Java Bible
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Preface
Acknowledgments
PART 1—Introducing Java
CHAPTER 1—An Overview of Java
Java Environment
Java language
Java runtime environment
Java tools
Java applets
Java applications
Java handlers
Java Virtual Machine (the JVM)
Understanding Java
A Mouthful of Java
Simple
Object-oriented
Distributed
Interpreted
Robust
Secure
Architecture-neutral
Portable
High-performance
Multithreaded
Dynamic
Java in a Nutshell
Java Versus C/C++
Data types
Classes and methods
Operators
Command-line arguments
Strings
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Comments
Odds ‘n’ ends
Summary
CHAPTER 2—Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
So What Shall We Look at in This Chapter?
Object-Oriented Terminology
Abstraction
Combining state and behavior
Variables and methods
Encapsulation (information hiding)
Interfaces
Messages: Objects communicating with objects
Modularity
Classification
Inheritance
Object-Oriented Analysis and Object-Oriented Design
Notation method
Summary
CHAPTER 3—Applet Design Basics
Get Started by Walking Away from the Computer
Sketching a user interface
Giving the Webber Control
Mouse control
Keyboard control
Stop when stopped!
Flexibility through applet parameters
Bandwidth Considerations
Battling bandwidth bottlenecks
Images and colors
Webber System Considerations
Images and colors
Processing bottlenecks
Fonts
File Access and Network Connections
Testing locally, releasing globally
Other Considerations
A universal language
Layout managers
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Inter-applet communications
Dual-purpose programs
Managing Source Code
Only one class to a source file
Document, document, document
Variable names
Altering variables
Avoiding native code
Peeking under the covers
Packages
Summary
CHAPTER 4—Installing and Configuring the Java BDevelopment Kit
Getting the JDK
Expanding the JDK Archive
Setting Up Your Java Environment
Solaris
Windows 95
Windows NT
Testing the JDK Installation
Using Java Tools
Compiling
Executing applications with the interpreter
Eecuting applets with the Applet Viewer
Summary
PART II—Getting Up to Speed
CHAPTER 5—Getting Started: HelloWorld Application and HelloWorld
Applet
Application Versus Applet
HelloWorld Application
Application directory structure
Entering and saving the source
Class declaration
Method declaration
Access modifiers
Compiling the source code
Executing the application
HelloWorld Applet
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Applet directory structure
Entering and saving the source
Compiling
Executing the applet
Creating an HTML file
WIDTH and HEIGHT
HTML case sensitivity
Executing the applet
Living on the Web
Onward and upward
Summary
CHAPTER 6—Extending, Enhancing, Debugging, and Uploading
To Enhance or Extend?
Extending the HelloWorldApplet class
Stepping Through the Code
Importing classes
Documentation comments
Class declaration
Variables
Methods
Creating the HTML file
Botching the Code
Be warned
Stages in debugging your code
Debugging Tips and Warnings
Disable sound and graphics
Quit programs you don’t need
Don’t try to copy/paste in the DOS box
Clear breakpoints and resume program
Making Applets Live on the Web
Web server directory layout
Uploading the files
Testing the applet
Getting complex and flexible
Odds ‘n’ Ends
this and super
Fundamental applet methods
CHAPTER 7—Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
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Need for Flexibility
Java Command-Line Arguments
Supporting command-line arguments
Java command-line arguments versus C/C++
Argument variable type
Argument variable contents
Java strings are first-class objects
Java strings behave predictably
Java Command-Line Argument Conventions
Word arguments
Arguments that require arguments
Flags
Other conventions
Using Command-Line Arguments in the HelloWorld Application
Enhancing the HelloWorld application
Executing with command-line arguments
Spaces and quotations
Parsing arguments
Applet Attributes
What are applet attributes?
Similarity to command-line arguments
Applet “parameter” attributes
Alternate applet context
Using Applet Attributes in MediaHelloWorld
URLs and exceptions
Understanding the code
Writing the HTML document
Applet usage guide
Summary
CHAPTER 8—Surfing the Web for Java Source Codey
Java Developer Resources
Code repositories
Support areas
Search Engines
Alta Vista
Do the Right Thing
Electronic mail and Web page footnotes
Applet-based credit
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HTML comment tags
Give As Good As You Get
Summary
PART III—Programming Elements and Techniques
CHAPTER 9—Tokens, Types, and Values
Brass Tacks
Tokens
Keywords
Identifiers
Literals
Separators
Operators
Types and Values
Types
Values
Primitive types and values
Reference types and values
Standard default values
Summary
CHAPTER 10—Language Fundamentals
Variables
Declaring variables
Initializing and storing values in variables
Array initialization
Variable scope
Expressions
Operators
Operator precedence
Forcing order
Types of operators
Control-Flow Statements
if statements
switch statement
Loops
break and continue statements
Exceptions
Call stack
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Throwing exceptions
Catching exceptions
try-catch clause
Catch or declare: It’s the law
Finally
Summary
CHAPTER 11—Classes, Interfaces, and Packages
Classes
Class Declaration
Modifiers
Superclass
Classes and interfaces
Class Body
Variables
Methods
Abstract classes and methods
Inner Classes
Nested top-level classes and interfaces
Member classes
Local classes
Anonymous classes
Interfaces
Packages
Using packages
Explicit class references in imported packages
Naming conflicts
Package levels
Creating packages
Unique names
JAR Files
Summary
CHAPTER 12—Strings and Arrays
Strings (Java.lang.String)
Java strings are first-class objects
String versus StringBuffer
Creating strings
Accessor methods
Type wrappers
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String literals
Concatenation and the + operator
Character constants
StringBuffer (java.lang. StringBuffer)
Creating StringBuffer objects
Modifying StringBuffer objects
Arrays
Instantiating arrays
Auto-initialization
In-line initialization
Anonymous arrays
Setting and retrieving array elements
Array of Arrays
Exceptions
Utility Classes (java.util Package)
Hashtable
Vectors
Stacks
StringTokenizer
Resource bundles
Miscellany
Summary
CHAPTER 13—Input/Output: Java Streams
About Streams
Standard System Streams (java.lang. System)
Standard output (System.out)
Standard input (System.in)
Standard error (System.err)
java.io Streams
InputStream
OutputStream
Special-purpose streams
Filtered Streams
Buffered I/O
Line numbers
LineNumberReader
Pushing back
Typed I/O
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PrintStream
PrintWriter
Object Serialization
More I/O
Summary
CHAPTER 14—Threads
About Threads
Using Threads in Applets
Creating Threaded Objects
Thread Attributes
Thread body
Thread state
Thread priority
Daemon threads
Thread groups
Multithreaded Programs
Synchronization
Deadlock
Bringing It All Together
Summary
CHAPTER 15—Weaving Applets into Web Pages
Applet Tag Syntax
CODEBASE attribute
NAME attribute
WIDTH and HEIGHT attributes
Alignment
Vertical and horizontal space
ARCHIVE attribute
Communicating with Non-Java Browsers
Applet Parameters
Going Gold
Dual-Purpose Applets
Preparing for the Future
Summary
PART IV—Abstract Windowing Toolkit
CHAPTER 16—Abstract Windowing Toolkit Overview
Abstract Windowing Toolkit
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Fundamental organization
java.awt
Handling Events
The hierarchical model
Handling action events
Handling non-action events
The delegation model
Coordinate System
The x,y coordinates
Integer values
Putting It All Together
Containers
Layout managers
Summary
CHAPTER 17—Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images
Graphics (java.awt. Graphics)
Lines
Rectangles
3D (beveled) rectangles
Ovals
Polygons
Arcs
Fonts (java.awt. Fonts)
Creating and using fonts
FontMetrics
Color (java.awt. Color)
Foreground and background colors
Images (java.awt. image and java.awt.Image)
Animation
Scaling images
Printing (java.awt.PrintJob)
Printing pages
Summary
CHAPTER 18—Widgets
GUI Components (java.awt.Component)
Buttons
Check Boxes
Choice Menus
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Scrolling Lists
Summary
CHAPTER 19—More Widgets and Containers
Scroll Bars
Labels
Text Components
TextField
TextArea
Canvases
Containers (java.awt. Container)
Panels
Grouping components
Coordinates
Summary
CHAPTER 20—Windows
Windows
Frames
Frame menu bars and menus
Menu shortcuts
Menu events
Dialogs
Window Events
Summary
CHAPTER 21—Laying Out Components
Types of Layouts
Default: FlowLayout
Layout Managers
FlowLayout
GridLayout
GridBagLayout
BorderLayout
CardLayout
Insets
Drawing and Updating Components
Summary
CHAPTER 22—Bringing It All Together with JDK 1.1
Designing the JavaDraw Application/Applet
Interface-Driven Development
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A call to arms: pencil and paper first
Fleshing out bare bones
Objects, Shmobjects!
Code Warrior-Digging into the Implementation Phase
Summary
CHAPTER 23—Introducing Java Foundation Classes
JFC’s Components
Examining Swing Classes
Model-View-Controller (MVC) architecture
Inheritance differences between Swing and AWT
Packages
Summarizing the Swing Classes
Other Foundation Classes
Internet Foundation Classes
Application Foundation Classes
Summary
CHAPTER 24—Getting in the Swing of Things
Introduction to the Swing Packages
Swing Objects
AbstractButton
JButton
JCheckBox
JComboBox
JFrame
JLabel
JList
JMenu
JPanel
JPopupMenu
JProgressBar
JRadioButton
JScrollBar
JSlider
JSplitPane
JTabbedPane
JTextArea and JTextField
JToggleButton
Summary
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CHAPTER 25—Bringing it All Together with JDK 1.2
Get Going with JDK 1.2
JDK 1.2 incompatibilities
Changes in binary compatibility
Changes in language compatibility
Changes in runtime compatibility
Changes in API compatibility
Changes in tools compatibility
Advanced Swing Objects
Tooltips and toolbars
JTree
Text framework/Document interface
JTable
Layouts
BoxLayout
ScrollPaneLayout
ViewportLayout
Event Listeners
Wrapping Up JFC and Swing (for Now)
Summary
PART V—Advanced Java
CHAPTER 26—JavaBeans
JavaBeans Basics
Software components and software component models
Software components—the next “big thing”?
Software component models—“master plans” or “means to an end”?
You can run, but you can’t hide...
BeanBox Builder Tool Basics
Introducing the Beans Development Kit
Cooking Up Your First Bean
Properties, events, and methods
Descriptors
Two-bean example
Going the Distance
Extensible Runtime Containment and Services protocol
Activation Framework specification
Native-platform-capable Drag-and-Drop specification
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Enterprise JavaBeans specification
Summary
CHAPTER 27—Networking
Stacking Data with Addresses and Ports
What’s in an address?
From network to internetwork
The TCP/IP stack
URL Operations
Basic URL manipulations
The great Web-page snatch
Encoding the URL string
URLConnection operations
The incoming headers
Sockets
Finding an address
Setting up a simple socket server
Sending from a simple socket client
RMI Operations
The package
The interface
The implementation
The stubs and the skeletons
Starting the registry
Starting the server
The applet that makes the call
The HTML
Summary
CHAPTER 28—JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Introduction to JDBC
Universal database connectivity from Java
Basic characteristics of JDBC
JDBC components
Ready for client/server
Data definition and manipulation using SQL
JDBC drivers
Overview of the API
Typical uses
Connecting to a remote database
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Choosing an appropriate driver
Locating the database
Creating a connection
Performing database queries and updates
Database queries and updates
Retrieving the results
Putting the JDBC to Work
The JDBC API
Interface java.sql.CallableStatement
Interface java.sql.Connection
Interface java.sql.Driver
Interface java.sql.PreparedStatement
Interface java.sql.ResultSet
Interface java.sql.ResultSetMetaData
Interface java.sql.Statement
Class java.sql.Date
Class java.sql.DriverManager
Class java.sql.DriverPropertyInfo
Class java.sql.Time
Class java.sql.Timestamp
Class java.sql.Types
Class java.sql.DataTruncation
Class java.sql.SQLException
Class java.sql.SQLWarning
Advanced Techniques
Database prepared statements
Stored procedures
Database transactions
Three-tiered design
Summary
CHAPTER 29—Multimedia
3...2...1...Action!
MediaTracker (java.awt. MediaTracker)
Adding that professional splash
Flicker-free animation: double-buffering
Putting It All Together: A Sprite Engine
A sprite for thought
Start your sprite engine
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Lightweight sprites: SpriteShadows
Clipping and parallax scrolling
A mystic temple and Jane on Mars
Bright lights, loud city
A sound-event model
Summary
CHAPTER 30—The Future of Java
Appendix A
Appendix B
Index
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file:///F|/books/java%20books/Java%20Bible/about.html
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Preface
Welcome to Java Bible, a designed to teach programmers how to develop dynamic, distributed Web
content using the Java language. Although experience with C or C++ is helpful, it’s not required. Not
only is this book a comprehensive reference for the Java language, it actually teaches you how to create
and deploy dynamic software products using the most exciting programming language ever!
Unlike many programming books that get placed on the bottom shelf of your bookcase, this one is
different: Java Bible is designed to be both a guide and a reference. As you learn the ropes of Java,
you’ll appreciate the attention given in each chapter, teaching you the ins and outs of the language and
the issues you’ll face along the way. Once you’re comfortable programming in Java, this book
As a comprehensive reference to the massive Java language, Java Bible is packed with information
necessary to refine your programming skills. Specifically, you’ll find it rich with source code examples,
Application programming interface (API) tables, hints, tips, and warnings that are meant for the
experienced Java programmer. As a result, you’ll find yourself turning to this book long after it has
helped you become a master Java developer.
What You’ll Need
The only thing you’ll need to become an experienced Java programmer is this book and a computer
capable of running the Java Development Kit (JDK). The CD-ROM provided contains all the tools
you’ll need to write, compile, test, and debug all levels of Java program. Specifically, it comes with the
JDK for the following supported platforms: Windows 95/NT, Sun Solaris, and the Macintosh.
Additionally, the CD-ROM is packed with more than 100 applets, their complete source code
(graciously contributed by scores of Java developers from around the world), and online tutorials. This
alone is reason enough to clear off a space on your desk for this book/disc combo. But that’s just the
beginning. You’ll also find back issues of JavaWorld, IDG Books’ Web-based magazine for Java
developers, containing “living” articles in HTML format. Here you’ll find a raft of in-depth Java
articles, applets, and their source code written by professional Java developers.
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Use or Lose It: How to Use This Book
The only way to learn a programming language is to use it! And that’s exactly what this book is
designed to do: get you up and running with Java. Although the text itself is meant to be read, the
examples in it are meant to be used
Of course, as you get more experienced with Java, you’ll outgrow the introductory programs provided in
the text. That’s why the listings become more complicated the deeper you get into it, and why such a
wide range of real, working applets and their source code have been provided on CD-ROM Think of this
book and the CD-ROM as inseparable, and use them both.
Feel free to jump around from part to part or chapter to chapter as you see fit. If you’ve already dabbled
in the Java language and know how to write and compile programs, there’s absolutely no need to do it
all over again. Instead, you might want to take a peek at the tables, tips, warnings, and other reference
materials provided for the experienced programmer.
As you read this book. you’ll notice we “flip-flop” between the UNIX and Windows styles when it
comes to entering commands on the command line (see “Commandline entries” later in this preface) or
discussing the JDK and a general sense. Because Java is a cross-platform technology, we attempt to give
equal play to both platforms. Because the majority of the book was written on a Windows system, you’ll
notice that the text and examples tend to favor that platform. Whether you’re a Windows user or a UNIX
user, however, you should realize that any platform-specific material presented in the text must be
adapted to the particular machine you are using Once you are comfortable doing so, the material
discussed in this book will be easily applied to the platform you use.
The Many Versions of Java
This book provides information on all three available versions of the Java platform. JDK 1.0, JDK 1.1,
arid JDK 1.2, which was still in beta 2 during final review of this manuscript. As this book went to
press, Sun released beta 3 of JDK 1.2, and a beta 4 and final product release were yet to come.
We faced a difficult choice in deciding whether to publish the Java Bible today or to wait for the JDK
1.2 final release We have chosen the former course because the JDK 1.2 changes of greatest importance
to readers of this book are either complete or well-specified, and because we suspect most of you want
to know about these now rather than later. For those developing applications with Java 1.1, this book
covers a number of classes that are in final release, but are not yet integrated with the Java JDK 1.2. The
most important of these are tire new JFC 1.1 classes and Swingset components for creating cross-
platform graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Let’s face it; Java is a moving target. We will do our best to
keep you informed of new developments at http: //www. idgbooks.com. We also encourage you to
periodically check the JavaSoft Web site (http: //java.sun.com) for news of JDK 1.1 maintenance
releases and 1.2 betas. And of course, JavaWorld (http: //www. JavaWorld.com) is the place to look for
in-depth technical updates and breaking Java news.
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Part I: Introducing Java
Part I is the foundation for the entire book. This part introduces the Java programming language and its
concepts. You gain an understanding of how the Java programming language was developed and why
Java has become all the rage with Web-based application developers. You are introduced to object-
oriented programming concepts and design methodologies. After that introduction, you learn how to
apply its techniques to building your own Java applications and Webbased applets.
This part also introduces the tools that comprise Sun’s Java Development Toolkit (JDK)—the tools you
use to create your own Java programs.
Part II: Getting Up to Speed
In this part, you walk through the process of designing, developing, testing, and debugging your first
Java application. You learn how to design your applications to function as both standalone applications
and Web-based applets. You also are introduced to the debugging tools provided with the Java
Development Toolkit, and you learn how to use the Java debugger to stomp those annoying bugs. This
part shows you how to modify your Java applications and applets to accept and use the parameters
specified by command-line arguments. By the time you finish this part, you’ll know how to use the Web
to find and borrow Java applications and objects that can get your applications up and running even
faster!
Part III: Programming Elements and Techniques
This part introduces the brass tacks of the Java programming language. Beginning with the basic
concepts of tokens, types, and values, the chapters explore all the nooks and crannies of Java. You are
introduced to the language basics such as defining and using variables, controlling program flow,
creating your own classes, and handling exceptions. All the standard Java packages and
classes—including strings, arrays, streams, and threads—are reviewed in detail. Finally, this part shows
you how to weave your Java applications into Web pages and how to package your Java applications
efficiently, using Java Archive (JAR) files for fast Web access.
Part IV: Abstract Windowing Toolkit
This part introduces the Abstract Windowing Toolkit. Although the AWT is being replaced by the Java
Foundation Classes (JFC) in JDK 1.2, understanding the AWT will help you Support older Java
applications anti give you a solid foundation for understanding the JFC. This part shows you how to add
graphics, fonts, windows, and user-interface controls—such as buttons, list boxes, combo boxes, menus,
and sliders—to your own Java applications. Each AWT object described also includes a complete
reference for you to use when you develop your own applications.
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This part includes a step-by-step guide to the development of the JavaDraw application—a basic graphic-
drawing application. You’ll learn how to use the AWT classes to design and implement your
application. To get you ready to move to the latest and greatest Jawa Development Kit—version
1.2—this part introduces the powerful newcomers to JDK 1.2: the Java Foundation Classes and the new
user interface classes included in them, nicknamed Swing. A detailed review of each interface
component in the Swing classes demonstrates why these classes are poised to replace the Abstract
Windowing Toolkit for Java-based user-interface development.
Part V: Advanced Java
This section introduces you to some advanced topics that outline exciting Java capabilities and
directions. In this part you learn how to implement and use JavaBeans, standalone components that can
be used by other applications, including the Java applications you create. Java also provides complete
support for networking anti database connectivity. These chapters also discuss adding network
connectivity to your Java applications, and how to use the Java Database Classes (JDBC) to add
database support Finally, this part reviews the support provided by Java for multimedia applications.
Conventions
As you go through this book, there are a few elements you’ll find in nearly every chapter. These are
conventions established to help make the text easy to read and consistent from start to finish.
Source code
Any time you encounter source code, it will be in a special font; this applies to code listings as well as
code fragments. This way, it’s easy to identify code throughout the book Whether in a fragment or a
numbered listing, code in the text appears in the following style:
import java.net.*;
public class GetAddresses {
public static void main(String[] argv) {
InetAddress ia;
try {
ia = InetAddress.getLocalHost();
System.out.println(“Local host:” + ia);
ia = InetAddress.getByName(null);
System.out.println(“Null host: ” + ia);
ia = InetAddress.getByName(“www.idgbooks.com”);
System.out.println(“IDG host: ” + ia);
} catch(UnknownHostException e) {
System.out.println(e);
}
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}
}
Code elements that appear in the running text—such as the names of objects, classes, variables,
methods, and the like—are also shown in the code font (for example, the JComponent class or the
toCharArray() method), as are the file and folder names and Web URLs.
Command-line entries
Any time a cornmand-line entry appears in the book, it will reside on its own line and in the code style
to distinguish it from the rest of the text. Although the majority of command-line examples are in the
Microsoft Windows format, many are in the UNIX format. In most cases, the precise format doesn’t
matter, since you’re able to use the command for your particular platform as long as you follow the
format conventions for it. Many times, command-line entries are generic enough to be used “as is,”
regardless of the platform you’re running; therefore, the commandline prompt is identified with a
greater-than symbol (>), as in the following example:
> javac myprogram.java
Icons
A number of special icons appear throughout the book to call your attention to topics of special
relevance and interest.
The CD-ROM icon identifies materials provided on (you guessed it) the CD-ROM that
accompanies this book. For details on the contents of the CD-ROM, see Appendix B.
The Note icon is used to bring your attention to things you might otherwise be tempted to
highlight with a fluorescent marker.
The Tip icon is used to point out a tip or technique that will save you time, effort, money, or
all three!
The Warning icon is used to alert you to potential problems that might wreak havoc on your
Java programs. Throughout the text, this icon pinpoints bugs, errors, oversights, gaffes, and
anything else that may disrupt your Java programs.
JDK 1.1 and 1.2 icons point out specific parts of Java that have changed since JDK 1.0 was
released. Although much of the basic Java syntax has been maintained since the initial release,
which enables us to cover most topics from a common standpoint, it’s worth highlighting
important changes in JDK 1.1 and JDK 1.2.
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A note on our examples in the text
This book’s cover tells you that two authors collaborated in writing this book. Most chapters, however,
were written by one author or the other, drawing upon individual experience. Thus we’ve used first-
person-singular constructions in many of the examples and opinions (“I recommend,” “in my
experience,” and so forth). We hope this convention helps maintain the book’s personal tone. But do
remember two of us are out there—so the use of I may change from chapter to chapter.
Previous Table of Contents Next
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Java Bible:About the Author
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Acknowledgments
From Aaron Walsh:
I’d like to give special thanks to the many people who made this book possible, especially to my co-
author, John Fronckowiak, for all his fine work and great help. I’d also like to thank the small army of
writers and developers who have contributed their time and effort to the charge, especially Paul
Kinnucan, Doug Schwartz, Piroz Mohseni, Bernard Van Haecke, Arthur Griffith, and Charley
Cleveland; and to Rich Burridge, who, as technical editor of this book, kept us all on track.
In addition, I’d like to extend great thanks to Barbara Mikolajczak of Mantis Development Corporation,
for finding and capturing most of the Web sites sprinkled throughout this book, and for building the CD-
ROM that comes with it; to Lisa Sontag for her help with permissions for those Web sites; and to Heidi
Steele, whose developmental editing contributed so much to the quality of the book. And finally, special
thanks to the good folks at IDG Books Worldwide without whom this book would never have seen the
light of day—especially John Osborn, Matt Lusher, Barry Childs-Helton, Lenora Chin-Sell, and Jake
Mason.
From John Fronckowiak:
I would like to thank everyone that helped make this book possible: my wife, Diane, for helping me
work through the day-to-day ups and downs while helping to keep me focused on my larger goals; and
my family—Mom, Dad, Klm, Mike, Marie, Mom S., Alicia, and Becky—for understanding and
supporting my desire to write. I’d also like to send special thanks to Studio B Productions, Inc. for
presenting me with the opportunity to work on this project—David Rogelberg, who believed in me and
my abilities; and Brian Gill, who provided an immeasurable amount of assistance in working through
the many details of this project I could never handle on my own, and many words of encouragement.
Thanks to John Osborn, who believed that I could offer something to this project, and Matt Lusher, who
helped immensely in running the marathon this book presented! Finally, thanks to my cat, Eiffel, and
Quaker parrot, Elmo, for providing companionship and many loud meows and squawks!
To my nephew Dane, with love. —Aaron Walsh
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For my family. —John Fronckowiak
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Java Bible:An Overview of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
PART 1
Introducing Java
Part I provides a foundation for the entire book. In this part you are introduced to the Java programming
language and its concepts. You gain an understanding of how the Java programming language was
developed and why Java has become all the rage with Web-based application developers. Before you
begin programming with Java, it’s useful to understand the object-oriented programming concepts and
design methodologies introduced in this part. Object-oriented programming requires a different way of
thinking from that used with traditional programming languages (such as C). Following your
introduction to object-oriented programming, these chapters show you how to apply their techniques to
building your own Java applications and Web-based applets.
In addition to exploring Java technology, this part introduces the tools that comprise Sun’s Java
Development Toolkit (JDK)—the tools you use to create your own Java programs. You’ll also learn
how to get the latest Java JDK installed on Solaris, Windows 95, and Windows NT platforms.
CHAPTER 1
An Overview of Java
In This Chapter
Getting familiar with the Java environment
Understanding the Java programming language
An introduction to the basic concepts of the java language
How Java differs from C and C++
What is Java? This entire book is devoted to answering that question. Java is the most important
advance in programming technology of the past decade; it promises a whole new programming
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paradigm of portability and robust object-oriented capabilities. By the time you finish this book, you will
have learned Java in all its glory. If you’re new to programming, this will be a whole new world for you;
if you’re already a developer but don’t know Java, you’ll most likely be convinced to switch to Java as a
primary programming language. But before you toss your old development environment out the
window, perhaps an introduction to Java is in order. After all, Java is an entirely new technology, with
many facets that work together to get the job done.
Java Environment
Following is a brief rundown of Java’s main features. You’ll find more detailed information on these in
subsequent chapters of this book.
Java language
The Java language is an object-oriented programming language developed by James Gosling of Sun
Microsystems. Although its roots are in C++, it is a completely new software development language.
Unlike C++, it is entirely object-oriented and designed expressly with distributed, platform-independent
environments in mind. The Java language is designed to create executable content, such as applets,
applications, and handlers. In fact, Sun’s Hot Java Web browser, the first Java-savvy browser, is an
application written entirely in the Java language.
A Brief History of Java
Sun Microsystems developed the Java programming language in 1991 as part of a research project that
sought to create software for consumer electronic devices such as television sets, television set-top
boxes, and VCRs. Java’s primary goal at that time was to be small, fast, efficient, and easily portable to
a wide range of hardware devices. Pursuing that goal has made Java the general-purpose programming
language it is today.
Java was used in several projects by Sun, but it really was invisible until the release of the HotJava
browser in 1994. Sun wrote HotJava quickly to demonstrate the prowess of Java as a language for the
Internet, and to show the complexity of possible applications that could be developed.
The first Java Development Kits were released shortly afterward. Version 1.0 of the JDK included tools
for developing applets and applications for Sun Solaris 2.3, Windows NT, Windows 95, and Macintosh.
Shortly after the first JDK release, Java took the world by storm—and it hasn’t stopped making news
since!
Java runtime environment
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Once you have written an applet, application, or handler in the Java language, it’s up to the runtime
environment to execute the code. The Java runtime environment, also called the Java architecture, is
made up of the Java language and the Java Virtual Machine, which together provide the means to
execute Java code. The Java runtime environment is portable and platform-neutral; it is the basis of
Java’s distributed computing capabilities, and it will eventually be available for most popular personal
computing platforms.
Currently, the Java runtime environment is available to end users through Sun’s Hot Java browser,
Netscape Communications Corp.’s Netscape Navigator browser, and Microsoft’s Internet Explorer.
Java tools
The tools Java uses provide developers with everything they need to begin creating Java code. They
include the Java compiler, interpreter, documentation, debugger, and class libraries from which you
build actual Java programs (applets, applications, and handlers). In addition, the Hot Java browser and
Applet Viewer provide a runtime system for executing Java code.
Java applets
Java applets are pieces of executable Java code that are embedded in an HTML document using the
<APPLET> tag. When a Java-capable browser accesses such a page, it automatically downloads the
executable code pointed to by the special tag. When the code arrives, the Java runtime environment
executes it within the browser.
Applets are different from applications because they are derived from a special class of Java code (the
Applet class) and rely on a Java-enabled environment, such as the Hot Java browser, in which to execute.
Java applications
Standalone software applications written in the Java language are known as Java applications. They can
be executed outside of a Java-enabled environment (such as the Hot Java browser or Applet Viewer). In
fact, the Hot Java browser itself is actually a standalone Java application.
Java handlers
Java handlers are special pieces of Java code that process incoming information and convert it into an
object that the Java environment can use.
In essence, handlers provide the Java environment with a mechanism for dynamically learning how to
deal with incoming data. For example, while connected to the World Wide Web, your Java-savvy
browser may come across data that it doesn’t inherently know how to display. First-generation browsers
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would either pass the data off to a helper application or would be incapable of displaying the data at all;
the Java-savvy browser dynamically learns to display the data through the assistance of a handler that
the data identifies. (In this case, the handler would be downloaded to the browser and executed, giving
the browser the ability to display the previously unknown data.)
Java supports two types of handlers, protocol handlers and content handlers. Protocol handlers extend
Hot Java’s knowledge of (you guessed it) protocols. If the browser comes upon a protocol it doesn’t
understand, it can dynamically learn the protocol by simply downloading and executing the associated
protocol handler, assuming one exists.
Content handlers, on the other hand, extend Hot Java’s knowledge of (surprise, surprise) content. The
combined power of protocol and content handlers is truly incredible; a Java-capable browser can learn as
it goes, eliminating the need for costly upgrades and the difficulties of maintaining the kitchen sink
when it comes to content and protocols.
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Java Bible:An Overview of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Java Virtual Machine (the JVM)
The Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is a specification to which you must write Java code. All Java code is
compiled for use on this non-existent machine, which is actually a set of specifications for how the code
should be generated during the program compilation process. Writing code that runs under the Java
Virtual Machine helps ensure platform independence. To guarantee true platform independence, though,
your application must include no code native to a particular platform, and depend on no native methods
of that or any other platform. Truly platform-independent code that is entirely Java can be certified by
Sun as 100% Pure Java.
You really won’t deal directly with the Virtual Machine when writing Java programs, unless of course,
you’re porting it to a new platform. But even that is unlikely, because the Virtual Machine has already
been ported to the Sun Solaris, Windows NT, Windows 95, Windows 3.1, and Apple Macintosh, BeOS,
OpenVMS, FreeBSD, IRIX, NEXTStep, OS/390, OS/400, RiscOS, VxWorks, SunOS, AIX, BSDI,
Digital Unix, HP 3000, Linux, NetBSD, OpenBSD, OSF/1, SCO, UnixWare, AmigaOS, DG/US, EPOC
16, HP-UX, MachTen, NetWare, OS/2, Reliant Unix, Solaris, and UXP/DS at the time of writing. The
Microsoft Windows 95, NT 4.0, and Sun Solaris Java Virtual Machine are directly provided by Sun.
Many Java-enabled browsers, such as Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer, provide their own
Java Virtual Machine implementations. This is an important point for developers, since the Java Virtual
Machines supported in your favorite Web browser may not include support for the latest Java features. It
took Netscape almost six months after the release of Java Version 1.1 to include its complete support in
Netscape Communicator, and due to legal wrangling, Internet Explorer’s Java Virtual Machine still
doesn’t support all of the Java 1.1 features.
Understanding Java
Now that you know more about Java, it’s time to go beyond the concepts and to get to know the entire
Java environment—the Java language, runtime environment, and tools—on a deeper level. And what
better way to start than with the technology at the center of it all?
The Java technology consists of three entities:
• The language itself
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• A runtime environment
• A set of tools
At the core of everything is the programming language formerly known as Oak. Without the language
itself (now known simply as Java), the runtime environment and tools would have no purpose. And so it
only makes sense that more often than not, when people speak casually of Java, they are referring to the
programming language.
But what makes the language so revolutionary? Haven’t we been introduced to a number of
programming-language “revolutions” over the years, each of which failed in one way or another to
measure up to the hype surrounding them? In the software-development industry we’re accustomed to
new languages that promise to change the way we program, become the next level of software
development, make our jobs easier, and advance the state of the art. So why get in a tizzy about Java?
What’s so great about it that this time we should believe the hype and bother to learn a new paradigm at
the expense of time and money?
These are all valid questions, many of which will only be answered as the language itself enters the
mainstream. For now, Java is effectively brand spanking new. Yes, it has been under development for
more than six years, but it’s only now seeing the light of day. So what’s all the buzz about? What makes
Java special? To find out, we can start with a rousing marketing message coming directly from Sun.
A Mouthful of Java
Java: A simple, object-oriented, distributed, interpreted, robust, secure, architecture-neutral, portable,
high-performance, multithreaded, and dynamic language.—Sun’s definition of Java
That’s quite a mouthful of buzzwords, especially considering that just about every one of them is a goal
in the forefront of modern software development. Rather than simply accepting this definition and
moving on, let’s see how the Java language embodies these qualities.
Simple
Programming isn’t simple, no matter how you look at it. Even the most rudimentary programming
languages such as BASIC are far too complex to expect an average computer user to sit down in front of
one and whip up a functional software product. No, the general public will never think Java is simple.
Those buzzwords listed in the Sun definition are enough to send tingles of fear up and down a
nonprogrammer’s spine. But what about those of us who develop software for a living or hack around
just to keep ourselves amused?
Well, to programmers, the Java language indeed appears simple. Not overly simple, mind you, but
simple enough to get going without having to spend time learning a completely new language. For
starters, Java is designed to be as close to C++ as possible, to ensure that today’s massive base of C++
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programmers can migrate easily to the new language. Because Java has its roots in C++, anyone already
familiar with C++ will get up to speed with Java in no time.
People who now program in C need more time getting into the Java frame of mind. Java is an object-
oriented language through and through; C isn’t. Procedural programmers must first learn to think in
terms of objects and methods.
Not only that, but procedural programmers altogether unfamiliar with C syntax (do we have any
Pascalites in the room?) will have to come up to speed with both object-oriented programming and the
syntax of the Java language.
Although C++ programmers have an advantage right off the bat, C programmers need only familiarize
themselves with the object-oriented approach to software development before plunging right in. And the
others? Well, it’s a bit more work than learning a new syntax.
