
Martyn Hammersley, one of the leading ethnog- his relation to life, to realize his vision of his
raphers and authors in modern anthropology, world.”5 Believing that the behaviors of a society
characterizes ethnography as a form of social contain deeper meanings than what is evident
research that has most of the following features: 3 to the casual observer, Malinowski aimed to
understand what the Kula were themselves not
1/ People’s behavior is studied in everyday aware of about themselves. In his book entitled
contexts. 2/ Data is gathered from a range Argonauts of the Western Pacific, Malinowski
of sources, but observation and/or relatively published the first known methods for ethno-
informal conversations are most commonly graphic research, what he termed ‘participant
used. 3/ Data collection is flexible and unstruc- observation.’ He documented his methods for
tured to avoid pre-fixed arrangements that may conducting observational research as well as his
impose restrictions on what people say and do. process for collecting information from casual
4/ Research usually focuses on a single person conversations (as opposed to the then-popular
or small group. 5/ Observations are recorded method of carefully conducted interviews).5
and analyzed to determine the underlying

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

causes of human actions/behaviors. Statistical 2Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York:
analysis plays (at most) a subordinate role. Basic Books, 1973. / 3Hammersley, Martyn. Reading Ethno-
graphic Research: A Critical Guide. London: Longman, 1990.
/ 4Stocking, George W. The Ethnographer’s Magic and Other
Bronislaw Malinowski, a key figure in the field Essays in the History of Anthropology. Madison: University of
of anthropology, was the first social scientist to Wisconsin Press, 1992. / 5Laurel, Brenda, ed. Design Research:
Methods and Perspectives. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2003.
conduct research now considered by anthro-
pologists to be ethnography. In the early 1900s,
Malinowski carried out extensive field research

1
 Primary & Secondary Research Qualitative & Quantitative Research
DESIGN PROCESS

pg. 15
1 2 3 4 5 6
Primary research is collected first-hand by the researcher; Qualitative research is concerned with providing a
Discovery: Stage in the Ideation: Phase in the design Design: The phase in the Refinement: Stage in the Production: Stage in the Understanding: Phase in secondary research is collected from existing sources subjective understanding about human behaviors;
process where the designer process when the designer design process when the actual process in which a design is process when the final the process when the designer such as documents, historical data, or published works. quantitative research is concerned with statistical data.
identifies opportunities begins to formulate possibili- physical design is created. modified and refined. design is actually produced reflects upon the design and iden-
for design. ties for the initial design. for distribution. tifies positive and negative points.

EP
T UA
LI ZE
O
1 DISC VE RY
1.2 OVERVIEW OF DESIGN RESEARCH TAXONOMIES
C
NG

N
2

CO
DI

ID
RESEARCH AND THE DESIGN PROCESS PRIMARY AND SECONDARY QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

AN

EA

MA
ST

T IO
Ethnography offers research techniques that Ethnography is a form of primary research. Ethnography is considered to be a type of

6 U N DE R

KE
N
help designers understand audiences. Many Primary research is data and information that qualitative research. Qualitative research
graphic designers are more familiar with is gathered directly from an original source provides in-depth descriptions or reasoning

3 DE
N
traditional design research techniques such (e.g., first-hand questioning, surveys, and focus for people’s attributes, experiences, and

IO

S IG
CT
as focus groups or one-on-one interviews groups). Secondary research is the collection of behaviors, whereas quantitative research

DU

N
RO
5P 4R than with ethnography. Traditional techniques data and information from existing sources usually results in numerical data that
E F I N E M E NT
often require individuals to report and assess (e.g., documents, historical data, or published measures specific amounts or degrees of a
T
REFLEC their own behavior. While useful, this form of works). Primary research is valuable because it person’s attributes and behaviors. Qualitative
audience research can suffer from distortions involves the collection of data that is not biased research is often conducted to generate new
and oversights that occur in any self-analysis. by anyone other than the original researcher. theories, but quantitative data is usually used
Secondary research is valuable because it to test theories that have been previously
To understand how research shapes design, accesses bodies of work from individuals who generated.6 Qualitative research is valuable
it is important to first be aware of phases within are already knowledgeable in the field of study, because it provides an explanation for people’s
the design process. A typical design process and may have a unique perspective to contrib- actions and behaviors that allows research-
involves the following activities: discovery, ute to the field. Secondary research is often ers to understand personal accounts, but
ideation, design, refinement, production, easier to access and less costly than primary quantitative data helps researchers predict
and reflection. These phases can be more research, however, secondary information that probabilities and general trends with some
generally defined as activities: conceptualize, is specific to the area of interest may not exist. degree of numerical accuracy.
make, and reflect.
Ladner, Sam. Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research.
6

Design Research blog, 2007.

Design research can be classified using different
categorical schemes. Knowledge of the various
research taxonomies is important for under-
standing ethnography and determining when
it is an applicable research technique.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

1
 Design Research Diagram: Ethnography can serve as an Exploratory Research: correlates with ‘conceptualization’

pg. 17
exploratory, a generative, or an evaluative research technique processes in the research diagram.
in design. These categories correlate to phases within the
design process, listed in the blue ring surrounding the inside Generative Research: correlates with ‘make’ processes
circle. Because the design process is not linear, the smaller in the research diagram.
dashed circles represent a designer’s potential to return
nt?
inte to earlier stages in the process. Designers ask questions
on Evaluative Research: correlates with ‘reflect’ processes
ic ati ing
? throughout the design process, as can be seen here in each
n m is in the research diagram.
m mu pro phase of design.
co is
/ h at
si gn ?W
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he

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st

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ti

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ha

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TU DISCOVE RY
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EXPLORATORY, GENERATIVE,
CO

AND EVALUATIVE

>Ho
Ethnography is useful in all stages of design: ideas and highlights specific user interests to

w
NG

will
>Wh
further the development of initial concepts,
DI

it can advance exploratory, generative or

MA
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N

EXPLORATORY

EA
TA

it be
and to identify methodologies for the rest

a
evaluative research. Exploratory research takes

T IO

KE

t is a
E RS

RESEARCH place in the discovery and ideation phases of of the design process.8 In industrial design,

design
UND

ct iona b
design, helping to identify design opportunities generative research often manifests itself

e d or co mm uni cat e d?
and project goals. Exploratory research answers in an initial prototype that will be modified

le ?
TT
NNTT
EEXX the question, “what is the design or communi- several times in the future.
cation intent?” It is used to investigate ideas or
CCOO

concepts when the direction for the project has Evaluative research occurs during refinement,
not yet been defined. IDEO, a San Francisco- production, and understanding in the design
EVALUATIVE GENERATIVE
based design consultancy known for innovation phases. In the late stages of a design process,
RESEARCH RESEARCH
and unique problem-solving methods, often the designer seeks to find the best resolution
N

DE
IO

uses exploratory methods with clients in the for specific concepts or prototypes, asking,

S IG
CT U

N
beginning of a design process. One example of “How can it be improved?” At this stage,
ROD
P

exploratory research is affinity diagramming— research is valuable for modifications of a

arranging elements by their relationships to particular design. Evaluative research is also
reveal connections and to expose opportuni- useful in providing feedback to determine if
R E F I N E M E NT ties for design.7 a design is working in context. Attempting to
understand the design impact, evaluative
Generative research is conducted after the research is valuable to prepare for future efforts.
design direction has been determined, during
REFLECT ideation, design development, and in the 7IDEO. IDEO Method Cards. Palo Alto, 2003. / 8Sanders, Liz

and VanPatter, G.K. Science in the Making. NextDesign Leader-

beginning of the refinement stages. Deeper into
ship Institute, 2004.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

?
y? rov
ed the design process than exploratory research,
Wh p
act
? e im it b generative research helps narrow the project
i mp ca n
>H ow
ign es scope by determining specific details about the
the d as
>What w design (e.g., deciding between a push button
or a switch), or how a message will be commu-
nicated (e.g., deciding what combination of
images and words would be most effective or
appropriate). Generative research uncovers

1
Participants commonly tailor their answers, responding the

pg. 19
way they think the interviewer wants them to or portraying
a more flattering self-image than reality might entail.