Luckily, Java is simpler to learn than C++, because Java developers intentionally removed much of the
difficulty programmers encountered with the earlier programming language. Indeed, Java was built to be
easier to learn and use than C++; as a result, it does give up some of the power found in C++. However,
the C++ features that Java omits are not used as often as one might think, and often they lead to overly
complex software design and difficulties in maintaining code.
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Java Bible:An Overview of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Specifically, operator overloading, multiple inheritance, and extensive automatic coercion have been
omitted (although method overloading is supported). Some C++ programmers may be clutching their
chests and breathing quick, shallow gasps of air at this very moment. But until they regain control of
their lungs and vocal cords, you’d be hard-pressed to figure out whether it’s from joy or shock.
Hey, you can’t please everyone all the time, and Java doesn’t try to. By eliminating what it believed to
be the worst of C++—for better or worse—the Java team stripped away much of the complexity of the
language. Score one for simplicity.
While eliminating complexity, the Java team introduced garbage collection to further simplify the
language. Although this makes the internal Java system more complex overall, it takes the burden of
memory management off the programmer. Not only is software easier to write, thanks to the fact that
memory management comes “for free,” but bugs related to memory are dramatically reduced. Score two
for simplicity.
Java support is currently built in to the most popular Web browsers, Netscape Communicator and
Microsoft Internet Explorer 4.0.
Object-oriented
If the Java language is at all complex, it is because the language is entirely object-oriented. To the
uninitiated, object-oriented equals fear. But to those who are comfortable with thinking in terms of
objects, it equals bliss. If you haven’t already given object-oriented software development a shot, or
have abandoned earlier efforts to learn this new paradigm out of sheer frustration, now is the time to take
up the challenge. You won’t be sorry.
The premise of object-oriented programming (OOP) is simple: every programming task is considered in
terms of objects and their relationships. Think of it as similar to the challenge of building a sculpture out
of Lego bricks. Procedural programming techniques are like hand-crafting each brick when it is
needed—which takes an inordinate amount of time and effort on the programmer’s part. Each brick
requires considerable attention to how it looks, feels, and fits into the larger work.
Object-oriented programming puts the focus on the larger work itself, on what the final sculpture should
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be. Rather than creating a hand-crafted brick for each part of the whole, the object-oriented approach
relies on a generic form of a Lego brick, from which all other such bricks are derived. You save the time
and effort of handcrafting individual bricks; you simply use the generic brick as a template and build on
that (see Figure 1-1). The template gives you all the basic properties, and you customize it to fit your
needs. The result is a dramatic increase in productivity and reusability.
Figure 1-1: Deriving specialized objects from generic objects
For instance, if you derived a special-purpose brick from the generic brick as you worked on (say) the
hands of a sculpture, you’d only need to tweak each piece of Lego a bit more to get it to look like a
finger. Heck, they all look and act about the same; they just need a little bit of customizing here and
there. Why fashion a different type of brick for each of the ten fingers? Simply customize your basic
template to look like a finger, and then derive the rest of the fingers from that. You could then derive the
toes of your sculpture from the fingers you’ve created (they’re just stubby little fingers anyway). No
sense crafting those little fellas from scratch, no sir.
When all is said and done, you’ve put more attention and work into the sculpture as a whole than into
the individual bricks. And the biggest benefit? The next time you need to create a Lego sculpture—even
though it may differ in form and function from your previous one—the bulk of the real work is already
done. You simply derive the new sculpture from your existing one, tweaking it here and there to
customize it as needed. Sure, this is a simplified view of object-oriented programming, but the basic
approach is the essence of working with objects.
In the object-oriented world, you focus primarily on the design of your bricks (objects) and on the
operations that go along with it (methods). If you have done a good enough job of defining the basic, all-
purpose piece of Lego (and have not been all thumbs about it, to stretch this analogy even further), you
can then derive all special-purpose pieces of Lego from it.
The object-oriented functions of Java are essentially those of C++. Although current C++ programmers
will feel right at home, those without object-oriented experience will need to spend a little time getting
comfortable with this terminology and its associated concepts. To help jump-start the process, we’ll
explore object-oriented programming in more detail in Chapter 2.
Although C is not an object-oriented language, it forms the basis for C++. Because Java is
rooted in C++, Java code will look very familiar to C programmers, as far as the syntax of the
language is concerned.
Distributed
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Java is built with network communications in mind; these communication features are thrown in for
free. It has a comprehensive library of routines for dealing with network protocols such as the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and
the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). As a result, Java applications can open and access objects across the
Internet with the same ease that programmers normally expect when accessing a local file system.
This is another dramatic advantage over C and C++. You don’t have to worry about implementing the
details of networks yourself; Java comes with everything needed for truly distributed computing. A good
example of this is the Hot Java browser which, thanks to the Java language, understands how to access
and handle objects over the World Wide Web. Most other programming languages require you to either
write these networking layers yourself or purchase a library of networked code for this purpose; Java
provides these capabilities from the start.
The Future of Java Security—Java Protected Domains
The future of Java security will introduce Java Protected Domains. This is a Java security
component that has its scope defined by a set of objects that are accessible by a principal. A
principal is an entity that has accountability—in other words, it is an object for which
authorizations can be granted and revoked. A prime example of a Java Protected Domain is the
Java Sandbox itself. With the Java Sandbox—in which all code is considered untrusted,
therefore restricted—file and network access are tightly controlled. Java Protected Domains
are distinct; they may only interact with each other through trusted code, or through explicit
permissions. Java Protected Domains can be controlled on a user and application basis.
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Java Bible:An Overview of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Interpreted
The Java language is interpreted, in other words, an interpreter must be available for each hardware
architecture and operating system on which you want to run Java applications. Traditionally, interpreted
programs are not converted into machine code, as compiled programs are. Instead, they remain in a
human-readable form, which an interpreter executes line by line.
Software developers often cringe at the thought of using interpreted language for “serious” programming
projects. Interpreted languages are notorious for being slow in comparison to their compiled brethren
and often draw heat for that reason alone.
Through the innovative use of its Virtual Machine, however, Java overcomes many of the speed issues
that bog down other interpreted languages. Java code actually goes through a compile process that
outputs what is known as Java bytecode. Java bytecode is machine-independent, conforming to the Java
Virtual Machine’s specifications, and you can run it on any system that supports the Java environment.
This code is at an intermediate stage, not fully compiled, but close enough to actual machine code that
the interpretation process takes much less time than it would otherwise.
To further reduce the overhead of interpretation, Java implements multithreading (which permits
programs to juggle several tasks at once) and handles interpretation efficiently in the background.
Compiling Java code to an intermediate stage—and then interpreting it in the background through
threads-results in much faster interpretation and gives Java a significant speed boost over traditional
interpreted languages.
The Java Virtual Machine is not really a machine at all! It’s a set of specifications that define
how Java bytecode is to be handled on a given computer system. Java programs can execute
on any computer that has a virtual machine present. Currently, the Virtual Machine exists for
Sun Solaris, Windows NT, Windows 95, Windows 3.1, and Apple Macintosh, BeOS,
OpenVMS, FreeBSD, IRIX, NEXTStep, OS/390, OS/400, RiscOS, VxWorks, SunOS, AIX,
BSDI, Digital Unix, HP 3000, Linux, NetBSD, OpenBSD, OSF/1, SCO, Unixware, AmigaOS,
DG/US, EPOC 16, HP-UX, MachTen, NetWare, OS/2, Reliant Unix, Solaris, and UXP/DS.
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Robust
Reliability is extremely important to software developers, especially professionals whose reputation and
careers are on the line for the products we create. It behooves us, therefore, to create robust programs
that are unlikely to fail under unknown or adverse conditions. Although this goal may sound obvious,
many languages (C in particular) are a long way from providing developers with the tools needed for
developing robust programs.
The C language, for example, is very relaxed in terms of type checking, resulting in programming errors
that fall through the cracks, only to surface later—and often at the most inopportune moments. C++ is a
much more strongly typed language, but because it is rooted in the C language, it fails to catch a number
of bugs during compile time. Not so with Java.
Java requires declarations, ensuring that the data types passed to a routine are exactly the data types the
routine requires. Furthermore, Java doesn’t allow automatic casting of data types, as C and C++ do; the
programmer must explicitly write casts. By forcing the programmer to do so, Java drastically reduces the
likelihood that slippery logic errors will be introduced into your code.
The most significant difference between Java and C/C++ is the use of a pointer model that prohibits
overwriting memory and corrupting data. Instead of pointer arithmetic, Java supports true arrays on
which subscript (boundary) checking is enforced. Since a programmer can’t mistakenly overwrite data
or access an array element out of bounds, the language eliminates the possibility of these common bugs.
The result is a very robust development system that frees the programmer from such concerns.
Java, unlike C/C++, eliminates entirely the support for true pointers.
Secure
Any time network access happens, security concerns become a big issue. Security has always been a
worry, even on the local level before networks became so popular. Now that executable content is
available, imagine the Trojan horses that might hide the most horrible viruses and interlopers come to
invade our privacy. After all, what better way to get into a user’s computer system than through the front
door? Because applets are automatically downloaded and executed, they’d never know what hit ’em,
right?
Not so. The Java team designed Java for networked and distributed environments from the onset, and it
addressed the issue of security from the very beginning. Security is a critical part of the Java
environment. Java allows you to create virus-free, tamper-free systems, thanks to the number of security
checks it performs before a piece of code can be executed.
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First of all, pointers and memory allocation are removed during compile time. By blocking memory
allocation and memory access until runtime, Java prevents programmers from assuming memory
locations in advance and “jumping” into memory.
Second, the interpreter verifies all bytecodes before they are executed, as shown in Figure 1-2. If the
code isn’t valid Java code, it won’t execute. Deviant code is blocked before it can become a problem.
Such things as illegal access to memory space, violation of access privileges, illegal class access, and
illegal data conversions are not permitted. As a result, a potential virus has no way of gaining access to
data structures, objects, or memory locations.
Figure 1-2: Java’s interpreter verifies all bytecode.
And finally, all Java applets are treated as untrusted code executing in a trusted environment. This
means that all applets downloaded from the Web are restricted in what they can do once they reach your
machine. Even after passing the bytecode-verification process, applets are prohibited from accessing
files on your computer. Nor can they make network connections outside of the Web server they came
from. This prevents applets from accessing Web resources other than those available on the site from
which they were downloaded. As an added security measure, applets are prohibited from executing any
code (such as external code libraries and applications) that cannot be verified in the same way that an
applet itself is. Figure 1-3 illustrates this.
Figure 1-3: Applet security restrictions
However, we all know that every security measure employed by Java is nothing more than a juicy
enticement to the world of virus authors and thrill-seeking hackers. Although Java shouldn’t be possible
to infiltrate, someone will surely find a way. And, as certainly as a security hole will be found and
exploited, it will be immediately sealed by the Java team. JavaSoft works in close conjunction with the
security team at Princeton University to find and fix Java security problems. Such is the cat and mouse
game of security in our modern world. Stay tuned.
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Sun is currently investigating a variety of security models for future Java releases, including
the use of encryption and authentication devices, in the hope of relaxing restrictions applied to
applets. The goal is to allow developers to create trusted applets—applets guaranteed to be
free of malicious intent or capabilities. For detailed information regarding current and future
Java security models, visit Sun’s Java home page at http://www.javasoft.com/.
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Java Bible:An Overview of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Architecture-neutral
Because Sun designed Java to support distributed applications over computer networks, you can use it
with a variety of CPU and operating-system architectures. To achieve this design goal, a Java compiler
produces architecture-neutral object files, or Java bytecode, from the Java source code you write.
Assuming that the Java runtime environment exists on the client-system end, the resulting bytecode
executes regardless of platform.
This architecture works, not only for networks, but also for standard software distribution. With Java
you can create a single executable that can be run on any computer that has the Java runtime
environment, as shown in Figure 1-4.
Figure 1-4: Java is architecture-neutral (platform-independent).
Such platform independence is possible thanks to a compiler that generates bytecode instructions that
are completely independent of any specific computer architecture. As a result, Java programs can be
executed on any computer since the bytecodes they are composed of may be dynamically translated into
native machine code by any Java runtime environment.
The Java Runtime Environment
The Java runtime environment is actually an interpreter that converts architecture-neutral Java bytecode
files into native machine code that can be executed. A Java runtime environment is typically installed on
end-user systems when the user installs a Java-savvy Web browser such as Netscape Navigator or
Internet Explorer. Although this is the most popular way to get a Java runtime environment up and
running, it’s only useful for running Java applets embedded in Web pages. To run full-blown Java
applications, you must install a Java runtime environment that operates independent of Web browsers.
This is easy enough, since Sun’s Java Development Toolkit (JDK)—and most Java development tools,
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for that matter-come with a standalone Java runtime environment.
Because Java runtime environments are merely Java bytecode interpreters that conform to the Java
Virtual Machine (JVM), vendors are free to produce their own. (It’s worth noting that people often use
the terms Java runtime environment and Java Virtual Machine interchangeably because the Java runtime
environment is an implementation based on the JVM specification.) In fact, it’s only a matter of time
before all major operating system vendors, such as Microsoft and Apple, build Java runtime
environments directly into the operating system. When they do, users won’t have to bother installing a
runtime environment themselves; Java will be supported at the operating-system level!
Portable
Assuming the Java runtime environment is present on a given computer, Java bytecode will execute
properly. Thanks to its architecture-neutral capabilities, the Java system is highly portable.
One part of the portability equation is Java’s representation of data types. C and C++, although touted as
being highly portable, are hampered by being implementation-dependent. That is, the size of primitive
data types, and the arithmetic performed on them, changes from system to system. An int (integer data
type) on one system isn’t necessarily the same size as an int on another. As a result, ease of portability
suffers.
In Java, however, primitive data-type sizes and the behavior of arithmetic on these types are explicitly
specified. For example, int is always a signed 32-bit integer value, and float is always a 32-bit floating-
point number conforming to the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’ IEEE 754
specifications. When you use primitive data types in Java, their representation and arithmetic behavior
are consistent from system to system.
The Java class libraries include portable interfaces for each platform on which the runtime environment
is available. For example, an abstract Windows class and implementations of it are available for Sun
Solaris, Windows, and the Macintosh. When using these graphics interfaces, Java automatically loads
the appropriate platform-specific interfaces for the current machine.
Finally, the entire Java system itself is portable. The current compiler is written in Java (although it was
originally written in C) and the runtime is written in ANSI C, with a clean portability boundary. The
Java system can therefore be ported to just about any computing environment, the most popular of which
(Sun Solaris, Windows, and Macintosh) are already available or currently under development.
High-performance
Java performance is impressive for an interpreted language, mostly because of the development of just-
in-time (JIT) compilers that optimize the bytecodes on the fly. According to Sun, Java programs execute
at speeds “nearly indistinguishable” from native C/C++ programs.
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Although interpreting bytecodes is faster than interpreting raw programming languages, since they are
already in an intermediate stage, the Java architecture is also designed to reduce overhead during
runtime. Additionally, threads are incorporated into the language, which further enhances the overall
perceived speed of Java executables.
Although Java’s performance is impressive when compared to other interpreted languages,
many developers are concerned that it is still too slow to use where raw speed is a factor. Some
accounts have Java programs running anywhere from 10 to 30 times slower than their C/C++
counterparts. While this debate heats up, Sun is working to improve the overall speed of Java
programs. Future releases of Java are likely to include an optimized compiler and a faster
runtime environment.
In addition, several leading software tool vendors, such as Borland, Symantec, Microsoft, and
Metrowerks, have developed just-in-time (JIT) compilers that convert Java bytecodes into native
machine code before execution. As a result of JIT compilers, browser vendors can now greatly increase
the speed of Java applet execution. In fact, the latest versions of both Netscape Navigator and
Microsoft’s Internet Explorer utilize JIT compiler technology, making non-JIT Java-savvy browsers
look slow by comparison. By the time you read this, a number of just-in-time compilers should be
available for speed-conscious developers.
HotSpot Virtual Machine
With the release of the Java SDK 2.0 in earlier 1998, a new and faster virtual machine is
promised—Java HotSpot Virtual Machine. HotSpot VM gets its name from the fourth-generation
bytecode interpreter technology JavaSoft acquired when it purchased Animorphic Systems. HotSpot VM
achieves faster speeds by enabling the VM to look for loops and dynamically compile the bytecode into
machine code. The VM also will look for repetitive method calls that can be dynamically integrated into
the application and “inlined” for faster execution. The HotSpot Virtual Machine promises application
execution speed similar to C and C++ applications.
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Java Bible:An Overview of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Multithreaded
Multithreading is a major feature of Java, giving executables the ability to maintain several threads of
execution at one time. Not to be confused with multitasking, the capability of an operating system to run
more than one program at once, multithreading permits applications to juggle several tasks at once.
For instance, in a nonthreaded environment, only one line of execution exists for programs. Typically,
an event loop is used to keep track of the particular task at hand. This loop identifies which task is to be
executed (such as refreshing the contents of a window, tracking user input, or printing a document), and
passes it off to the appropriate routine(s). Once the task is handled, another can begin. Because only one
task at a time can be handled, the system must wait until the current task has been completed before
handling a new one.
Although programming languages such as C and C++ allow the developer to implement multithreading,
it takes a considerable amount of effort compared to Java, which implements threading synchronization
directly. Based on C.A.R. Hoare’s widely used monitor and condition-variable paradigm, Java supports
multithreading in a clean and robust implementation.
So what can you do with threads? Just about anything, really; you can assign each line of execution to a
thread and synchronize that thread with other threads as needed. They can dramatically improve
interaction with users, handling multiple requests at once. With threads, real-time response times are
possible.
A good example of threads in action is the garbage collection feature of the Java language. This facility
is a low-priority thread which runs in the background as other tasks are executing. It monitors objects
and all references to them, disposing of them when they are no longer in use. Because this process is
controlled by a thread running in the background, other threads go on undisturbed.
Another powerful example of multithreading would be a program that supports simultaneous input,
output, and user interaction, such as taking real-time audio input from a microphone while
synchronizing it with a video image being played on the screen. In this case, such a system could match
incoming audio to the lips of computer-generated characters in real time. Such a computer karaoke
program would take all the difficulty out of singing in sync with a video image, always the most
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embarrassing part of the party piece. (On second thought, is there any part of karaoke that isn’t
embarrassing?)
Okay, this is pretty demanding. Although it’s not likely that you could develop such a program using
Java today, future versions of the language may be fast enough to keep up. Nonetheless, it’s a valid
example of threads handling different parts of a program.
For the power of multithreading to be fully realized, however, the systems on which Java code is
executed must also support threads. Because true preemptive multitasking and multithreading are at the
foundation of all modern operating system developments, in the near future most platforms will be up to
par. For the lime being, Java’s multithreading capabilities are limited by the underlying architectures of
the systems on which it executes.
Dynamic
Fundamentally, distributed computing environments must be dynamic. Java was designed to adapt in a
constantly evolving environment. It is capable of incorporating new functionality, regardless of where
that functionality comes from—the local computer system, local and wide area networks, and the
Internet are all potential contributors.
In object-oriented C++ environments, as in most programming environments, developers don’t write
every line of code themselves. Instead, they rely on a wide array of class libraries to extend the
functionality of their programs. If a developer needs to add support for a particular feature, such as the
ability to play moving videos, he or she simply links in new class libraries that can handle the job.
Sometimes, these libraries are distributed in ways the developer can’t control, such as with an operating
system or windowing environment. In these cases, updates to libraries might reach the customer before a
developer has the chance to recompile the program using them. When a customer is running an old
version of the developer’s product, and it attempts to dynamically link in an updated library such as this,
there is the potential for real problems. Since the program hasn’t been recompiled to handle the updated
class library, it will likely break.
If the developer had the ability to simply recompile the program with the updated library, and then get it
into customers’ hands in time, everything would be fine. In this regard, the object-oriented goal of C++
falls short of the mark
Contrast these limitations of C++ with Java, which is capable of dynamically linking in new class
libraries, methods, and instance variables at runtime, without fear of breaking the system. Java can also
determine the type of a class at runtime through a query, making it possible to either dynamically link in
new classes or abort the mission altogether depending on the results of such queries. These capabilities
give Java programs a level of flexibility when executing not possible with most other programming
languages.
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Java in a Nutshell
It’s clear that the Java language is an extremely sophisticated and powerful new entry into the world of
programming. It’s also clear that the language is a perfect fit for the World Wide Web. But what’s not so
clear is where Java will be in a year or two.
Yes, it started off with tremendous momentum. The Web world is all wound up over its potential, and
for good reason. Just the first few Java applets to hit the Web were impressive enough, beyond anything
the Web had to offer by itself, and reams of even more impressive work have surfaced, and continue to
do so, since the language moved from release to release. The fact that Java itself was used to create the
Hot Java browser proves the language is capable of more than applets; it can also be used for full-blown
applications.
But will it survive and become the next great programming language? Will it ever equal or overthrow C+
+ in terms of industry acceptance? Although this remains to be seen, the Java language is clearly
positioned for such a steady and successful rise to the top. For starters, it is based on technology that the
next generation of software programs will require. Like it or not, we’re moving into a networked world
where distributed computing will become the norm.
Java has everything it takes to make the transition from desktop to network-based computing a smooth
one. it was built specifically for that, and it’s clearly up to the task. However, the professional software
development industry is slow to change and Java might not have had such a brilliant chance were it not
easily learned by C++ programmers and had it not maintained compatibility with both C and C++.
The ability to use C and C++ within Java is very important. C++ succeeded where Objective C did not
because it was backward-compatible with the volumes of C code that programmers had spent years
developing. Companies have a lot of time and effort represented in old code, not to mention money, and
so it’s to Java’s benefit that it can coexist with existing C/C++ source code.
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Java Bible:An Overview of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Heavy hitters in the technology world have already jumped feet-first into Java. Borland, Symantec,
Metrowerks, Macromedia, Microsoft, Mitsubishi Electric, Fuji, Xerox, Andersen Consulting, U.S. Postal
Service, NASA, Novell, Sybase, Oracle, and scores of others are already working with Java. But more
importantly, Java is fast becoming a must-have technology in the latest crop of Web browsers.
Perhaps more important is integration of Java into all the popular Web browsers—including Netscape
Communicator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Thanks to this development, Java will be seen and used
by more people in a shorter period of time than any other programming language, ever.
In order for Java to become the next de facto development language, it will have to do all this and more.
It’s nearly impossible to shift an entire industry to a new standard just because an up-and-coming
technology holds such promise. Java is new, brand new, and will have to deliver on all its promises
before it stands a chance of taking over the programming world. But, if early indicators are any sign of
things to come, hold on tight. A revolution is in the air and sweeping out into the ether.
Java Versus C/C++
Java was developed to address the inadequacies of C++; perhaps now is the best time to take a look at
the differences between it and the C/C++ languages.
First, remember that Java is closer to C++ than to C. It’s a fully object-oriented language, while C is not.
C++ maintained a backward compatibility with C, and in doing so sacrificed the possibility of becoming
a full-fledged object-oriented language.
Sure, C++ is more than capable in terms of object-oriented development, there’s no denying that. Many
believe that C++ is the be-all-and-end-all of programming languages and staunchly defend its position in
the object-oriented programming world. But there are just as many, if not more, who feel it falls short of
being a true object-oriented language. In fact, that’s exactly what prompted the development of Java; C+
+ just didn’t cut it.
While the years-old debate over C++ and its viability as an OOP language rages, which I’m not eager to
get into here, let’s take a look at what Java does differently than C/C++.
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Data types
Java omits three key data types that C/C++ supports: pointers, unions, and structs.
Pointers
Conventional wisdom insists that C and/C++ programmers must become proficient in the use of pointers
if they are to master these languages. Although pointers are no problem once you’ve spent the time
learning how to use them and become comfortable with the nuances of their implementation, beginners
often struggle greatly with them. Despite these difficulties, mastering the use of pointers made it
possible for C/C++ programmers to directly access memory locations and infiltrate the innards of data
structures.
Significantly, Java does away with pointers entirely, passing all arrays and objects by reference without
the use of the pointer type at all. As a result, memory locations can’t be infiltrated as they could (and
often are) with C/C++. The lack of a pointer type makes it impossible for a program to accidentally, or
intentionally, overwrite data at a location in memory. This makes for a much more secure and bug-free
development experience, because the whole pointer-management process is eliminated.
Unions and structs
Both union and struct data types are omitted from the Java language, immediately raising the question,
How can this be good?
Although these types do not exist, the Java language provides similar functionality within the framework
of an object. For example, a typical C/C++ struct needed to define the various fields of a book record
used in an inventory control program might look something like this:
struct Book {
char title[TITLESIZE]; /* book name (ex. “Java Bible”) */
int pubCode;
/* code to identify publisher (ex. 3435 = IDG) */
char authFirst[NAMESIZE];
/* author’s lastFirst nName (ex. “WalshAaron”) */
long isbnCode; /* ISBN book code */
int quantity; /* number of books in stock */
double msrp; /* manufacturer’s suggested retail price */
double (*calc_price) (double, double);
/* price at time of purchase*/
};
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Aside from the fact that this is a simple example, whereas lots of additional information might be
included in a real implementation, the above structure is very typical of those found in many C/C++
implementations. The last line, in particular, is worth looking at:
double (*calc_price) (double, double);
This line of code is actually a pointer to a function. When the structure for a book is allocated and
initialized, the programmer must supply one of these, as defined in the struct declaration. In our
example, the calc_price function takes two doubles as arguments and returns a double that is the
computed sale price of the book. Such a calc_price function might look like this:
double calc_price (double msrp, double discount) {
/* calculate and return price based on discount percentage: */
return (msrp — (msrp*discount) );
};
Here we have a struct that lays out the various fields to be used and a function that is used to calculate
the sale prices, based on whatever the current discount percentage is. When a book record is allocated
and initialized, the function pointer goes along with it:
main( ) {
struct Book FoundJava = {
“Java Bible” /* title */
3435, /* code to identify book’s publisher */
“Walsh”, /* author’s last name */
4367758, /* ISBN code */
100, /* number in stock */
49.95, /* manufacturer’s suggested retail price */
calc_price /* pointer to the function calc_price */
};
}
Now, suppose the book was being sold at a discount of 15 percent. In C, the following line of code
would perform the calculation and output the sale price:
printf(“price = %f\n”, FoundJava.calc_price (FoundJava.mspr,
0.15) );
This is all well and good, but what happens in Java, where structs don’t exist?
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Java Bible:An Overview of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
In Java, classes perform all the functionality of unions and structs, making those data types obsolete. In
addition, classes in Java allow the programmer to write cleaner code that combines the object (the Book
layout) and methods (the routines that operate on the object; calc_price, in this case) in one unit, while
providing a mechanism for keeping certain information private.
For instance, many fields of the book record shouldn’t be available to routines other than those that have
an absolute need to modify their content. With C, any field in the Book structure can be easily accessed
and changed. This might seem like a good idea at first, but in reality, only certain pieces of code should
have access to this private information. This is exactly what Java provides, as shown in Listings 1-1 and
1-2:
Listing 1-1: The Book class definition
class Book {
String title;
int pubCode;
String authLast;
long isbnCode;
int quantity;
private double msrp;
double calc_price (double discount) {
return (msrp - (msrp*discount) );
/* notice that this function is part of the class definition
itself, and is not an external function, as with C */
}
Listing 1-2: The Book class constructor
Book(String a_title, int a_code, String a_auth, long a_isbn,
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int a_quant, double a_msrp) {
title = a_title;
pubCode = a_code;
authLast = a_auth;
isbnCode = a_isbn;
quantity = a_quant;
msrp = a_msrp;
}
}
What we have here is the same basic concept of a structure and the calc_price function, yet all bundled up
into a single object. The Book class, the code template from which an object can be created when
executed, not only describes all the data but also the routine calc_price previously residing outside the
structure. Here, the routine is part of the object, an inherent part of the class. As such, it references the
data element msrp directly to perform the calculation.
Classes and methods
In Java, as with other OOP languages, we have declared what is known as a class (Book) and the method
(calc_price) that goes along with it. You can think of a class as a template for creating objects, where an
object is a variable created from a given class. Classes can include both data, known as instance
variables, and the routines that operate on that data, known as methods. In the Book class example we’ve
been working with, both data and methods are included in the declaration.
In addition to declaring a number of standard instance variables (title, pubCode, authLast, isbnCode,
quantity), one has been declared private. Since msrp is a private instance variable of the Book class, it can
only be accessed by objects created from the original Book class. This prevents msrp from being accessed
or modified without proper cause; it keeps this data safe and private, available only to those methods
that should have access to it.
We’ve also included a second method that has the same name as the class itself (Book). Methods having
the same name as the class they are part of are known as constructors, and they are invoked when a new
object is created from that class. When put into action, a new Book object is instantiated from the class
we created:
class MyClass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Book FoundJava = new Book(“Java Bible”, 3435,
“Walsh”, 4367758, 100, 49.95);
System.out.println(“price = ” +
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FoundJava.calc_price(0.15) );
}
}
What we have with Java is functionally equivalent to what we had with structs and a separate calc_price
routine, yet it’s all within one easy-to-use chunk of code-the Book class!
Additionally, we’ve been able to create code that prevents unauthorized use of instance variables. This is
easily seen in our example, as we can calculate the price of a book without having to access msrp
directly. The calc_price method has access to the private msrp instance variable and performs the
calculation for us without our having to reference this data directly. We simply feed the calc_price
method a discount percentage and it does the rest.
No matter how many different Book objects are instantiated, we only need to pass a discount amount to
the calc_price method for each. We don’t have to bother accessing this value directly and are freed of the
responsibility of keeping track of variables such as these. We let the object take care of itself, as it
should.
Operators
As you’ll see in Chapter 13, Java supports almost all operators found in C, and the Java operators have
the same precedence and associativity as their C counterparts. In addition, Java introduces several new
operators:
+
>>>
& and |
instanceof
Although + may appear to be the arithmetic addition operator, when applied to strings it is actually a
concatenation operator. As you’ll learn in Chapter 15, Java strings are objects that may be joined
together (concatenated) with the + operator.
Although it might appear that having two operators of the same name implies operator
overloading, Java doesn’t support overloading of operators as C++ does. The arithmetic + and
string concatenation + operators are two completely different operators, each operating on its
own data types.
>>>
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In Java, the >>> operator performs a right shift with sign extension. All integer values in Java are signed
values. As a result, Java introduces a >>> operator that performs a right shift while treating the value on
which it is operating as an unsigned value: bits are shifted right with zero sign extension.
& and |
Although the & and | operators perform bitwise operations when applied to integral values (& performs a
bitwise AND, | performs a bitwise OR), it’s another story when these operators are applied to boolean
values. Unlike C/C++, where boolean values may be treated as integral values, Java Booleans are
actually objects that resolve to true or false. As a result, when these two operators are applied to boolean
values, logical operations are performed (& performs a logical AND, | performs a logical OR).
Java’s logical & and | operators always evaluate both operands. They don’t “shortcircuit” when the
result is known after evaluating only the left operand (as their C/C++ counterparts do). In cases where
you want a short-circuit logical evaluation, use the && and | | operators.
Since pointers are not implemented in Java, the & (dereference) operator from C/C++ isn’t
supported. For that matter, neither is the * (reference) operator.
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Java Bible:An Overview of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
instanceof
Java’s instanceof operator is used to determine if an object was created from a specific class (objects and
classes are explained in Chapter 4). Use of the instanceof operator is shown in Appendix B, the Java
Language Reference.
Although the instanceof operator may conjure up fond memories of a similar sounding operator
found in C/C++, Java doesn’t support sizeof. You’ll also note that, unlike C/C++, Java doesn’t
support the comma operator to combine two expressions into one, except in a very limited
fashion in the conditional portion of for loops, as discussed in Chapter 12.
Command-line arguments
Command-line arguments are those arguments sent to an application program when it is invoked from,
you guessed it, the command line. For instance, when you are at the DOS prompt in a DOS
environment, you execute a program by typing the name of the program:
c:\>crunch
In this example, the program named crunch would be executed. We’ve simply typed the program name at
the command prompt and pressed Enter. The program, if available, is executed. Let’s say, for illustrative
purposes, that crunch takes two files and compresses them into a single file. How do we specify which
files to compress and the name of the file that would result? Since we didn’t provide command-line
arguments above, crunch might prompt us for the names of each when it is executed:
First File to crunch: fileone
Second File to crunch: filetwo
Compress and save as: mycrunch
This is fairly straightforward, since crunch prompted us for the name of each file to compress and the
name of the file to save the compressed files into. Here, we’d expect the file my crunch to contain our
crunched files, when all is said and done.
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But what if we didn’t want to bother with these prompts and knew right from the beginning what files to
compress? If crunch supported command-line arguments, we could supply these names at the same time
as we execute the program:
C:\>crunch fileone filetwo mycrunch
Upon executing, crunch would see that the file names had been specified as command-line arguments and
bypass the prompt altogether. The result would he the same as if we had manually entered the names at
each prompt, although the use of command-line arguments makes the process a little faster, since we
don’t have to bother typing these three file names upon executing.
Some programs expect all user input to come directly from the command line at execution time and
don’t bother to prompt you for information if it has been omitted from the command line. These
programs simply return an error message, if even that, to let you know they were unable to complete the
job successfully.
So how does a program such as crunch get these command-line arguments and make use of them? In C/C
++, the operating system passes them directly to the program through the use of argument variables:
argc— specifies the number of arguments appearing on the command line
argv—a pointer to an array of strings containing the arguments
In C/C++, the operating system passes the entire command line as arguments to the program, including
the name of the program itself. In our example, then, the first argument in the argv parameter would be
crunch. But Java is a little different; in Java, only one parameter is passed to the executable:
args—an array of strings that contain the arguments
The args parameter is simply an array containing the command-line arguments. Rather than bothering
with two parameters, as C/C++ does, Java only needs this one.
But how does the Java program know how many parameters are included, since only an array is passed,
without the benefit of an argc parameter? It’s simple; arrays in Java include a length variable that can be
used to extract the number of arguments in the array itself, eliminating the need for an argc parameter:
args.length;. /* retrieve the number of elements
in the args array */
Another difference between Java and C/C++ command-line arguments is seen in the content of the
argument array. Where the C/C++ argv parameter contains the name of the program itself, such as crunch,
Java’s args parameter contains only the command-line arguments (such as fileone, filetwo, and mycrunch, in
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our crunch example). In Java, the name of the application being invoked is the same as the name of the
initial class executed where the main method is defined. (It is possible for several classes to contain a
main method.) As a result, Java already knows the name of the program being executed and doesn’t
need to be told this explicitly, as it does with C/C++. The Java runtime environment just passes along the
commandline arguments, and that’s enough.
Strings
In C/C++, strings are really nothing more than a null-terminated (/n) array of characters. But in Java,
they are first-class objects. Actually, two classes exist for strings, String and StringBuffer. Java strings
offer four main advantages over C/C++ strings:
• Consistency: As objects, the manner in which strings are obtained and their elements accessed
is consistent across all strings and all systems.
• Predictability: Java strings function predictably every time, thanks to well-defined
programming interfaces for both the String and StringBuffer classes.
• Reliability: String and StringBuffer classes perform extensive testing for boundary conditions at
runtime, catching errors before they become a real problem.
• Localization of text: Strings consist of Unicode characters, which makes localization of text
transparent.
Java strings are covered in more detail in Chapter 14, but for now it’s worth noting that strings have
always caused difficulty for C/C++ programmers. Because strings are such an important part of any
programming language, Java makes it possible to use them to their fullest extent without the difficulties
often encountered with C/C++.
The Java String class is used to represent strings that will not change. StringBuffer, on the other
hand, is specifically for strings that will change during the course of program execution.
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Java Bible:An Overview of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Comments
Java supports both C and C++ style comments, in addition to an altogether new comment syntax. Here’s
a brief example of the three types of comments you can use in Java:
int i ; /* this is the ANSI-C style comment */
int i ; // and this is the C++ style, limited to one line of text
int i ; /** And here’s a completely new comment syntax! Notice
that this comment begins with a slash and two asterisk characters
and can span many lines, just as with ANSI-C comments. But
what’s the difference, besides the extra asterisk at the
beginning of this comment? */
Although Java supports both C and C++ comments, it also introduces a special type of comment that
does just what any comment does. It tells the compiler (or interpreter) to ignore everything inside the
comment, since it’s only there to help people make sense of the code.
Besides functioning as a regular comment, this new comment serves a special purpose—automatic
documentation generation. That’s right—documentation generated automatically from comments. This
documentation is created as a series of HTML files that not only help document your programs, but also
show the hierarchy of your code in relation to the larger system of Java classes! (See Figure 1-5.) And
since it’s in the HTML format, you can hypertext-jump through this documentation just as you would
any other Web page. All thanks to an odd-looking comment.
This special type of comment, formally known as a Doc Comment, is often found at the beginning of
class and method definitions to assist in the creation of code documentation. In addition, Doc Comments
can be applied to variables.
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Figure 1-5: Documentation automatically generated from a Doc Comment, showing this class in
relation to others in the system
With Doc Comments, you use /** to indicate that what comes between it and the closing */ should be
treated as documentation when encountered by the javadoc tool. (javadoc is one of the many tools that
come with Sun’s Java Development Toolkit.) You can embed special documentation tags (Doc Tags),
which begin with the @ character, within Doc Comments to further extend the automatic document
generation performed by javadoc:
/* A bogus class definition whose only purpose is to show
* the format of Doc Comments and Doc Tags in action:
* @version 1.0 6 Nov 1997
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
*/
class BogusClass {
. . . }
When run through the javadoc tool, the above comment would generate documentation with an associated
version and author entries. Doc Comments and Doc Tags can be a great help when you’re documenting
software developed with Java. For details on using Doc Comments, point your browser to http://java.sun.
com/docs/codeconv/CodeConventions.doc4.html.
Odds ‘n’ ends
Although we’ve discussed the most obvious areas where Java differs from C and C++, there are a few
other things you’ll want to be aware of when making the transition to Java:
• Through a mechanism known as varargs, C and C++ provide for a variable number of
arguments to be passed to a function. This is not supported with Java.
• Although goto is a reserved word in Java, it is not implemented or supported.
• Boolean data types are true literals in Java, not a representation of the integers 0 and 1, as they
are in C and C++. Java boolean data types, therefore, cannot be typecast into integers.
• #define and #include (preprocessor mechanisms) are not available in Java, although they are
available in C and C++.
• Java does not provide enumerated types.
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These odds and ends, and those detailed previously, sum up the differences between the Java and the C/C
++ languages. However, there are a number of areas where Java and these languages are similar.
To make the transition from either C or C++ relatively easy, Java maintains a lot of the look and feel of
those languages. For instance, the style of Java programs (such as the use of whitespace, comments, and
grouping of code) is much the same as in C and C++. Just as with C/C++, whitespace and comments
(with the exception of Doc Comments) are ignored by Java altogether and are only used to make code
more readable to human beings. For instance, the example Book class we created earlier could just have
easily been written without whitespace and comments:
class Book {String title;int pubCode;String authLast;long
isbnCode;int quantity;private double msrp;double calc_price
(double discount) {return (msrp-(msrp*discount) );} Book(String
a_title, int a_code, String a_auth, long a_isbn, int a_quant,
double
a_msrp) {title=a_title;pubCode=a_code;authLast=a_auth;isbnCode =
a_isbn; quantity=a_quant; msrp=a_msrp;}}
Although this makes for ugly reading to you and me, Java doesn’t care. For that matter, neither does C
or C++. White space and comments simply make the code more understandable and prettier to look at
for our sake.
Another thing you’ll notice immediately about Java, which it shares with C/C++, is case sensitivity. Case
matters, so you have to pay special attention to exactly how you mix and match upper- and lowercase
letters in class, method, and variable names. For instance, the variable myJavaThing is not the same as
MyJavaThing.
And while we’re on the subject, it’s worth noting that classes are typically capitalized, but methods and
objects are not. This is merely a convention of Java (one also seen in C++), so you can in fact do
whatever you want when it comes to capitalization. However, in the interest of code readability and
maintenance, it’s better to stick to the conventional way of doing things.
C/C++ programmers will also find comfort in the way Java code is arranged. As with C/C++, you usually
indent statements to reflect their hierarchy within a block of code, and you balance curly braces ({ }) to
show the nesting of functions.
With Java, you make your code more readable by using curly braces to separate blocks of code and
semicolons to separate statements. These conventions should be familiar to C/C++ programmers.
These factors, taken together, make the Java language enough like C++ in both syntax and the
implementation of object-oriented devices (such as classes, methods, objects, and inheritance) that C++
programmers will have little problem leaping feet first into it.
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C programmers, on the other hand, must first become comfortable with the entire object-oriented
approach to software development—which we discuss in detail in Chapter 2.
Summary
Java technology consists of the Java language, a runtime environment, and a set of tools. The language
is simple, object-oriented, distributed, interpreted, robust, secure, architecture-neutral, portable,
multithreaded, dynamic, and capable of high performance.
• Java, like C++, is object-oriented, and it is similar to C++ in syntax and style. However, it also
offers significant improvements. It replaces pointers, unions, and structs with code that prevents
unauthorized use of instance variables. It uses operators, significantly improved command-line
arguments, and more consistent, predictable, and reliable strings. It also supports an entirely new
type of comment.
• C++ and Java are similar in a number of significant ways, such as case sensitivity, the
arrangement of code, and ways of implementing OOP devices such as classes and methods.
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Java Bible:Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 2
Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
In This Chapter
An introduction to object-oriented programming
Understanding abstraction, states, behavior, variables, methods, and encapsulation
How to communicate with objects through interfaces
How to get the most mileage from your code with inheritance
An introduction to object-oriented analysis and design
Because Java is an object-oriented programming (OOP) language, it only makes sense for us to take
time to find out what that means. Programmers experienced with object-oriented concepts and
terminology may choose to skim this chapter and refresh their memories, or to skip it altogether,
depending on their comfort level with the topic. Others will want to devote some serious time to the
following material. In it are the keys to fully unlocking Java’s potential, for without a solid
understanding of object-oriented programming, making sense of this new language is next to impossible.
If you are new to object-oriented programming, you may become overwhelmed by the end of this
chapter. Hyperventilation is understandable, if not expected, because so many of the concepts found in
the object-oriented world run counter to the way you’re normally taught to program. If you’re new to
OOP, I’d suggest taking a moment to search the Web for Java-related information, such as is available at
Sun’s JavaSoft site, Gamelan, or JARS, followed by a quick trip to your local library or bookstore. By
all means, proceed with this book, but while you’re at it, take the time to learn more about object-
oriented programming. This type of programming is a very different approach to software development
than most of us have experienced before. We’ve probably spent a great amount of time learning
procedural programming languages such as Pascal and C, which are not object-oriented, and that makes
it extremely difficult for us to think of software development from this new perspective.
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Java Bible:Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
Despite the fact that object-oriented programming is nearly 30 years old, originating with the Simula67
language introduced in 1967, the term object-oriented programming has been misused and
misunderstood since it was first coined, and it continues to be a source of confusion even today.
Several schools of thought exist regarding what OOP is and what constitutes a “real” object-oriented
programming language—these are the result of programmers trying to make sense of and establish a
standard way of defining such things. In fact, in professional software engineering circles the term
object-oriented programming represents only one portion of a much larger software development
process. In this sense, OOP refers to the actual implementation in code that comes after the processes of
object-oriented analysis (OOA) and object-oriented design (OOD) have been completed.
Although object-oriented concepts and terminology aren’t very difficult to learn on a superficial level, it
takes time for the principles to sink in, to settle, to become a natural part of our thinking. Because of
this, some observers claim that learning the object-oriented approach is overly difficult and not worth
the effort. Such thinking is a shame, because the potential benefits are tremendous. Anything worth
learning usually takes a bit of effort, and OOP is no exception.
But fear not—I won’t attempt to turn you into a master of the art of object-oriented programming, nor
will I introduce highly technical concepts and terminology here. And I only briefly discuss OOP as a
part of object-oriented analysis and object-oriented design; a number of books dedicate themselves
entirely to these subjects. Instead, I attempt to give you a clear understanding of OOP as it relates to the
task at hand—learning Java. As you’ll soon see, the rewards are great and the effort is relatively small,
once you understand the basic concepts we’re about to explore.
So What Shall We Look at in This Chapter?
How are objects created? How are messages sent? How does encapsulation work? These are some of the
questions this chapter answers. Objects, messages, and encapsulation are just a few of the terms covered
here. As we proceed from term to term, concept to concept, I’ll try to maintain a vein of continuity—a
theme of learning:
1. After talking about objects, I’ll plunge directly into abstraction, a way of thinking that’s
crucial to our ability to properly define objects.
2. Abstraction is followed by a look at the state and behavior of an object, known in Java
terminology as variables and methods.
3. After exploring the internal workings of objects, I take a closer look at encapsulation, the
interface each object has, and the messages objects send to each other.
4. Next, I’ll ease into modularity, which lets us change the internal variables of an object, and
classification, which lets us define the external properties of objects.
5. Finally, I’ll take a look at inheritance—a powerful OOP capability that lets you use existing
objects to construct new ones.
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Keep in mind that the concepts we’ll cover are not unique to Java; they are fundamental to the practice
of object-oriented software development. However, although the concepts are the same, the actual terms
vary among languages. For instance, in Java, the behavior of an object is implemented using methods,
while C++ calls them member functions.
Because this book focuses on Java, I present all object-oriented terms and concepts to you as they are
formally known in the Java language. And because I suspect that the majority of people reading this
have had experience with C and/or C++, I point out similarities between Java’s object-oriented
implementation and those languages as much as possible.
Object-Oriented Terminology
Superficially, object-oriented means nothing more than looking at the world in terms of objects. In life,
we are surrounded by objects: clothes, dishes, appliances, pets, cars, bikes, computers, friends,
neighbors, and so on (see Figure 2-1).
Figure 2-1: In life, we are surrounded by objects.
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Java Bible:Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Each of these objects has traits that we use to identify them. For instance, my cat is a black short hair
with a white crest on his chest. Harley can further be identified by his green eyes and the extra two toes
he has on each paw (that’s right, seven toes per paw—it looks a little funny, but doesn’t seem to bother
him).
Harley is also incessantly hungry, no matter how often I feed the little fellow. The fact that he’s hungry
helps identify him. When a friend drops by for lunch, it’s not uncommon for me to say, “Keep your eyes
on your sandwich, or the hungry one will get to it.” By saying “the hungry one,” I’ve identified Harley
as opposed to Bennett, the other cat likely to be rubbing up against my guest’s leg.
While I’m at it, allow me to identify the Bennett object as well. Bennett is the yin to Harley’s yang:
She’s pure white, has blue eyes and the softest fur l’ve ever known a cat to have. She’s sweet and gentle,
whereas Harley’s a holy terror. Bennett prefers to snuggle up and sleep on my chest while the hungry
one holds the rest of the house hostage in search of food.
Interesting, perhaps, but what do my cats have to do with object-oriented programming?
What I’ve done is identify two objects according to what they look like and how they act. How about
another rousing example?
I live in a city, so two more objects I deal with every day are the subway train and/or taxicab I take to
work. The subway train object is underground, about 200 feet long, and holds about 100 people in each
of its four sections. It is slow, noisy, and not very comfortable, but is relatively inexpensive to ride to
work. A taxicab, on the other hand, is about 12 feet long, runs above ground on four wheels, holds only
me and the driver, and is fast, quiet, and comfortable by comparison. Unfortunately, the cost of a taxi
ride to the office is about ten times that of the train.
Fascinating, huh? Well, not really, but the point is that I’m able to easily identify objects by their traits.
In object-oriented programming, the object is essential. It is the focus of the entire process, and the cause
for much confusion among procedural programmers. Procedural programmers are accustomed to writing
procedures that act upon data. They write functions that manipulate and produce data. They do not think
in terms of objects because they don’t need to. But in object-oriented programming, the object is at the
heart of everything.
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Object-oriented programmers look at the world in terms of objects. They see how objects look, how they
act, and how they interact with other objects. When developing software, they create entities in code
known as objects. These code objects contain traits, just as their real-world counterparts do.
As with real-life objects, programming objects contain details that list their characteristics. The object
Harley, for instance, could contain the following details:
• Black, short hair
• White crest on his chest
• Green eyes
• Four legs
• Seven toes per paw
• Always hungry
• Eats Whiskas Seaside Supper
• Sleeps on the bed
• Jumps from couch to table
• Scratches the curtains...
Clearly, this list could go on forever—the number of his whiskers, his length, shape, medical history,
and so on. What we have to do is abstract the data we think will be relevant.
Just as the preceding list enables us to identify the object Harley, software objects contain details that
define how they appear, what knowledge they contain, and how they behave. The purpose of software
objects is to combine data (regarding appearance and knowledge) and behavior into a nifty package, just
as objects in the real world do.
Software objects have special names for these traits: state and behavior. We will consider this
distinction in a moment, but let’s first turn to the need for abstraction.
Abstraction
“Everything essential and nothing more” is about the cleanest definition of abstraction I can think of.
Consider Harley. His essential functions are eating, sleeping, and creating chaos; everything else is
merely a detail that gets those functions done.
Humans are great at abstraction; as Figure 2-2 illustrates, it’s something we do naturally. When I hop in
the driver’s seat of my car, I don’t think about the power train, axle, tires, radiator, engine, fan belt, and
all the other things that make it possible for me to drive. Heck no, I think about the essential function of
the car—to get me from A to B—as I whip down the back streets and open roads of Boston.
Not having to consider the finer details of its inner workings enables me to concentrate on the tasks at
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hand—driving and keeping my eyes peeled for traffic cops. Abstraction enables me to focus on the
essential and ignore the nonessential. It frees me to think of the bigger picture.
Figure 2-2: Abstraction is part of human nature.
When creating software objects, we must apply this principle of abstraction. We must consider what the
essence of each object is and not think at all about the details of implementation or other elements that
distract from the process.
Even though we do it in the course of our everyday lives, abstraction can be difficult to do consciously if
we’re accustomed to thinking in terms of procedural programming. But without abstraction, our objects
will be stuffed full of data and behavior that doesn’t really belong there. Ideally, during the process of
abstraction, we don’t even consider implementation. We focus on the objects involved in solving a
problem and their relation to one another long before the details of coding become important. Indeed,
software objects enable us to more closely model problems, because problems are made up of either real
or conceptual objects.
We must first identify the essential functions of the object, and then select only the data relevant to those
functions. In Harley’s case, he has three distinct functions: eating, sleeping, and creating mayhem.
Accordingly, I can abstract details essential to those functions and reject the rest:
• Always hungry
• Eats Whiskas Seaside Supper
• Sleeps on the bed
• Jumps from couch to table
• Scratches the curtains
In this way, we can easily identify objects by their traits, as illustrated in Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3: Identifying objects by their traits
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Combining state and behavior
A key concept of object-oriented programming is the capability to represent both data and the functions
that operate on that data in one software bundle known as an object. By placing all data and the
functions that operate on it inside a bundle of code, we create something unique. The data and functions
that make up a software object are known as state and behavior.
Looking at the essential details of Harley, for example, both state and behavior emerge. But it’s not just
Harley we need to consider; every object contains state and behavior:
• State is what the object knows or looks like. In the case of a cat object, the state is its fur color
and texture, eye color, breed, personality, and so on.
• Behavior, on the other hand, is how the object acts. Meowing, scratching, rubbing, begging for
food, and the like are examples of behavior.
Although an object’s state and behavior change over time, together they form the identity of that object,
as you can see in Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4: Together, an object’s state and behavior identify it.
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Java Bible:Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Objects contain only state and behavior that are appropriate for them. For instance, a cat object doesn’t
have any need to understand how much to charge for every mile it travels, as a taxicab object does. The
cat object contains only those things that apply to a cat, while the taxicab object contains only those
things that apply to a taxicab. They are self-contained.
Figure 2-5 shows a generic way to illustrate objects. This representation is intentionally amorphous—a
blob of information containing state on the inside surrounded by behavior. Although a number of
techniques are possible for illustrating objects, I chose this one because it is clean, simple, and easy to
understand. The idea is that state is hidden from the outside world, something only the object itself can
change. An object’s behavior, in fact, is the only thing that can alter that object’s state. In this sense,
state is protected.
Figure 2-5: State is hidden from the rest of the world; only the behavior of the object can change it.
For instance, if Harley is hungry, only when he eats will the feeling of hunger subside. Yes, his ability to
get food depends on other factors too, but in the final analysis, it’s his behavior that changes his state. If
he doesn’t eat, he’ll stay hungry. If he eats, the state of hunger is changed into a state of comfort. From
an OOP perspective, only Harley can change his state.
Variables and methods
In Java, an object’s state consists of variables, while behavior is implemented as functions called
methods (see Figure 26). The combination of variables and methods together maintains state and
behavior. The idea of variables and methods is nothing new, although you’re probably accustomed to
referring to functions rather than methods. The only thing new here is how the two are combined into a
single object.
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Procedural programmers are used to writing functions that sit out in the open, to be called upon
whenever needed, whereas object-oriented programmers embed those functions inside objects. Say, for
example, you were to write a procedural program in any language that modeled the behavior of Harley.
After you got over the shock of being asked to write a program simulating my cat, you’d probably start
by spending a few moments thinking about him.
You know he has fur and that it’s of a specific color. You also know he has four legs, each having a paw
with seven toes. (Some of you may think this is the mark of the devil, and after living with this little
monster for the past few years, so do I—but that’s another story.)
Figure 2-6: An object consists of variables and methods.
After thinking about it for a while, you’d realize that only some of the possible variables really apply to
the simulation. Variables such as hungry, thirsty, awake, asleep, and the like are more closely related to
Harley’s behavior than are the purely physical ones. You might write them down on a piece of paper or
type them into your computer.
In fact, you’d probably start coding right off the bat, perhaps beginning with the global variables that
apply to Harley. Maybe you’d combine them into a structure for the sake of convenience, maybe not.
You’d then consider the things in Harley’s life that affect this data. For instance, when he’s hungry, he
eats. After he eats, he becomes sleepy and eventually finds a warm spot to snooze while his food digests.
Upon waking, he has a burst of energy and burns up the food by running around the house, leaping from
chair to couch to kitchen table like a lunatic—at which point he becomes hungry again. Come to think of
it, that’s all Harley ever does....
In a procedural world, you would write a bunch of functions (the equivalent of object methods) that
could be called from anywhere as needed, including Eat(), Seep(), and GoCrazy(), each capable of altering
the global data or data passed in when called. In effect, you would be creating each procedure in
Harley’s life that applies to this simulation. In the end, you would have a bunch of data (either globals,
structures, or a combination of the two) and a bunch of functions. You’d also have an event loop of
some sort that runs continually, calling functions such as Eat() as specific events are encountered or when
conditions such as Hungry=TRUE trigger such actions.
In an object-oriented approach, we spend a whole lot less time writing code and a whole lot more time
defining the objects themselves. We think about Harley in terms of an object, attempting to model our
code after him as closely as possible. In this sense, he isn’t a collection of data and routines residing in
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different files. As Figure 2-7 demonstrates, we create an object containing all variables and methods
having to do with him.
Figure 2-7: We define the object’s variables and methods.
OOP is therefore unlike procedural programming, where data can be accessed and modified by any
function. Instead, data residing inside an object is surrounded by the methods of that object, protected
from direct manipulation.
In Java, methods consist of three parts:
• The name of the object to receive the message
• The name of the method to execute
• Optional parameters required by the method
In the case of my troublesome feline, the name of the object is
Harley
the name of the method to execute is
eat
and the parameter required by the method is
catfood
Taken all together, Harley’s method would be invoked as follows:
Harley.eat(catfood):
The preceding is known as dot notation, and it is similar to how a C programmer would access an
element in a struct. A period, or dot, is used to separate the object (appearing to the left) from the
method and any parameters it may require. Here, when the object Harley receives the message eat
catfood, his eat method is invoked with catfood as a parameter. In Java, as with other object-oriented
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languages, dot notation is the standard mechanism for executing methods inside objects.
As mentioned previously, only the methods of an object can change that object’s data. This powerful
concept is called encapsulation, and it is central to object-oriented programming.
Encapsulation (information hiding)
The idea of hiding data inside an object, making it unavailable to anything but that object’s methods, is
known as encapsulation (also called information hiding). Encapsulation extends to the implementation
of methods themselves, meaning that the details of an object’s inner workings are never available to
anything but the object itself.
Encapsulation is very powerful because it permits objects to operate completely independently of each
other as discrete, self-contained bundles of data and code. The only way to access information in an
object is through its methods; these form an interface (see the next section) that remains consistent to the
world outside of the object.
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Java Bible:Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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But encapsulation doesn’t apply only to data; it also pertains to the implementation details of the
methods themselves, without concern for other objects (and frequently comes into play as such routines
are optimized, updated to fix bugs, or rewritten altogether). Because objects have an interface through
which they communicate, the underlying data and implementation details are hidden and protected.
Thanks to encapsulation, both data and implementation can change without breaking the system. In fact,
entire objects can be replaced with new objects, assuming the interface is the same.
Encapsulation prevents objects from becoming dependent on each other’s inner details, because
otherwise small changes could cause tremendous damage to the overall system. Bug fixes, code
optimization, and entire code rewrites are possible because of encapsulation.
Think of encapsulation in terms of your computer. When you upgrade the hard drive, RAM, or the CPU,
you don’t have to worry about how upgrading affects your ability to interact with your system. Sure, it
will have more storage capacity, be able to run more programs at the same time, and be faster; that’s
why you upgraded. But you don’t depend on the internals of your computer to interact with it. You can
swap these out as needed without disturbing other parts of the system and causing your computer to
come to a grinding halt. This is the power of encapsulation; the internal details of objects are hidden so
that their underlying implementation can change without breaking the system.
Encapsulation makes it possible for you to treat objects like discrete “black boxes.” Each object
performs a specific function, and you don’t have to be concerned about internal implementation.
Conceptually, information goes in one end of a black box and comes out the other. We don’t know or
care what’s going on inside; we only know what we can put into the box and what it will give back. You
can see this process in Figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8: Encapsulation enables objects to be treated like discrete “black boxes.”
We can string together any number of black boxes, each performing a specific task, to build as large and
complex a system as we need. And, thanks to encapsulation, we can even tinker with the internals of any
black box without crashing the works. Better yet, we can replace whole black boxes with better black
boxes as they are developed. The entire system is modular, much like the internals of the computer
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itself, as illustrated in Figure 2-9.
Figure 2-9: Encapsulation enables us to change and string together individual objects with a great deal
of freedom.
Interfaces
Software objects are complex on the inside, just as their real-world counterparts are. On the outside,
however, software objects are uncomplicated. They provide a simple interface to their data and behavior,
through which other objects can interact with them. Think for a moment of a television set. Inside, it’s a
mess of electrical components: a picture tube, one or more speakers, and all kinds of stuff I have no idea
how to deal with. But thanks to my remote control, I don’t need to know anything about the complex
innards to enjoy using it.
My remote control is the interface to my television, enabling me to communicate with it. l can turn it off
or on, change channels, turn the volume up or down, and even adjust the picture’s horizontal and vertical
holds, tint, and hue (fancy remote, huh?). With the remote control, which is itself an object (for which
the buttons are the interface), I am able to get functionality from my television without messing around
with the guts of the system.
Objects interact with each other through similar interfaces all the time. One object produces a response
in reaction to the messages it gets from another object. This is just like my cat. Opening a can of cat food
and putting it in front of Harley’s face triggers specific behavior. Objects send messages to each other,
setting off behavior, as shown in Figure 2-10. Using dot notation, as explained in the “Variables and
methods” section earlier in this chapter, a good deal of the Java code you write involves sending
messages to objects.
Figure 2-10: Objects trigger behavior between each other by sending messages.
Messages: Objects communicating with objects
With a software program full of objects, each only able to access and modify its own data through its
own methods, how does anything ever get done? After all, it does begin to sound as if we have a bunch
of well-defined entities that are very lonely in the world, capable of interacting only with themselves. A
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highly introspective, if not entirely isolated, group of software objects, yes?
No. Objects aren’t ships lost at sea, out of radio contact. They have the ability to send messages to each
other, thereby triggering the execution of methods inside each other, as Figure 2-11 demonstrates.
Figure 2-11: A message sent from one object to another triggers a method inside the target object.
Think of a microwave oven. In and of itself, your microwave doesn’t do much but sit there waiting to be
called into action. When you want to heat up some food, you put the food inside and close the door. You
then send the microwave a message, such as “Heat for two minutes at full power,” by pressing the
appropriate buttons on the front. Because you’re using the interface provided with the microwave—the
buttons on the front—your message is understood and carried out.
You must send messages in accordance with the interface of an object or your message won’t be
understood. For instance, you might try using your television’s remote control on the microwave and
send the message “Change to Channel 25 and turn up the volume,” but you’ll wait an awfully long time
before Homer Simpson appears!
In object-oriented programming, objects are constantly communicating with each other through a
complex web of messages, as illustrated in Figure 2-12. Not only are the messages sent by objects able
to trigger the execution of methods inside other objects, they can also contain parameters that those
methods require.
Figure 2-12: Objects weave a complex web of messages to communicate with each other.
Following our television analogy, sending the message “Change station to Channel 25” to the television
object might look something like this in Java code:
Television.changeStation(25);
The television object, Television, receives the message changeStation with 25 as a parameter. The period, or
dot, separating the object and message is intentional. In most object-oriented languages, as with Java, the
object receiving the message is on the left and the message is on the right. The dot sits between the
object and the message, with no spaces, and in effect says, “Send the message on my right to the object
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on my left.”
In our example, keep in mind that messages contain the name of the method to execute. When the object
Television receives a message such as the one illustrated, it looks inside itself for a method named
changeStation. If such a method exists, it is executed, with a value of 25 as the parameter.
The beautiful thing about messages is that they are generic, in the sense that any object can send a
message to any other object, even if they exist in different programs or on entirely different computer
systems. Objects existing on the Internet halfway around the world can send and receive messages to or
from any other objects over the Internet. This is the capability that makes distributed objects possible,
and you will see it more and more as software programs begin to “live” on networks.
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Java Bible:Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Modularity
We have seen that objects contain both variables and methods, that they are encapsulated, and that they
can send messages to each other through interfaces. Because data and behavior are neatly packaged
inside objects, and because the only way to access data is through the interface defined by the methods,
you can change the internal workings of an object without breaking the rest of the system. The result is a
major benefit to the software developer: modularity.
Modularity is based on discrete programming objects, which you can change without affecting the
system as a whole, and it is greatly enhanced by encapsulation. You develop and maintain each object’s
source code independently of other objects, and the only way to access and change information inside an
object is through methods. This represents true code modularity.
Not only can you change the implementation details of an object without affecting any other part of the
system, but you can replace or rewrite entire objects from the ground up, as long as the interface doesn’t
change or inheritance isn’t abused in the method.
Think of it in terms of electrical wiring. Each wire in an electrical system is connected to the others in a
predefined way: It has an interface. These interfaces differ (wall sockets, adapters, surge protectors, and
so on), but each piece of wiring has one. Additionally, each wire is designed to fit perfectly within the
context of the system as a whole. It is created with a special purpose in mind, reflected in its length,
material, and type of interface.
When a wire breaks or begins to corrode and to perish, an electrician comes to the rescue. He or she
locates the piece of the system causing the problem and replaces it with another. No muss, no fuss.
Assuming our electrician has the wire needed, it’s replaced then and there. One wire is removed and
another put in its place. Because the interface for the wires is consistent, the process is simple and
painless.
Our electrician doesn’t have to worry about creating a wire from scratch; he or she can rely on one
having been created specifically for the job. This is the beauty of modularity, be it in electrical wiring or
software development: You can yank out one part and put in another without bringing down the whole
system (see Figure 2-13).
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Figure 2-13: An object-oriented software system is as modular as an electrical system in a house.
Classification
Classification, grouping things according to how they look and act, is another key concept in object-
oriented programming. In the real world, everything is classified. We put things into classes to help us
better understand and remember what their general properties are. Cadillacs are in the automobile class,
ferns are in the Filicales class, trout are in the Salmonidae class, and we are in the Homo sapiens class.
In object-oriented programming we classify things as well, specifically objects. We group them into
classes according to their characteristics. Classes and objects go hand in hand and are so similar that
programmers often use the two terms interchangeably. You’ll find a distinct difference between them,
however.
Classes are the blueprints, the source-code templates from which objects are created. You can see this in
Figure 2-14. These blueprints contain all of the programming code describing state and behavior. They
contain all the variables and methods an object will possess.
When we think of objects, we tend to think of conceptual entities that contain both state and behavior
and are able to communicate by way of messages. In fact, an object cannot exist without a class that first
defines the variables, methods, and interfaces that the object will have. Each and every object is created,
or instantiated, from a class.
It might help to think of objects and classes in terms of C structs and variables derived from those
structs. A struct defines a group of data types, from which a programmer can create any number of
variables (memory permitting, of course). For example, the following C struct defines a basic Point
structure:
struct Point {
int h; /* horizontal coordinate */
int v; /* vertical coordinate */
};
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This struct could be regarded as a class; it’s the template from which new Point variables are created:
Point myPt, anotherPoint, yetAnother; /* just making my Points!
*/
In this example, we’ve created three different variables, all having the same structure. We have, in
essence, created objects from a template. This is exactly the purpose that classes serve; they are
templates from which objects are created.
Figure 2-14: Classes are the code templates from which objects are created.
Classes, however, don’t just define data types. They also define methods, giving the object its behavior
and an interface through which that object communicates with other objects. In Java, a class definition
has the following form:
class name {
. . . instance variables . . .
. . . method declarations . . .
}
Although you can declare your methods first and the instance variables last, it’s good coding practice to
follow the preceding model. The Java keyword class begins the definition for a class. You provide the
class with a name (such as Point). The variables and methods of the class are enclosed in the curly braces
({}) that begin and end the class definition block.
Let’s take a look at the structure of Point, this time written as a Java class. The variables representing
horizontal and vertical would be the same, but we might also want to include a method for setting these
variables and one each for retrieving the value of these variables:
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class Point {
private int h; /* horizontal coordinate */
private int v; /* vertical coordinate */
public void setPoint (int newH, iht newV) {
h = newH;
v = newV;
}
public int getH() {
return (h);
}
public int getV() {
return (v);
}
}
Now, this certainly has a lot more meat than the C struct we created, and for good reason. The Point class
contains three methods: setPoint() to set the horizontal and vertical integer variables; getH() to retrieve the
horizontal variable; and getV() to retrieve the vertical variable. Fair enough, but what’s going on with the
keywords private and public?
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Java Bible:Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Private versus public
Remember that objects have the capability to encapsulate, or hide, their data. No need exists for other
objects to access the variables of a Point object directly, thus they are both declared as private when we
create our class. The only way to set or retrieve this data is through a Point object’s public methods,
which any other object can do by simply sending a message. Which leads me to the issue of
instantiation, the act of creating an object from a class.
Java provides four levels of access control: public, protected, private, and friendly. Each of
these is discussed in Chapter 7, “Getting Started: HelloWorld Application and HelloWorld
Applet,” and Chapter 13, “Classes, Interfaces, and Packages.”
Instantiation
Until we create an object from our new class, nothing is really going on. Before we can work with an
object, we must instantiate one:
Point myPt = new Point(); /* instantiate myPoint object */
The preceding line of code creates an object named myPt from the Point class we created earlier; in other
words, it creates an instance of the Point object. The new operator followed by Point() creates an object of
class Point in memory, to which the myPt variable now refers. The new Point() part is necessary because
the new operator is required to instantiate an object from a class. Following new is what’s known as a
constructor, a special method that initializes an object (gives value to it at the beginning of its lifetime).
The combination of the new operator and the Point() constructor effectively creates (in memory) and
initializes the object to which myPt now refers.
Now, let’s suppose we want to do something with the object we’ve just created. How about setting the
horizontal and vertical coordinates, and then, just for fun, we can retrieve and copy them into local
variables:
myPt.setPoint(145,124); /* set the h and v variables */
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int theHorizontal = myPt.getH(); /* get myPt h value, and assign
to a variable */
int theVertical = myPt.getV(); /* get myPt v value, and assign to
a variable */
So, what we have done in this set of examples should be pretty clear by now:
1. We created a class named Point, which had instance variables h and v and three methods: one
to set the variables; the other two to retrieve them.
2. We then instantiated an object, myPt, of class Point.
3. We set the instance variables of our new object, and then retrieved each and assigned it to a
local variable (theHorizontal was set to 145 while theVertical was set to 124).