1.3 TECHNIQUES FOR DESIGN RESEARCH

FOCUS GROUPS AND INTERVIEWS
Ethnography is just one research method. Other many individuals to foster deep discussions). participants to feel more comfortable when
techniques are interviews, surveys, co-creation In larger groups, interviews need to be short discussing personal or emotional experiences.
exercises, and observations. and focused to keep the attention of the However, it is even more difficult to measure
audience; in small groups, interviews can the accuracy of responses in online discussions
Interview-style formats are known to most take on more of a discussion format with because the facilitator may be unable to directly
practicing designers. Focus groups are a everyone involved. In either case, the moder- assess gestures and expressions of the respondents.
common data collection method. They involve ator may ask questions about behaviors,
a small group of people (typically five to fifteen) opinions, knowledge, and experiences as a Surveys are another research method, similar
and a short period of time (usually one to way to get information about each participant’s to interviews, that utilize questions and answers
two hours). A moderator asks neutral, non- feelings and desires. Larger groups may also to gather information. Unlike most interview
leading questions and engages participants in include quantitative questioning to quickly techniques, surveys are useful for gathering
open-ended discussions. Focus groups work generate statistics about participants.5, 9 quantitative data. Results can be measured from
well for getting a quick read on people’s a large sample of participants. However, in our
thoughts and feelings and can be used as a No matter the size of the interview group, time-starved society, people often do not take
tool for understanding potential outcomes participants may tailor their answers; either time to participate in surveys. The number of
of a proposed design. However, individuals responding the way they think the interviewer respondents may be maximized if incentives are
who are outspoken may dominate the discus- wants them to or portraying a more flattering offered for completion, and questions are simple
sion, possibly limiting the participation of self-image than reality might entail. Self- and easy to answer (e.g., true/false questions).
others. Additionally, people may be unwilling analysis may also be inaccurate when a person’s Brief questioning tactics make surveys ineffective
or uncomfortable participating if the subject actions and behaviors are not conscious, or for gathering detailed personal accounts.
addresses embarrassing or sensitive topics.5 when a person has a false or inaccurate percep-
tion of themselves (for example, someone who Voluntary participation may also compromise
Stemming from the idea of focus groups, believes himself to be a safe driver because interview-style research techniques. Researchers
a variety of additional interview styles have he has never been in an accident might actually cannot assume that the participating group is
similar research goals. These vary in their be a reckless driver). People are often not representative of an audience as a whole. People

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

number of participants—from one-on-one aware of meanings and beliefs that underlie who volunteer may trend towards certain demo-
interviews to those in dyads (two), triads their behaviors. graphics (retirees, part-time workers, etc.)
(three), and supergroups (fifty to a hundred).
Smaller groups are more useful for getting Online discussion groups are facilitated in Bainbridge, Mike and Millman, Debbie. “Design Meets
9

stories behind people’s viewpoints, whereas a manner similar to interviews, but use the Research.” www.aiga.org; 2008.

larger groups are useful for gathering a large Internet as a platform for discussion. The
number of opinions that are topical or Internet provides separation between the
surface-level (in large groups, there are too moderator and participants, possibly allowing

1
 ASK CO-CREATE OBSERVE

pg. 21
ARTICULATED UNARTICULATED
+ Quick-read on people’s thoughts/emotions + Information taken from actions and direct responses + Does not rely on self-reporting
Directly attain information Participants often make new discoveries Participants in natural environment
Understand stories behind actions Participants discover new insights through creativity Patterns discovered in people’s behavior

Inaccuracies in self-reporting Time intensive to prepare Can be costly to conduct

Difficult to assess truthfulness Time spent in participant ‘immersion’ period Often time intensive
People may feel uncomfortable sharing personal info Relies heavily on analysis Relies heavily on analysis

CO-CREATION TECHNIQUES OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES ASK / CO-CREATE / OBSERVE

Co-creation techniques actively involve an Ethnography is a form of observational research. The Poetics of Space, is called “desire paths.” The design research methods discussed
audience in the hands-on development of Unlike interview and co-creation methods, Desire paths are unplanned paths that are usually thus far can be placed on a continuum from
design. Elizabeth Sanders, founder of prominent observational techniques are not dependent created by people in an effort to walk the shortest articulated to unarticulated.11 Articulated
design research firms SonicRim and Make- on direct feedback from participants. Often route between two well-traveled destinations. techniques use direct feedback for analysis,
Tools, implemented innovative co-creation occurring in a participant’s natural environ- whereas unarticulated techniques use
design methods in the early 1990s. Sanders ment, observational techniques provide a more Observational techniques also help researchers observation and inference to determine what
is especially well known for her work with accurate portrayal of a person’s day-to-day understand people’s choices and preferences motivates each participant. From left to right
participatory design practices; creative activities activities than an interview conducted in an (e.g., observing how quickly a product disap- on the continuum, research methods include:
that involve potential users in the process of unfamiliar setting. pears from a store shelf). Similarly, observing ask, co-create, and observe.
design. Participants create models and reflect a person’s possessions (e.g., the contents of
on what they have made, revealing their There are several different techniques for a woman’s purse or a car trunk) provides Interview methods fall under the ‘ask’ category
dreams, fears, aspirations, and ideas in the observational methods, including behavioral knowledge about what people keep handy or of techniques, meaning that researchers directly
process.10 Other co-creation techniques include mapping and tracking signs. Behavioral carry with them. ask participants for their responses, and largely
activities such as drawing exercises, diagram- mapping is an observational research technique interpret the responses at face value. Co-creation
ming, and cognitive mapping (the drawing of that tracks people’s movements in an effort One disadvantage of observational research techniques, in the middle of the continuum,
existing and virtual spaces).7 to determine traffic patterns and spatial is the lack of a direct explanation for a person’s rely partially on direct responses from the
behaviors over time. A video camera may be actions. However, if actual behaviors are indeed studied person(s), but also extract information
Experience collages are one example of a co- used to record information that can be assessed unconscious, the advantages of observational from an analysis of the activities. In contrast
creation technique. Using words and images, by researchers to gain an understanding for research may outweigh this disadvantage. A to both ask and co-creation research techniques,
researchers ask participants to assemble people’s patterns in movement. Behavioral second disadvantage of observational research is observation methods do not depend at all on
process diagrams for particular activities. mapping is useful for large-scale urban the time and expense often required to conduct articulated exchanges. Rather, all information is

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Participants then use the collage as a tool for planning efforts, but also helpful for retailers observational field studies; these factors can derived from analysis of the studied person in
explaining the steps of their process. Collages who are planning store and display layouts. represent significant obstacles, especially in fast- their natural setting or daily life.
allow participants to analyze their actions in paced industries such as design and advertising.
depth, with a palette of words and images that Sign tracking, observing evidence left by people,
help to enable reflection and discussion. Words is another way to understand generalities in 10Sleeswijk Visser, Stappers, van der Lugt and Sanders. Context-

and images that represent emotions are useful people’s activities without having to rely on mapping: Experiences from Practice. The Netherlands: Delft
University of Technology, 2005. / 11Kolari, Preetham. Personal
for exposing hidden problems (or painpoints) personal contact.7 One example, documented Interview, February 2009.
within a process. by French philosopher Gaston Bachelard in

1
 pg. 23
1.4 ETHNOGRAPHY AS DESIGN RESEARCH
Recently the term ‘ethnography’ has become customers’ homes to watch people use their interaction design. Many large consumer-
much better known as the practice has grown telephones and learn about these interactions. based organizations like Microsoft, Motorola,
in use. As Darrel Rhea, Principal and CEO These observations informed his future and Intel have anthropologists on staff to assist
of market research firm Cheskin has observed, design—a rotary phone with a heavy base in product and software development.16
“Over the past few years ethnography and and pedestal stand. The heavy base was
ethnographers have been popping up every- important to customers who were used to 12Rhea, Darrel. The Rise in Popularity of Ethnography. Cheskin
where I turn. From human/computer interac- using phones that were connected to the wall, Added Value blog, 2003. / 13Li, LiAnne. Personal Interview,
March 2009. / 14Dreyfuss, Henry. Designing for People, Third
tion, to branding, to computer supported and disliked devices that felt light or loose. Ed. New York: Allworth Press, 2003. / 15Wasson, Christina.
cooperative work, to product development, Dreyfuss, unfamiliar with ethnographic work Ethnography in the field of design. Human Organization: 59(4),
to tangible computing, to advertising.”12 of his time, did not classify his research as 2000. / 16Sanders, Elizabeth. Ethnography in NPD Research. How
‘Applied Ethnography’ can Improve your NPD Research Process.
ethnography. However, the observations Visions Magazine; Aug. 2006.
As ethnography’s use in design grows, its he did for Bell were what researchers now
definition has expanded beyond its conven- consider ethnographic research.
tional meaning. Traditionally, in its academic
definition, ethnography is completed only “Ethnography appeals to designers because it
through the researcher’s immersion in a culture provides a window onto the ways consumers
or social group. However, more contemporary interact with products in their everyday lives.”15
viewpoints allow the term ‘ethnography’ to The initial study of ethnography and industrial
encompass any type of hands-on research design is generally attributed to research
method that involves an element of culture.13 completed by Lucy Suchman at Xerox Palo
Alto Research Center (PARC) in the 1980s.
One of the first designers to incorporate Xerox, known for the production of photo-
ethnography into a design process was Henry copiers, hired an anthropologist who video-
Dreyfuss, in the 1950s. In Designing for People, taped office workers trying to make copies.
Dreyfuss writes about the use of observation After viewing the videos, Xerox engineers took

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

to attain empathy for the user.14 Dreyfuss wrote into account user difficulties and modified
about the importance of a thorough knowledge the design. One of the results of this research
and understanding about the individuals on was the famous green ‘copy’ button—a more
the receiving end of his designs. He details his intuitive device for signaling the beginning
observational methods for designing telephones of a copy job than previous models offered.
for the American Bell Telephone Company,
when phones were provided as part of a service Today, ethnographic research is widely used
contract. Dreyfuss followed a service man into and documented in industrial design and

1
Ethnography strengthens design by revealing context, Ways of Doing: Ways of Thinking: INVITES INVITES

pg. 25
eliciting knowledge about the cultural undertones and Customs Movements Beliefs Meaning PHYSICAL / TACTILE COGNITIVE
functions of audiences. Ethnography uncovers a society’s Communication Norms Biases Opinions INTERACTIONS INTERACTIONS
ways of doing and thinking. Understanding the core Documentation Nuances Education Organization (mental)
behavior of an audience greatly enhances a designer’s Etiquette Organization (physical) Frame of Reference Perspective
ability to develop and customize design solutions. Expressions Patterns Ideas Signified/Signifier
Gestures Routines Influences Symbols INDUSTRIAL DESIGN INTERACTION DESIGN VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Interactions Traditions Interpretations Understanding
Lifestyles Trends Knowledge Values

IN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN IN INTERACTION DESIGN IN VISUAL COMMUNICATION DESIGN

The result of an industrial design project Industrial design and interaction design are The benefits of ethnography are often more Although ethnography has been used in visual ‘ways of doing things’), or mental interactions
is a tangible artifact. In industrial design, experience-based design fields. Both result in subtle in visual communication design than in communication design to some extent, the (assessed by learning about a society’s ways of
ethnography can serve as an exploratory, tangible products or interfaces that facilitate industrial or interaction design. The tangible successes and methodologies of ethnography in thinking). Many interaction design artifacts,
generative, and/or evaluative research tool. tasks for users. Ethnography has recently result (or artifact) of visual communication visual communication design have been docu- and especially industrial design artifacts, are
As an exploratory technique, ethnography played in increasing role in interaction design, design is a communication material, with mented to a far lesser degree than in industrial based around physical/tactile interactions that
can help designers discover opportunities by especially as the field of Human Computer the goal of influencing a person’s actions and or interaction design. There are three factors can be observed and translated into designs that
identifying specific needs for artifacts (or Interaction has gained popularity since the ultimately eliciting a behavior change. that may contribute to the subordinate role of constitute a purposeful tool or fulfill an unmet
products) in people’s lives. Observations of 1990s.17 The goal of ethnography in interaction ethnography in visual communication design. need. However, in visual communication design,
a person’s interactions with artifacts can design is to understand how users perceive In visual communication design, ethnography the artifact is more difficult to assess because
lead to the identification of painpoints in and use electronic experiences, and how can help designers by uncovering insights that First, information about specific design efforts its effect is often the shift of a person’s thinking.
the processes of users, or ways that people designers can create software that is uncompli- inform communication strategies—a plan, is often proprietary information. While propri- Observing a person viewing communication
work around problems (consciously or uncon- cated, rewarding to use, and compatible with method, or scheme to communicate in the etary cases are present in all design disciplines, materials produces limited results because the
sciously). With this knowledge, industrial a person’s existing practices. most effective and compelling way for a given it seems to particularly be the case in market response is not usually immediate (e.g., a person
designers are able to envision new tools and/or situation. Like industrial and interaction research and advertising industries where an viewing an advertisement for a product may
devices that address these unmet user needs. Like industrial design, ethnography can be design, ethnography can serve as an explor- idea or strategy is often the crucial component not be motivated to purchase the product for
used in interaction design as an exploratory, a atory, generative, or evaluative technique. As for success, and one that is easy for competitors several days or weeks; quite possibly they may
As a generative tool, ethnography can be used generative, and an evaluative technique. As an an exploratory tool, ethnography can help to replicate with little cost or effort. not consider the product until the next time they
to determine how artifacts, tools and/or exploratory tool, ethnography is a method for visual communication designers establish a are in a store looking at a specific promotional
devices should be designed. By considering identifying the potential forms an interaction message. While a project’s goal may be pre- Second, there are some circumstances in which display). Furthermore, communication materials
the context for the artifact, ethnography can might take. As a generative tool, ethnography determined (e.g., reduce teen pregnancies), the monetary cost of failure for industrial or are often designed to support a larger system
expose details about how the user will interact helps inform and refine design decisions by the message should be customized to produce interaction design efforts may be significantly of brand experiences. In many cases, sales occur
with a device, allowing the designer to tailor understanding how specific users interact the best results for the given audience (“don’t higher than that of a visual communication as a result of repeated exposure to the brand or
the design by selecting shapes, colors, func- with interfaces. Interaction design works with have sex” vs. “practice safe sex”). As a genera- effort. Modifying communication materials advertisement, which is also difficult to assess
tions, etc. In industrial design, generative constantly advancing technologies, and tive tool, ethnography provides contextual after they have been produced may cost less than through observational ethnography.
research often leads to the design of prototypes. ethnography can be used to understand how insights that determine the best way to frame modifying artifacts that are comprised of many
to incorporate these new technologies into and communicate the message (is the audience custom pieces of equipment. (Note: large-scale Therefore, visual communication design
As an evaluative tool, ethnography can be used existing systems in ways the user can readily more likely to respond to the message in a advertising campaigns and promotional pro- generally only benefits from ethnography when

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

to understand how individuals interact with embrace. As an evaluative tool, ethnography is humorous tone or a serious tone?) Knowledge grams are certainly an exception). If the cost it is analyzed at a broader contextual level—
products that have already been built. Designers helpful in assessing people’s use of the interac- about users and their context enhances a of failure is less, companies may be less willing a level that involves overall strategy rather than
can use this information to understand design tion to learn about future improvements. designer’s ability to develop and customize to spend money on research efforts like ethnog- direct design feedback.
successes and failures, as well as improve upon communication material. As an evaluative tool, raphy. However, as companies place greater
existing designs. ethnography in visual communication design importance on this factor, this point may change. 17Faiola, Anthony. The Design Enterprise: Revising the HCI

Education Paradigm. PowerPoint Presentation from SIGCHI

helps assess the impact of the design effort
Workshop; 2004.
and formulate improvements or new ideas Third, the result of a design artifact may involve
for future projects. physical interactions (assessed through observing

1
 Design: “a plan to make something.” Strategy: “a careful Design Thinking: “a discipline that uses the designer’s

pg. 27
plan or method,” or “the art of employing or devising plans.” sensibility and methods to match people’s needs with
(Definitions from Webster’s Dictionary). what is technologically feasible and what a viable business
strategy can convert into customer value and market
opportunity,” (Tim Brown, 2008).24

1.5 ETHNOGRAPHY AS A BASIS FOR DESIGN STRATEGY

THE IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN STRATEGY DESIGN THINKING AND STRATEGY
Ethnography’s greatest potential in visual Thomas Lockwood begins the book Building take into account what is happening in the world Because designers spend their careers creating
communication design is its use for revealing Design Strategy by juxtaposing Webster’s of the consumer (or user) and must consider work new artifacts, they are knowledgeable in the
insights that inform design strategy. Dictionary definitions for design and strategy. of competitors, as well as what is technologically process of envisioning and implementing
Design is “a plan to make something,” and current. Strategy must be based on solid data undiscovered possibilities. The designer’s ability
Corporate entities today face growing competi- strategy is “a careful plan or method,” or “the (an analytical framework, data from a reputable to approach problems unconventionally,
tion in a global marketplace. When facing art of employing or devising plans.” Strategy source, or even explicit assumptions). A thorough referred to as design thinking, translates well
complex challenges, strategic design becomes clearly overlaps with the goals of design. analysis of the data must take place before into developing design strategies that are novel
imperative for choosing a design approach. Lockwood’s premise is that when married, the arriving at the strategy. Finally, strategy must and unexpected.
A strategic edge often results in competitive two methods provide for higher chances of consider all steps involved in implementing the
advantages for agencies seeking to increase sales success.20 Strategic design refers to the problem design. McCullagh is quick to point out that less Design thinking is integral to the process of
through brand differentiation. Companies who solving, methodologies, planning and manage- than ten percent of strategies are ever executed.22 many design firms like IDEO. The process at
place substantial investments in visual communi- ment that modern designers take on.21 Strategy In building strategy, it is helpful if a designer is IDEO allows for the exploration of many ideas
cation design want assurance their efforts will involves careful framing of a project to decide experienced enough to have an understanding that, at first, may seem unfeasible. Discussing,
provide a return for the investment, and designers what will be designed and how the design will of the possibilities within a specific domain. implementing, and testing even seemingly
are taking on more responsibilities to assure this be brought to its end result. unfeasible ideas often leads to innovative design
will happen.18 Frans Joziasse, a founding member Once devised, strategy is translated into design strategies that separate companies like IDEO
of PARK (an international network of design For his article on strategy, Joziasse interviewed ideation. Strategy is inherently seen in a designer’s from their competition.23
management consultancies), cites major trends design managers from multinational corpora- concepts, refinements, and even in the form
that credit the emergence of design awareness tions and design agencies in an effort to further and tactical location of the final design. Strategy
as a source for modern businesses gaining a define strategy. In compiling the results, three guides the visual and verbal tone of communi-
competitive edge. Among these, he identifies a main definitions are given: 1/ A plan; a direction cation material. It determines methods for
growing understanding among today’s business or course of action. 2/ A position; namely, how communicating through a customized message,
leaders of design’s importance, including its to position particular products in particular a specific voice, and the visual language and
impact on successful business efforts and its markets. 3/ A perspective; namely, the organiza- composition of the piece.
responsibility when those efforts fail.19 tion’s concept of business. Joziasse notes that
many design managers see the role of strategy as 18O’Grady, Jennifer Visocky and O’Grady, Kenneth Visocky.