Although this is a relatively simple example of creating and using a class in Java, it should help to put
the concepts of objects and classes into the proper perspective. Later in this book you’ll create much
more substantial classes, from which sophisticated objects will be brought to life. And thanks to another
powerful OOP concept, inheritance, you’ll be able to draw life from existing classes. If this sounds like a
trailer for the movie Dawn of the Living Dead, read on.
Inheritance
It’s time we got to the real meat of the matter of OOP: inheritance. Inheritance is arguably the most
powerful feature of any object-oriented language, as it makes it possible to reuse code as never before.
When we speak of classes and classification, we mean things that can be grouped together in accordance
with specific traits. Harley is a member of the Fells class, you and I are members of the Homo sapiens
class, and so on. But what’s the real advantage to classification in software programming?
Inheritance, my Homo sapiens friend.
Once a class has been created, the general, all-purpose state and behavior for ali objects to be derived
from that class are defined. For example, suppose I create a class called TimePiece.TimePiece is an
abstraction of the concept of keeping track of time. In it, I have a variable called Time (surprise,
surprise). I also have two methods, one to set the time (SetTime), and one to display it (Display Time).
These are set out in Figure 2-15.
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Figure 2-15: Class Time Piece, showing its variable and methods
This is all well and good, but what’s important to understand is that all objects I create using TimePiece
will have a Time variable and SetTime/DisplayTime methods. This means I can create a bunch of different
TimePiece objects, such as a wristwatch, alarm clock, or grandfather clock, and each inherits the traits of
the TimePiece class. This means I don’t have to write new methods for each type of clock I create, as
shown in Figure 2-16.
Figure 2-16: All objects of the class Time Piece inherit its variables and methods.
Suppose that I recognize the need for an alarm as well. I could add an alarm method to the TimePiece
class, and each new object created using TimePiece would then come with an alarm. Or, I could simply
use TimePiece as the basis for an entirely new class, which I’il call TimeAlarm Piece.
While this new class automatically inherits the variables and methods of TimePiece, I can add entirely
new variables and methods to it as I wish. Thanks to inheritance, I can create an entirely new subclass of
TimePiece that has all the traits of its superclass, plus whatever capabilities I add. You can see the
relationship between subclass and superclass in Figure 2-17.
Figure 2-17: Creating a subclass makes Time Piece a superclass.
Reusable code
This capability to reuse existing code to create new objects is a profound feature of OOP; the only new
code I have to write is that needed for the alarm. The TimePiece code comes for free; I’m reusing it to
create an entirely new class that understands alarms.
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The result is a dramatic increase in proficiency; the new class is up and running in a fraction of the time
it would take to write it from scratch. And, to further dramatize the power of inheritance, I can use the
new TimeAalarmPiece class to create any number of objects that require both time and an alarm. Any
object instantiated from the TimeAlarmPiece class automatically knows how to deal with both time and
alarms.
To add even more drama to the concept of inheritance, we’ll take it one step further and extend the
TimeAlarmPiece class to create an entirely new class capable of dealing with time, alarms, and
mathematical calculations. That’s right, we can create a subclass of the TimeAlarmPiece subclass and get
all the time and alarm traits for free. We need only add code to handle calculations, and voilà, we have a
class from which we can create a wristwatch that tells the time, sets and sounds an alarm, and calculates
the excessive cost of our electricity bill.
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Java Bible:Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Class hierarchy/inheritance tree
As a class is extended through subclassing, the resulting objects become more and more specialized.
A class hierarchy, or inheritance tree, refers to the family of classes that result from the act of
subclassing. At the top level, the class is generic; it becomes more specialized as it goes down. A class
hierarchy often resembles the roots of a tree, with offshoots at many levels, as shown in Figure 2-18.
Warning!
Because object-oriented programming lends itself so beautifully to the concept of inheritance, things can
quickly grow out of control if you give subclasses to a class without considerable thought. It is very
difficult to determine precisely which aspects of state and behavior the class should have, and which
should be added only into subclasses.
Without foresight and proper design considerations, object-oriented systems can run rampant, like
multiplying bacteria in a warm petri dish. It’s for these reasons that the practice of object-oriented
analysis (OOA) and object-oriented design (OOD) have become as important to serious software
development as object-oriented programming itself.
Figure 2-18: A class hierarchy
Object-Oriented Analysis and Object-Oriented Design
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Java Bible:Object-Oriented Programming and Terminology
“In OOA, we seek to model the world by identifying the classes and objects that form the vocabulary of
the problem domain,’ and in OOD, we invent the abstractions and mechanisms that provide the
behavior that this model requires. “—Grady Booch
It is very easy to become entangled in object-oriented programming because of the technology’s flexible
nature. For this reason, professional software engineers such as Grady Booch and James Rumbaugh are
attempting to establish a standard way of applying object-oriented techniques to software development.
Object-oriented analysis (OOA) and object-oriented design (OOD) ensure that object-oriented
programming is done with foresight and in the best way possible for each problem we attempt to
resolve. Programming comes only after a thorough analysis of the problem and the careful design of a
solution.
Notation method
One aspect of OOA/OOD is having a notation method. A notation method provides a way for us to map
out a program on paper, whiteboard, or other media before committing it to code. It serves much the
same purpose as flowcharts do for procedural programming—it gives us a visual idea of how everything
works without the need for actual code.
Once we have decided how we want to subdivide our classes and objects (variables, methods, and
interfaces), a notation method lets us represent them and their often complex relationships with other
objects. The Booch Method is one popular notation method, although it is only one of many.
I won’t assert that you need to adopt object-oriented analysis and object-oriented design methodologies
in order to learn OOP. That’s simply not the case. In fact, you can begin programming in Java without
even learning object-oriented programming, if you really want to. But in reality, you’re much better off
learning about object-oriented analysis and object-oriented design while learning the language. You may
find them of no use to you at this point, or exceptionally helpful. It depends on what you want to do with
Java and how you plan to use the language. Either way, it’s worth checking out as you get deeper into
Java programming. A great place to learn more about object-oriented programming is at Ricardo Devis’s
Object-Oriented Page at http://www.well.com/user/ritchi/oo.html. It contains a number of links to sites
all over the Web that focus on object-oriented programming and methodologies.
Summary
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is the foundation of the Java programming language. You need to
understand the concepts of OOP before you jump into Java.
• OOP is based on a few key concepts: abstraction, states, behavior, variables, methods, and
encapsulation (information hiding).
• OOP uses object interfaces to communicate with the outside world.
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• Inheritance is one of the most powerful features of object-oriented programming—because it
enables you to reuse your code.
• Object-oriented programming is just the tip of the iceberg—object-oriented analysis (OOA)
and object-oriented design (OOD) techniques help you create and manage your object-oriented
development projects.
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Java Bible:Applet Design Basics
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 3
Applet Design Basics
In This Chapter
Designing Java applications for the Web — applets
Designing applets and their interfaces
Integrating images and sound into your Java applets
Taking system considerations into account before coding your application
Accessing files and network resources from your applets
Managing your Java applet source code
Before diving in and writing your first Java applet, it’s important to first consider the design of applets.
By “design,” I not only mean the overall design — how it looks, what it does, how it interacts with the
webber, and so forth — but also the internal organization of the source code needed to create the applet
in the first place.
Although discussing design concepts before covering the language may seem akin to putting the cart
before the horse, in truth it’s not as off-the-wall as you might at first think. Since many programmers are
likely to be up and running with Java in no time, there’s no telling whether they’ll bother to read the
various chapters in this book before cranking out functional applets and putting them on the Web for the
world to see and use.
So, I’m discussing design issues here rather than at the end of the book, with the hope that if you take
the time to skim this chapter before reading on, much of it will sink in and stick with you along the way.
If you’re whipping out applets within 24 hours of picking up this book, as many experienced C and C++
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programmers will be doing, be sure to consider the design guidelines presented here, even if you don’t
need to read every chapter that follows.
And, aside from the practical issue of catching you before you surf off into the sunset with Java and
browser in tow, there’s another reason for discussing design basics here: Because I won’t discuss
implementation details at all, I can paint an overall portrait — in broad strokes — of the things you’ll
learn by reading the rest of this book.
In the coming chapters, you’ll read in detail about the various features of the Java language and learn
how to create your own executable Web content. By covering each major topic in a separate chapter, I
hope to get right to the meat (artichoke heart, if you’re a vegetarian) of each feature. I’ve laid out the
book in a linear fashion, proceeding from topic to topic as you might encounter them were you to
explore the language on your own with little more than a vague idea of what it held in store.
If you didn’t get an overview in this chapter first, a significant and unreasonable burden would land
squarely on your shoulders: To understand each of the basic design issues before releasing an applet
upon our global village, you’d have to read the entire book from front to back!
To ease this burden, this chapter gives you a “sneak peek” at topics and issues well in advance of
actually exploring them. You’ll gain a better understanding of what applets can and cannot do, what they
should and shouldn’t do, and what you can expect as challenges to your programming prowess. By
taking the time here and now to consider applet design, you might save your forehead the pain of being
beaten against the keyboard out of frustration later on.
Get Started by Walking Away from the Computer
Today, with midnight hacking in vogue, sleepless nights at the keyboard an honorable living, and cutting
every conceivable corner to get products to market on schedule being the mantra of many software
companies, taking time to put ideas on paper may seem a bit old-fashioned. But no matter how you slice
it, sketching out your programs in advance will save you a great deal of time in the long run (see Figure
3-1).
And I’m not talking flowcharts here. I am merely suggesting that the time you take to step away from
the keyboard and place your ideas on that flat white stuff you had consigned to the garbage can of
history will more than pay for itself when it comes to implementation. If you’re an experienced
programmer, chances are you already follow a design process for projects before even beginning to
code. And if you’re new to programming, it’s a good habit to get into.
Since Java is an object-oriented programming (OOP) language, your programs will consist of objects
that interact with each other. As you learned in Chapter 2, objects can be easily represented on paper as
“amorphous blobs that do something.”
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By taking the time to work out the “blobs” and how they interact with one another on paper, you’ll save
yourself a good deal of wasted implementation effort. Much like the master artist who sketches
renditions of a masterpiece before — and even during its creation — you’ll have an opportunity to refine
your programs on an abstract level before committing to a single line of code.
Figure 3-1: Taking the time to sketch out the design of your applet and the relationships of its objects
can save time down the road.
Once you begin to code, you’re essentially strapping yourself into a straitjacket; your initial attempt may
not turn out to be the best solution after all, and it might even strangle your good intentions in the end.
Without sketching the program in advance, you’ll barrel ahead and almost certainly make a mess of the
code, since you won’t give adequate time to considering the various classes you’ll be coding and the
objects they give birth to. Certainly, the most simple of programs won’t be an issue, but try and
implement larger applets off the cuff, and you’ll find yourself looking at a mighty unattractive spaghetti
dinner of code, when all is said and done.
Sketching a user interface
Aside from sketching your applet objects and their relationship with each other, it’s also crucial to put
on paper the user interface (UI) your applet will require. Notice I didn’t say graphical user interface
(GUI), which tends to be limited to windowing elements (buttons, scroll bars, windows, dialogs, and the
like). Instead, I’m referring to the interface at large: Precisely what will the webber experience when he
or she encounters your applet?
This is all-encompassing, and not limited to windowing elements. Everything a person will see or hear
when using your applet is part of the UI. And yes, I do mean hear. Since applets can play sound with as
little as one line of code, you must consider what audio yours will support (if any) and how that fits in
with the rest of the program.
Again, there’s no need to whip out a slide rule and sweat out the exact details. You need only sketch the
UI your applet will support to get a better idea of how it will look and sound to those who use it. Rather
than waste time coding elements that you might later reorganize or omit altogether, you should work
through the UI of an applet before committing to a single line of code.
As a general rule, I prefer to sketch the UI before anything else is done. Typically, I let an idea for a
program rattle around for a while, thinking through the details of what it should look like and how it
should act. Once I’ve roughed it out in my head for a few days, or longer, I then begin to sketch out the
user interface.
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Java Bible:Applet Design Basics
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Invariably, I discover things I’ve left out or want to drop that I would never have noticed in a purely
mental design. If you go straight to code relying only on loosely organized thoughts, you will likely start
in the wrong direction and waste a great deal of time. Instead, it pays to take the UI ideas you’re
considering out of your mind and place them on paper. Once there, you can tweak, massage, and rework
them as much as necessary, since this is an iterative process (and one that you might spend a lot of time
with if you’re anything like me).
Once I’m satisfied with the UI, I sketch out the various objects the program needs. This may take several
attempts or be a quick and surprisingly easy process. Whatever the case, before I begin so much as a line
of code, I know a great deal about what my program will ultimately look like and what code I have to
write to get it there.
Contrast this approach with diving into code head-first like a manic surfer on the beach at Maui who
can’t wait to get into the water (which, I admit, I sometimes do when overcome with excitement for a
particular project). Despite my best efforts and the most honest intentions, I’m almost never satisfied
with programs I develop in this manner, and I often spend a great deal of time trying to get them right.
The code may look and act as it’s supposed to on the surface, but under the covers is another matter
altogether.
The programs you create without taking the time to think things through will be much less elegant, and
even downright ugly, when compared to their well-considered counterparts. Worse still, they’re typically
inflexible and much more difficult to maintain than they should be. Except in cases where the program is
a “one-off” effort (made for a special purpose that won’t require an upgrade, and won’t find itself in the
hands of customers), you’ll eventually need to rewrite most, if not all, of the code to bring it up to snuff.
Unless you’re writing such disposable programs, do yourself a tremendous favor and spend the
necessary “up-front” time placing your ideas on paper and working through the overall design of your
projects before committing to code. You won’t be sorry.
Giving the Webber Control
When designing your applets, it’s a good idea to remember that every person who encounters them will
have a different opinion about what is and isn’t cool. Although a thumping background soundtrack and
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spinning disco balls on a Web page may seem like the ultimate multimedia experience to you, not
everyone will agree.
Whenever you choose to add nifty features such as looping soundtracks (audio that plays continuously
by starting over when the end is reached), loud sounds, and animation, you need to give users a way to
turn off the ones they don’t like. For example, the webber might turn off an animation by clicking it,
stop a looping soundtrack by clicking a button, or mute all audio sources at once by clicking another
button.
Exactly how you give the user control is your business. Sometimes buttons aren’t possible, and so you
might consider a less obvious interface element, such as a check box or simply a mouse click. However
you do it, give visitors a choice and let them know how to control the various elements of your applet.
After all, webbers aren’t likely to come back if they’re annoyed by your creative use of Java.
Mouse control
There are two aspects to consider with regard to the mouse control: single or double clicks, and single or
multiple buttons.
Single clicks
For most applets, the mouse is the primary control mechanism. You can easily determine if it has been
clicked, released, moved, or even been clicked and dragged without first being released. In contrast, you
can’t easily determine if a double-click has occurred.
Java doesn’t support double-clicking, so you’ll have to write your own code to calculate the time
between each click and determine if such an event has occurred. Although writing such code isn’t
difficult, it’s a bad idea. The Web is, by design, a single-click navigation system. Not only will use of
double-clicking confuse the webber, but it breaks with the tradition of the Web.
As a result, you should design your applet around single clicks, and unless it’s absolutely necessary,
eliminate double clicks altogether.
If you must have support for double clicks in your applet, look in the JavaWorld Topical Index
in the JavaWorld archive provided on the accompanying CD-ROM, under Tips and Tricks.
There you’ll find information in double-click support.
Single button
Java originally supported only a one-button mouse. Since JDK 1.1, Java has supported up to three mouse
buttons, enabling more sophisticated mouse control. This might sound like a good feature to add to your
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Java programs, but you’ll find it’s not always a good idea.
If you design your applet to understand and respond to specific mouse buttons, you’ll be cutting a large
population of Web users out of the loop. Instead, use the keyboard to modify a mouse click. For
example, when the mouse is clicked and no keys are pressed, treat it as a standard mouse event. When
the mouse is clicked and the Shift key is pressed, treat it as you would a special mouse button. Of
course, you’re not limited to the Shift key when it comes to modifying mouse clicks, but there are a few
things you should be aware of when incorporating keyboard control into your applet.
Keyboard control
Because Java doesn’t allow you to write applets that support a multibutton mouse, you may rely on the
keyboard to signal special webber input. In this way, you can react to different combinations of
keyboard and mouse down events.
When using the keyboard to modify a mouse click, it’s a good idea to limit the keys you support to the
Shift and Ctrl keys. These are available on almost every personal computer, and are used by standard
software programs to modify mouse clicks. The concept of Shift-clicking or Ctrl-clicking is familiar to
the majority of personal computer users, and these keyboard-mouse combinations can make your applet
easier to use.
Avoid obtuse keyboard modifiers, and only use those that might help the webber remember what key to
press when clicking the mouse. Suppose, for example, that you write a video game that uses the mouse
to control a submarine. Clicking the mouse alone might launch a torpedo, while clicking the mouse
while holding down the P key might activate the periscope.
Stop when stopped!
When a Web page is accessed with a Java-savvy browser, ali applets embedded in that page are told to
“start.” At this point, applets load the sounds and graphics they need (if any) and do their stuff.
When the Web page is left, either by the webber navigating to another page or the browser being quit
altogether, all applets in the page are told to “stop.” It is here that you’ll bring your applet activity to a
screeching halt. However, this process isn’t handled for you automatically.
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Java Bible:Applet Design Basics
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
The programmer is responsible for stopping any sounds that are currently playing, for bringing
animation to a standstill, and halting all threads in their applet. Rarely, if ever, does an applet have a
good reason to continue along its merry way when the page it is embedded in has been exited. By
ceasing all activity upon receiving the “stop” message, your applets become well-behaved and courteous
inhabitants of the Web pages in which they are embedded.
Flexibility through applet parameters
If you’ve looked at the HTML code many applets are embedded in, you may have noticed the word
PARAM used inside the <APPLET> tag. The PARAM attribute lets applets receive data through HTML
code, which allows Web page authors to configure applets for their specific needs without actually
dealing with Java code (that’s our job!).
Applets that utilize parameters are much more flexible than those that don’t. Instead of creating several
slightly different versions of the same applet, you can use the PARAM attribute to customize a single
applet. By responding to parameters embedded in the HTML code, an applet can behave uniquely in
different pages.
Bandwidth Considerations
Because Java makes creating Web pages with sophisticated animation and sounds a snap, those new to
the language often tend to lose themselves in the excitement. Iceberg-sized images and audio clips
abound on the high seas of the Web. And while this may be just fine for the developer who has access to
the Web via a T1 line or cable connection, the equivalent of an ocean liner, the rest of the world isn’t so
fortunate; creaky wooden rafts and pontoon boats are the norm.
Since bandwidth is a major issue with the majority of webbers, you must consider the lowest-common
denominator. Although you might try to convince yourself that 28.8 Kbps is the norm, with ISDN and
cable modem access not far behind, many folks today surf the Web at speeds of 14.4 Kbps or less. Sure,
the technophiles are working with all the latest gadgets, but the masses . . . well, that’s a completely
different story. To offer your applets to everyone without penalizing those with slower access takes extra
effort and means you should assume the average access speed is no higher than 28.8 Kbps, with a large
percentage of folks on the Web still dog-paddling along at 14.4 Kbps and even 9600 bps!
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Battling bandwidth bottlenecks
Although applets themselves are quite small, and come across the wire in no time, the graphics and
audio files they often utilize are tremendous by comparison. To prevent serious bottlenecks when
downloading these files over the network, there are several things you can do to decrease transmission
time.
Sound files
Java only supports Sun’s .au format for sound files, which uses µLaw (pronounced mu-law) encoding.
Thus, if you intend to use sound files, you’ll have to convert your existing audio files to this 8-bit, 8kHz,
single-channel (mono) format.
Sun users can create sounds in the .au format using the audiotool application. Windows users
can use the GoldWave utility supplied on the CD-ROM that comes with this book to create
and export sounds in this format.
Although the .au format creates files that are smaller in size than other formats, the sound quality isn’t
the best. As a result, you may find yourself fiddling with various sound editing functions in an attempt to
eliminate the hiss you’ll hear when converting higher-quality sounds to this format.
In order to reduce the size of sound files as much as possible, you’ll only want to keep the absolutely
essential portions of it around. Cut out any preceding or trailing silence, although you may be tempted to
keep it.
Since cutting out every second of preceding and trailing silences tends to make sounds begin and end
abruptly, many programmers figure keeping a second or two of “dead space” on either end of the sound
clip is worth the extra download time. However, you can achieve the same results by applying a “fade
in” effect to the beginning of the sound, and a “fade out” effect at the end. These two effects give nice,
smooth transitions instead of abrupt starts and stops. Not only is the sound more professional and
appealing, but you’ll trim off a bit of the download time in the process.
Sound loops
Sound is such an effective way to grab attention and add impact to an applet that many first-timers
overuse it. Rather than playing a large number of audio clips, consider whether looping would be a
reasonable alternative. When you loop a sound file, it will repeat itself continuously until you tell it to
stop.
The result can be quite powerful, especially if the sound clip you loop is subtle. Instead of bombarding
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the visitor with sound after sound, sucking up valuable network bandwidth in the process, consider this
option. You’ll be happy to know that you can play any number of sounds at once, meaning you don’t
have to stop a sound loop in order to play another sound clip. All sounds you play at the same time will
be mixed together, allowing for a rich audio production with minimal effort on your part.
In order to accommodate the demands of media-hungry developers, JavaSoft has announced
an “extension” to the core Java API, and it should be available for download by the time you
read this. The Media API, discussed in more detail in Chapter 30, gives applets and
applications much more capability in terms of the sounds and images they may use. However,
the Media API isn’t built into the core Java API at the moment; it’s a separate library of Java
classes that you can’t guarantee will be available on every user’s system. Refer to Chapter 30
for more details regarding the Media API and other forthcoming APIs that will extend the core
capabilities of Java.
Images and colors
Java supports the use of GIF (graphics interchange format) and JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts
Group) images, meaning that it gives you a nice and easy mechanism for retrieving these images from
the Web and displaying them in your applet. Java also supports a 24-bit color model, which allows the
programmer to define and use more than 16 million different colors for use in drawing primitive
graphics (lines, rectangles, ovals, polygons, and so forth) and fonts.
Although the use of color applied to primitive graphics doesn’t negatively affect bandwidth, images do.
Since the JPEG format is supported, you can utilize 24-bit color images within your applets. With GIF
you’re currently limited to a palette of 256 colors. This is a limitation of the GIF file format, not Java,
although 24-bit GIF files will soon be possible through an enhancement of this popular type of graphic.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Image palette reduction
Regardless of which format you use, graphic images suck up bandwidth. To reduce the amount of time it
takes an image to travel across the wire, you must cut down the amount of data used to represent it.
Luckily, the most popular graphics programs on the market (Adobe Photoshop, CorelDraw!, Fractal
Design Painter, and others such as the Paint Shop Pro shareware program) allow us to cut file sizes by
reducing the amount of colors used to display an image.
Rather than using a full palette of 256 colors, you may find that only a small number are necessary to
represent the image. By removing unused colors from the palette, you conserve storage space and
decrease download times. And you can further reduce the palette by forcing colors close to one another
to map to a certain value. For example, rather than having 16 different shades of gray in an image, you
might reduce the palette to support only three shades. This technique applies to all colors, meaning you
can reduce the entire palette of an image to significantly reduce its size.
Certainly, there is a trade-off between the quality of the image and overall storage size. However, you
(or the graphic artist responsible for Web artwork at your site) can typically reduce the palette
considerably without adversely affecting the image quality (see Figures 3-2 and 3-3).
Figure 3-2: Reducing the palette of colors can significantly reduce the storage size of an image. This
image contains several hundred colors, and requires 200KB of disk space.
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Figure 3-3: After palette reduction, this image contains only 40 colors and takes up less than 100KB of
disk space. Can you tell the difference?
GIF versus JPEG
When using images, you’ll eventually need to decide upon a format to support. Java supports both
CompuServe GIF and JPEG formats in your applets, but there are a number of factors that may make
one preferable over the other. Start by taking a look at the GIF format.
You’ll find several benefits with GIF images. For starters, every graphics-based Web browser supports
inline GIF images; webbers won’t need an external helper application to view them. In addition, the GIF
format is highly efficient and has built-in compression that produces relatively small file sizes for
images that lend itself to this format. Finally, GIF images support transparency and interlacing, which
can greatly enhance the visual appeal of your applet.
JPEG images, on the other hand, can contain more than 256 colors, and can be compressed to a higher
degree than GIF when a large number of colors are involved. The JPEG format currently doesn’t support
transparency or interlacing.
Transparency
Transparency allows the graphic artist to specify any color in an image as “transparent.” When the
image is rendered on the screen, this color isn’t shown. Instead, whatever is underneath it shows through
(typically the background color, although other images may be drawn underneath, as well).
Without transparency, images are displayed using all colors in the palette, including the background
color of the image. As a result, they may appear quite unattractive under certain circumstances — unless
the color of these portions matches exactly the underlying background (see Figure 34). Therefore, the
GIF format is the only choice for images that must have a “see-through” portion.
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Figure 3-4: Transparency allows us to specify a color in an image as “see-through.” The image at the
top of this figure uses transparency to appear as a natural part of this page, while the one underneath it
does not.
Interlacing
Interlacing, another feature supported by the GIF format, allows images to be incrementally drawn on
the screen as they come across the wire. Rather than appearing only after the entire image is transmitted,
interlaced images appear on the screen a little at a time as they are transmitted over the network.
The effect is similar to watching a Polaroid photograph develop before your eyes; you have an idea of
what the image is before it is completely downloaded, and see it materialize on the page over time. If
you give webbers something to watch as the image becomes clearer, they aren’t as likely to abort the
process and go elsewhere. Instead, many will stick around and watch these images appear.
GIF and JPEG: the bottom line
Since the GIF format supports both transparency and interlacing, in addition to being the default format
for Web graphics, you’ll more often than not find it a better choice for your applets than JPEG.
However, GIF images are currently limited to 256 (8-bit) colors. The JPEG format, on the other hand,
supports over 16 million (24-bit) different colors. In cases where you absolutely must have more than
256 colors in an image, you’ll have to use the JPEG format.
JPEG images are compressed using a lossy compression algorithm, allowing you to specify a trade-off
between image quality and storage size. When you use high levels of compression, these images lose
information (hence the term lossy). Future versions of the JPEG format may include support for
transparency and interlacing, although at the moment neither are available.
A new version of the JPEG format, called JPEG Progressive Download (fondly known as “Progressive
JPEG”), is similar in nature to an interlaced GIF. As these images come across the wire, they are
displayed incrementally. At first they look blurry, but become sharper and more defined as the image
data is downloaded, until finally the entire image is clearly visible. Unfortunately, this new JPEG format
is not yet supported by Java. However, future versions of Java are expected to support it.
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Although you might think the choice of formats is clear — use GIF in most situations and turn to JPEG
only when you need more than 256 colors — you ought to take into consideration that some releases of
Java for Windows dither ALL graphics to 256 colors before displaying them! This is because supporting
more than 256 colors on Windows-based machines proved too time consuming for the first release of the
Java Developer’s Kit (JDK). So, even if you use JPEG images, their beauty will be lost on webbers who
have Windows systems, until the JDK is updated.
If you can do it, you’re better off using GIF images. Since a large number of webbers won’t be able to
see the difference anyway, there’s no sense wasting bandwidth with high-resolution JPEG images,
unless you have no choice.
As a general rule of thumb, you should keep the total amount of material that has to download for each
Web page (text, graphics, sound files, and so on) under 250K. If you have a large number of graphics
and are above 250K in total Web page material, you should consider using the JPEG format, simply to
gain the highest degree of compression possible. Since images with more than 100 colors tend to
compress more efficiently in the JPEG format than they do with GIF, first target images with the most
colors for JPEG compression.
If you still have too much data to download, consider reducing the overall amount of material on the
page. You can also reduce the dimensions of the images, cropping out excess material altogether. And,
of course, you can always use the JPEG format with the highest degree of compression for all your
images. Just be aware that you’ll lose both the transparency and interlacing features available with the
GIF format.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Finally, there is the user’s equipment to consider. The majority of webbers can’t see more than 256
colors on their screen anyway. In fact, a large number of systems connected to the Web can’t even
display that many. For some, the upper limit is 16 colors or less!
Although I wouldn’t spend a great deal of time attempting to accommodate systems at the lowest end, I
highly recommend that you assume the majority of webbers can only see up to 256. And so, the choice
between JPEG and GIF becomes even easier.
Webber System Considerations
In addition to considering bandwidth, you must also consider the variety of systems your applets will run
on once they become available to a global population. Just as most webbers lack ultrafast connections to
the Web, they’re often surfing with systems that are remarkably less powerful than those we use to
develop applets. As a result, you must develop applets to run on a wide variety of systems, from entry-
level boxes to silicon-heavy hot rods.
In addition to raw computing horsepower, you must also consider the wide range of video displays your
applets will be viewed on. In short, you must design your applets to run on just about every system out
there, or risk alienating those whose systems aren’t up to your personal standards. This means
eliminating excessive processing and media consumed by your applets, and streamlining them in ways
that you might not consider necessary based on your own computer setup.
To do this, you have to think in terms of absolute efficiency from the get-go, cutting out every
unnecessary bit and byte of code and media (sounds and images) possible, and testing the results as you
go along on a variety of low-end computer systems.
Images and colors
When using colors for rendering primitive graphics (such as lines, rectangles, ovals, and polygons), stick
to the predefined colors supplied by Java. Although you can define your own colors, with over 16
million options, it’s a bad idea to assume the webber will ever see them. Because most webbers only
have 256 colors on their systems, and some only 16, a color you define will usually be converted to the
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closest match or dithered down to accommodate their less capable monitors. Your efforts will be lost on
all but those who happen to use systems like yours. To be safe, use the built-in colors and only define
others when absolutely necessary.
Color matching
To complicate matters, you can’t guarantee that an image or color will be consistent across multiple
platforms. Colors on a Windows machine won’t necessarily look the same as those on a Sun machine,
and will look different once again on a Macintosh. As more platforms become Java-savvy, the disparity
will grow.
To combat this problem, stick to minimal palettes and built-in colors. Don’t spend too much time trying
to get an image or color “just right” until you’ve had a chance to view it on a variety of platforms. The
time you spend tweaking an image or color may well be wasted, since few webbers will have exactly the
same system and display setup as you.
Instead, go for attractive and clean images. Avoid subtle hue shifts, fine lines in special colors, custom
palettes, and the like. Before you spend too much time refining an image or creating custom colors for
your primitives, take a look at it from a different perspective: Put what you have on the Web, and view it
with as many different systems and browsers as possible. If you don’t have access to a particular
platform, ask a friend who does to give his or her opinion. The earlier in the development process you do
this, the better off you’ll be.
Animation
The most eye-catching thing an applet can do is animate images and graphics. When things move around
the screen, you can’t help but look at them. Unfortunately, you must also be aware of the diversity of
systems your animations will be run on.
Animation takes horsepower, and if you’ve spent time honing an animation to look ideal on your
system, you can guarantee it won’t appear that way to everyone else. What happens when an animation
created on a high-end workstation is run on an entry-level personal computer? Digital roadkill, that’s
what.
In such cases, the animation may be considerably slower than you’d expect. As a result, it loses its
appeal to those with less capable systems; low-end webbers won’t find it nearly as fascinating or slick as
those using high-performance systems.
Interestingly enough, the exact opposite can happen when an animation is developed specifically for low-
end systems. The developer might have spent considerable time and effort making the animation as fast
as possible on a low-end development system, but when it’s executed on a much faster machine it runs
the risk of being so fast that it can’t be appreciated — or even seen!
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To reduce the risk on both fronts, you must assume that your applets will be run on a wide range of
systems. Some will be blazing fast, perhaps souped up with multiple processors, while others will be
painfully slow by comparison.
Don’t despair! There’s no need to throw yourself over the nearest cliff. Just hang on for a few more
minutes; as you’ll soon see, there are a few things you can do to create animations that execute smoothly
in all cases.
Frame rate support
First, always assume your applets will run on machines that are considerably faster than yours. Although
you may have a top-of-the-line system today, tomorrow it will be old news. In particular, if you are to
prepare for tomorrow’s fastest machines, you need to exercise control over how fast the individual
frames in an animation are drawn. Although you might think that no delay between frames is ideal,
nothing could be further from the truth.
With no delay between frames, the animation will run at breakneck speed. It might seem perfect on your
machine, but on faster computers it may become a blur roughly equivalent to the Hale-Bopp Comet seen
through the windshield of a moving car on a foggy night. Inserting a delay between each frame,
however, gives our eyes a moment to actually see the various stages of animation; you effectively apply
the breaks a wee bit between frames, giving our feeble eyeballs just enough time to focus on the current
frame before advancing to the next one in the series.
Unfortunately, a problem arises when you control the frame rate with only faster systems in mind.
Suppose, for example, that you’ve inserted a half-second delay between every frame in an animation.
This is fine when running on fast machines, preventing blur, but when run on low-end systems, it could
be a tremendous detriment to the animation.
The problem is that on slower machines, the frame rate is already slow enough for the frames to be
painfully visible, so why add another half-second delay? In practice, you might need to eliminate the
artificial delay altogether to compensate for this.
Rather than inserting a delay between every frame, you need only ensure that a specific amount of time
has passed between the previous frame and the one about to be drawn. If the machine is incredibly fast,
you’ll want to delay the process a bit, but if the machine is incredibly slow, you’ll want to draw the next
frame as quickly as possible.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Although this may sound like a lot of work, you’ll be happy to know that it’s pretty easy to do. You
simply enter a loop that does nothing but check to see if it’s time to draw, and exit the loop when enough
time has passed between the last frame being drawn and the current one. Following is pseudo-code (not
the real McCoy, merely a rough idea having no direct relationship to a specific programming language)
for just such a timing device, which would take place just before each frame is drawn:
while (timepassed < framerate) {
update timepassed variable
. . . do nothing else but loop while waiting . . .
}
. . . draw the current frame . . .
timepassed = 0; // reset timer
Reduce overhead
The technique of controlling frame rate should only be coupled with a serious effort to reduce any
overhead that might occur within your animations. The easiest way to do this when animating a series of
images is to reduce the storage size of each image, as discussed in “Bandwidth Considerations” earlier in
this chapter.
If the images in an animation are massive in size, low-end machines will barely be able to keep up with
it. Likewise, low-end machines might not be up to the task if the calculations required to derive the next
frame in a computer-generated animation (in other words, not animating a series of images, but
generating each frame on the fly) require a great degree of computational power. Although high-end
systems won’t have a problem keeping up with each frame of the animation, and may even require an
artificial delay between each, many low-end systems will be left in the dust.