Besides being assigned to an increasing share A Designer’s Research Manual. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers,
fundamental in advocating for a user’s needs.
Inc., 2006. / 19Joziasse, Frans. Corporate Strategy: Bringing Design
of the liability for any failures in the marketplace, Management into the Fold. In Building Design Strategy, edited
designers also face other challenges, like audi- According to Kevin McCullagh, co-founder of by Thomas Lockwood and Thomas Walton. New York: Allsworth

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

ences that may be fragmented and even span Press; 2008. / 20Lockwood, Thomas and Walton, Thomas.
the product experience agency Plan, a number
Building Design Strategy. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008. /
cultures. With an increasing number of choices of factors must be considered in developing an 21Jensen, Anna Krarup. Strategic Design: Achieving Utopian Goals.

(in television channels, Internet sites, and other effective design strategy. In the article Strategy Copenhagen: Danish Centre for Design Research, 2009. /
22McCullagh, Kevin. Strategy for the Real World. In Building Design
forms of media output) individuals have more for the Real World, McCullagh is concerned
Strategy, edited by Thomas Lockwood and Thomas Walton.
freedom to be selective. Small segments of inter- about strategy within the corporate market- New York: Allsworth Press; 2008. / 23Koppel, Ted and Smith, Jack
est groups, a result of the multitude of choices, place, but the principles may be applied to other for ABC News. The Deep Dive. Princeton, NJ: Films Media
make it even more difficult for advertisers to Group, 2007. / 24Brown, Tim. Design Thinking. Harvard Business
communication efforts that are not driven by
Review, 1 June 2008.
aggregate all viewers into one broad audience. competitive market ventures. Strategy should

1
Pine scents were overwhelmingly preferred when compared

pg. 29
with scentless cleaners in Hispanic American households.
This insight allowed cleanser companies to modify products
and target their advertising towards a new market.

ETHNOGRAPHY AND DESIGN STRATEGY

In order to develop good strategies, designers Ethnography can be especially helpful for In contemporary urban settings, ethnography
must gain insight into their audience and form efforts that are directed towards specific ethnic, can be a technique to gain unique insights in
an understanding for their motivations. To gain cultural, political or societal groups. An example the analysis of everyday life. Social groups
these insights, designers must have clear know- is ethnographic research that was aimed at undergo constant cultural changes that make
ledge of the audience’s communication style understanding the use of cleaning products even familiar audiences difficult to understand.25
and a specific understanding of what they will within Hispanic American households. Cheskin conducted ethnographic research for
respond to. Designers who are familiar with the Conducted by QualiData, ethnography brought a company seeking to target its advertising by
goals, needs, and the everyday patterns of their to light the importance of olfactory signals in identifying specific user groups for food and
audience produce more compelling strategies, these households. Pine scents, as an indication beverage products during tailgating season.
which lead to more effective designs. of cleanliness, were overwhelmingly preferred Ethnography led to the identification of four
over scentless cleaners. This insight allowed distinct user groups; and identified that two of
Ethnography can play a valuable role in formu- cleanser companies to modify products and the four would be receptive to advertising, and
lating strategies for visual communication target their advertising towards a new market.25 therefore worthwhile to target as an audience.27
programs because it helps unlock insights about
the audience. It can be used to extract meaning Ethnography’s use, however, goes beyond These and the following case studies demon-
and gain an understanding for behaviors that achieving understanding of narrow or isolated strate the value of ethnography in visual
might otherwise be overlooked. For example, audiences. Packaging for Nestlé’s baby formula communication design for exploratory,
in some societies it is not possible for abused is an example of a visual communication generative, and evaluative research. Using
women to report their victimization simply program that targeted a specific, but not ethnography can help the field of visual
because it is intolerable within the society’s isolated, demographic. To improve packaging communication design gain insight that is
acceptable conventions. Whereas a typical for infant formula products, Nestlé wanted vital for its success.
strategy for anti-violence might use messaging to understand mothers’ experiences around
that attempts to get women to report more feeding and preparation. Portigal Consulting, 25Mariampoliski, H. Ethnography for Marketers: A Guide to

incidents of crime (an approach that is unlikely a consumer research firm, interviewed mothers Consumer Immersion. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
Inc, 2006. / 26Portigal, Steve. Personal Interview, April 2009.
to be effective), ethnographers are able to provide in their homes, observing and discussing 27Stinson, Tommy. Personal Interview, February 2009.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

a broad analysis of abuse within the scope of formula preparation and feeding habits. To
cultural phenomena. It is this analysis that reduce mothers’ stress, they recommended a
allows ethnographers and designers to produce more intuitive labeling and packaging system
strategies that appeal to the receptive nature of that would lead to quick preparation when their
an audience (e.g., targeting a male audience in babies were hungry and crying. Ethnography
an effort to negatively ‘rebrand’ the act of abuse). was especially useful because it was able to
In short, ethnography reveals cultural meaning produce insights about mothers that may have
that allows designers to customize their efforts. otherwise been overlooked.26

1
 Case Studies

Ethnography as Exploratory Research

HIV/AIDS Education in Rural India
VSO / SOVA

Ethnography as Generative Research

Teenage Drug Prevention in
Contemporary United States
Office of National Drug Control Policy

Ethnography as Evaluative Research

KamaSutra Condom Advertising
in Contemporary India
William Mazzarella

1.6 CASE STUDIES

IN VISUAL COMMUNICATION DESIGN AND ETHNOGRAPHY

1 THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY pg. 31

CASE STUDY 1: Cultural knowledge from ethnographic field studies led

pg. 33
ETHNOGRAPHY
AS EXPLORATORY to message repositioning: “You can protect your children
RESEARCH from AIDS. Talk to them about sex. AIDS is not a sin.”

HIV/AIDS EDUCATION IN RURAL INDIA

VSO (Voluntary Service Overseas) is an inter- who receive the HIV/AIDS content, Glasband is a sin, affecting only sex workers and drug
national nonprofit organization that aims to organized field visits. She did interviews (both addicts.29 This knowledge led Glasband to
improve world poverty by tackling issues such one-on-one and group interviews) and carried reposition the messaging; including the slogans,
as healthcare, education, and the prosperity of out observations of the villagers. Gathering “You can protect your children from AIDS. Talk
people with disabilities. It operates in developing information was difficult for a variety of to them about sex.” and “AIDS is not a sin.”
countries, with a primary focus in Africa, Asia, reasons, especially because it is very rare for
and the Pacific. VSO often uses ethnography in villagers to see a white person. Glasband felt Glasband developed another new messaging
its approach. Volunteer designers live and work that her presence created a major disruption strategy to address a problem within the HIV
in the field, getting to know the audience before to life-as-usual—exactly what she was trying to positive community in Koraput. SOVA holds
developing a communication approach.28 observe. Children were especially difficult to monthly support meetings for HIV positive
speak with and were often scared by Glasband people, of which many people do not attend
Debbie Glasband was a VSO volunteer in the (many, in fact, were brought to tears when she for fear their HIV status will be discovered.
district of Koraput, India. Her assignment tried to speak with them). To account for this, Glasband worked with this knowledge to
included a seven-month stay in Koraput, numerous visits were required that lasted for strategize on creating a ‘fake’ brochure for HIV
exploring concepts for creating promotional several hours at a time. Once the villagers were positive individuals to serve as an alibi for the
materials and professional documents, and comfortable with her presence, they fell back support meetings. The brochures, still in
consulting on community materials to raise into their routines and Glasband was able to planning, can serve as a believable excuse
awareness about HIV/AIDS prevention. observe normalcy in their lives. (e.g., a skills training workshop) that allows
Glasband was working directly with SOVA, individuals to attend the meetings.29
a partner organization to VSO. Koraput has a Despite the challenges, Glasband gained
population of both tribal and village people, insights that were helpful in determining 28Voluntary Service Overseas website: www.vsointernational.

and the diversity in languages makes communi- directions for a few different communication org. / 29 Glasband, Debbie. Email message to Leslie MacNeil,
March 2009.
cations a challenge. An audit of the existing approaches. Some of the existing HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS communication materials (website, materials focused their message on monogamy
brochures, billboards, etc.) revealed that the as a prevention technique for HIV/AIDS (e.g.,

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

English was difficult for the locals to understand, the slogan: “Play cricket with everyone, have
the images were small and unappealing, and sex with only one”). Glasband realized this
the content was not logically structured.29 message was unrealistic in Koraput, especially
for many of the tribal communities where sex
Glasband arrived in Koraput without a specific is a taboo topic. It is used as a form of barter;
project direction or goals. Her only goal was to and often women do not have a choice. Parents
identify what was most needed in terms of do not educate their children about sexual
communication. To learn about individuals practices and it is widely believed that AIDS

1
CASE STUDY 2: The campaign’s research shows that while teenagers

pg. 35
ETHNOGRAPHY
AS GENERATIVE do not like to be told what to do, they do look for facts
RESEARCH and information that can help them make good choices.

TEENAGE DRUG PREVENTION IN THE UNITED STATES

Above the Influence is a nationwide campaign to be directly told what to do, they look for The campaign focuses its delivery on outlets
created in 2005 for the National Youth Anti- facts and information that helps them make familiar to teenage lifestyles, advertising
Drug Media Campaign (a program of the Office good choices. Teenagers also seem to care more through cable television channels like MTV,
of National Drug Control Policy) in the United about their sustaining their friendships than Fuse, The N, Cartoon Network and Comedy
States. The campaign advertising, targeted they care about the physical, bodily damage Central. The Internet was selected as one of
towards teenagers and their parents (as a that drug use may cause. To accommodate the main methods for delivering the messages,
secondary audience), is intended to strengthen these findings, the campaign has tried to strike gaining exposure through web banner
anti-drug attitudes and behaviors. The campaign a balance between humor and metaphoric advertising, online games and quizzes, and
focuses primarily on teenage marijuana use.30 messages in its advertisements.31 AOL Instant Messenger buddy icons.33

Above the Influence relies heavily on audience Some of the campaign’s print ads feature the Researchers continually contribute reports
research to inform all stages of the campaign. slogan “What’s the worst that could happen?” that inform the strategy for Above the
Ethnographic research, completed through paired with images of human-like wasps and Influence advertisements, including qualita-
what the research team termed “road trips,” rodents playing with lethal products. One ad tive, exploratory work, quantitative testing,
was conducted with teenagers in nine states, features two ‘teenage’ slugs, sitting at a kitchen and year-around tracking surveys.31
engaging in discussions with circles of teenage table divvying out salt to each other. The
friends. Researchers visited popular teenage television ads present provocative, yet open- The campaign has had widespread exposure,
locations (malls, coffee ships, bookstores, etc.) ended messages. In one ad, a teenage boy plays with the Above the Influence ads quickly
to learn about teenage behavior. “The research basketball as his shadow follows him around reaching 60 percent of teenagers and the
gave us insights into the importance of ensuring the court. As he leaves to join his friend who is website receiving more than 3.7 million
that the voice of the messages was essentially smoking marijuana on the side of the court, clicks. Teenage use of marijuana has dropped
“teen to teen” by virtue of the consequences that his shadow is left behind and the question is 19 percent since the launch of the campaign.
teens see first-hand from drug use (more social posed, “If you smoke weed, how much of
consequences such as letting someone down or yourself are you leaving behind?” Above the Influence website: www.abovetheinfluence.com.
30

putting someone at risk than physical conse-

31Denniston, Robert. Email message to Leslie MacNeil, May
2009. / 32Schmuckler, Eric. Foote Cone & Belding. Mediaweek,

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

quences), as well as tone and style, including Foote Cone & Belding is an advertising agency June 2006. / 33Kotler, Philip and Lee, Nancy. Social marketing:
the occasional use of humor.”31 that has worked on the Above the Influence Influencing Behaviors for Good. Los Angeles: Sage
campaign. “We wanted to be very ‘us to us’ in Publications, 2008.

Research provided the organizers of Above the the way our creative was executed, and we made
Influence with a greater understanding for that come to life in media by choosing vehicles
the teenage audience, allowing the campaign that felt very ‘us to us’—from a teen’s view rather
to shape its advertisements. The campaign’s than an authoritarian perspective,” said Ted
research found that while teenagers do not like Ellet, Media Director at Foote Cone & Belding.31

1
CASE STUDY 3: “ Why don’t we turn that around on its head, and see if we

pg. 37
ETHNOGRAPHY
AS EVALUATIVE can associate some amount of sexiness with a condom . . .
RESEARCH ‘Okay, if I’ve got to wear a condom, why don’t I at least go
for a sexier one?’”
KAMASUTRA CONDOM ADVERTISING IN INDIA
Over the course of several years, William were seen as an obstacle that prevented sexual and historical analyses. He studied the key
Mazzarella, now University of Chicago pleasure. Mazzarella describes Nirodh condoms factors in KamaSutra’s development including
Associate Professor of Anthropology and as thick, non-lubricated, and yellow; the word its investors, Lintas:India, and relationships
Social Sciences, conducted a detailed ethno- ‘Nirodh’ literally means restraint or control. The between the advertising agencies and the
graphic study about the role of advertising in KamaSutra brand presented its condoms as Indian government. Adi Pocha, the creative
India in the 1980s and 90s. In Shoveling Smoke, a radical departure from Nirodh by selling the director for KamaSutra’s account, described
Mazzarella provides a comprehensive analysis idea that KamaSutra condoms actually enhanced KamaSutra’s brand positioning to Mazzarella,
of the KamaSutra condom brand in Bombay, sexual pleasure. “If a guy is into sex, and he doesn’t wear a
India in the 1990s as an effort to understand the condom, chances are he’s doing it for a child.
underlying socio-economic factors that led to a The campaign used quotations and the name Or, just because he can’t care less. But if a guy
significant change in India’s advertising culture. from the ancient ‘Kamasutra,’ paired with wears a condom, that means he’s only into sex
contemporary images. One of the campaign for the pleasure. Right? … But a condom is
The launch of the KamaSutra campaign, ads read: “Over 3000 years ago, the Egyptians perceived as inhibiting pleasure. So we said,
considered far more luxurious than previous used linen sheaths. Casanova used condoms “Why don’t we turn that around on its head,
governmentally subsidized condoms called issued in standard service kits for men in the and see if we can associate some amount of
Nirodh, came in 1991. Surprisingly, KamaSutra armed forces. The Beatles and Rock ‘n’ Roll sexiness with a condom so that a guy who’s
ads caused India’s glamour magazines to fly and the sexual revolution ignored the condom considering buying a condom says ‘Okay, if
off the shelves. The advertisements, a radical to the dark side of the moon. And for years, I’ve got to wear a condom, why don’t I at least
departure from previous advertising campaign there was an uncomfortable silence. And then go for a sexier one?’”34
strategies, pushed the boundaries of acceptable came KamaSutra. The condom. Dedicated to
talk of sex in India’s public. The ads featured the partners of lovemaking. And their pleasures.” Mazzarella, William. Shoveling Smoke: Advertising
34

and Globalization in Contemporary India. Durham:

couples in surprisingly erotic sexual poses.
Duke University Press, 2003.
“The woman’s head was thrown back, suggest- The effectiveness of KamaSutra’s brand strategy
ing submission to a pleasure heightened by is credited to several factors, including India’s
the discerning deployment of a KamaSutra 1991 liberation policy that began to allow foreign

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

condom,” describes Mazzarella. companies to advertise in India. Additionally,
a rise of mass consumerism, a growing middle
Mazzarella largely attributes the success of class population, and toleration of more liberal
the KamaSutra condom to its brand strategy. advertising messages contributed to the accep-
Involuntary sterilization camps, administered tance (and prosperity) of KamaSutra.34
in the mid 1970s, had created a negative stigma
surrounding India’s family planning efforts. Mazzarella’s fieldwork in Bombay consisted
Nirodh, distributed by the Indian government, of informal conversations, in-depth interviews,

1
 pg. 39
1.7 CONCLUSION
COMMUNICATION
Ethnography provides knowledge about cultural
contexts. It is a primary research method that
makes use of observational techniques in a
specifically, a thirty-five percent increase in
the world’s expenditure on health from 2003 to
2008. However, there are many improvements
threat. Even the KamaSutra condom campaign,
an ethnographic brand analysis, relates to
public health in that a condom’s underlying
EFFORTS EXTEND
participant’s natural setting. In contrast to
articulated research techniques, ethnography
does not rely on a person’s analysis of their own
behavior (as in focus groups or surveys).
yet to be made and progress has been unequal.
While many countries have benefited, there is
a considerable number that are moving in the
opposite direction.35
effect is safe sex.

The following section addresses implementa-

tion methods for design projects that use
ethnographic research. The analysis looks
ACROSS CULTURES
TO TRANSFER
The analysis of previous case studies shows “In many regards, the responses of the health specifically at collaboration efforts between
that it is possible to use ethnographic research sector to the changing world have been inad- designers and ethnographers as an effort
as an exploratory tool, a generative tool, or an equate and naïve. Inadequate, insofar as they to address strengths and weaknesses in the
evaluative tool. In visual communication design, not only fail to anticipate, but also to respond process. Considering the perspectives of both
ethnography seems to offer the most potential appropriately: too often with too little, too late designers and ethnographers, the study begins

VITAL AND URGENT

when it is used to unlock insights that inform or too much in the wrong place. Naïve insofar to answer how designers can best maximize
a designer’s strategy. as a system’s failure requires a system’s solution – collaboration efforts with ethnographers.
not a temporary remedy. Problems with human
While ethnography has been studied extensively resources for public health and healthcare, This thesis addresses the value of ethnography
in industrial design and interaction design, it finance, infrastructure or information systems in visual communication design, and how

INFORMATION,
is researched and documented to a lesser degree invariably extend beyond the narrowly defined collaboration efforts might occur in the overlap
in visual communication design. Ethnography health sector, beyond a single level of policy between ethnography and design. Future study
is equally valuable in visual communication purview and, increasingly, across borders: this is recommended to identify specific methods
fields like advertising and branding, especially as raises the benchmark in terms of working effec- for visual communication designers to use to
global efforts increase and audiences continue to tively across government and stakeholders.”35 identify scenarios when ethnography has the

AND URGE PEOPLE

fragment. Ethnography also holds great potential potential to add value to visual communica-
in visual communication design efforts that are Nowhere is the need to strengthen communi- tions. Future research efforts should also work
targeted towards the public good such as social cation materials greater than in the field of to educate visual communication designers on
programming, philanthropic efforts, and public public health. As global health efforts rise, strategies and resources for implementing
health programs. communication efforts extend across socio- ethnographic design research.
cultural boundaries to transfer urgent and

TO MAKE LIFE-SAVING

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

According to the 2008 World Health Report, as vital information, inform and educate about World Health Organization. World Health Report, 2008.
35

a whole, people today live longer than they did potential risks, and urge people to make
thirty years ago. Essential drugs that were once life-saving behavior changes. Ultimately, these
difficult to get have become accessible in many efforts aim to bring improvement to the overall
places throughout the world; and clean water, health and well-being of populations across
sanitation, and prenatal care have all improved. the globe. Each of the presented case studies
These developments may largely be attributed
to growth of the global health economy—
demonstrates ethnography’s use as a tool to
educate or inform an audience about a health BEHAVIOR CHANGES.