In order to allow low-end machines in on the fun, it’s a good idea to streamline all parts of your
animations. When animating images, you can reduce the storage size of each one by reducing the color
palettes, as described earlier, and by restricting the overall dimensions of each image. When generating
animation frames on the fly, you should give considerable attention to making the frame generation
algorithm as tight and efficient as possible. And in both cases, you should use threads to prevent
processing bottlenecks from monopolizing the central processing unit (CPU).
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Threads are a powerful, complex feature of many modern operating systems, and Java allows
us to tap into them with relative ease. Threads give us the capability to run many different
tasks concurrently, without forcing us to keep track of the state of each task (that is, we can set
up threaded objects that run independent of our main program, without our having to write
terribly complicated code to manage everything that’s going on). For details on using threads
in your Java programs, see Chapter 14.
To further reduce overhead, you can decrease the download time of individual images used in an
animation by placing all of them in one image file. If you do this, the user downloads a single
“animation strip” containing all of the images instead of a number of different images, each of which
requires a separate HTTP network connection. The images are transmitted across the wire more
efficiently and without the overhead of multiple connections. To use this method, you draw the
appropriate portion of the animation strip on the screen rather than drawing a number of different images
one after another. And instead of loading each individual image into memory, the single file is loaded
into memory.
Processing bottlenecks
Depending on what your applets do, they may or may not suck up a considerable amount of system
resources. For those that are computationally intensive or manage a large number of images, it’s
important to reduce potential bottlenecks. Any time one task blocks others, such as when your applet
uses input/output streams or performs complex computations, you should implement the tasks as
threads.
Threads are dealt with fully in Chapter 14, but suffice it to say here that they allow multiple tasks to
occur at once when multiple central processing units (CPUs) are available, or are so interwoven with one
another that they appear to be happening at the same time even on systems that have only one processor.
And, since a time-consuming task running in a thread can yield to other threads, you can eliminate
processing bottlenecks; each task gets a crack at the CPU without requiring the current task to be
completed in entirety.
“Processing . . . please wait”
At times when your applet is immersed in a particularly time-consuming activity (such as retrieving
large chunks of data from a file, or performing complex calculations), it’s a good idea to let the webber
know what’s going on. If too much time passes before the applet somehow informs the Web surfer that
things are going along as planned, they may assume the program isn’t working properly, or simply
become impatient and abandon your Web page altogether.
There are a number of ways to indicate to the webber that your applet is involved in a time-consuming
task. You can display a message, such as “Processing. . . Please Wait,” either in the applet itself or on
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the status bar portion of the browser. (If you want to display a message in the status bar, however, keep
in mind that not every browser on the market may have one, and, for those that do, remember that
webbers are free to hide them from view entirely!)
A more subtle approach is to change some aspect of the applet to visually indicate that activity is taking
place. A small animation showing sand pouring through an hourglass might be appropriate, or perhaps a
blinking “WORKING” image would do the trick. You might even consider a subtle sound loop or play a
sound clip of a voice saying, “please wait.” Whichever way you do it, it’s a good idea to let users know
they’ll have to be patient.
If the process is particularly long, you should consider altering the message occasionally. If the same
message appears for a long period of time, webbers might think the system is hung or not working
properly. If the message alternates, the frame rate changes, or the rate of an animation alters as time
passes, they’ll be less likely to think something is wrong and abandon ship.
Fonts
When using fonts to display text, you’ll need to be careful about which ones you choose. Since you can’t
be sure what fonts are installed on the various machines your applet will be executed on, it’s important
to determine if a font you want to use is available to all systems before attempting to use it. If you try to
use a font that isn’t installed on everyone’s computer, a font substitution will take place that might ruin
the visual effect you had planned.
It’s simple, and recommended, to find out what fonts are installed. However, you don’t have to bother if
you’re using the widely installed Times Roman and Courier fonts.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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File Access and Network Connections
The majority of applets you create will require external data stored in a file (such as images, audio clips,
and so on), which must be located on the Web. Because of the security restrictions imposed by current
browser implementations, applets fetched from the Net can’t access local files, so any files an applet
accesses must be stored on the same Web server that the applet itself resides on.
Save yourself the frustration of trying to access local files, or files located anywhere hut on the server
where the applet itself resides, as it would be an exercise in futility. Since applets simply aren’t allowed
to touch files residing anywhere outside of the server on which they themselves come from, it’s hopeless
to even try to access files on the user’s machine or other Web servers.
Although future versions of Java/browser combinations are expected to support local and remote file
access, for now you’ll have to design your applets to retrieve files from their own server. However, the
same isn’t true for uniform resource locator (URL) connections. Your applets can open any valid URL
and have the browser automatically load the page (see Chapter 15 for details).
These restrictions on Java applets do not apply to Java applications. Applications can access files on the
user’s local system, or from anywhere on the Web (assuming, of course, that they can make a
connection to the Web server on which such files are located).
Testing locally, releasing globally
Although your applets can’t load files located on the webber’s own computer, or on a server other than
the one they come from, you can do the majority of development and testing on your local system.
Rather than going through the process of uploading each revision of your applet to the Web and testing
it from afar, you can write and test your applets locally, assuming the data files they require are also
local. If an applet’s directory layout on your local computer system is the same as the one on the server
the applet will be uploaded onto, and if all of the files the applet requires are present and in the same
relative directories, you can greatly streamline the development process.
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In this case, you can write and test applets locally and merely upload them to the server when you are
ready to test them in a networked environment. Of course, you’ll want to test them extensively after
you’ve placed them on the Web. However, developing and testing locally can still save you a great deal
of time.
Other Considerations
There are a number of other design issues to consider when developing applets. For starters, you must
assume that your programs will be accessed by a global community.
A universal language
Since not everyone in the world speaks your language (except, perhaps, the language of love — but
that’s another story altogether), try to minimize the amount of text you use. If possible, use images and
icons to convey meaning rather than words. In many cases, of course, text is required and you’ll have no
choice. But when you do have a choice, opt for images rather than words.
You should also consider the concept your images convey. Even though images are often more easily
understood than words, just because you’re using them doesn’t mean the concept they convey is
universal. In cases where your applet must be understood by a diverse audience, it’s a good idea to have
the graphic artist creating the artwork used in your applet consult with a multilingual specialist or
agency beforehand.
Avoid language and images that could be construed as racist, sexist, or culturally insensitive.
What may be appropriate to you might be offensive to others.
Layout managers
Because applets can be run on a variety of platforms, it can be a bit difficult to ensure that your graphical
elements will always appear in the proper positions on the screen. If you attempt to explicitly position
elements (buttons, scroll bars, popup menus, drawing and painting areas, for example) at exact locations
on the screen, you’re flirting with disaster. The system of coordinates on your computer won’t map
exactly to others, so your neat and tidy layout may become an ugly mess (or even impossible to use) on
other platforms.
To overcome this difficulty, Java utilizes layout managers, which are dealt with in detail in Chapter 21.
With layout managers, you don’t place elements on the screen using explicit coordinates. Instead, the
order in which you add them, and the layout manager associated with such elements, dictates where
they’ll be placed. When your applet is displayed, the layout manager positions the elements in their
proper places, regardless of what platform the applet is executed on. Furthermore, when the webber
resizes the applet, the layout manager takes care of repositioning each element accordingly. By using
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Java’s layout managers, you can ensure your applet’s user interface will look and act as it should across
a wide array of platforms.
Inter-applet communications
In many cases, a single applet won’t be appropriate for your needs. For example, you might require
applet activity in one part of a Web page to he coordinated with activity in another part of the page. You
might also need to have standard Web content appear between the two areas, preventing you from
creating one big applet that spans the entire page.
Rather than creating one giant applet, it may be easier and more appropriate to create two. Since applets
in a Web page can send each other messages, they can effectively “talk” to each other. In fact, you can
have any number of applets in a Web page, all communicating with one another (see Chapter 15).
Dual-purpose programs
At times, you’ll develop Java programs that will be deployed both in applet and application form. There
may be differences between the two, hut portions may be exactly the same. When this is the case, you
don’t have to develop both programs separately. Instead, you can write one body of code that can be
executed as both an applet and an application, as illustrated in Chapter 18. Doing so saves the time and
effort of managing two different versions of essentially the same program, and ensures that consistency
and code integrity exists between the two.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Managing Source Code
When it comes time to implement your applet, you’ll have to carefully consider the code you will write
in addition to the design issues discussed earlier in this chapter. Although much of the time and effort
you spend will go into the overall design of the applet and the objects that will make it possible,
eventually you’ll have to get clown to the nitty-gritty and write the actual source code. When
programming in Java, there are number of things you can do to make the process go as smoothly as
possible.
Only one class to a source file
As you learned in Chapter 2, objects are created using code templates known as classes. When creating a
large number of classes, you should consider placing each in its own source code file.
By separating classes into their own source files, the concept of programming in terms of objects is
strongly reinforced. Classes in separate files can only interact with others in a well-defined manner,
meaning you won’t be tempted to take shortcuts that might compromise the integrity of your code.
When you compile an applet or application whose classes exist in multiple source files, each is
automatically compiled in turn. You don’t have to worry about compiling every source file on your own,
making the separation that much easier.
For many smaller applets and applications, saving each class in a separate source code file may be more
hassle than it’s worth. When you are beginning to program in Java, as with any language, it helps to start
out with small programs and work your way to more complex ones as your understanding grows.
When you place all classes in the same source file, be sure to remember that each class should be written
as its own island and have no knowledge of the innards of other classes. Even if classes aren’t physically
separate, their implementation should be independent from that of others. Later, when your programs
become more complex, you may choose to separate classes into their own files.
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Keep in mind as you set forth on your Java programming adventure that each source code file
can only contain one public class. If you attempt to place more than one public class inside a
single source code file, the Java compiler will refuse to compile the file!
Document, document, document
As with most programming languages, it’s highly recommended that you document your programs as
they are written, using code comments. Document? Comments?! Yep. But before you jam that index
finger down your throat in an attempt to clear your now queasy stomach, hear me out.
Although many programmers tend to gloss over source code documentation, or avoid it altogether, it’s
an important part of the process. So important, in fact, that Java provides a special comment that is used
to generate documentation files in HTML format — complete with hyperlinks — directly from source
code. By making the process of documentation so easy, Java encourages even the most hasty
programmers to properly comment their code.
Thanks to Java’s special Doc Comments, which look almost exactly like the standard C comments (with
exception of an added asterisk), creating code documentation is a cinch. In addition to making your
source code easier to understand when it comes time to enhance or maintain the work you’ve done, you
can use Doc Comments to produce lovely HTML documentation that you would otherwise have had to
create by hand. Thanks to Doc Comments, a single effort on your part (and a simple one at that)
produces two extremely useful forms of code documentation. You can’t beat that, can you?
Variable names
When you’re using variables, it’s important to choose clear and understandable names for them. Just as
with source-level documentation using comments, some programmers tend to choose terse, if not
entirely cryptic, variable names.
Reading and maintaining such code is more difficult than it should be, and it can be especially
frustrating and time consuming for people other than the original programmer. Even in cases where
you’ll be the only one to see the code, it’s a wise idea to use descriptive variable names. As time passes,
you’ll find reading the code a pleasure because it remains readily understandable.
In Java, variable names can be any length, so you’re not restricted in how many characters you can use.
Employ as many as you feel necessary to ensure that the names make sense.
Of course, some variables don’t merit distinguished names. Take, for example, variables used to control
the iteration of loops and other control-flow structures. Typically, single-character names (such as i or x)
are just fine, since experienced programmers recognize such variables as being specific to the loop. In
these cases, using a descriptive variable name (such as loopCounter or iterationCount) buys little, if any,
value and may even make the code more difficult to read by cluttering an otherwise clean
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implementation.
Since different types of variables serve different purposes in your programs, be sure to follow
the recommended naming conventions when it comes to actually giving your variables
identifying names. Chapter 9 describes the conventions for identifiers (names given to
variables, classes, and methods).
Altering variables
In Java, there is no such thing as a “global” variable. Instead, objects contain variables, which other
objects may or may not be able to directly alter depending on how access to the variable is specified.
(You specify access using access specifiers, which are known formally as field modifiers. Access
specifiers are discussed in detail in Chapter 9.)
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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As a general rule, however, objects should assume no knowledge whatsoever of the details of other
objects in a program. This means that an object shouldn’t be able to directly access another object’s
variables, regardless of how access to such variables is specified. Instead, the object should politely
request that the other object access its own variables and return the result or modify the value it holds.
For example, if object A wants to retrieve a variable inside object B, it should ask B for the variable.
Likewise, if object A wants to change the value of a variable in object B, it should ask object B to alter
its own variable. This way, your objects won’t have intimate knowledge of one another, and you can
easily replace or update one without affecting the others. You accomplish such behavior by using
accessor methods, which are nothing more than methods used to retrieve and/or alter the value of an
object’s variable. Thanks to accessor methods, the objects in your Java programs are much more
modular in nature, letting you easily update or alter them in the future without worrying about
“breaking” hard-coded dependencies among objects. You’ll learn more about accessor methods in
Chapter 9.
Avoiding native code
Although Java allows programmers to use non-Java, or native, source code (such as C code), you should
always rewrite the code in standard Java if possible.
In order to make a clean transition to Java, you shouldn’t try to use your existing non-Java source code
unless absolutely necessary. Instead, you should take the time to rewrite that code in Java to avoid
potentially compromising the objectoriented nature of your programs.
Aside from the fact that it’s good practice to use pure Java code in your programs, only C may be
integrated at this time (unless you use the Java Native Interface-JNI). And so you shouldn’t even
consider using code in other languages. If however, you rely on existing C code that simply can’t be
rewritten in Java, you can integrate this native code into your Java programs. If you do so, however, be
forewarned — you’ll likely spend the majority of your bug-fixing time inside the native code you
introduce into your programs!
Peeking under the covers
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Java Bible:Applet Design Basics
One of the best ways to learn how to program in Java is to look at the work of others. That’s why we’ve
included a CD-ROM full of applets and their source code with this book.
In addition to looking at the source code for these applets, you should spend some time looking at the
source code provided with Java itself. The JDK, which provides all the tools you’ll need to write your
own Java programs, gives us a great deal of code to examine.
Along with the JDK’s own applets, which are also available on the enclosed CD-ROM, thousands of
lines of Java code are used to implement the standard class libraries you’ll use to write your own
programs. In particular, the JDK class source files provide an excellent insight into the Java language.
They illustrate every aspect of the Java language, and are documented with source code comments.
Don’t be afraid to peek under the covers; you’ll see how the Java team at Sun writes Java code, and
learn a great deal in the process.
Packages
Once you’ve written a fair amount of Java code, you’ll be faced with the challenge of managing it.
You’ll eventually want to reuse classes you’ve written, and organize your growing base of code for
future reuse.
In Java you can easily organize classes into packages (discussed in Chapter 11). You can think of
packages as collections of classes that allow you to efficiently organize and reuse existing Java code.
The Java system comes with a number of packages ali ready for you to use. These packages contain a
large number of pre-built classes written by the JavaSoft team at Sun, many of which you’ll use in your
own programs.
Summary
Before diving in and writing your first Java applet, it’s important to first consider the design of applets.
By “design,” I mean not only the overall design — how it looks, what it does, how it interacts with the
webber, and so forth — but also the internal organization of the source code needed to create the applet
in the first place.
• Remember that every person who encounters your applets will have a different opinion as to
what is and isn’t cool.
• Because Java makes creating Web pages with sophisticated animation and sounds a snap,
people who are new to the language often tend to lose themselves in the excitement. Iceberg-
sized images and audio clips abound on the high seas of the Web. And while this may be just fine
for the developer who has access to the Web via a T1 line or cable connection, the equivalent of
an ocean liner, the rest of the world isn’t so fortunate; creaky wooden rafts and pontoon boats are
the norm.
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• Along with bandwidth concerns, you must consider the variety of systems your applets will run
on once they become available to a global population. Just as most webbers lack ultrafast
connections to the Web, they’re often surfing with systems that are remarkably less powerful
than those we use to develop applets. As a result, you must develop applets to run on a wide
variety of systems, from entry-level boxes to silicon-heavy hot rods.
• The majority of applets you create will require external data stored in a file (such as images,
audio clips, and so on), which must be located on the Web. Because of the security restrictions
imposed by current browser implementations, applets fetched from the Net can’t access local
files, so any files an applet accesses must be stored on the same Web server that the applet itself
resides on.
• When designing your Java applications you should have only one class to a source file; add as
much documentation as possible; use understandable variable names; provide methods to
manipulate object variables; and avoid using any native code.
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Java Bible:Installing and Configuring the Java Development Kit
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 4
Installing and Configuring the Java Development Kit
In This Chapter
Obtaining the latest and greatest Java Development Kit
Installing the Java Development Kit
Configuring the Java Development Kit for your particular operating system
Verifying your installation of the Java Development Kit
Troubleshooting your Java Development Kit installation
A review of the tools provided in the Java Development Kit
To develop applets and applications in Java, you must first install Sun’s Java Development Kit (JDK) on
your computer. The JDK contains everything you need to begin creating Java programs. This chapter
explains how to get, install, and configure the most recent release of the JDK for Solaris, Windows 95,
Windows NT, and Macintosh computer systems. In addition, this chapter briefly looks at each of the
tools in the JDK.
Getting the JDK
JDK 1.2 was unavailable as this book went to press, but can be downloaded directly from Sun’s JavaSoft
Web site—the official Java support site—at http://java.sun.com. In both cases, you’ll find JDK 1.2 for
the Solaris and Windows 95/NT development machines, as well as older versions of the JDK for these
systems and Apple Macintosh computers (at the time this book was written, only JDK 1.02 was
available for the Mac!). Sun’s JavaSoft division (a Sun-owned company focused entirely on Java
development) regularly releases new versions of Java and Java development tools at this site. Other third-
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party ports are also available through Sun’s JavaSoft support site.
JDK release 1.1.5 is included on the CD-ROM that comes with this book. Unless a more
current version is now available, you can save the time and effort of downloading JDK by
installing it directly from the CD-ROM (see Appendix B).
The Java Developer Connection (JDC)
One of the most important Web sites Java developers should get into the habit of visiting is the Java
Developer Connection (JDC), located at http://java.sun.com/nav/developer/index.html.
According to Sun, the company ultimately responsible for Java, the JDC is for individual developers.
Sun states, “JDC is a free service offering online training, a searchable bug database, product discounts,
feature articles, and more. JDC also features online discussion forums with industry luminaries like
James Gosling, among others.”
Personally, I try to spend as much time as I can at the JDC. At the time this book was being written, the
JDC was just getting started, but already offered tons of useful information and source code. One of my
favorite JDC areas to visit is the “DukeDollars” page, which allows members to post Java-related
technical questions and annoyer those already posted.
To ask a question in this area, you must decide how many “DukeDollars” it’s worth to you (every
member gets 10 free DukeDollars to start), and then be willing to give away that amount when someone
supplies a satisfying answer. Conversely, you can make off like a bandit by answering questions posted
to this forum, which has allowed some developers to amass a staggering number of DukeDollars over
time. The online trading of DukeDollars here is fast and furious, and you’ll walk away a winner by
simply drinking in the technical questions and answers that fuel this mini economy on the JDC
Of course, you have to register to become a member of the JDC site, but once you do, you’ll find links
to early releases of Java software, online training courses, source code, and technology briefings. If
you’re serious about programming in Java, this is one site you should immediately visit and then
bookmark in your browser.
Once you’ve located the JDK for your platform, download it to your local computer (or copy it from the
enclosed CD-ROM if you don’t want to waste time and money online). This may take some time,
depending on the speed of your Internet connection, so you might seriously consider using the JDK
provided on the CD-ROM instead. In fact, the only reason you should bother downloading the JDK from
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the Web is if the version online is significantly more current than the one provided on disc.
Chances are pretty high that you’ve already got your hands on the most current JDK. The CD-
ROM contains JDK version 1.1.5. To find out more about the versions of JDK, version 1.1.5,
go to the JavaSoft Website at either http://java.sun.com or http://www.javasoft.com (either
URL gets you there).
Regardless of whether you download the JDK from the Web, you can always download the full-blown
JDK documentation supplied online, since that’s not part of the JDK. JDK documentation is provided in
several popular formats, including Adobe’s Portable Document Format (PDF), Adobe Postscript (PS),
plain old-fashioned HTML (my personal favorite), and even WinHelp format (for Windows users), all of
which you can find at http://java.sun.com/products/jdk/1.1/, or at the Documentation Web site, http://
java.sun.com/products/jdk/1.1/docs/index.html.
Expanding the JDK Archive
Whether you download the JDK from the Web or simply copy it to your computer from the enclosed
CD-ROM, you’ll first have to decompress the archive it comes in before you can actually use it. Both
the Solaris and Windows 95/NT versions of the JDK are self-extracting archives, making them relatively
easy to decompress and install.
Subsequent discussions assume you’re working with JDK 1.2; if you’ve got 1.1.5, simply
adjust for the differences in file and directory names.
You expand the Windows 95/NT self-extracting archive with a double-click:
1. Ensure that the JDK archive file is at the root level of your primary drive (usually C: \).
2. Double-click the JDK archive file to start the extraction process.
You expand the Solaris self-extracting archive from the command line. This is also a straightforward
process, and one you’re likely familiar with if you’ve dealt with self-extracting archives before:
1. First this command to change the JDK archive file into an executable file:
chmod a+x jdk1.2-solaris2-sparc.bin
2. Then type this command to extract the JDK files:
./jdk1.2-solaris2-sparc.bin
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You can expand the Solaris JDK archive anywhere on your Solaris machine.
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Java Bible:Installing and Configuring the Java Development Kit
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Once the JDK archive has been expanded, a Java directory similar to the one shown in Figure 4-1 is
created. This directory contains a number of subdirectories, tools, and files, which together make up the
Java Development Kit. Each of the Java tools (see Table 4-1) are actually executable programs. (To
learn more about the tools supplied with the JDK, see “Using Java Tools” later in this chapter).
Figure 4-1: Upon installing the JDK, a java directory is created on your computer containing the
various tools and files necessary to develop Java programs.
Table 4-1
Java Tools
Tool Description
appletviewer The standalone Applet Viewer, which allows applets to execute without the
use of a Java-savvy browser.
Jar The Java archive tool, which combines multiple files into a single, Java
Archive format (JAR) file.
Java The interpreter, which executes Java bytecode.
Javac The compiler, which converts Java source code into bytecode.
Javadoc The documentation generator, which can create files from source code.
Javah The native method C file generator, which creates C-header and source files
for native methods.
Javakey The Java digital key tool, which generates a digital signature tar JAR files.
Javap The disassembler, which disassembles Java bytecode and outputs the result
in a human-readable form.
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Jdb The debugger, a text-based tool for debugging Java programs on the
command line.
Jre The rutime interpreter, which you can use to run Java applications. This tool
is similar to the Java tool, but it is intended primarily for end users who do
not require all the development-related options available with the java tool.
Native2ascii The native code page tool, which converts nonUnicode Latin-1 (source code
or property) files to Unicode Latin-1.
Rmic The remote method invocation compiler, which generates stub and skeleton
class files for Java objects implementing the java.rmi.Remote interface.
Rmiregistry The remote object registry tool, which starts a remote object registry on a
specified port. The remote object registry is a bootstrap naming service used
by RMI servers.
Serialver The serial version tool, which returns the serialVersionUID for one or more
classes.
Once you’ve installed the JDK, all of Java’s own class libraries are placed inside the JDK lib
directory (a subdirectory of the main directory into which the JDK is extracted), and are
compressed into an archive named classes.zip. Whatever you do, never decompress the classes.
zip archive! This archive is used to keep the suite of Java class files well organized and easily
accessible, meaning you should leave the archive intact; if you decompress it, the Java tools
won’t have a clue where to find the class files, and so will give you serious grief in return
While the classes.zip archive is strictly hands-off, the class source code archive, src.zip, is another matter
altogether. You can unzip (decompress) these Java source code files to take a look at how their
corresponding class files in classes.zip were created, and then place them wherever you like. While the
source code files aren’t necessary since the classes.zip archive has everything you’ll need, they’re nice to
keep around if only to take an occasional peek at how Sun’s own engineers created the library of classes
you’ll use regularly from within your own Java programs.
A Windows ZIP utility, WinZip 6.3, is provided on the enclosed CD-ROM. You can use this
wonderfully powerful piece of shareware to create your own ZIP archives, or to decompress
those you come across in your travels (such as the scr.zip archive described here). See
Appendix B, “What’s on the CD-ROM,” to find out more about WinZip 6.3 and the other
useful utilities provided on disc.
Setting Up Your Java Environment
After you’ve installed the JDK, you must ensure that two environment variables, PATH and CLASSPATH,
are set properly. The correct settings for both variables hinge on where you install the JDK onto your
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computer.
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Java Bible:Installing and Configuring the Java Development Kit
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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The PATH environment variable specifies where the operating system looks for executable files when
you don’t supply the full directory path leading to the file you’d like to execute. To use the JDK, you
must either change an existing PATH environment variable or specify a brand new PATH environment
variable, both of which you do differently under Solaris, Windows 95, and Windows NT.
The CLASSPATH environment variable specifies where the Java tools look for class files when you don’t
supply a full directory path manually. (The class files could be the suite of class files contained in the
classes.zip archive discussed earlier, or even your own library of class files if you happen to create enough
classes to merit placing them in a library package of your own making.) Since the process of setting the
CLASSPATH environment variable varies from platform to platform, I’ll explain how to go about setting
CLASSPATH for Solaris, Windows 95, and Windows NT at the same time that you set the PATH
environment variable.
Solaris
Solaris users typically set environment variables in the startup file for the shell you use. Since most
Solaris users do this through either a variation of the s h shell or the csh shell, I’ll include a brief
description of each here. In both cases, assume that the JDK has been installed into a directory called
jdk1.2. If this isn’t the case, you’ll have to substitute the actual directory name you placed the JDK into
anytime a directory named jdk1.2 appears below.
If you install the JDK in the default location the installer provides, /usr/local/jdk1.2/bin, you don’t
need to set the CLASSPATH environment variable at all! The JDK tools automatically append .:/
usr/local/jdk1.2/classes:/usr/local/jdk1.2/lib/classes.zip to the CLASSPATH setting each time a tool is
run. If you create your own library of class files, however, you should create an appropriate
CLASSPATH setting to allow the JDK tools to find them.
To modify the setting of your PATH environment variable and to set the CLASSPATH environment
variable in your .cshrc file (for csh shell variants), insert these lines:
set path=(/usr/local/jdk.l.2/bin $path)
set CLASSPATH=(/usr/local/jdk1.2/classes:
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/usr/local/jdk1.2/lib/classes.zip)
Once you’ve made these changes, you should force the operating system to reread your . cshrc file by
entering this command:
sourcE ~/.cshrc
To modify the setting of your PATH environment variable and to set the CLASSPATH environment
variable in your .profile file (for sh shell variants), insert these lines:
PATH=($path:/usr/local/jdk1.2/bin) export PATH
CLASSPATH:(/usr/local/jdk1.2/classes:
/usr/local/jdk1.2/lib/classes.zip) export CLASSPATH
Once you’ve made these changes, you should force the operating system to reread your .profile file by
entering this command:
. ~/. profile
Windows 95
Windows 95 users set environment variables in the autoexec.bat file, which is typically found on the root
level of the primary hard drive (such as C: \). Since many Windows 95 users don’t have an autoexec.bat
file, you might have to create one manually using a text editor (autoexec.bat is simply a text file with the .
bat extension). If this is the case, be sure that you name the file exactly, and be certain to place it on the
root level of your hard drive. If you don’t, Windows won’t bother loading this file at startup, and the
environment variables you specify here won’t have a chance to become “active.”
To modify the setting of your PATH environment variable and to set the CLASSPATH environment
variable in your a autoexec.bat file, append these lines:
set PATH=%PATH%;C:\jdk1.2\bin
set CLASSPATH=C:\jdk1.2\classes;C:\jdk1.2\lib\classes.zip
As with the Solaris instructions above, I’m assuming that the JDK has been installed into a directory
called jdk1.2. If this isn’t the case, you’ll have to substitute the actual directory name you placed the JDK
into where the directory name jdk1.2 appears above.
Once you’ve made these changes, you must either restart your computer or manually force the operating
system to reread your autoexec.bat file by entering this command:
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\autoexec
Windows NT
Unlike Windows 95 users, who access environment variables by way of editing the autoexec.bat file,
Windows NT users have the luxury of using the System program in the Control Panel. Simply open the
Control Panel, double-click the System program, and then enter the following lines:
set path=%path%;C:\jdk1.2\bin
set CLASSPATH:C:\jdk1.2\classes;C:\jdk1.2\lib\classes.zip
You might notice that these two lines of text are exactly the same as those used for Windows 95, and for
good reason: Windows NT and Windows 95 are similar in how they deal with environment variables.
Perhaps the most significant difference lies in how you enter them. While Windows NT uses the System
program, Windows 95 users have to edit an autoexec.bat file. Either way, the environment variables are
loaded at startup time.
Once you’ve made these changes in the System program, you can either click the Done button, at which
point you must restart you computer for the changes to take effect, or you can force Windows NT to
reload your environment variables on the spot by clicking the Apply button. (If you click Done, you
must reboot before Windows NT will recognize your changes—clicking Apply is a faster, more
convenient way to accomplish the same thing.)
Testing the JDK Installation
After you’ve installed the JDK, you should test the installation. To do this, simply change to one of the
demo subdirectories in your new java directory (which is named jdk1.2 by default, although you may
have specified a different name at installation) and run the Applet Viewer program on an associated
HTML file.
For instance, to run the Tic-Tac-Toe demonstration applet from a Windows installation, start by
changing to that directory:
cd C:\jdk1.2\demo\TicTacToe
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Java Bible:Installing and Configuring the Java Development Kit
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Note that JDK files on Sun installations have the same path as on Windows installations, although
Windows uses backslashes (\) to separate directories, whereas Sun systems use slashes (/). To move to
the same directory on a Sun system, type this line:
cd jdk1.2/demo/TicTacToe
Inside each demo directory, such as TicTacToe, there is an HTML file that contains the <APPLET> tag to
execute that demonstration applet. In this case, as with most of the demos included with the JDK, the
HTML file is named examplel.html. Once you’re in the TicTacToe directory, run the Applet Viewer
program (appletviewer) with that HTML file:
appletviewer examplel.html
If everything was installed properly, you should now be playing a game of tic-tac-toe, as illustrated in
Figure 4-2. If not, see the “Installation Troubleshooting for Solaris” or “Installation Troubleshooting for
Windows 95 and Windows NT” sidebar for help.
Figure 4-2: Java Tic-Tac-Toe, one of the many demo applets supplied with the JDK.
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If you’ve installed the most current version of the JDK (version 1.2.x at the time of this
writing), you will likely notice that many of the demo directories provided with the toolkit
contain additional directories named 1.0.2 and 1.1.5. This allows us to see how the same applet
is written using different versions of the JDK. Remember, JDK 1.0 was first out of the gate,
and eventually matured to 1.0.2 before a new “major” version of the language arrived. That
first major upgrade, version 1.1, itself matured to version 1.1.x before yet another “major”
upgrade came along: 1.2. Today, JDK version 1.2 has matured to version 1.2.x, and will soon
be outdated by an even newer version—JDK 2.0. Since each major version of the language
brings with it major changes in how Java programs are written, the good folks at Sun decided
to include all past versions of the demos they’ve written that are included with the JDK. As a
result, you can execute each of the earlier “major” versions of these demos, and also take a
look at the source code to see how that version of the language was used to create the program.
Installation Troubleshootin for Solaris
The following troubleshooting information is taken from Sun’s most current JDK installation
documentation.
• If you get the error message “The download file appears to be corrupted” when you attempt to
extract the JDK, delete the file and download a new copy. The JDK installation script does a
checksum to ensure that the archive was not corrupted during the download.
• If you get the fatal error message “Exception in thread NULL” when running java javac, or
appletviewer, check the CLASSPATH environment variable. It may list the classes directory from an
older JDK release. You can either unset the CLASSPATH variable, or set it to include only the
latest version of the JDK class library.
If this suggestion does not resolve the problem, consult the installation documentation that came
with the JDK release. You can also refer to the Java “Frequently Asked Questions”
documentation available at the JDC.
• If you get the error message “Could not read properties file” or “Invalid JAVA_HOME” when
running one of the JDK tools, such as appletiviewer, it may mean that your JAVA_HOME
environment variable is not set properly. Normally, you need not worry about setting
JAVA_HOME. However, some Java IDEs set the JAVA_HOME variable to a value that won’t allow
you to run the JDK tools. Use the echo command to see if your JAVA_HOME value has been set:
echo $JAVA_HOME
If the echo command returns a value for JAVA_HOME, make a note of the setting (in case you
want to restore it later), and then try unsetting it and see if you can run the JDK tools. Use the
unsetenv command to unset the JAVA_HOME environment variable:
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unsetenv JAVA_HOME
If you still cannot run the JDK tools after unsetting JAVA_HOME, try setting JAVA_HOME to the
absolute path of the jdk1.2 directory that was created when you installed the JDK. For example, if
you install JDK 1.2, and the directory jdk1.2 has the path /usr/local/jdk1.2, try setting JAVA_HOME
as follows:
setenv JAVA_HOME/usr/local/jdk1.2
As long as you have not disturbed the bin and lib directories that are immediately below the jdk1.2
directory, you should be able to run the JDK tools.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Installation Troubleshooting for Windows 95 and Windows NT
The following troubleshooting information is taken from Sun’s most current JDK installation
documentation.
• If you see either the error message “net.socketException: errno = 10047” or “Unsupported
version of Windows Socket API,” check which TCP/IP drivers you have installed. The Applet
Viewer tool supports only the Microsoft TCP/IP drivers included with Windows 95. If you are
using third-party drivers, such as Trumpet Winsock, you’ll need to change over to the native
Microsoft TCP/IP drivers if you want to load applets over the network.
If the Applet Viewer tool does not load applets, dismiss it and enter the following set commands
in the same DOS command window as you invoked Applet Viewer:
set HOMEDRIVE=c:
set HOMEPATH=\
Restart the Applet Viewer tool in the same DOS command window. If you still cannot load
applets, enter the following set command in the DOS command window:
set HOME=c:\
Again, restart the Applet Viewer tool in the same DOS command window. If you still cannot load
applets, enter the following java tool command tine in the DOS command window:
java-verbose sun.applet.AppletViewer
The java tool lists the classes that are being loaded. From this output, you can determine which
class the Applet Viewer is trying to load and where it’s trying to load it from. Check to make sure
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that the class exists and is not corrupted.