1
pg. 41
 pg. 43
SECTION 2:
INCORPORATING
ETHNOGRAPHY
INTO VISUAL An introduction to ethnographic

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

techniques and processes, and

COMMUNICATIONS recommendations for designer+

ethnographer collaboration.

2
 pg. 45
FIELD ETHNOGRAPHY INTERVIEW & PHOTO ETHNOGRAPHY RAPID ETHNOGRAPHY
LENGTHY RAPID
Years+ Months Weeks Days Hours -

2.1 OVERVIEW OF ETHNOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

FIELD ETHNOGRAPHY INTERVIEW ETHNOGRAPHY PHOTO ETHNOGRAPHY RAPID ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnographic techniques vary in approach, Field ethnography is the long-established In-depth, on-location interview sessions Another modern way of conducting ethno- The newest ways for quickly conducting
philosophy, and duration. An overview of some method as performed by Malinowski. This are a more modern way for conducting graphy, photo ethnography techniques also ethnographic research, rapid ethnographies
of the most commonly used ethnographic technique primarily involves observations in ethnography that involves less field time require less field time than traditional field consist of a collection of techniques that are
techniques, used in a range of academic and natural settings. Researchers spend months for the researcher. Interview ethnography ethnography. Photo ethnography involves intended to provide insight while drastically
business settings, includes the following: and even years of field time conducting involves a researcher who asks questions of visual documentation as a means for reducing (or removing) the amount of time
research and immersing themselves in the an interviewee about a very specific area observation. This can be completed by having a researcher needs to spend in the field. Rapid
community that they are studying. By partici- or subject of interest. Questions are unstruc- a researcher take photographs at regular ethnography is often done when budget
pating in the culture, observing interactions, tured (conducted in an open-ended format) intervals of time or by recording a process constraints do not allow for more in-depth

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

and engaging in informal conversations, and may be done to simulate or act out a with a video camera or other digital devices. investigations. Flickr ethnography is one
the researcher learns how the community process. The interview may be conducted Photo ethnography may even be conducted such recently founded ethnographic method.
functions. Research gathering and analysis while the researcher shadows the interviewee without a researcher at the scene of the Researchers conduct keyword searches on
may happen simultaneously throughout through various scenarios and processes. interview. Interviewees may be asked to use Flickr, an online photo management/sharing
the fieldwork.5 photographs to document themselves carrying application, to gather images that provide
out a task or a process, which is very effective information about target user groups. Other
Because it is often difficult and quite costly when a researcher’s presence would influence rapid ethnography techniques include addi-
for modern research and design firms to the person’s behavior. This information can tional online searches that may be completed
conduct fieldwork that lasts for more than later be viewed by the researcher for analysis through Google’s image search (in similar
a few months, field ethnography is often of the situation.5 fashion to Flickr searches) and data collected
abbreviated. Cheskin, a market research firm through blogs and websites.
based in San Francisco, California, has a team
of ethnographers on staff who typically spend
from as short as four weeks to as long as
two-and-a-half months doing fieldwork.27

2
 pg. 47
2 . R E S E A RC H PL A N N I N
G

S 3.
ES FI E
OC AL LD
PR OS ST
OP UD
’S

PR IE
ER

1. S
PH

1. DISCOVERY
RA
OG
HN
ET

4.
AN
ALY
NG

2.
IZ E
2.2 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC DESIGN PROCESS

SI S
DI

ID
L
UA
AN

EA
PT

&S
ST

T IO
E
ER

YN T
NC
S

N
CE S

ND

CO

HESI
6. U
S PRO

S
1. PROPOSAL PROCESS 3. FIELD STUDIES

M AK
DE S IG N E R’

While the processes and the vocabulary used to Many agencies go through a proposal process as Field studies, conducted in a participant’s

E
describe the processes vary across design and a means of being selected by clients for specific natural environment, may include observations,
research agencies, there are many overlapping projects. Proposals often include an overview interviews, videography, and other methods
FOUNDATION FOR DESIGN stages that are used repeatedly in an ethno- of a research/design approach that the agency of data collection.
+ ETHNOGRAPHY PROCESS graphic design process. A general process for recommends for the particular project.
a project involving ethnography and design 4. ANALYSIS/SYNTHESIS
involves the following stages: 2. RESEARCH PLANNING Data is analyzed and insights are extracted from

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

Before conducting field research, which is often the ethnographic study during analysis/synthesis.
costly for learning about a design audience, it A strategy is developed and ideation begins.
3. D
ON

ES
is first important to formulate a detailed plan.
I
CT

IG
DU

Designers and researchers make decisions about 5. DESIGN

N
O

T
PR

REFLEC the fieldwork, deciding who should participate, The design phase begins with ideation and
5.
the methods for data collection, and the appro- concept development, then moves forward into
priate length and duration for the fieldwork. design, refinements, and finally, production.

4 . R E FI N E M E N T

2
 William Reese / Director of Consumer Insights & Trends
Wibke Fleischer / Senior Specialist, Insights & Trends
Joanne Mendel / Director, Design Methods Practice
Cheskin Added Value; San Francisco, California

August de los Reyes / User Experience Director

Microsoft Research, Redmond; Washington

Microsoft Surface; Redmond, Washington

Sue Jin Kim / User Experience Researcher

pg. 49
Portigal Consulting; Pacifica, California

Abby Margolis / Design Ethnographer

Ziba Design, Inc.; Portland, Oregon
Experience Collage Participants

LiAnne Yu / Strategic Director

Artefact, Seattle; Washington

Jan Yeager / Senior Designer

Steve Portigal / Founder

Gavin Kelly / Principal

2.3 EXPERIENCE COLLAGES

COLLABORATION BETWEEN DESIGNERS & ETHNOGRAPHERS

Designers and design researchers from six begin, more than one hundred phrases and ethnographic research. Once the activity was
firms completed an experience collage to images were selected through a brainstorming mapped, the participants were provided with
provide insight about the intersection of design process. The phrases and images were selected colored arrows to place on the collage. Green
and ethnography, and the collaboration efforts to relate to the process and interactions of what arrows symbolized collaboration nodes

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

that occur between designers, researchers, might occur in a design ethnography research between the designer and ethnographer that
and anthropologists. project. Phrases and images provide the best were positive or productive. Red symbolized
selection when they are balanced, so the sets points of collaboration that went poorly or were
The collage activity asked each of the participat- depict opposite meanings, as well as both unproductive. Blue arrows were representative
ing groups to complete a process map of an concrete and abstract concepts and symbols. for points in the process where there was no or
ethnographic design process. Each participant Care was also taken to maintain a variety little collaboration, but the participant wished
was asked to contribute to the question, “how of genders, ethnicities and ages in the images. there had been.
can designers and ethnographers collaborate in After an initial assessment, the words and
a design process?” images were categorized and narrowed to avoid The participants were then asked to describe
repetition, and new words and images were the process, including the points of positive,
To develop the activity, a method based on one added to fill in gaps. negative, and desired collaboration.
documented by Elizabeth Sanders, a prominent
design researcher, was referenced5. Additionally, The collage participants were asked to think Sanders, Elizabeth. Contextmapping: Experiences from Practice.
5

Preetham Kolari, Senior Experience Researcher back on the last several projects they had Design and the Arts, Vol. 1 No. 2, Taylor and Francis, 2005.

at Microsoft, provided a review of the collage worked on and use the words and images to
materials and guidance for the research. To map the process for a design effort that used

2
COLLAGE: Process for design + ethnography:

pg. 51
1/ Understand Situation
ARTEFACT 2/ Proposal
3/ Research (with design)
4/ Research Output
5/ Client Participation
6/ Design

Seattle, Washington
Gavin Kelly Principal

Artefact is a creative consultancy that employs both designers and researchers. Ethnography is
a method Artefact regularly engages in as a means to formulate strategy for design. With both
designers and researchers working together, Artefact is able to use an iterative approach in their
process. By engaging in design ideation during the research phase, Artefact is able to test concepts
while still conducting fieldwork.

COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
Collaboration is integral to Artefact’s process. Kelly noted only positive collaboration efforts
between designers and researchers, mapping no points of negative collaboration.

Positive Collaboration Opportunities for Improvement

Kelly mapped a majority of phases in the The one phase Kelly desires more designer/
design process as ones that included positive researcher collaboration is during design
collaboration efforts. Artefact generally pairs development. It is difficult to engage the
a designer and a researcher to work side-by- researcher during the design phase because
side on projects. they are often needed for other projects.

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

According to Kelly, ideally researchers would
It is customary for Artefact to involve both a be present to continually contribute to (and
designer and a researcher in the fieldwork even challenge) the design development.
stage, and the strengths of each are maximized
during this time. The researcher generally
takes a lead role in gathering interviews from
the subject. The designer, while still gaining
first-hand experience, usually observes the
process and focuses on the mechanics of field
research, such as taking notes and video.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of the beginning of the process highlighting positive collaboration efforts 3/ design ideation occurs during research and fieldwork at Artefact

2
COLLAGE: Process for design + ethnography:

pg. 53
1/ Proposal
CHESKIN 2/ Define Problem
3/ Preparation for Fieldwork
ADDED VALUE 4/ Fieldwork
5/ Analysis
6/ Synthesis
7/ Strategy
8/ Reflection

San Francisco, California

Joanne Mendel Director, Design Methods Practice
Jan Yeager Senior Designer
LiAnne Yu Strategic Director

Cheskin is a leading market research firm in the United States. Cheskin uses ethnographic research
as a method for identifying market strategies and developing market segments.

COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
Cheskin employs both designers and anthropologists, allowing them to collaborate through much
of the process. There are several positive points of collaboration, especially in the middle of the
process. Cheskin is continually working to better their strategy for collaboration.

Positive Collaboration Opportunities for Improvement

There are several positive points of collabora- Researchers shoulder a large amount of the
tion during Cheskin’s process. Specifically, work leading up to fieldwork. Designers are
there is a gray period immediately following often busy with their own workload, which some-
the fieldwork—when the pieces have not quite times prevents them from participating in this
come together and there is a shared feeling preparatory stage. It would be beneficial if there

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

of fuzziness and anxiety. When designers and could be more collaboration during this time.
researchers collaborate during this period,
each brings unique problem solving skills and While Cheskin tries to include designers in
different perspectives, leading to a sense of fieldwork, budget constraints sometimes prevent
excitement at the end of the phase when ideas them from being in the field with researchers.
begin to flow and both parties continue to When able to participate, designers contribute
work together. significantly by gaining their own insights and
gaining a holistic picture of the project. It is
especially important for designers and research-
ers to be in regular communication (via phone
or even blogs) if designers cannot be present.

The Cheskin team placed a red arrow during

the ‘reflections’ phase at the end of the process,
representing a difficulty in finding time to reflect
on the process once it is finished. Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ a period of fuzziness often follows fieldwork 3/ detail of the middle of the process with blue, green, and red arrows

2
COLLAGE: Process for design + ethnography:

pg. 55
1/ Frame Goals & Purpose
MICROSOFT 2/ Research Planning
3/ Action
ENTERTAINMENT 4/ Analysis / Synthesis
& DEVICES 5/ Execution (of design)

Redmond, Washington
Sue Jin Kim User Experience Researcher

A design researcher at Microsoft, Kim regularly conducts ethnographic research to inform design at
Microsoft. Kim was trained as an interaction designer before moving into the field of design planning.

COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
In general, Kim believes that collaboration efforts during the design process are positive. She maps
points of positive collaboration throughout the process. As an overarching goal, Kim believes there
should be more collaboration between designers and ethnographers through the entire process.
Designers tend to design in an exclusive or secretive manner, and the process would improve if
there were more interactions.

Positive Collaboration Opportunities for Improvement

In Kim’s process, positive interactions take Kim placed red arrows in the beginning stages
place throughout the process. She notes that of the process, representing the potential for
designers collaborate well by generating ideas, unproductive collaboration with designers. Kim
finding insights in field research, and contribut- says that designers often focus on specific ideas
ing in concept development and visualizations. and deliverables, and this is sometimes a source

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

In the beginning of the process, Kim particu- of frustration for researchers. Researchers have
larly enjoys working with designers who often a broader approach when defining project goals
bring enthusiasm to the project. and planning design research.

Kim wishes there were more interactions during

the middle stages of the process. Her observa-
tion is that designers are often exclusive during
the design/research process, only presenting
work when it is in a somewhat formalized state.
Researchers work in the opposite way, with
transparency throughout the process. When
designers work exclusively, they may formulate
their own insights and develop design without
the researcher’s considerations.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ Sue Jin wishes there could be more collaboration during fieldwork 3/ detail of the beginning of the process, with positive and negative interactions

2
COLLAGE: Process for design + ethnography:

pg. 57
1/ Formulate Hypothesis
MICROSOFT 2/ Planning (for research)
3/ In Situ Research
SURFACE 4/ Analysis
5/ Synthesis
6/ Design Development

Redmond, Washington
August de los Reyes User Experience Director

Reyes, a designer for Microsoft’s Surface (an interactive, tabletop display) teams with ethnographers
in the design process as an effort to arrive at a research question and articulate design problems.

COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
Reyes identifies many points of positive collaboration. While there are also a few points of negative
collaboration, the main finding is Reyes’ desire for ethnographers to be involved in the entire
process including the initial phase (formulate hypothesis) and the final stage (design development).

Positive Collaboration Opportunities for Improvement

Positive collaboration interactions occur The only potential for an unproductive exchange
during planning, in situ research, analysis, occurs during research planning. Difficulties
and synthesis. During the research planning, may arise when coming to an agreement on the
collaboration is critical. Reyes considers this design problem and methods for gathering data.
time the most important point of exchange
because there is the potential for positive (as Ethnographers are often absent during the
well as unproductive) collaboration efforts. beginning and the end of the process, but Reyes

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

wishes for more collaboration at these stages.
Ethnographers could assist in validating the
design question and framing opportunities for
research methods if they were present in the
beginning. Ethnographers could provide
additional interpretations and further clarifica-
tions on the research findings if they were to
be present at the end of the process.

Reyes wishes the designer were present more

during the in situ stages of the design/research
process. The budget and perceived lack of value
surrounding this activity often prevent the
designer from doing so. If present, the designer
could bring their direct observations into
guiding design strategy. Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of the design stage, in which more ethnographer collaboration is desired 3/ more ethnographer collaboration is desired in the beginning

2
COLLAGE: Process for design + ethnography:

pg. 59
1/ Define Problem / Proposal
PORTIGAL 2/ Detailed Planning
3/ Fieldwork
CONSULTING 4/ Synthesis
5/ Share
6/ Ideate
7/ Viability

Pacifica, California
Steve Portigal Founder

Portigal Consulting provides ethnographic and other forms of customer research to develop
recommendations for the design of products and packaging, among others. Note: Portigal’s experi-
ence primarily reflects collaboration with clients, which may or may not include the design team.

COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
Portigal believes that most collaboration efforts during the research process are positive. In fact,
he placed green arrows at every phase where collaboration occurs. Portigal also desires to have
more collaboration through much of the process.

Positive Collaboration Opportunities for Improvement

Portigal noted that the most valuable collabora- Portigal included only two points of potentially
tion efforts occur during fieldwork. Participating unproductive collaboration, occurring in the
in field studies helps the client see what is first two phases of design. Portigal feels that he
actually happening and gives them enthusiasm sometimes needs to convince clients to reframe
for the project. Because collaboration is very original problem statements in order to reach
productive at this stage, Portigal desires for the best potential project outcome. Portigal

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

more of it. desires more flexibility in suggesting alterna-
tive research methodologies.

Portigal notes that often the insights gained

from research do not make their way into the
client’s work. The clients, while usually in
agreement with Portigal’s recommendations,
sometimes conclude the recommendations
are not feasible to implement at that time.
This is perhaps where time spent in the field
can influence a client to make changes.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of the inputs in the beginning phases of research 3/ detail of the beginning stages, where both positive and negative collaborations occur

2
COLLAGE: Process for design + ethnography:

pg. 61
1/ Proposal development
ZIBA DESIGN, INC. 2/ Kick-off / immersion
3/ Gather brand/marketplace knowledge
4/ Research protocol development
5/ Fieldwork
6/ Synthesis
7/ Concepting
8/ Design and development

Portland, Oregon
Wibke Fleischer Senior Specialist, Insights & Trends
Abby Margolis Design Ethnographer
William Reese Director of Consumer Insights & Trends

Ziba is a design consultancy with designers, anthropologists, and researchers on staff. Ziba
conducts ethnographic research to understand the beliefs, values, and behaviors of the individuals
they are designing for.

COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
The Ziba team found the overall collaboration effort to be positive, especially when designers
let the researchers take the lead during the intensive research periods, and the researchers let
the designers take the lead during the design phase. Collaboration efforts during fieldwork were
particularly noteworthy. Interactions during this phase can range in their effectiveness.

Positive Collaboration Opportunities for Improvement

There are several phases where collaboration If designers are not trained in research, they
efforts are positive, including research protocol sometimes jump directly to ‘why’ questions,
and tool development, fieldwork, and frame- whereas researchers usually ask ‘how’ questions.
works/concepting. Field studies have particular ‘Why’ questions attempt to force a direct
potential for positive collaboration because explanation from participants, whereas ‘how’

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

designers gain direct exposure to the experi- questions follow a participant’s experience
ence when they are present, which benefits more closely, and thus yield better information.
the design process that follows. However, the Ziba team also placed a blue
arrow in field studies, indicating a definite
desire for designers to be present in the field.
It is possible that designers may misinterpret
research findings if they are unable to exper-
ience fieldwork first-hand.