• If you get the fatal error message “Exception in thread NULL” when running java, javac, or
appetviewer, check the CLASSPATH environment variable. It may list the classes directory from an
older JDK release. You can either unset the CLASSPATH variable, or set it to include only the
latest version of the JDK class library.
If this suggestion does not resolve the problem, consult the installation documentation that came
with the JDK release. You can also refer to the Java “Frequently Asked Questions”
documentation available at the JDC.
• If you cannot close the Applet Viewer tool’s copyright window, move the launch bar to the
side of the desktop to allow access to the copyright window’s Accept and Reject buttons.
• If you get the error message “Could not read properties file” when running one of the JDK
tools, such as appletviewer, or “Invalid JAVA_HOME” it may mean that your JAVA_HOME
environment variable is not set properly. Normally, you need not worry about setting
JAVA_HOME. However, some Java IDEs set the JAVA_HOME variable to a value that won’t allow
you to run the JDK tools. Use the echo command to see if your JAVA_HOME value has been set:
% echo %JAVA_HOME%
If the echo command returns “ECHO is on” or “ECHO is off”, the JAVA_HOME environment
variable has not been set. If the echo command returns a value for JAVA_HOME, make a note of
the setting (in case you want to restore it later), then try/unsetting it and see if you can run the
JDK tools. Use the following set command to unset the JAVA_HOME environment variable:
set JAVA_HOME:
If you still cannot run the JDK tools after unsetting JAVA_HOME, try setting JAVA_HOME to the
absolute path of the jdk1.2 directory that was created when you installed the JDK. For example, if
you install JDK 1.2, and the directory jdk1.2 has the path /usr/local/jdkt.2, try/setting JAVA_HOME
as follows:
set JAVA_HOME=C:\jdk1.2
As long as you have not disturbed the bin and lib directories that are immediately below the jdk1.2
directory/, you should be able to run the JDK tools.
Using Java Tools
Using the Java environment means you’ll have to learn each of the tools outlined in Table 4-1 earlier in
this chapter. Perhaps the three most common tools are the compiler (javac), the interpreter (java), and the
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Applet Viewer (appletviewer). With these three tools and a source code editor, you’ll be able to write, test,
and debug Java applications and applets.
Java source-code files contain, not surprisingly, the actual Java code you write. These are text files, and
you can create them with any text editor or word processor capable of saving files in ASCII text format.
As long as you save your source files in ASCII text format with a .java extension, you’ll be fine. The
following are examples of valid Java source filenames: HelloWorld.java; MyProgram.java;CoolGame.java.
If you omit the .java extension, or if the file is in any format other than ASCII text, the compiler will
generate an error message.
Table 4-2 lists the tools with their proper usage syntax. To help make sense of these, we’ll step through
the process of writing a small application called HelloWorld. Although the details of HelloWorld (both
application and applet versions of the program) are covered in Chapter 7, we’ll use it here to illustrate
the use of the Java tools.
Table 4-2
Using Java Tools
1
Tool Syntax
2
appletviewer appletviewer [-debug] html_file
java java [options] class (see Table 4-4 for options)
javac javac [-option] file.java (see Table 4-3 for options)
javadoc javadoc [-classpath path][-d directory][-verbose] file.java | packagename
javah javah [-classpath path][-verbose][-stubs][-o outputfilename] [-d directory] classes
javap javap [-v][-c][-p][-h][-verify][-classpath path][-l] class
jdb jdb [java options] [ host hostname] [-password password] classname
1
Bracketed [] items are optional.
2
Italicized items are used as parameter placeholders.
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Date: 05/01/98
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Since the actual source code isn’t important for the following examples, assume that you have already
entered the entire program in a text editor. You would save what you’ve written in ASCII text format
(just plain text) in a file with the .java extension:
HelloWorldTest.java
Ignoring the issue of how your development environment directories should be structured (more on that
later), assume that you have saved your HelloWorldTest.java program in an appropriate directory on your
hard drive. Because the source code needs to be compiled before it can be executed, the next step is to
do just that.
Compiling
You can run the Java compiler, javac, with a wide array of options (see Table 4-3). This is the basic
syntax of javac:
javac [option] file.java
Table 4-3
javac Compiler Options
Option Description
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-classpath path Specifies where javac looks for classes that are referenced in the source code
being compiled. Classes can be located in directories in the path, or inside
ZIP archives in the path.
This option overrides the path specified in the CLASSPATH environment
variable. You can specify more than one directory in the path. (On UNIX
systems, use a colon to separate the lists of directories; on Windows systems,
use a semicolon.)
The basic form for path, in UNIX format, is:
.:path1:path2:path3
You should always include the default class directory and ZIP file in your
classpath option, as in the following Windows example:
javac -classpath C:\myclasses;C:\jdkt.2\
classes;C:\jdk1.2\lib\class.zip HelloWorld.java
A period in the path specifies the current working directory, as in the
following Solaris example, which searches the current directory for a class
before any other directory:
javac -classpath .:/home/classes:/export/
classes HelloWorld.java
-d directory Specifies the root directory where javac places the compiled class files. By
default, javac places compiled class files in the same directory as the source
files.
Use this option when you want a class file to be saved into a directory other
than the one containing the source code file. For example:
javac -d/home/javaapps/stuff HelloWorld.java
Here, the resulting HelloWorld.class is not saved in the same directory as the
source code file HelloWorld.java. Instead, javac saves HelloWorld.class in the /
home/javaapps/stuff directory.
-depend Recursively compiles any class files on which the currently compiling file
depends. The compiler does not recursively descend to every leaf. Once it
encounters an up-to-date file on a branch, it ceases descending that branch.
For example:
javac -depend HelloWorld.java
-encoding name Specifies the source file encoding name. If this option is not specified, then
the platform default converter is used. The encodings are used by the
native2ascii native code page tool.Java can support multiple character sets,
making internationalization of your Java applications complete. Using the
encoding flag, you can specify the native character encoding used in your
application.
-g Adds debugging information to the class files that javac generates, Debugging
tables contain information about variables, methods, and line numbers. By
default, only line numbers are generated, unless you specify the - 0
(optimize) option. For example:
Javac -g HelloWorld.java
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-J java_option Passes the string java_option to java, the Java interpreter. The string cannot
contain any spaces. If you want to send multiple strings, use multiple -J
options. This option is particularly useful for adjusting the compiler’s
execution environment or memory usage. For example, the following javac
command has java fire up jdb to initiate a debugging session:
Javac -Jdebug HelloWorld.java
-nowarn Suppresses the generation and display of warnings errors. For example:
Javac -nowarn HelloWorld.java
-0 Optimizes the code by inlining static, final, and private methods when
possible. As a result, code often executes faster. The resulting class files,
however, are often larger. If you use this option and the - g (debug) option at
the same time, javac does not add line numbers to the resulting class files. For
example:
Javac -0 HelloWorld.java
-verbose Displays additional information about the source files being complied and
about any classes being loaded. For example:
Javac -verbose HelloWorld.java
We just want to compile the source file without any options, so you could simply execute the compiler
with the name of our source code file. The following example shows how to compile your program
without any options (the > indicates a command line prompt):
> javac HelloWorldTest.java
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Any syntax errors or bugs caught by the compiler would immediately follow, although you can assume
there are none in this example. If all goes well, the compiler will convert the human-readable source
code into machine-readable bytecode. The compiler creates a bytecode file for each class declared in our
program. This is in the same directory as our source file, since you didn’t specify a different one using
the -d option. Since your HelloWorld.java source file declares only one class, HelloWorld, the compiler
creates the following file:
HelloWorld.class
In this binary file is the bytecode generated by the compiler for the class HelloWorld declared in your
program. If there were other classes declared in your program, the compiler would create a new file to
contain the bytecode of each. For instance, supposing your program declared three classes (HelloWorld,
GoodbyeWorld, and SpinWorld), a bytecode file for each would have been created by the compiler
(HelloWorld.class, GoodbyeWorld.class, and SpinWorld.class).
At this point, the source code has been converted to bytecode and can be executed by the interpreter
(java, see the next section). You’ve simply used the compiler “as is,” without specifying any of the
options it understands. For a description of each option, see Table 4-3.
Executing applications with the interpreter
Once the bytecode for your application has been generated by the compiler, it can be executed. This is
simple enough in the case of actual applications, since all you have to do is run the java interpreter and
provide it with the bytecode file:
> java HelloWorld
Notice that you didn’t supply the .class extension for the HelloWorld bytecode file. Although the
interpreter requires the file to have such an extension, you don’t need to provide it. In fact, an error
would be reported if you did. For instance, suppose you did this:
> java HelloWorld.class
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Since each bytecode file contains one class having the same name as the file itself (the only difference
being the .class extension of the bytecode file), the interpreter would attempt to locate and execute a class
named HelloWorld.class instead of HelloWorld. In this case, the interpreter would report the following error:
> Can’t find class HelloWorld/class
Note that there are actually four ways to run your Java programs:
• The java command invokes the interpreter with a console window.
• The java_g command is the same as java but includes extra debugging information.
• The javaw command invokes the interpreter without a console window.
• The javaw_g command is the same as javaw but includes extra debugging information.
Don’t forget that the compiler, javac, requires you to include the filename with its .java extension, while
the interpreter, java, wants only the base name of the bytecode file, without the .class extension.
You can use the interpreter with a number of options, many the same as those the compiler supports.
These options are listed in Table 4-4.
Table 4-4
java Interpreter Options
Options Description
CLASSPATH This is not a command-line option; it is an environment variable that you can
set to tell Java where to find classes (or classes in ZIP archives). Having the
same parameters as the - classpath option, you only have to set this
environment variable once.
The following is the basic form, in UNIX format:
.:path[:optional paths]
Windows users should use semicolons to separate path listings. Once set, the
CLASSPATH environment variable can be overridden with the - classpath
option (see - classpath).
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-classpath path Specifies where java looks for class files to execute. Classes can be located in
directories in the path, or inside ZIP archives in the path.
This option overrides the path specified in the CLASSPATH environment
variable. You can specify more than one directory in the path. (On UNIX
systems, use a colon to separate the lists of directories; on Windows systems,
use a semicolon.)
The basic form for path, in UNIX format, is:,
.:path1:path2:path3
You should always include the default class directory and ZIP file in your
classpath option, as in the following Windows example:
Java -classpath C:\myclasses;C:\jdk1.2\
classes;C:\jdk1.2\lib\class.zip HelloWorld
A period in the path specifies the current working directory, as in the
following Solaris example, which searches the current directory for a class
before any other directory:
Java -classpath .:/home/classes:/export/ classes HelloWorld
-CS, -checksource Compares the modification time of the class bytecode files to their
corresponding source code files. When a source code file has been modified
more recently than its bytecode file, the source is recompiled and the new
bytecode file is used.
-debug Attaches jdb, the Java debugger, to the java session. When this option is used,
java displays a password on the command line that you must use when the
debugging session starts.
-Dpropertyname =newValue Defines a property value, where propertyName is the name of the property to
change and newValue is the new value for that property. You can specify any
number of -D options on the command line.
-help Displays information on how to use java.
-ms size [k | m] Specifies the initial size, in bytes, of the memory allocation pool (the garbage
collection heap). The minimum value for size is 1000, which is the default
size.
You can specify a value in kilobytes (K) or megabytes (MB) rather than
bytes by appending a k or m character, respectively.
-mx size[k | m] The maximum size, in bytes, of the memory allocation pool (the garbage
collection heap). The minimum value for size is 1000. The default value is
16MB.
You can specify a value in kilobytes or megabytes rather than bytes by
appending a k or m character, respectively.
-noasyncgc Turns off the asynchronous garbage collector, prohibiting garbage collection
unless it is explicitly invoked or the program runs out of memory. By
default, the garbage collector runs as an asynchronous thread, in parallel with
other threads in your program.
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-noclassgc Turns off garbage collection of classes. By default, java reclaims the space of
unused classes.
-noverify Bypasses the bytecode-verification phase of the classes it loads. Use this
option only when running code you know is safe (in other words, virus-free
and having no malicious behavior).
-oss size The maximum size, in bytes, of the stack for Java code in threads. (Java
threads maintain two stacks, one for Java code and the other for C code.) The
minimum value for size is 1000. The default value is 40OK.
Threads that are spawned during the execution of the program have the same
stack size for Java code.
You can specify a value in kilobytes or megabytes rather than bytes by
appending a k or m character, respectively.
-prof [file] Starts with profiling turned on and saves the profiling information in file. By
default, the information is stored in java.prof in the current directory.
-ss size The maximum size, in bytes, of the stack for C code in threads. (Java threads
maintain two stacks, one for Java code and the other for C code.) The
minimum value for size is 1000. The default value is 128K.
Threads that are spawned during the execution of the program have the same
stack size for C code.
You can specify a value in kilobytes or megabytes rather than bytes by
appending a k or m character, respectively.
-t Turns on tracing of instructions. This option is valid only with java_g.
-v, -verbose Displays a message every time a class is loaded.
-verbosegc Displays a message anytime the automatic garbage collector frees memory.
-verify Runs the bytecode verifier on all classes that are loaded into the interpreter.
-verifyremote Runs the bytecode verifier on all classes that are loaded by a class loader.
This is the default, so you don’t have to explicitly turn this option on.
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Date: 05/01/98
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Eecuting applets with the Applet Viewer
Java applications are full-blown applications that are executed outside a Java-savvy browser. Unlike
applets, which run inside a browser environment, applications need only the runtime environment to
execute. Applets, on the other hand, require the help of a browser.
Since firing up a browser each time you want to test an applet can be timeconsuming—and even
impossible on some systems, because of memory constraints—you may prefer to use the Applet Viewer
tool included with the JDK. This tool, shown running a demo applet in Figure 4-3, executes your applets
without the aid of a browser, ameliorating the time and memory issues that come with launching a
browser or keeping one running while developing your programs.
Figure 4-3: Applet Viewer, one of the many JDK tools, provides a fast, effective way to test your Java
applets.
Keep in mind that applets are called into action through the <APPLET> tag in an HTML file, regardless
of whether you use the Applet Viewer or a browser to execute them. This means you’ll need to write a
small HTML file for each applet in order to run them.
While not difficult, the details of doing this are covered in Chapter 7, so I won’t bother going through
the steps here. Assume you’ve written an HTML file for your HelloWorld program. Furthermore, assume
you’ve rewritten the application in the form of an applet (also detailed in the Chapter 7) and have
already compiled it.
Assuming you have your applet bytecode file and HTML file already prepared, you can test it with the
Applet Viewer:
> appletviewer HelloWorldTest.html
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The Applet Viewer opens the supplied HTML file, which can be named anything you wish; it looks for
the <APPLET> tag specifying your program and executes it. This process is quite speedy when compared
with launching a Java-savvy browser, so I’d recommend using the Applet Viewer during development
instead of a browser.
If you followed the instructions in “Testing the JDK Installation” earlier in this chapter, you’ve actually
used the Applet Viewer program already to execute the Tic-Tac-Toe applet. The syntax is about as
simple as you can get, although you may wish to use the debug option:
> appletviewer -debug HelloWorldTest.html
Summary
In order to develop applets and applications in Java, you must first install the Java Development Kit on
your computer.
• If you don’t use the JDK provided on the CD-ROM, you must get the most recent release of
Sun’s JDK from its Web site (http://java.sun.com). You can also download the documentation
and complete source code of the JDK libraries from this site.
• You will find that the JDK includes a number of Java tools, including an Applet Viewer
(appletviewer), an interpreter (java), a compiler (javac), and a debugger (jdb). There are also a
number of Java environment variables that need to be set before you can properly run your Java
applications.
• Once installed, you’ll need to set your path environment variable to include the JDK tools
directory and the CLASSPATH environment variable to include the default class directory and
classes.zip file.
• You can then test the JDK by running various demo applets, with the help of several
troubleshooting hints.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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PART II
Getting Up to Speed
In This Part
Chapter 5:
Getting Started: HelloWorld Application and HelloWorld Apptet
Chapter 6:
Extending, Enhancing, Debugging, and Uploading
Chapter 7:
Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
Chapter 8:
Surfing the Web for java Source Code
Now that you have an understanding of Java and its understanding place in application development,
you’re ready to start developing your own applications. In this part, you walk through the process of
designing, developing, testing, and debugging your first Java application. You learn how to design your
applications to function as both standalone applications and Web-based applets.
It’s almost impossible to develop a bug-free application from scratch—so to help with the development
of your application, these chapters show you how to use the debugging tools provided with the Java
Development Toolkit. You learn how to use the Java debugger to stomp out those annoying bugs.
Adding flexibility to your Java applications can really enhance their use. This part will show you how to
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modify your Java applications and applets to accept and use the parameters specified by command-line
arguments. Command-line arguments can supply dynamic information that can change each time your
application is run.
Finally, you’ll learn how to use the Web as your greatest application-development tool. You’ve
undoubtedly heard others ask Why reinvent the wheel? and you need not reinvent the Web, either. By the
time you finish this part, you’ll know how to use the Web to find and borrow Java applications and
objects that can get your applications up and running even faster!
CHAPTER 5
Getting Started: HelloWorld Application and HelloWorld Applet
In This Chapter
Understanding applications and applets
Creating the HelloWorld application
Creating the HelloWorld applet
In this take closer look at the difference chapter, we a between Java applications and Java applets by
writing the infamous HelloWorld program. Here, you examine the source code for both the application
and applet version of HelloWorld as you get to know the structure and purpose of both types of Java
programs. You also execute each to better understand how they differ from a runtime standpoint.
Application Versus Applet
The two fundamental forms of Java programs are the application and the applet. We refer to Java
programs that are capable of being executed outside the context of a browser as applications. The
primary difference between applications and applets is their purpose. Java applications are just like
others we’re familiar with, although they require the presence of the Java runtime environment to be
executed, as do applets. Unlike applets, however, Java applications aren’t meant to exist on the lnternet
and be executed as World Wide Web content. They are, instead, full-blown applications that exist and
are executed on users’ local computer systems, as would a spreadsheet or word processor.
Applets, on the other hand, are designed to live on the network and be executed as part of a Web page.
That’s why they’re referred to as executable contend although they are imbedded in Web pages, just as
standard content is, they are really software programs and can be executed as such.
Applets require a Java-savvy browser such as Netscape Navigator (version 2.0 or later) or Microsoft’s
Internet Explorer (version 3.0 or later) because they must be downloaded from the network and, in
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essence, be given to the Java runtime environment to be executed.
Because of their different purposes, applications and applets are structured differently, both in terms of
their code and in how they are ultimately executed. To examine these differences, we’ll walk step-by-
step through the process of creating a HelloWorld application and applet.
HelloWorld is a simple program, with little practical purpose other than to illustrate the structure and
syntax of real Java code and the process of compiling and executing such code. When executed, the
program does nothing more than output Hello World! to the screen. Because the application version is a
little less complex in terms of code and execution than the applet version, let’s start with that.
HelloWorld Application
Before we get into the nitty-gritty, be aware that Java programs, both applications and applets, are
executed by the interpreter. They are not standalone, because they require the presence of the Java
runtime environment.
In setting up the HelloWorld application, we shall go through the following steps:
1. Set up a directory structure to store our code, including a master directory and subdirectories.
2. Enter and saving the source code.
3. Compile the source code.
4. Execute the application, passing the bytecode file created during the compilation process to
the Java interpreter to output to our screen.
Application directory structure
Before you begin writing a Java program, it’s a good idea to set up a directory structure to store your
code. In most instances, you’ll create a new directory for each program, so I recommend a master
directory in which all these subdirectories will reside. The location and name you choose for your master
directory is up to you. I chose to name my master directory aewcode, and created it inside the main java
directory for the sake of convenience.
Inside my master aewcode directory, I created a subdirectory called Hello, in which the source code and
compiled classes for my HelloWorld program are kept, as can be seen in Figure 5-l. For the following
example, I assume you have also created a Hello directory inside your master directory.
Figure 5-1: Creating a hierarchy of directories for your HelloWorld program
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How you create a directory depends entirely on the platform you use. Windows users can create
directories in the Windows environment using their mouse, or by issuing the mkdir command at the DOS
prompt. Sun users can also use the mkdir command. Macintosh users, however, don’t have a command
line at which to enter such commands. They must select the New Folder item (using their mouse or the
keyboard equivalent for this item) located under the File menu while inside the Finder.
Entering and saving the source
Using a text editor, enter the following source code and save it as a plain ASCII text file named
HelloWorldApp. java inside your Hello directory. Don’t forget to include the .java extension, or the compiler
won’t be able to see it!
class HelloWorld {
public static void main (String args[])
System.out.println(“Hello World! ”);
}
}
Did you notice that the name of the class, HelloWorld, isn’t exactly the same as the name of the file in
which it is saved? This is because we didn’t specify the class as being a public class. If we had, the name
of the source code file would have to be the same as the public class it contains. In this case, the source
code file would be named HelloWorld .java to reflect the public HelloWorld class it defines. However,
because our class isn’t public, the filename can be anything we like. For details on public classes, see the
section “Access modifiers” in this chapter or refer to Chapter 11.
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Java Bible:Getting Started: HelloWorld Application and HelloWorld Applet
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Class declaration
Before actually compiling the program, we’ll walk through each line of code to get a better feel for the
Java language—beginning with the first line:
class HelloWorld {
This line declares a new class, HelloWorld, the body of which begins following the opening curly brace
({). The closing brace (}) on the last line of our source code signifies the end of the class, which is the
blueprint from which HelloWorld objects will be instantiated.
Keep in mind that Java is an object-oriented language, where the fundamental building blocks are
objects. In fact, everything in Java is an object; the language doesn’t support global functions or global
variables. This means that everything emanates from an object template, formally known as a class.
What we are doing here is creating a class, the blueprint for an object. The class includes all the code for
state (data) and behavior (methods), although in this example we only have methods and no explicitly
declared data.
All classes are derived from, or are subclassed, from existing classes. In the case of our HelloWorld class,
we do not explicitly state of which class it is a subclass. When no superclass (a class from which a class
is derived) is specified, the default is assumed to be class Object. Although we could have explicitly
specified that HelloWorld is a subclass of Object, as shown below, there’s no need to do so.
class HelloWorld extends Object {
In the above example, we use the keyword extends to specify HelloWorld as a subclass of Object, although
our original implementation does the same thing by default. When we rewrite HelloWorld as an applet,
we’ll actually subclass the Applet class. In this case, we must explicitly extend the Applet class, as you’ll
see later. Let’s move on with our application for now.
Method declaration
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The second line declares the main() method, and takes a string parameter, which will contain any
command-line arguments provided when the application is executed. Let’s take a look at the
implementation of the first line of code, or method signature, for the main() method:
public static void main (String args[])
Just as with C and C++, a main() function must be included in a Java application; without it, the
interpreter would have no idea where to begin executing. And just as with C/C++, Java applications can
be executed with command-line arguments. The arguments for Java are passed to the program through
the string parameter, args[].
Although you must include the string args[ ] parameter in your main() method signature, you are under no
obligation to use it. We ignore the args[ ] parameter in this example, because we have no need to use
command-line arguments. While comman-line arguments are covered in more detail in Chapter 7, it’s
worth noting here that the args[ ] parameter is itself an object. It’s an object of type String, a class defined
to handle storage and manipulation of strings. However, we do nothing with the args[ ] object in
HelloWorld, and so let’s press on and take a closer look at the main() method itself.
Of most interest are the keywords preceding main(), specifically public, static, and void. As with C/C++,
void simply means this method does not return any data. If it did, the data type it returned would be
written in place of it. Straightforward enough, but what about the keywords public and static?
Access modifiers
The keyword public is an access modifier. It specifies that the main() method can be called by any object.
This means the main() method is openly available to other objects and is not in any way restricted.
Java supports four access modifiers (public, private, protected, and the implicit “friendly”) that can be
applied to both methods and variables, giving the programmer control over method and variable
accessibility to other objects.
Access modifiers are used to control the visibility (accessibility) of variables and objects by other
objects in a program. By applying one of the three access modifier keywords (public,, private, or protected)
to classes, variables, or methods, you can control the capability of other objects to use them. To apply an
access modifier, include the appropriate keyword when declaring the variable, class, or method:
private int miles; // specifies a private variable
public void main (String args[]) { } // public main() method
protected class HelloWorld { } // protected HelloWorld class
Although access control is discussed in more detail in Chapters 9 and 11, you should always consider to
what extent the variables, classes, and methods in your programs will be accessible to other parts of your
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program. With this in mind, consider the various level of controls provided through access specifiers.
public
Methods and variables specified as public are accessible from any method, regardless of the package to
which the method’s class belongs. Packages are used to organize Java classes, and are described in detail
in Chapter 11. Classes can also be specified as public, making them available to other classes in other
packages. In fact, Java requires that every applet source file (in other words, any class that extends the
Applet class) contain a public class. However, only one public class is permitted in a source file.
private
Variables and methods specified as private are accessible only from inside their own class and aren’t
available to methods in any other class (including subclasses). Unlike the public specifier, private cannot
be applied to classes.
Because early versions of Java supported private classes, some of the older source code you may
encounter on the Web might actually specify classes as private. Attempting to compile such code using
the current release of the Java compiler, however, will result in an error. To remedy the problem, simply
remove the private keyword wherever it is applied to classes.
protected
Variables and methods specified as protected are accessible only from inside their class or subclasses of
their class (subclasses can even override protected methods and variables). As such, the protected
specifier is preferred to private in cases where you want subclasses to have access to variables and
methods, but require tighter access restrictions than the public specifier provides. It can’t, however, be
applied to classes.
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Java Bible:Getting Started: HelloWorld Application and HelloWorld Applet
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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<blank>
If you don’t specify an access modifier for methods and variables, Java treats them as “friendly”
members, having limited public accessibility. Such methods and variables are accessible to other classes
in the same package, but not classes in other packages. If you don’t explicitly specify a class as being
public, it will (by default) be available only within the package it is declared in (see Chapter 11).
static
The keyword static specifies the main() method as a static method (more commonly known as a class
method). Just as with access modifiers, the static modifier can be applied to both variables and methods.
When applied, static indicates that the method or variable can be accessed without first requiring that an
object of the class they are part of be instantiated (see the sidebar “Class Versus Instance”). If the
keyword static is not explicitly applied to a method or variable, it is automatically considered to be an
instance method or variable.
Accessing an object’s variables and methods
The final line in our HelloWorld program is the one that does all the work, at least as far as displaying
the words “Hello World!” are concerned.
System.out.println(“Hello World!”);
What we’ve done is send the string “Hello World!” to the System class for output (in this case, standard
output [STDOUT], typically the terminal or monitor). Because ali variables and methods in the System
class are static, there is no need for us to instantiate an object of this class prior to referencing variables
and methods, as we have done (again, see the sidebar, “Class Versus Instance”). But what’s going on
with the two dots?
Periods, or dots, are used to access an object’s variables and methods. The syntax is similar to how
you’d access struct elements in C and C++. Suppose you wanted to directly access the horizontal variable
of the Point class we talked about earlier in Chapter 2. Although, in this example, we declared both the
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horizontal and vertical variables as private, if they had been declared public the following would have
done the trick:
int x = myPoint.h; /* access and assign myPoint’s h variable
to x */
Class Versus Instance
In Java, class variables and methods can be either class or instance members of the class in which they
are declared, as indicated by the presence or absence of the static modifier. For example, the main()
method of HelloWorld is a static method. If the keyword static were not part of the method signature,
such as in the following example, main() would instead be considered an instance method of the class
HelloWorld:
public void main (String args [])
Static methods and variables are associated with the class rather than with an instance of the class and
are also known as class variables or class methods. This is a fitting name, because each class variable
and class method occurs once per class; instance methods and variables occur once per instance of a
class. The difference between class and instance members is significant, especially when it comes to
variables.
By occurring only once per instance of a class, class members are shared by all objects created from a
class. That is, all objects created from a given class share the class variables and class methods defined
in that class. Instance variables and instance methods, on the other hand, are created anew each time an
object is created.
Class members can therefore be considered global to a class, even though true global variables aren’t
supported in Java. When an object changes the value of a class variable, all objects instantiated from that
same class see Ge result. Because of this, class variables are often used to share data intended to be
common to all objects created from a particular class.
To refer to instance methods and variables, an object must first be instantiated from that class, after
which it can access the methods and variables from the instance. With static methods and variables,
however, there is no need to instantiate an object before referring to these class members.
The use of a static method is seen in HelloWorld, as we call upon the System class to output a string of
characters without first instantiating an object of that class.
System.out. println(“Hello World!”);
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System. out refers to the out variable in the System class. We didn’t instantiate the System class, yet we are
able to directly refer to the out variable. Because the System class declares out as a static variable, we can
access it directly without the need for instantiation. If out were not declared as a static variable, we
would have to instantiate an object from the System class before accessing it.
When the System class is loaded into an application, the Java interpreter automatically creates out and all
other static variables in that class. Because out has been created, the instance method println() can be sent
to it, as we have done-println() is an instance method of out. Java enables the programmer to cascade
together references to static and instance methods and variables, as we have done in HelloWorld.
In the System class, discussed in detail in Chapter 12, one of the variables is out. The out variable is itself
an object, of which println() is a method. So, what we’ve done in the last line of HelloWorld code is
access the System class’s out variable, executing its println() method, passing our “Hello World!” string as
a parameter.
Compiling the source code
You’re now ready to compile the source code, assuming you have typed it in and saved it as an ASCII
text file with the name HelloWorldApp. java. Going on that assumption, and also that the directory in
which you’ve saved the source file is named Hello, you would now run the javac compiler:
Hello> javac HelloWorldApp.java
Assuming your file didn’t contain typing errors, it should compile just fine. If not, the compiler will spit
out a line or more showing you where the error was found (see Figure 5-2).
If this is the case, open your file and compare it carefully to the following source code:
class HelloWorld {
public static void main (String args[])
System. out. println( “Hello World!”);
}
}
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Figure 5-2: If your file contains errors, the compiler will spit out a line or more showing you where
they were found.
Be sure all the curly brackets ({ }) are included and check your spelling. Fix any problems, save the file,
and try again. When the contents of your text file exactly matches the HelloWorld source code shown
here, you should have no problem compiling.
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Java Bible:Getting Started: HelloWorld Application and HelloWorld Applet
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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You’ll know the compiler is successful when no error messages are reported. Assuming you’re in the
Hello directory, where your source file is also located, the following is typical of a successful
compilation (where Hello> is the prompt):
Hello> javac HelloWorldApp.java
Hello>
Because no errors were reported here, the compiler was able to convert the source file into a binary
bytecode file called HelloWorld. class. For every class the compiler comes across in a source file, it creates
a bytecode file of the same name. Check the directory to see if a bytecode file was indeed created. Your
Hello directory should now contain two files: HelloWorldApp.java and HelloWorld.class.
Once you have successfully compiled the source code, which results in a binary bytecode file being
generated in the same directory, it’s time to run the program.
Executing the application
When you execute a Java application, you’re executing bytecode. Therefore, you must pass the bytecode
file created during the compilation process to the Java interpreter:
Hello> java HelloWorld
Notice we do not include the .class extension. The interpreter assumes you passed it just the filename of
the class. If you give it the .class extension as well, it thinks it’s looking for a class named HelloWorld.
class and comes up empty-handed. If you make this mistake, or do it intentionally just for kicks, an error
message such as the following will be generated:
“Can’t find class HelloWorld/class”
Also, notice that we have provided the interpreter with exactly the same upper-and lowercase formatting
of the class name. This is no mistake, because Java is case-sensitive. The HelloWorld class is not the same
as a helloworld class, nor as a helloWorld version. Sure, you and I might recognize them as the same, but
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Java sees each as different. Be sure to provide the interpreter with the precisely formatted name of the
bytecode file, which should also be an exact replica of the compiled HelloWorld class.
Assuming you enter the class name exactly, the bytecode file will be loaded by the interpreter and the
main() method will be executed. When the line of code containing System.out.println() is reached, “Hello
World!” is sent to STDOUT, which is the computer screen by default, as shown in Figure 5-3.
Figure 5-3: If you have successfully executed the bytecode, “Hello World!” is output.
Congratulations! You’ve just written, compiled, and executed your first Java application. Sure, it’s no
Microsoft killer, but that’ll come in time. In the meantime, let’s take a look at our HelloWorld program
written and executed as an applet.
HelloWorld Applet
Remember: while an application is executed using the Java interpreter and without any need whatsoever
for a Java-savvy browser, applets are executed from within a Java-savvy browser.
Because of this, applets are a little more complicated to get up and running than applications. Not much,
mind you, but a little. For starters, you have to create an HTML file (a Web page) that references the
applet. And you also have to add a few more lines of code to let the Java compiler and runtime system
know these programs are applets and not applications. But once you get the hang of it, you’ll find that
these are really easy steps. Let’s start by taking a look at the directory structure for our HelloWorld
applet.
Applet directory structure
Just as with an application, you’ll need to create a directory to hold the source code file, compiled
bytecode file, and HTML file for your applet. For this project, I created a HelloApplet directory right
alongside the Hello directory created for the application version. Now, directories for both the applet and
application version reside in my master aewcode directory, as can be seen in Figure 5-4. Of course, the
directory structure you choose is completely up to you.
Figure 5-4: Directories for both the applet and application version of HelloWorld should now reside in
your master directory.
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Entering and saving the source
As you did with the application version of this program, you’ll need to type the following source code
and save it in your HelloApplet directory. Because the class we are defining here is called
HelloWorldApplet, you should name the source code file HelloWorldApplet. java. And, just as before, be sure
to include the .java extension when naming the file.
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.Graphics;
public class HelloWorldApplet extends java.applet.Applet {
public void init() {
resize(200,150);
}
public void paint(Graphics g) i
g.drawString(“Hello World!”, 50,100);
}
}
Once you have entered this code, it must be saved in a plain ASCII text file named HelloWorldApplet. java.
If the class you are defining in an applet does not have the same name as the text file in which you save
it, the compiler spits out an error message. This is because the class for our applet is defined as being
public, meaning the source code tile in which it resides must have the same name.
Suppose, for example, you entered the above code exactly as shown but saved the file as HelloWorldStuff.
java instead. The compiler would abort the mission and give you the following error message:
“Warning: Public class HelloWorldApplet must be defined in a file
called ”HelloWorldApplet.java“
However, if you enter the code exactly as shown and save it in an ASCII text file named HelloWorldApplet.
java you’ll be all set. At this point, the applet is ready to be compiled. But before we do that, let’s take a
look at the new code our applet requires.
Import
Right off the bat, our applet uses two lines of code not seen in the application version:
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt. Graphics;
These are very similar to the #include feature found in C/C++. Here, we are importing classes into our
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applet, methods of which our applet will utilize. The classes are from two different packages supplied
with Java: the applet package and the Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT). For more information on
packages, see Chapter 11; for more information on the AWT, see Part IV.
Take another look at the first line of import code:
import java.applet.*;
This import statement tells the compiler to include all classes in the java. applet package. This is done with
the asterisk (*) character, or wildcard. Contrast this with the second line of code:
import java.awt. Graphics;
This line imports only the Graphics class from the AWT package. Here, the class we want to include —
Graphics—is explicitly stated. Together, these two lines will provide our applet with the functionality
every applet requires, as we’ll soon see.
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Java Bible:Getting Started: HelloWorld Application and HelloWorld Applet
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Class declaration
Unlike the application, the class declaration for our applet is much more involved:
public class HelloWorldApplet extends java.applet.Applet {
We specify the HelloWorldApplet class as being public, an access modifier indicating this class is available
to all other objects regardless of the packages of which they may he part. We also explicitly state that
this applet subclasses another. By extending the class Applet (java. applet. Applet) found in the applet
package, the HelloWorldApplet class inherits the data and behavior in Applet. Because it is a subclass of
the Applet class, HelloWorldApplet can be considered a more specialized version of it.
Contrast this with the application, which does not explicitly extend an existing class. By not specifying a
particular class, HelloWorld became, by default, a subclass of Object. Here, however, we need to inherit
the properties of the previously imported Applet class. All applets must extend this class, and so this code
is essential here and in any other applet you’ll create. The inheritance tree—also known as a class
hierarchy—for HelloWorldApplet is shown in Figure 5-5.
Figure 5-5: The inheritance tree for HelloWorldApplet
Method declaration/overriding
At a minimum, most applets will declare two methods: init() and paint(). These methods already exist in
the Applet class extended by all applets, including our HelloWorldApplet subclass. As a result,
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HelloWorldApplet overrides them. By declaring a method in our class with the same name as one in a
superclass, we replace the superclass’s method with our own. Hence we override the init() and paint()
originally declared in the Applet class with our specialized version of these methods. Let’s take a closer
look at them.
The first method we override, init(), takes no parameters, returns nothing, and is declared public. In fact,
the only thing we do here is instruct the browser window to resize itself to 200 pixels wide and 150
pixels high. The method used to do this, resize(), is part of the Applet class. Because we have imported
this class, we can use its methods:
public void init() {
resize(200,150);
}
The second method we override is paint(), a method which is used by the applet to draw on the screen.
Similar to init(), the paint() method is public and returns nothing. It does, however, take one parameter: a
Graphics object. When called, paint() is passed an object of class Graphics. It uses this object, invoking the
drawString() method contained in it, to draw our ”Hello World!“ string in the browser window at the
location 50,100.
Unlike the System. out. println() code used in our application to output to STDOUT, applets use paint() to
output to the browser window:
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString(”Hello World!“,50,100);
}
The methods we’ve overridden are quite simple, as you can see, having only one line of executable code
each. And thanks to Java’s automatic garbage collection, we don’t have to worry about disposing of
memory or objects; we simply enter the code and let the Java runtime environment take care of these
memory-management issues.
Compiling
Java applets are compiled exactly as their application counterparts. If you’ve typed the code precisely as
shown and saved it in a file named HelloWorldApplet. java, you should have no problem compiling your
new applet. Enter the following at the command line (where HelloApplet> is the prompt indicating you’re
inside the directory containing the source file):
HelloApplet> javac HelloWorldApplet.java
If the compiler is successful, a binary bytecode file named HelloWorldApplet. class will be created in the
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same directory as your source file. If not, double-check your source code against the listing above and
try again.
Executing the applet
Unlike applications, Java applets cannot be executed directly with the interpreter. If you try, the
interpreter will tell you it can’t find the main() method required for all applications. That’s no surprise,
because we never declared main():
HelloApplet> java HelloWorldApplet
”In class HelloWorldApplet: void main(String argv[]) is
undefined“
To execute an applet, we must first create an HTML file that explicitly references it, using the <APPLET>
tag, and then open that file with a Java-savvy browser. Luckily, this is fairly easy.
Creating an HTML file
Using the same text editor as you did to create your source code files, create a new file and enter the
following:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Hello World Applet Test </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
Here is our applet:
<APPLET CODE=“HelloWorldApplet.class” WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=150> </
APPLET>
</BODY>
</HTML>
When done, save this as a plain ASCII text file with the name TestApplet.html in the same directory as
your new source and bytecode files. You can choose any name you want, but I’ll use this name when
referring to the HTML file.
All the HTML code you see here is standard, plain, vanilla stuff, with the exception of the following line:
<APPLET CODE =”HelloWorldApplet.class“ WIDTH=200 HEIGHT:150>
This is the line of HTML that tells a Java-savvy browser about our applet. The bytecode file is listed in
quotes, as it’s the compiled code that the browser will load and execute. Notice that the entire class
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name and the .class extension is required. If .class is omitted, the applet may not be found (depending on
how the browser you’re using deals with <APPLET> tags). To be safe, and ensure that every Java-savvy
browser out there can find your applet, be sure to include the .class extension. Also, the class name must
match that generated by the compiler exactly (see the section called “HTML case sensitivity” later in
this chapter).
Because our applet is being executed locally, and because it exists in the same directory as the HTML
file, there is no need to specify anything more than the name of the applet class file. However, if our
applet was in a different directory than the HTML file or on the Web, we would need to provide
additional information (see Chapter 7 for details).
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Date: 05/01/98
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WIDTH and HEIGHT
These two attributes of the <APPLET> tag, both of which are required, instruct the browser to create a
display canvas of these dimensions when first loading the applet. The canvas is where your applet will
be displayed in the browser, and can be controlled from within the applet itself using the resize() method.
For our purposes, the WIDTH and HEIGHT attributes are the same as those used in our applet’s resize()
method, called in init(). We could have two different sets of values, although the resize() method is called
after the HTML file is parsed, effectively overriding the dimensions provided in HTML. By supplying
the same dimensions in HTML as we have in our source code, the canvas remains the same size when
the applet is loaded by the browser as when it was actually executed.
HTML case sensitivity
With the exception of the class name, which must be written exactly and in the same case format as the
bytecode file generated by the compiler, the <APPLET> tag is not case-sensitive. That means you can
write everything in this tag in upper, lower, or even mixed case. I’ve used uppercase for readability,
although you should feel free to do as you wish.
For instance, either of the following three lines of HTML code would be fine:
<APPLET CODE=“HelloWorldApplet.class” WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=150>
<applet code=“HelloWorldApplet.class” width=200 height=150>
<Applet Code:“HelloWorldApplet.class” Width=200 Height=150>
Executing the applet
Because an applet must be executed through a Java-savvy browser or similar environment, such as the
Applet Viewer tool supplied with the Java Developer’s Kit (JDK), we need only load our HTML file
with one to see the results. However, it may not be terribly convenient to repeatedly launch a full-blown
browser (or run it continuously) during the course of development. For this reason, I recommend using
the Applet Viewer program provided with the JDK.
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In practice, Applet Viewer is just as effective, yet executes faster and uses much less memory. To
execute your program with this program, simply provide it with your HTML file:
HelloApplet> appletviewer TestApplet.html
Notice that the entire filename is included, even the .html extension. This is because Applet Viewer
expects the entire filename and will generate an error message if it can’t locate the file you give it.
However, if everything is in order, it will create a window and execute HelloWorldApplet in it. This is
demonstrated in Figure 5-6.
Figure 5-6: If everything is in order, Applet Viewer will create a window and execute
HelloWorldApplet.
Although the Applet Viewer will execute any applets it finds in an HTML file, it won’t display anything
else. If you want to see the page as it will look to the world when placed on the Web (with text, graphics,
hyperlinks, and anything else that’s part of the page, but isn’t generated by an applet) you need to use a
Java-savvy browser such as Netscape’s or Microsoft’s latest beauties.
Living on the Web
Of course, in reality, your applets will be on a World Wide Web server waiting to be executed when
visitors load your pages with a Java-savvy browser. In this case, the HTML file you create may specify
the URLs of remote applets it expects to execute (see the CODEBASE discussion in Chapter 7).
In Chapter 6 we’ll expand on the HelloWorld applet, adding sound and graphics. This new version of
HelloWorld will exist on the Web, and so we’ll also update our source code to better handle life in
cyberspace.
JAR Files
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Just as you can use a glass jar to can your tomatoes and peaches, Java Archive ( JAR ) files
can be used to can your Java packages. JAR files store Java packages, classes, and resources in
a compressed form. Because it takes time to download information over the Internet, if you
can cram more information into less space, things will run faster. When adding applets to your
HTML files, the <ARCHIVE> tag is used to specify a JAR file. Chapter 11 reviews the process
of creating JAR files in detail.
Onward and upward
Although the HelloWorld application and applet aren’t much to look at, they have helped us better
understand the Java language and development environment. In fact, you’ve actually created two
platform-independent programs, one of which, the applet, is capable of living on the Web. Not bad,
considering it only took a handful of code.
In Chapter 6 we’ll build upon this to get a better understanding of how to debug Java programs. We’ll
also upload the final applet to the Web, accessing it from there, instead of from our hard drive. And so,
it’s onward and upward with HelloWorld, but it’s goodbye for now.
Summary
In this chapter we examined these topics:
• Creating Java applications and applets, using a basic HelloWorld example
• Executing Java applications
• Using the HTML <APPLET> tag to include a Java applet on your Web page
• Executing Java applets using your Web browser
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Java Bible:Extending, Enhancing, Debugging, and Uploading
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 6
Extending, Enhancing, Debugging, and Uploading
In This Chapter
Determining when to extend or enhance existing Java classes or develop your own
A step-by-step guide to extending the HHelloWorldApplet class
How to create and document your classes
Debugging and testing your Java applications and applets
Having completed simplistic examples, HelloWorld it’s time to improve on the work we’ve started. In
this chapter, we’ll add an image and soundtrack to the HelloWorld applet. In doing so, we’ll see how
classes are extended (subclassed) in Java and get to know the debugging process. Finally, we’ll learn
how to upload our new creations onto the Web, for the world to admire.
Let’s first consider a question you’ll ask yourself often when using Java: Enhance or extend?
To Enhance or Extend?
When you develop software in any object-oriented programming (OOP) language, you’ll often ask
yourself whether the task or program at hand should enhance existing classes or extend them to create
more specialized subclasses. In large programs, you’ll often do both.
To enhance an existing class means to add new variables or methods to that class. To extend a class
means you create a subclass that will contain new variables or methods while the superclass itself
remains untouched. That is, you add your variables and/or methods to the subclass (perhaps even
overriding methods in the superclass) to get the behavior you want, without changing a line of code in
the superclass.
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Whether to enhance or extend depends a great deal on what it is you want to do. To make this decision,
you need to have a clear understanding of the class itself. You need to ask yourself two basic questions:
1. Does the class have the essential data and behavior I need, and would it be easy to add to it?
2. Does the new functionality I want to add apply to all instances of the class, or just some?
If the functionality you want to add applies to the entire class (in other words, all instances require such
functionality) and is easy to fit in with the class’s existing data and behavior, then it’s a good candidate
for enhancing. If it lacks much of the data or functionality you require, or the new functionality only
applies to some of the instances of the class, it may be easier to extend it by creating a new subclass.
Be very cautious when attempting to enhance a class. What you are actually doing is rewriting it.
Therefore, you must take great care not to alter the interface it currently supports for interacting with
other objects, lest you “break” the class. If you change the way in which it interacts with other objects,
either by substantially changing its variables and/or methods, the integrity of the class will be
compromised and any programs or classes relying on it will suffer.
While the decision to enhance or extend is made on a case-by-case basis, you’d do well to consider
extending a class whenever possible. This, after all, is one of the key reasons OOP is so powerful. You
don’t have to go in and rewrite functions and data structures every time you need new functionality. You
can simply create a subclass, inheriting all the data and behavior of the superclass, and add any
specialized data and behavior without worry.
We can accomplish our task—adding sound and graphics to the HelloWorld applet we created in the
previous chapter—by either enhancing or extending the HelloWorldApplet class. However, to help us
become more comfortable with the concept of extending a superclass to inherit its state and behavior,
we’ll concentrate on extending HelloWorldApplet. As we go through the example, you’ll see the new code
that would have to be added to this class, were we not to extend it.
Extending the HelloWorldApplet class
Because we’re going to extend the class, we need to create a new ASCII text file for the source code in
Listing 6-l, which will then be compiled and executed. Create a new file using whatever text editor you
prefer, enter the source code, and then save it in the same directory as HelloWorldApplet.
Listing 6-1: MediaHelloWorld.java source code
import java.applet.*;
import java,awt.*;
/**
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* MediaHelloWorld applet, an extension of the HelloWorld applet.
* Displays “Hello World!” string in applet canvas while a
* background audio track plays and an image follows the mouse *
around.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version l.o, l2 Jan 98
*/
public class MediaHelloWorld extends HelloWorldApplet (
Image myImage;
AudioClip myAudio;
int horizontal, vertical;
boolean SoundOn = true;
public void init() {
super. init();
myImage:getImage(getCodeBase(), “images/world.gif”);
myAudio=getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “audio/hello.au”);
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
if (myImage !=3D null) { /* only draw if the variable contains
data! */
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this);
}
super.paint(g);
}
public void start() {
myAudio.loop();
}
public void stop() {
myAudio.stop();
}
public boolean mouseDown(java.awt. Event event, int x, int y)
{
if (SoundOn) {
myAudio.loop();
SoundOn = false;
}
else {
myAudio. stop();
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SoundOn = true;
}
return true;
}
public boolean mouseMove(java.awt. Event event, int x, int y)
{
horizontal=x;
vertical:y;
repaint ();
return true;
}
}
Name your new file MediaHelloWorld.java. Be sure to include the .java extension or the compiler won’t be
able to find it.
Because MediaHelloWorld extends our HelloWorld applet, the javac compiler must be able to access the
HelloWorldApplet class in order to successfully compile MediaHelloWorld. This is why I’ve suggested
that you place your MediaHelloWorld.java source code file in the same directory as HelloWorldApplet.
However, as long as it’s in the class path (specified by the class path environment variable or using the
classpath compiler option), any applet you create can extend HelloWorldApplet. See Chapter 4 for details on
how to properly configure classpath for your system.
At this point, you should also create two new directories inside the same directory as your source code:
audio and images. The audio directory will contain the sound file, and images will hold the GIF file used in
this example. To make things easier, you can simply copy these directories and files from the CD-ROM
included with this book. Refer to Appendix C for the details about where these are located.
Java versions prior to version l.2 only support Sun’s AU (•law) audio format. If you’re using an earlier
version of Java, you have to save sound files as 8-bit •law, 8KHz, with only one channel. To convert
existing sound files to the AU format, use the audio tool application if you’re a Sun workstation user, or
the shareware program GoldWave on the enclosed CD-ROM if you’re a Windows user. To save a sound
file in the AU format using GoldWave, use the File-Export command.
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Java Bible:Extending, Enhancing, Debugging, and Uploading
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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JDK 1.2 includes a number of audio enhancements, including a new sound engine and support
for audio in applications as well as applets. Java Sound now supports the AIFF, AU, and WAV
audio file formats. It also supports these MIDI-based song file formats: TYPE o MIDI, TYPE
1 MIDI, and RMF. Java sound can render 8-bit or l6-bit audio data in mono or stereo, with
sample rates from 8KHz to 48KHz.
The source code in Listing 6-1 is bug-free, meaning it should compile without a hitch, assuming it
resides in the same directory as the HelloWorldApplet class (HelloWorldApplet.class) or as the source file
(HelloWorldApplet.java). When the Java compiler is run on your new source file, it will look for
HelloWorldApplet.class, because that class is extended. If it can’t locate HelloWorldApplet.class, the compiler
will look for the HelloWorldApplet. java source file and compile it, if it’s available. If successful, the
compiler will create a new class named MediaHelloWorld.class.
If the compiler insists that it can’t find the HelloWorldApplet class, be sure that it (or the HelloWorldApplet.
java source code file) is inside the same directory as your new MediaHelloWorld. java file. If it’s not, or
isn’t in the class path at all, the compiler won’t be able to find it.
If you’re sure the file is in the correct place, and the compiler still can’t find it, double-check the
CLASSPATH environment variable to ensure that you set it properly.
Make sure that your CLASSPATH environment variable not only points to Java’s classes, zip
archive, which contains all the standard class files, but also includes the “current directory.” In
Windows, you do this by supplying a period and semicolon, followed by the full path leading
to the .zip archive (.; C: \java \ lib \ classes. zip). With UNIX systems, you use a period and colon
to specify the current directory (.: /java /lib/classes. zip).
If both HelloWorldApplet.class and its source, HelloWorldApplet.java, are missing, the compiler will tell you
so:
MediaHelloWorld.java:11: Superclass HelloWorldApplet of class
MediaHelloWorld not found.
public class MediaHelloWorld extends HelloWorldApplet {
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^
1 error
A class, such as HelloWorldApplet.class, will be accessible to your Java programs if it resides in
the same directory as the program itself (or the source code you intend to compile). It will also
be accessible if it resides in the directory specified by the CLASSPATH environment variable. If
you develop a class that’s likely to be used by more than one program, make sure that you
place it in the directory specified by CLASSPATH, so that it’s universally accessible to all Java
programs that might need it.
Stepping Through the Code
In this section, we’ll step through each new part of the source code shown in Listing 6-l to give you a
better idea of what each new variable and method does. In the process, we’ll get a better feel for how
subclasses communicate with their superclass through use of the super object.
Importing classes
To begin with, let’s take a look at the classes our new program imports:
import java.applet,*;
import java.awt.*;
These two lines of code are very similar to those found in HelloWorldApplet.java. Because we’re creating
an applet, we need to import the base Applet class. This is accomplished with the first import statement,
which every applet must include.
In addition to the basic applet functionality our program requires, the Applet class also provides the
AudioClip interface we’ll use to load and play a sound track.
The second import statement, however, is slightly different from its HelloWorldApplet.java counterpart.
Here, we instruct the compiler to import classes in the awt package, not just the Graphics class imported in
HelloWorldApplet. Because this applet requires additional classes found in awt, specifically those that deal
with the Image object, we import all classes in the awt package.
With these two lines of code, all of the classes our applet relies on are imported into the program. If we
had required additional classes, we could have imported them in precisely the same way as we imported
the Applet and awt classes.
Documentation comments
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Following the import command is a special comment, created to help developers generate
documentation:
/**
* MediaHelloWorld applet, an extension of the HelloWorld applet.
* Displays “Hello World!” string in applet canvas while a
* background audio track plays and an image follows the mouse *
around.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version l.o, l Jan 98
*/
This comment looks and acts in a similar way to the standard C comment, although an extra asterisk (*)
is added to the beginning and special variables are included.
Inside a document comment, the @ character specifies special variables that are used when generating
documentation with the javadoc tool. In this example, the author and applet version have been specified.
You can place document comments before any class or method declaration to serve as standard human-
readable comments ignored by the compiler. In addition, you can use comments to help automate the
document-creation process and take some of this burden from the programmer.
Class declaration
The MediaHELLoWorld class declaration follows the documentation comment. Unlike our original
HelloWorld applet, which extended the Applet class, MediaHElloWorld extends the HelloWorldApplet class:
public class MediaHelloWorld extends HelloWorldApplet {..}
By extending the HelloWorldApplet class, MediaHelloWorld inherits all data and behavior in that class.
Although there isn’t much to inherit—only the capability to output “Hello World!”—you’ll soon see
how powerful this ability to subclass an existing class is. Prod because we’ve inherited all the traits of
HelloWorldapplet, we automatically get the functionality found in class Applet.
Variables
Next, the variables used in MediaHelloWorld are declared. Although these variables could have been
declared anywhere inside the body of our class (with the exception of inside a method declaration), as
long as they appeared before first being used, I’ve placed them here for easy reading:
Image myImage:
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AudioClip myAudio;
int horizontal, vertical;
boolean SoundOn = true;
The most significant variables are those that will actually hold our graphic and sound data: my Image and
myAudio. The others aren’t nearly as interesting, but are every bit as necessary. The horizontal and vertical
integer objects will hold the mouse coordinates, because our image will be drawn wherever the mouse
moves. In addition, a boolean object Soundon is declared and set to true. This variable keeps track of
whether or not the sound clip should be played; it’s necessary because a mouse click in our applet
toggles the audio off and on.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Methods
Six common methods are often overridden when you create your own applets. They are init(),getCodeBase
(), paint(),start(), stop(),mouseDown(), and mouseMove(). Let’s take a close look at the function of each of
these methods.
init()
MediaWorldApplet overrides six methods, beginning with init (), which all applets override:
public void init() {
super.init();
myImage:get Image(getCodeBase(), “images/world.gif” );
myAudio=getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “audio/hello.au”);
}
However, this init () method is quite different than the one we created for HelloWorld Applet . In that one,
we simply resized the applet canvas in which our “Hello World!” string was to be drawn. Here, things
are quite different. Although MediaWorld Applet does, in fact, resize the applet canvas, it does so by
invoking the init () method in its superclass:
super.init();
By executing the init() method of MediaWorldApplet’s superclass, as this line of code does,
HelloWorldApplet’s init () is called! Sure, the only thing it does is resize the applet canvas, but the point is
that we were able to execute the init() method of the superclass without having to duplicate code. It’s not
a drastic saving in code in this example, but it could be tremendous in others.
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Although Sun’s Applet Viewer supports the resizing of the applet canvas, there’s no guarantee
that every Java-savvy Web browser will do the same. As a result, you shouldn’t rely on resize()
working correctly when it’s called. However, every <APPLET> tag is required to include both a
HEIGHT and WIDTH attribute. Every Java-savvy browser will use the values supplied through
these attributes to automatically set the size of an applet’s canvas when it is first executed.
It doesn’t matter how much or how little code we’re saving in this example i it could be millions of lines
or just one—the end result is that our new applet doesn’t have to duplicate effort. We inherit the
variables and methods we’ve already created in HelloWorldApplet, and we can access them from our new
class thanks to the super object. As you can see in the paint() method, we don’t even have to bother
rewriting the code that outputs “Hello World!.” (For an explanation of super, see the “Odds ’n’ Ends”
section at the end of this chapter.)
You should note that in Java, two special keywords, this and super, are used to refer to the current object
(this), and its superclass (super). Because you’ll make regular use of this and super in your Java programs,
they are described in the “Odds ’n’ Ends” section later in this chapter, and explained in detail in Chapter
11.
The next two lines in init() retrieve the image and audio data and place it in the appropriate objects.
Actually, the data isn’t loaded at this time! Only when an image is drawn, or a sound file played, does
the download take place. After all, why load the data if it never gets used?
getCodeBase()
The two methods get Image() and getAudioClip() are courtesy of classes imported into our program. They
both rely on another method, getCodeBase(), also made possible thanks to the imported Applet class (see
the “Getting to Base” sidebar).
Getting to Base
Many applets use external data (such as graphic images and audio files) that may be stored outside of the
directory in which the applet resides, so there must be a way to tell the applet where these files are. This
is quite easy, thanks to two methods implemented in the Applet class: getCodeBase() and getDocumentBase().
Both methods return a URL object, which is used to tell the applet where the external data files reside:
public URL getCodeBase() returns the “base” URL for the applet itself. Use this method if your external
data files are stored relative to the actual applet, not the HTML document it is embedded in.
public URL getDocumentBase() returns the URL for the actual document in which the applet is embedded.
Use this method if your external data files are stored relative to the HTML document
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These methods are extremely useful because they enable your applet to locate files relative to itself or to
the HTML document in which it is embedded. They work in both local and networked environments, so
it doesn’t matter if-four applet is executed from your hard drive or the World Wide Web. Thanks to
getCodeBase () and getDocument Base(), your applet will be able to find the files it needs regardless of where
it is executed, assuming these files are located relative to the class when using getCOdeBase(), or to the
HTML document when using getDocumentBase().
Later in this chapter, you’ll upload the compiled MediaWorldApplet class and associated audio and image
files to your Web server. And because we use getCodeBase () to reference these files, Java will be able to
locate them as easily as when the applet is executed locally.
paint()
Next, we override the paint () method:
public void paint(Graphics g) {
if (myImage !=3D null) { // only draw if the variable
contains data!
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this);
}
super.paint(g);
}
This implementation uses drawImage() to draw the graphic at the specified horizontal and vertical position
on the applet canvas. These variables set the location of the mouse and are set in the mouseMove() method
overridden later in the program. Of particular interest, however, is the parameter this, which refers to the
current object.
The drawlmage() method, described in detail in Chapter l7, takes as its last argument an Imageobserver
object. Image observers are responsible for keeping track of images as they are loaded, a process which
can take a long time when loading over a network. However, because applets themselves can act as
Imageobserver objects, you don’t have to instantiate them yourself in most cases.
Instead, you can pass a reference to the applet using the keyword this. Because this refers to the current
object, which is the applet itself, you can get by without bothering to instantiate an Imageobserver object.
(For a detailed explanation of this, see the “Odds ’n' Ends” section later in this chapter.)
After drawing the image, we call the paint() method of our superclass with the line:
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super.paint(g);
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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This outputs “Hello World!” to the applet canvas, just as it did in class Hello WorldApplet, where it was
declared. Because “Hello World!” is output after we draw the image, it appears over the image itself. If
you want the image to be drawn over the text, simply reverse the order of these two lines.
start() and stop()
Although the init() and paint() methods should be familiar to you by now, the remaining code overrides
several methods that HelloWorldApplet did not. The first two, start() and stop(), are used to begin and end
our audio sound track, which is referenced by myAudio after init() is called.
When the applet is begun, start() is called, it is here that we execute the loop() method declared in the
Audioclip class. When the applet is terminated (this occurs when the user unloads the Web page in which
the applet is embedded), stop() is invoked. It is here that we execute the stop() method for AudioClip,
which interrupts the looping sound track:
public void start()
myAudio.loop();
}
public void stop()
myAudio.stop();
}
These two methods are commonly overridden by applets, because they provide a mechanism for applets
to begin and end their activities in response to the user loading and unloading the Web page in which the
applet is embedded. For more information on start() and stop() and the three additional methods often
overridden by applets, see “Fundamental applet methods” in the “Odds ’n’ Ends” section at the end of
this chapter.
mouseDown() and mouseMove()
Until now, our program has only overridden methods that are called when the applet is first executed or
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terminated. (The init(), paint(), and start() methods are called when the applet is executed; stop() is an
example of a method that is automatically called when the document containing the applet is unloaded.)
We haven’t, at this point, established a mechanism to interact with the user.
The final two methods we override do just that. By overriding mouse Down () and mouseMove(), declared
in the Component class (java. awt. Component, to be exact, imported as part of the entire awt package), we
give our applet the ability to respond to the user’s mouse activity:
public boolean mouseDown(java.awt. Event event, int x, int y) {
if (SoundOn) {
myAudio.loop();
SoundOn = false;
}
else {
myAudio, stop();
SoundOn = true;
}
return true;
}
public boolean mouseMove(java.awt. Event event, int x, iht y) {
horizontal=x;
vertical=y;
repaint();
return true;
Both methods have the same parameter list and return aboolean, sharing the same basic method signature:
public boolean methodname (Event evt, int x, int y) { ... }
Event is a class that encapsulates events from the local Graphical User Interface (GUI) platform, such as
mouse and keyboard characteristics. The x and y parameters of each method specify the horizontal and
vertical coordinates of the mouse at the time the method is invoked. Both methods must return true if the
event is handled appropriately, meaning it should not be passed along for further processing. Because
the buck stops with us, we return true in each case to prevent a parent component from also executing its
mouseDown () and mouseMove() methods.
In mouseDown (), we do nothing whatsoever with the parameters passed to us. Instead, we simply
determine whether the audio track should be started or stopped, based on the Soundon variable, and act
accordingly. It is here that we toggle the value of Soundon, allowing the user to start and stop the
soundtrack by clicking the mouse in the applet canvas.
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Our implementation of mouseMove(), however, does use a portion of the parameter list. Although we
ignore Event, x and y are used to set our horizontal and vertical variables. These two variables specify the
coordinates where our image is drawn. Because we want the image to “follow” the mouse around, we
immediately call repaint() to ensure our paint() method is called each time the mouse moves. The result is
shown, frozen in time, in Figure 6-l.
Figure 6-l: MediaHelloWorld, residing locally, as executed by Applet Viewer
And that’s MediaHelloWorld in its entirety. Before we begin the debugging process, you may want to
run the program and tinker with the code. Because the code we’ve stepped through here is bug-free, it
should compile and execute without a hitch. Of course, you’ll have to create a new HTML file to
execute first.
I strongly recommend developing and testing your applets using Applet Viewer initially,
moving on to a Java-savvy Web browser when you’ve worked out all the kinks. Applet Viewer
is fast, takes up less memory, and doesn’t cache applets as a Web browser might. As a result,
you can guarantee that Applet Viewer will load your applet class fresh every time it is
executed.
If you use a Web browser that happens to cache files by default, as Netscape Navigator does, you’ll have
to flush the cache or quit the browser and start anew each time you want to execute a freshly compiled
class. In fact, many programmers who use Netscape Navigator exclusively can’t understand why their
applet won’t work as expected, even after substantial changes to the source code. Most of the time it’s
because their particular Java-savvy browser is running an old, cached version of their applet instead of
the freshly compiled one!
Creating the HTML file
Just as you created an HTML document for the HelloWorld applet, you must create one for
MediaHelloWorld. Simply create a plain ASCII text file with the following contents, and save it inside
the directory in which your compiled MediaHelloWorld class resides:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> MediaHelloWorld Applet Test </TITLE>
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</HEAD>
<BODY>
Here is our MediaHelloWorld applet:
<APPLET CODE=MediaHelloWorld.class height:l50 width=200> </APPLET>
</BODY>
</HTML>
After you’ve saved the above HTML code as a text file, you’re ready to execute the applet embedded in
it. For the purpose of this section and the next, I’ll assume you’ve named the HTML file TestMediariello.
html. If you use this name, you simply enter the following command line to execute the applet using the
Applet Viewer program:
appletviewer TestMediaHello.html
This, of course, assumes the HTML file is located locally. You can also use Applet Viewer to execute
applets on the Web by providing a URL to the HTML document, instead of its name:
appletviewer
<http://www.manti scorp.com/books/java/found/TestMediaHello.html>
This will come in handy when you want to test pages after you’ve placed them on the Internet, as
described in “Making Applets Live on the Web” later in this chapter. If you’re anxious to get on the
Web, feel free to jump ahead.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Botching the Code
Code that compiles perfectly doesn’t help you understand the debugging features of Java, however, so
let’s screw it up a bit. The source code in Listing 6-2 is a version of MediaHelloWorld (originally found in
Listing 6-l) with a slippery little problem that will give us a good opportunity to work with the Java
debugger.
Listing 6-2: A buggy version of MediaHelloWorld.java
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
public class MediaHelloWorld extends HelloWorldApplet {
Image myImage;
AudioClip myAudio;
int horizontal, vertical;
boolean SoundOn = true;
public void init() {
super.init();
myImage=getImage(getCodeBase(), “images/world.gif”);
myAudio=getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “audio/hello.au”);
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
if (myImage !=3D null) { /* only draw if the variable
contains
data! */
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this);
}
super.paint(g);
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}
public void start()
myAudio.loop();
}
public void stop()myAudio.stop();
}
public boolean mouseDown(java.awt. Event event, int x, int y)
{
if (SoundOn) {
myAudio.loop();
SoundOn = false;
}
else {
myAudio.stop();
SoundOn : true;
}
return true;
}
public boolean mouseMove(java.awt. Event event, iht x, int y)
horizontal:x;
vertical=x;
repaint();
return true;
}
Can you see the error in Listing 6-2? How about if you compare it to Listing 6-l7 Because the entire
body of code for this applet is relatively short and clean, you can probably spot the error immediately.
But if you can’t find it right off the bat, here’s a clue: When executed, the image doesn’t follow the
cursor around as it once did. Specifically, when you move the mouse, the image isn’t painted on the
screen at the same coordinates as the cursor.
The source code for both HelloWorld and MediaHelloWorld are provided on the CD-ROM
included with this book, as are all source code examples. If you want to save yourself the
effort of typing, simply refer to Appendix C for details on where these files are located. Open
them with any text editor and then save them to your local hard drive.
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The bug I’ve introduced to this code is really just an oversight, something you might do when tired or
rushed to finish a program. And, unless you go through the code line by line, it’s tough to find, because
the compiler doesn’t know there’s a problem. But there is one, and it’s in the mouseMove() method:
public boolean mouseMove(java.awt. Event event, int x, int y) {
horizontal:x;
vertical=x; // here’s the little bugger...
repaint();
return true;
}
Instead of setting the vertical variable to y, as it should be, I’ve set it to x. Sure, we don’t need a debugger
to find this; with a little effort we’d find it ourselves. After all, with such a short code listing, where
could it hide? But it will serve our purpose and give us a chance to use the debugger, in preparation for
times when we can’t hunt down a bug just by scanning through the source code.
Be warned
If I’ve sounded like a Java zealot so far, it’s because I absolutely love the language and what it’s done
and will do for network-centric computing. But as much as I love Java, I hate the debugger that comes
with the JDK (intensely, with the white-hot intensity of a thousand fiery orbs in the sky). Alas, Sun—the
company that blessed us with the Java language—also bestowed upon us the jdb debugger.
The jdb debugger is about as bare-boned as you can get. It is, in fact, written in Java just as the Hot Java
browser is. But what makes it unbearable isn’t the fact that it’s entirely command-line based (something
DOS and UNIX programmers won’t mind at all), or that it lacks the ability to set conditional breakpoints
(such as, “break when x exceeds 100”). No, I can live with these things. What I can’t bear is how terribly
unstable the debugger can be at times.
So why would I tell you to use the jdb? So you can share my pain? No. In fact, I suggest you don’t use
it, if at all possible. If you’re serious about debugging, or plan to make extensive use of Java, you
shouldn’t rely on the JDK alone. Instead, I’d highly recommend a full-fledged Java development
environment from a company that specializes in development tools. Borland, Symantec, and Metrowerks
all have superior Java development environments that will free you from the shackles of the JDK’s
limited toolset.