The Ziba team desires more collaboration during

the majority of the process. Ziba especially finds
benefits to including researchers in the design/
development stages, which sometimes does not
occur. A researcher’s presence assures that the
design is developed according to the actionable
frameworks that were previously identified. Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of jump from the concepting to design, with desire for more collaboration 3/ detail of the fieldwork phase with blue, green, and red arrows

2
 The levels of responsibility for designers and researchers
DESIGNER

pg. 63
fluctuate throughout the process. While researchers
and designers should participate throughout the research
RESEARCHER
and design process, researchers should take the lead
during research planning and field studies. Designers Proposal Research Planning Field Studies Analysis/Synthesis Ideation Design Refinement Production Understanding
should take the lead during design and design production.
The proposal, analysis/synthesis, ideation, refinement
and production phases are split fairly equally.

2.4 COLLABORATION MODEL FOR

DESIGNERS AND DESIGN RESEARCHERS
RESEARCH PLANNING & FIELD STUDIES FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Lines are commonly blurred between the roles Ethnographers should take the lead when Based on the findings from the collage activities,
of designers and researchers. Designers and planning research and doing field visits because it is recommended that in order to produce the
researchers who work together over time begin they are trained in specific questioning, but best possible results in a design and ethnogra-
to take on each other’s roles, sharing sensibilities the designer’s presence is still recommended. phy effort, designers and ethnographers should
from each discipline. In fact, several of the While often prevented from participating in work in tandem throughout the entire process.
researchers who participated in the experience fieldwork by budget constraints, a designer While each discipline brings strengths to the
collages were educated in design and went into contributes by adding an alternative perspective, process and should take the lead at various
research fields later in their careers. their own insights, and design thinking. stages, the presence of the other serves as a

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

Information gathered by ethnographers and real benefit throughout the process to ensure
The levels of responsibility for designers and subsequently passed down to designers is not understandings and insights are grounded.
researchers fluctuate throughout the process. as affective as information witnessed first-hand
While there are commonly points in the process by the designer. Designers may suffer from
where collaboration efforts produce negative misconceptions from simply not being there.
results, the overarching trend is that most
painpoints occur when either the designer or DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
the researcher is absent. This occurs consistently Similarly, designers should take the lead during
through all phases in the process. the design and production phases, but a
researcher’s input is advantageous to have
For best results, researchers should take the during this time. Researchers are skilled at
lead during research planning and field studies. being able to relate the developing design back
Designers should take the lead during design to user insights—ensuring a user-centered frame
and design production. The proposal, analysis/ of mind. In the absence of an ethnographer,
synthesis, ideation, refinement and production the design might veer off course into a direction
phases are split fairly equally. not fully supported by research findings.

2
ROLES ARE

pg. 65
OFTEN BLURRED.
DESIGNERS +
ETHNOGRAPHERS
SHOULD WORK
IN TANDEM.
COLLABORATION
IS IDEAL FOR ALL
PROCESS PHASES.
 pg. 67
BIBLIOGRAPHY ADDITIONAL SOURCES

1 AIGA and Cheskin. An Ethnographic Primer, 2006. DESIGN RESEARCH:

2 Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973. Bennett, Audrey, ed. Design Studies, Theory and Research in Graphic Design. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006.
3 Hammersley, Martyn. Reading Ethnographic Research: A Critical Guide. London: Longman, 1990. Bestley, Russel and Noble, Ian. Visual Research. New York: AVA Publishing, 2005.
4 Stocking, George W. The Ethnographer’s Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992. Hanington, Bruce M. Generative Research in Design Education. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Carnegie Mellon University School of Design, no date listed.
5 Laurel, Brenda, ed. Design Research: Methods and Perspectives. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2003.
6 Ladner, Sam. Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research. Design Research blog, 2007. ETHNOGRAPHY:
7 IDEO. IDEO Method Cards. Palo Alto, 2003. Dávila, Arlene. Latinos Inc. The Marketing and Making of a People. Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2001.
8 Sanders, Liz and VanPatter, G.K. Science in the Making. NextDesign Leadership Institute, 2004. Lindenbaum, Shirley. The Value of Critical Ethnographic Engagement: Comments on the Social Production of Health. New York: CUNY Graduate School, 24 Nov. 2004.
9 Bainbridge, Mike and Millman, Debbie. Design Meets Research. AIGA: 2008. Saville-Troike, Muriel. The Ethnography of Communication. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2003.
10 Sleeswijk Visser, Stappers, van der Lugt and Sanders. Contextmapping: Experiences from Practice. The Netherlands: Delft University of Technology, 2005.
11 Kolari, Preetham. Personal Interview, February 2009. ETHNOGRAPHY AND DESIGN PRACTICE:
12 Rhea, Darrel. The Rise in Popularity of Ethnography. Cheskin Added Value blog, 2003. Chipchase, Jan. Tales of Passion. Monterey, California: TED Conference, 2007.
13 Li, LiAnne. Personal Interview, March 2009. Dourish, Paul. Implications for Design. Montreal, Quebec: Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, Department of Informatics, 22 April 2006.
14 Dreyfuss, Henry. Designing for People, Third Ed. New York: Allworth Press, 2003. Hanington, Bruce. Methods in the Making: A Perspective on the State of Human Research in Design. Design Issues: Volume 19, Number 4, Autumn 2003.
15 Wasson, Christina. Ethnography in the field of design. Human Organization: 59(4), 2000. Sanders, Elizabeth. Ethnography and the Empowerment of Everyday People. White paper for Microsoft Corporation, 2004.
16 Sanders, Elizabeth. Ethnography in NPD Research. How ‘Applied Ethnography’ can Improve your NPD Research Process. Visions Magazine; Aug. 2006. Sanders, Elizabeth B-N., From User-Centered to Participatory Design Approaches. In Design and Social Sciences, edited by J. Frascara. Oxford: Taylor & Francis Books Ltd, 2002.
17 Faiola, Anthony. The Design Enterprise: Revising the HCI Education Paradigm. PowerPoint Presentation from SIGCHI Workshop; 2004. Van Veggel, Rob JFM. Where the Two Sides of Ethnography Collide. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Design Issues: Volume 21, Number 3; Summer 2005.
18 O’Grady, Jennifer Visocky and O’Grady, Kenneth Visocky. A Designer’s Research Manual. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers, Inc., 2006.
19 Joziasse, Frans. Corporate Strategy: Bringing Design Management into the Fold. In Building Design Strategy, edited by Thomas Lockwood SOCIALLY-DRIVEN DESIGN:
and Thomas Walton. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008. Glaser, Milton and Ilić, Mirco. Design of Dissent: Socially and Politically Driven Graphics. Beverly, MA: Rockport Publishers, 2005.
20 Lockwood, Thomas and Walton, Thomas. Building Design Strategy. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008. Holland, DK. Branding for Nonprofits. New York: Allworth Communications, Inc, 2006.
21 Jensen, Anna Krarup. Strategic Design: Achieving Utopian Goals. Copenhagen: Danish Centre for Design Research, 2009. Laundy, Peter and Vignelli, Massimo. Graphic Design for Non-Profit Organizations. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Pub Co, 1991.
22 McCullagh, Kevin. Strategy for the Real World. In Building Design Strategy, edited by Thomas Lockwood and Thomas Walton. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008. Sanders, Elizabeth. Design Serving People. Cumulus Working Papers, Copenhagen: Publication Series G, 5 May 2006.
23 Koppel, Ted and Smith, Jack for ABC News. The Deep Dive. Princeton, NJ: Films Media Group, 2007.
24 Brown, Tim. Design Thinking. Harvard Business Review, 1 June 2008.
25 Mariampoliski, H. Ethnography for Marketers: A Guide to Consumer Immersion. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc, 2006.
26 Portigal, Steve. Personal Interview, April 2009.
27 Stinson, Tommy. Personal Interview, February 2009.
28 Voluntary Service Overseas website: www.vsointernational.org.
29 Glasband, Debbie. Email message to Leslie MacNeil, March 2009.
30 Above the Influence website: www.abovetheinfluence.com.
31 Denniston, Robert. Email message to Leslie MacNeil, May 2009.
32 Schmuckler, Eric. Foote Cone & Belding. Mediaweek, June 2006.
33 Kotler, Philip and Lee, Nancy. Social marketing: Influencing Behaviors for Good. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2008.
34 Mazzarella, William. Shoveling Smoke: Advertising and Globalization in Contemporary India. Durham: Duke University Press, 2003.
35 World Health Organization. World Health Report, 2008.
Designed and written by Leslie MacNeil
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 DESIGN
ETHNOGRAPHY:
STRATEGY
FOR VISUAL
COMMUNICATIONS
Ethnography, a field of anthropological study and a research technique,
helps visual communication designers create materials that evoke meaning
and inspire action in their audiences. Ethnography enables a designer’s
understanding by uncovering cultural contexts and social norms.