Perhaps you’ll become fast friends with jdb and drop me a few lines of flamemail to tell me how wrong
I was to deride this virtuous tool. Fire away: aacon@ mantiscorp.com. I hope that’s the case, truly, but in
my experience and that of everyone I’ve dealt with who uses the jdb, you’re more likely to join our
“Programmers Who Love Java but Hate the JDB Support Group” than to defend it.
And there’s another reason I’ve decided to include this section. Over time, I’ve gathered a few tips and
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warnings that, if followed, can bring some stability to the product, which you’ll find throughout the
remainder of this chapter. Because you may indeed need to use the jdb from time to time, employing
these suggestions can make your experience more rewarding.
But enough with the warnings already; on with the show. . .
Stages in debugging your code
After you insert the bug and recompile the code, you have to follow several steps to properly find that
annoying bug:
1. Invoke the jdb debugger.
2. Get the applet running.
3. Issue debugging commands.
4. Start your search.
5. Check the source code.
6. Resume program execution.
If there’s still a problem:
1. Step through the code.
2. Clean your house.
Recompile the source code
To run through this exercise, you don’t need to bother entering the source code from scratch. Instead,
just change the one line in mouseMove() that introduces the bug we’ll be tracking:
vertical=x;
Once you’ve slipped this change into your code, you’ll need to recompile it. But you need to do more
than just a straight compile; you need to instruct the compiler to include line numbers and information
about local variables when it generates a class file. By default, the javac compiler only generates line
numbers. To generate information about local variables, you must use the - g option when compiling:
> javac -g MediaHelloWorld.java
By invoking this option, you’ll be able to see the local variables and their values when debugging. And,
because we need to inspect the variables our program uses to see what’s happening, this option is a
necessity.
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X
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Invoke the jdb debugger
As with the other JDK tools, the jdb debugger is entirely text-based, controlled by issuing commands on
the command line. UNIX developers will recognize it as being very similar in nature to the dbx or gdb
debuggers often used on that platform.
When invoked, the jdb actually starts the Java interpreter and “attaches” itself to it. As a result, you can
supply jdb with any of the options the interpreter itself can handle: jdb simply passes such options over
to the Java interpreter. In addition, you can execute the Applet Viewer in a debugger mode, which will
invoke the jdb for you. This is the option we’ll use, because our program is an applet and needs to be
debugged as such:
appletviewer -debug TestMediaHello.html
If all goes according to plan, the debugger will be invoked and you’ll be staring at a command-line
prompt, from which you can enter jdb commands. If, however, you see something similar to the error
message shown in Figure 6-2, you’ll have to ensure that a connection to the lnternet has been established
and try again. In this case, simply connect as you usually do when surfing the Web with a browser, and
then return to the command line and issue the above command again.
Figure 6-2: The jdb requires that you first establish a connection to the Internet before it will execute.
Issue debugging commands
Once invoked, the jdb waits around for a command. For a list of the commands it understands, enter
help (or ?) or refer to Table 6-1. The first command we’ll issue is run to get the applet running.
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Table 6-1
jdb Options and Commands
1 Description
Options
-host hostname Sets the name of the host machine of the interpreter session you want to
debug.
-password password “Attaches” the jdb to the current interpreter session, which must have
been revoked with the -debug option, causing it to generate a password.
Without this password, the debugger won’t be able to attach to the
interpreter.
Commands
!! When used, these two characters are replaced by the text of the previous
command. When followed by additional text, that text is appended to the
end of the previous command.
catch [exception Sets a breakpoint for the specified exception; whenever the exception is
classname] thrown, jdb will break. Displays all exceptions currently being caught, if
one isn’t specified (see ignore).
classes Prints a list of all loaded classes.
Clear [Class: line] Removes breakpoint for a specified line in the class. Displays all current
breakpoints (along with line numbers), if one isn’t specified.
cont Resumes program execution.
down [number] Moves down a number of frames in the current thread’s call stack(stack
frame). The default is one frame (see up).
dump object Prints the instance variables of a given object. Objects may be specified
by their hexadecimal IDs or by their names.
Note: When a class you’d like to dump isn’t loaded, you must provide its
full name (such as Java.awt.Button). When a class is already loaded,
however, you can specify a partial name (such as Button).
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exit (or quit) Terminates the current jdb session.
gc Forces garbage collection (reclaims unused objects, freeing memory).
help (or ?) Displays a list of commands the debugger understands, along with a brief
description of each.
ignore exception Turns off the catch mechanism for the specified exception, preventing it
classname from being treated as a breakpoint (by default, exceptions that aren’t
caught are treated as a nonrecoverable breakpoints).
list [line number] Lists the specified line of code (and several before and after it), or the
current thread’s stack frame if no line number is provided (see use).
load Loads the specified class.
locals Displays locals variables for the current stack frame.
Note: Code must be compiled using -g option
memory Displays amount of memory being used by the current program.
methods classname Prints all methods for the specified class.
next Steps one line-steps over calls.
print object Prints a Java object, calling that object’s toString() method in order to
properly format the output. You can print objects by specifying their IDs
or names.
Note: When a class you’d like to print isn’t loaded, you must provide its
full name (such as java. awt. Button). When a class is already loaded,
however, you can specify a partial name (such as Button).
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resume [threads] Resumes execution of the specified thread(s); resumes or suspends threads
if none are specified (see suspend).
run [classname] Executes the main () method in the specified class. Any arguments
[arguments] specified - which can be any of those supported by the java interpreter-are
passed to the class.
step Executes the current line of code, and then stops program execution.
stepi Executes the current instruction.
stop [at Classname: Sets a breakpoint at the class’s specified line of code or for the specified
line] [in classname. method. Displays all breakpoints, if neither are supplied.
method]
suspend [threads] Suspends the specified thread(s), or all threads if none are specified (see
resume).
thread theard Sets the current thread.
threadgroup Sets the current thread group.
groupname
thread group. Lists all thread groups in the current debugger session.
threads Lists the current threads in the default thread group, if a thread group is
[threadgroups] specified.
up [number] Moves up a number of frames in the current thread’s call stack (stack
frame). The default is one frame (see down).
use [path] Sets the path jdb will use to locate source files (the default is the path
specified by classpath). If no path is specified, it outputs the path.
Where [thread] Prints the stack of a specific thread (or the current thread, if one isn’t
specified). Prints the stack trace for all threads when the all option is
specified.
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wherei [threadid] [all] For PC platforms only. Prints the stack of a specific thread - providing PC-
specific information.
1
When a class file is specified when jdb is invoked, any of the Java interpreter options may be
supplied. However, when “attaching” to an existing interpreter session, only these two options are
available.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
If there’s still a problem...
But suppose you didn’t realize the improper variable assignment, even though it’s obvious by looking at
the code listing. Hey, it can happen. A few weeks of long nights and non-stop pressure to get a product
out the door can do strange things to your eyes and mind. You might look straight at the error, but still
get the message that “everything looks just fine here.” One way to find errors is to walk through your
code while it’s running, one line at a time: See the “Stepping Lightly” sidebar next for more information
on intelligently walking through your code.
Stepping Lightly
When stepping though code, it’s possible that you may lose your “place” in the program. Thanks to
threading, many things are going on at once in a Java program, and a thread may have a shot at
executing during the time you’re stepping from one line to the next. in this case, you won’t be able to
see the source code or print variables for your method!
What you must do is return the debugger to your method, so you’ll have access to your source and
variables. To do so, you must first find out where you are:
> where
The where command displays a stack trace for the current thread. The frame of the stack you are
currently in is displayed on the jdb command line in square brackets:
AWT-Call back Win32[1]
In the above example, the current thread is AWT-Callback-Win32 and the frame is 1. However, if
you’re in a frame other than the one containing your method, you won’t be able to do much of anything.
In that case, you must use the up or down commands to ensure the jdb command line is at the same frame
as the one containing your method. This process is shown in Figure 6-6.
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Figure 6-6: Use the where command, along with up and down, to ensure you are in the correct stack
frame.
Single-step through the code
In this case, it’s time to single-step through the two lines of code that assign values to the horizontal and
vertical variables:
> step
> step
Of course, you can also set a breakpoint for the line following these two, and then issue the cont
command. This is particularly useful when a number of lines must be executed, and you don’t want to
step though them one at a time:
> stop at MediaHelloWorld:55
> cont
Inspect the local variables
Now, inspect the local variables to see if x or y have magically changed. If they’re in order, check to see
if the assignment to your horizontal and vertical variables actually took place:
> locals
> print horizontal
> print vertical
A-ha! The x and y local variables are fine, but the assignment never took place. What’s this? Have you
mistakenly assigned x to both horizontal and vertical? Impossible! Rub your eyes again, if you like, but
the results will look the same every time this method is invoked: you’ve found the bug! (See Figure 6-7.)
Figure 6-7: After stepping through the two lines of assignment code and inspecting the results, our bug
becomes clearly visible.
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Cleaning house
Having tracked down your first bug using jdb, you’ll want to clear any remaining breakpoints and
continue program execution before exiting altogether. Although you shouldn’t have to bother, in theory,
you’ll be in for a rude surprise if you don’t. About half the time I tried to exit the debugger without
clearing each breakpoint and resuming program execution, it resulted in a crash. Save yourself the
headache:
> clear (lists the current breakpoints)
> clear class:55
> clear class-53
> cont
> exit
Of course, once program execution has resumed, you can quit the applet by closing the Applet Viewer
itself. Alternately, you can issue jdb’s exit or quit commands to terminate the debugging session. But
either way you do it, be sure to clear all breakpoints and resume program execution beforehand (see
Figure 6-8).
Figure 6-8: Be sure to clear all breakpoints and continue program execution before exiting the
debugger.
Debugging Tips and Warnings
In the course of working with the jdb debugger, there are a few words of caution I’d like to put forth. If
the crashes that brought an untimely close to many of my debugging sessions don’t plague you, you
won't have to worry about taking these extra precautions. However, if you’re having problems working
with jdb, the following suggestions might be just the trick.
Disable sound and graphics
Whenever possible, comment out the line(s) of source code that play sound clips. Then do the same for
code that displays images, and recompile. Unless playing audio or painting to the screen are integral to
your debugging session, you&$146;re only making jdb’s job more difficult than it needs to be.
For example, you didn’t need to hear the audio snippet in the previous debugging session. By
commenting out the lines of code that dealt with playing audio, you’ve taken a burden off the debugger
and the runtime system. The same goes for painting graphics in many cases; if it’s not directly related to
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the bug you’re tracking down, comment it out!
Quit programs you don’t need
Debugging is a delicate process, as you’ll soon find out. There’s no reason to have programs in the
background sucking away much-needed resources, especially when it comes to memory. Quit every
program you don’t really need to have running; this will free up memory and the CPU for the debugger
and your program.
Don’t try to copy/paste in the DOS box
Windows users may be tempted to save time by not typing jdb commands, but using the Copy
and Paste toolbar buttons supplied in the DOS box instead. After ali, why type something
when you can paste it in?
Don’t try it.
Every time I paste a command into the debugger, the puppy seizes up, as if asked to recite poetry in
public. Sometimes, but not always, pressing the Escape key followed by Enter brings it back to life.
The jdb supports the ! ! command, which takes some of the repetition out of typing commands
(see Table 6-l). Although not as flexible as copy/paste, it won’t lock up the debugger.
Clear breakpoints and resume program
You can exit a debugging session in one of two ways: issue the exit (or quit) command to jdb, or allow
the program to terminate naturally (for applets, this means closing the Applet Viewer window).
However you chose to exit the session, be sure to first clear all breakpoints and resume program
execution using the cont command! (See Figure 6-8 earlier in this chapter.)
Even though it shouldn’t make a bit of difference if breakpoints are set or the program is suspended, my
computer has gone up in smoke on many occasions when exiting the debugger under such conditions.
Clearing breakpoints and resuming program execution prior to an exit, however, seems to do the trick.
Making Applets Live on the Web
Once you’ve created an applet, the chances are pretty good that you’ll want to make it available to the
entire Web population. To do this, you must upload the various files that make up the applet to a Web
site and test it, to make sure nothing breaks in the process.
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Uploading applets to a Web site assumes you have the authority, and tools (such as an FTP tool), to do
so. if the site to which you want to add the applet is maintained by someone other than yourself, you’ll
have to obtain permission and perhaps even get the access passwords, if you plan to upload the materials
yourself. If you don’t already have such authority, you’ll have to arrange for it, or provide the applet and
the various files it uses to someone who will eventually perform the upload.
Web server directory layout
If this is the first time Java is being used at a site, a directory structure will need to be created to hold
your compiled Java classes and associated files (such as the audio and graphics files used in our latest
version of HelloWorld). This is pretty straightforward because the directories you create on the Web will
be similar to those you created locally.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Get the applet running
At this point, our applet isn’t actually running. Applet Viewer simply invoked the debugger with the
class file embedded in the HTML file we passed to it. The first thing you’ll want to do is get the applet
running:
> run
Once executed, this command puts our applet into motion as expected. In a few seconds, you’ll hear the
soundtrack and see the image appear. Just to make sure everything is working as normal, and to prepare
for our debugging session, move the cursor around as you normally would. As you can see, the image
doesn’t appear where it should. Now, it’s time to find out why.
Start your search
Of course, you already know why the image doesn’t appear where it should, hut pretend for just a
moment that you don’t have any idea. The first thing you need to cio is consider where the problem is
occurring. Naturally, you’ll want to see what’s going on in the method that paints the image to the
screen. After all, this is the place where the rubber hits the road; where the image is actually slapped up
on the screen.
Use the methods command
Assuming you forgot the exact spelling of the paint () method (work with me here), or weren’t sure of
exactly what methods were in the program to begin with (and so didn’t know where to begin looking for
suspicious behavior), you could get a listing of each by issuing the methods command:
> methods MediaHelloWorld
The results are shown in Figure 6-3, and they give you a good idea of where to start the debugging
process. Oh, yes, it is indeed the paint() method that we want to look inside while the program is running.
And it’s spelled p-a-i-n-t. Imagine that. Let’s set a breakpoint for this method:
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> stop in MediaHelloWorld.paint
Figure 6-3: Use the methods command for a listing of the methods in a class.
Once set, you’ll need to force your applet to invoke the method. The debugger will just sit around and
wait until this method is invoked, at which point it will stop the program execution entirely. To invoke
the paint() method, you need only switch to Applet Viewer (perhaps moving your mouse to trigger the
method).
The jdb supports two types of breakpoints: method and line number. In this case, we only want to break
when paint() is called. Later, we’ll set a breakpoint at a specific line number. Keep in mind that the
commands for each differ slightly:
stop in class.method (sets breakpoint for method)
stop at class:line (sets breakpoint at line number)
Check the source code
Once the breakpoint is reached, the applet will seem to “freeze.” The sound will stop playing, and the
image will no longer move. This is because the debugger has suspended ail activity, and is now waiting
for another command. At this point, we’]] want to take a look at the source code within the debugger and
see exactly where execution was stopped:
> list
Once executed, the list command shows you precisely where the debugger has stopped the flow of
program execution. Not only is the method listed, but an arrow points to the line of code that will be
executed next (see Figure 6-4). If you don’t see the code listing, you may have to specify the path to
your source file:
> use
Figure 6-4: After listing the source code for the current breakpoint, print out the variables you want to
inspect.
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The use command
If you issue the use command by itself, it displays the path list that jdb uses to find source files. By
default, the class path is used. However, if the directory containing your source file isn’t included, you
won’t be able to list the source code at all!! In this case, you must supply the path to the file (use <path
list>):
> use C:\java\aewcode\HelloApplet
Assuming the source file is available, the list command will spit out the code (with line numbers)
surrounding the breakpoint.
The print command
At this point, you can see that the drawImage() method is about to be invoked. But are the horizontal and
vertical values being provided to it valid? There’s only one way to find out:
> print horizontal
> print vertical
The print command outputs the value of the item you provide to it. You’ll use this command to inspect
the value of classes, objects, and variables. You can either specify the name of these items, as we have,
or the hexadecimal number that is used to uniquely identify an object running in the debugger.
In our case, printing out these variables reveals that they are exactly the same (see Figure 6-4).
Coincidence? Perhaps. Enter the cont command to resume execution, move your cursor over a different
part of the applet, and print out these values again. Hmmm... looks like we’re on to something.
The dump command
Use the dump command to find out the names and IDs of the methods and variables for a class, along
with the superclass and any interfaces it may implement:
dump MediaHelloWorld
Clear the breakpoint
Perhaps we should take a look at the method that calls this one? But first, clear the breakpoint that
you’ve already set. If you don’t, each time you return to Applet Viewer it will attempt to refresh the
display by calling the paint() method, triggering the breakpoint each time.
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First, execute the clear command without any parameters. This will give you a listing of all the current
breakpoints, of which there will only be one. Using this information, clear the breakpoint by specifying
the name of the method and the line number:
> clear (get a listing of all breakpoints)
> clear MediaHelloWorld:28 (clear breakpoint using method:line
form)
Resume program execution
Once the breakpoint has been cleared, issue the cont command to resume program execution. Once
program execution has resumed, set a breakpoint for the mouseMove() method:
> cont
> stop in MediaHelloWorld.mouseMove
After setting the breakpoint, invoke it by moving the mouse inside the running applet. This triggers the
mouseMove() method and grinds program execution to a halt once again as the debugger waits for your
command. List the code, as usual, and then take a peek at the values of the local variables, using the
locals command:
> list
> locals
At this point, we know the x and y values are valid—they’re coming into the mouseMove() method set to
different values, as seen in Figure 6-5 (unlike our horizontal and vertical variables, which always have
the same value). Of course, local variables are only available if you’ve recompiled your source code
using the -g option. If you didn’t, you’ll have to exit the debugger, recompile with - g on, and try again.
(See “Debugging Tips and Warnings” later in this chapter before exiting the debugger!)
Figure 6-5: Use the locals command to inspect the value of variables in a method.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Create a directory structure
First, you’ll need to create a directory on the Web server to store your HTML file. For this example,
why not use the same name as the directory on your local hard drive?
Although any name will do, I’ll assume you use HelloApplet. Inside this directory you must create two
additional directories: images and audio. These will hold the graphic and sound files your applet requires.
Because the directory and filenames are hard-coded in our applet, we don’t have the option of using any
other names; the names you use on the Web must exactly match those used locally.
When a Java-savvy browser comes upon an HTML file containing an <APPLET> tag, it looks inside the
same directory as the HTML file for the specified class file (MediaHelloWorld.class in this case), unless
told to look elsewhere. If the browser finds the class file specified in the <APPLET> tag, it downloads
that file onto the local computer and hands it off to the Java runtime environment for execution.
Although it’s possible to specify a different directory location for the class file by using an
optional <APPLET> tag attribute (the CODEBASE attribute, illustrated in Chapter 7), for now
we’ll assume it’s located in the same directory as the HTML file that calls for it.
Relative support
When executed, our MediaHelloWorld applet loads the image and audio files it requires. Because we’ve
used the method getCodeBase() to reference these files, the browser looks for them relative to the Applet
class file itself. That is, the browser looks inside the directory in which it found the compiled class for
the two directories we specified in our applet, images and audio, expecting to find the files world.gif and
hello.au. If available, each file is downloaded over the Internet and onto the user’s local computer.
If we had used getDocumentBase() instead of getCodeBase() in each getImage() method, the browser would
expect these files to be located relative to the HTML document, rather than relative to the class file. (See
the sidebar “Getting to Base” earlier in this chapter.)
Because our <APPLET> tag doesn’t specify a unique location for the class file, it is expected, by default,
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to be inside the same directory as the HTML file. As a result, it really doesn’t matter if we use
getCodeBase() or getDocumentBase(); the audio and graphic files our applet uses will be located relative to
the HTML document in either case, unless we utilize the optional CODEBASE <APPLET> attribute to
specify a different location for the class file (refer to Chapter 7 for an example).
Uploading the files
Once you’ve created the required directories, it’s time to upload the various files that comprise our
applet onto the Web server. You can do this easily using an FTP tool, although if you happen to
administer your own Web server, you probably don’t have to bother with FTP at all. In this case, simply
move the files on your Web server by network or removable media (tape, floppy disk, and so on).
Regardless of how you get the files to the Web server, make sure each is placed in its appropriate
directory.
The HTML file should be located one directory level above the audio and images directories, along with
the compiled MediaHelloWorld applet class files. Because our applet actually extends HelloWorldApplet,
the compiled class file for HelloWorldApplet must also be uploaded into the same directory as the
MediaHelloWorldWorld class. In fact, you have to place every class file your applet uses, with the
exception of those that come with the Java runtime environment (the Applet and awt classes, for
instance), on the Web server in the same directory. If you don’t, your applet won’t be able to execute!
After the HTML and all applet classes have been uploaded to the Web server, upload the audio and
graphic files into their appropriate directories. The world. gif file should be placed in the images
directory, while hello. au must be located in the audio directory. For a graphical representation of where
each file is located, see Figure 6-9.
Figure 6-9: When uploading applets to the Web, be sure to use the same directory structure found on
your local system.
When uploading files to your Web server, be sure their names remain intact. Many FTP
programs impose the DOS filename restriction of eight characters for the name and only three
characters for the extension, automatically chopping off the others! As a result,
MediaHelloWorld.class might become MediaHel.cla.
If this happens, rename the files before terminating your FTP session. And don’t forget to supply the
proper mix of uppercase and lowercase characters (MediaHelloWorld.class is not the same as mediahelloworl
d.class!)
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Testing the applet
When all the files have been uploaded into their appropriate directories, it’s time to test the applet.
Simply access the HTML file on the Web server with your Javasavvy browser by loading its URL. Or, if
you prefer, do it with Applet Viewer. Applet Viewer can execute applets on the Web, as long as you
provide a URL to the page like this:
appletviewer
<http://www.mantiscorp.com/books/java/found/TestMediaHello.html>
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Java Bible:Extending, Enhancing, Debugging, and Uploading
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
In the above example, Applet Viewer will connect to the Web page and execute any applets it finds. If a
connection isn’t already established to the lnternet, it will attempt to establish one. Of course, Applet
Viewer doesn’t display anything but applets, so you won’t see any HTML, as you would using a Java-
savvy browser.
However, because Applet Viewer is fast and easy to use, I prefer to use it first. If the applet works as
expected using Applet Viewer, I then test it with a Java-savvy browser, such as Netscape Navigator. But
however you do it, be sure to test your applets once you’ve placed them on the Web.
If all goes well, you’ll be greeted by the same “Hello World!” text string that appeared when the applet
was executed locally. And, in a few moments (give or take a few more moments, depending on the
speed of your connection), the image will be downloaded from the World Wide Web and also appear
(see Figure 6-10). At about the same time, the sound track will finish downloading and begin to play.
Figure 6-10: MediaHelloWorld, now living on the Web, is accessible to the world.
If it does, the world’s your oyster! if it doesn’t, consider some of the problems outlined in the sidebar “If
Your Applet Fails to Load.”
If Your Applet Fails to Load
If your applet fails to load, there are a few things to consider. First, make sure your files are all uploaded
and in their proper directories. If the browser can’t locate the compiled class specified in the HTML file,
the applet will fail to execute. Also, if the image and sound files are missing or in the wrong place, the
applet will fail to execute as it should. For instance, if the graphic file is in the wrong place or missing
altogether, you won’t see it. And if the audio file can’t be found, you won’t hear a background track at
all.
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If all the files are on the Web server and in their proper directories, check to see that each filename is
spelled exactly as it is on your local hard drive. Because some FTP tools take the liberty of appending
extensions to files during the upload process, or truncating long names, you may have to rename the file
once it is on the Web. And be sure to check the case of each filename-a browser won’t be able to find
MediaHelloWorld.class if it appears on the Web site as mediahelloworld.class.
Also, make certain the files were successfully uploaded. Although a filename might appear on your Web
server, that doesn’t mean the entire file was successfully transferred. To be certain, compare the file
sizes of each upload to those on your local machine. While it’s normal for file sizes to be off by a few
kilobytes either way, if the difference between your local and uploaded file sizes is significant, you’ll
have to try again. In this case, delete the file from the Web server and upload it from scratch.
Between each attempt to rectify an applet problem, it’s a good idea to quit your browser and launch
anew (or manually force the page containing your applet to reload from scratch). This way, you can be
certain that the browser is loading a fresh copy of the applet instead of opening a cached copy from your
hard disk.
Getting complex and flexible
The applet you have just created and deployed on the World Wide Web would be considered complex to
software developers who don’t program in Java. After all, it’s an example of dynamic Web content
featuring text, graphics, and audio. But as you know, the real complexity is taken care of by Java,
allowing you to concentrate on the behavior of your applet without getting bogged down with the details
of writing graphics and audio routines. Even the ability to locate and utilize resources such as image and
audio files on the network is taken care of by the rich Java classes that have already been written for
you, meaning you don’t have to write a line of this code yourself. You simply import the classes you
need from those there for the taking.
But what if you want your applet to be a bit more flexible than it would be if you hard-coded the names
and locations of files? After all, to change the name or directory location of the audio or image file, you
must actually change the code of the applet itself, recompile it, then upload the resulting class once
again. Wouldn’t it be nice if there was a mechanism for supplying your applet with information directly
from the HTML document, such as specifying filenames and locations? Wouldn’t this greatly increase
the flexibility of your applets? That’s exactly what the folks at Sun thought, and so they created the
notion of “applet attributes.” We’ll explore these and application command-line parameters in the next
chapter.
Odds ‘n’ Ends
Before we come to a close, a few areas deserve a bit more attention. Specifically, you should be aware
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of the this and super variables that are commonly found in Java programs. And, in addition, you should
know the fundamental methods all applets support.
this and super
In order to allow convenient access to the current object and its superclass, Java provides two special
variables: this (references the current object) and super (references the object’s superclass). You can use
these variables, discussed in detail in Chapter l4, anywhere in the body of a class.
You can also use this to invoke the current object’s constructor, although typically you don’t use it to
invoke methods, because the method name alone will do the trick:
this([parameterList]); // invoke current object’s constructor
this.methodName(); // functional equivalent to methodName();
Meanwhile, super is typically used to invoke a method or
constructor in the superclass:
super.methodName(); // invoke superclass method
super([parameterList]); // invoke superclass constructor
Fundamental applet methods
Every Java applet inherits five key methods from the applet class: init (), start (), stop (), paint (), and destroy
(). These methods give applets the ability to respond to major events, such as when a Web page
containing the applet is viewed or left by the user.
Following is the basic structure of an applet, including these five methods. Although the init() method
must be overridden, the remaining four do not necessarily need to be. If your applet has no use for one
of them, simply ignore it (that is, don’t bother to override it). The applet structure looks like this:
public class AnyApplet extends java.applet.Applet {
. . .
public void init() { . . . }
public void start() { . . . }
public void stop() { . . . }
public void paint(Graphics g) { . . . }
public void destroy() { . . . }
Although you can probably guess what each of these methods should do if you choose to override them,
Table 6-2 gives a brief explanation of each one.
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Java Bible:Extending, Enhancing, Debugging, and Uploading
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 6-2
An Applet’s Five Basic Methods
Method Description
init() Override this method to initialize the applet each time it’s loaded or
reloaded. At the very least, this is where most applets call the resize ()
method to set the size of their canvas.
start() Override this method to begin actual applet execution, as when the page
containing the applet is loaded or reloaded by the user.
stop() Override this method to terminate applet execution when the user
leaves the Web page containing the applet or quits the browser.
paint (Graphics g) Override this method if you wish to display text or images on the applet
canvas. This method is called every time the applet’s display needs to
be drawn (in other words, when the applet first becomes visible to the
user, when it’s scrolled, or when the applet itself requests to be
repainted).
destroy() Override this method if you need to do a final clean-up in preparation
for unloading.
As stated earlier, not every applet is obligated to override ali five methods. The most simple applets,
such as our original HelloWorld applet, need only implement init() and possibly paint (). However, most
applets are more complex. Those that change their visual appearance, or interact with the user, for
example, will likely override start() and stop() as well.
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Such is the case with the MediaHelloWorld applet detailed in this chapter. A sound clip is played
continuously once start() is executed and it stops playing when stop() is called. You’ll notice, however,
that we don’t bother to override destroy(), as we do everything necessary to “clean up” in our stop()
method, which is called before destroy(). Applets that must release resources they access upon executing,
however, can rely on destroy() as a final step in bringing their applet to a successful close.
Summary
It is very simple to add images and soundtracks to Java applets. Once you’ve considered whether your
applet should be enhanced or extended, it’s merely a matter of implementing the code that will do the
work. Compiling the code is easy—just as you saw in the previous chapter.
• If you plan to debug your Java programs, you’ll have to recompile them with the -g option.
This option ensures you’ll be able to view local variables, something you won’t want to be
without in a debugging session.
• You can use the jdb tool (although I would strongly suggest investing in a professional
development environment for the robust debugging tools alone) to debug your Java applications.
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Java Bible:Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 7
Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
In This Chapter
Adding flexibility to Java applications and applets with command-line arguments
Understanding Java applications’ command-line argument conventions
Adding command-line arguments to the HelloWorld application
Using applet attributes
Until now, the Java programs we’ve written have been very inflexible. That is to say, the data these
programs use is hard-coded and can’t be changed, except by a programmer.
The original HelloWorld application will always output the words “Hello World!” to the screen, until
the program has been altered by the programmer to say something else. And the MediaHelloWorld
applet you created in the previous chapter will always use the same audio and image files until it is
rewritten to use others. In both cases, the programs require fiddling around with the source code and
must be recompiled before changes to the data they use can be put into effect.
Need for Flexibility
In some cases, this lack of flexibility may be exactly what you want. Perhaps there is a portion of the
data your program uses that you want never to change unless the program itself is updated. Such is the
case with copyright notices and developer credits, which remain constant throughout the life of a
particular software version release.
However, more often than not, the data your programs use will change regularly.
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Java Bible:Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
In the case of an application, you may well want your program to act in a certain way, depending upon
what input is provided by the user at the time of execution. For this, you have the option of using Java
command-line arguments. With command-line arguments, you can specify any number of parameters to
the application at the time it is executed.
If you’re a C/C++ programmer with experience developing programs executed from the command line,
the notion of command-line parameters will come as no surprise. If not, the following chapter will be of
particular interest.
But how does this affect applets? These little devils live on the Web, and are downloaded into your
computer by the browser. Why would you need to provide parameters to an applet, and how would you
do such a thing, even if you wanted to?
To help answer these questions, consider for a moment the environment in which an applet exists on the
Web. Think about the Web server, and why applets have become so popular. Until Java came along, the
Web was a very static environment that, for the most part, merely connected people to information.
Thanks to Java, our Web sites can now support executable content: Distributed multimedia and true
interaction with the user are a reality. Web pages have become dynamic, alive.
But why have flexible applets?
From a practical standpoint, the answer lies in the Web server. Unless the directory structure of your
Web site never changes, and the files your applet relies on are always in the same place, applet
flexibility is a tremendous advantage when it comes to maintaining a site. Most Web sites grow
continually, with new content being added on a regular basis. If the data files your applet requires are
hardcoded, as ours have been, maintaining a Web site becomes a nightmare.
If you think of the Web server as a giant, universally accessible hard drive, it may help drive home the
point that you’re more likely than not to be reorganizing files and directories regularly. How many times
have you moved files and directories around on your local hard drive to keep it organized? This will
eventually become necessary on your Web server, if it isn’t already. And if you have to update source
code, recompile it, and then upload the result for each applet at your site merely to reflect changes in the
server directory layout, you’ll certainly appreciate the ability to pass parameters to applets.
Couple ease of maintenance with an ability to create very robust applets that can be customized without
touching the applet or applet source code, and you have extremely compelling reasons to build flexible
applets. And, thanks to applet attributes, your applets can be as flexible as you choose.
Let’s take a look at how command-line arguments are handled by Java applications, and then move on to
applets and the use of applet attributes. Of course, most of you will have only passing interest in
developing applications. Creating applets is by far the most popular use of Java, and so you may be
tempted to jump ahead to the section covering applet attributes. If this is the case, I suggest that you at
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least skim through the first section regarding application command-line arguments and then give special
attention to the section on String objects. Regardless of whether you develop Java applications or applets,
you’ll be dealing with the String class.
Java Command-Line Arguments
Java command-line arguments are arguments that are passed to a Java application when it is invoked
from the command line. If you created the HelloWorld application discussed in Chapter 5, you’re
already familiar with executing Java applications at the command line:
c:\> java HelloWorld
Here, no command-line arguments are passed to the HelloWorld application. And for good reason:
HelloWorld, as we wrote it, doesn’t know what to do with command-line arguments, if we provided
them, nothing would happen.
Although you are free to pass any number of command-line arguments to a Java application,
it’s up to the application to make use of them. If an application hasn’t been written to handle
command-line arguments, it will execute as it normally would and ignore the arguments
altogether.
Supporting command-line arguments
So, how do you write a Java program capable of handling command-line arguments? If you’re a C/C++
programmer, you probably have a pretty good idea. If not, don’t worry; supporting command-line
arguments is easy. All arguments are passed to your application through an array of strings in the main()
method. You simply take them out of the array, and do with them as you wish. This is the signature of a
typical main() method in Java:
public static void main (String args[]) ( ... )
Programmers who have worked with C/C++ command-line arguments are already familiar with the
concept of receiving parameters through the main() function. In Java, however, there are a few
differences in how the commands are passed to an application that affect how they are processed.
In Java, executable routines such as main() are known as methods. In C, such routines are
referred to as functions or procedures. And, just to confuse you, in C++, they are referred to as
member functions as well as methods.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Java command-line arguments versus C/C++
Command-line arguments in Java differ from their C and C++ counterparts in two major ways: number
and type. C/C++ uses two variables to pass arguments to applications; Java uses only one, and the data
type of the variable containing the parameters is not the same.
Number of argument variables
With C and C++, the operating system passes command-line arguments directly to the program using
two argument variables:
• argc: the number of arguments appearing on the command line
• argv: a pointer to an array of strings containing the arguments
In Java, only one argument variable is used:
• args: an array of strings that contain the command-line arguments
Since the variable used to store command-line arguments in Java is an array of String objects, there is no
need for a second variable to hold the number of arguments. By simply referencing the length instance
variable of the array, you can find the number of command-line arguments:
args.length; /* get number of command-line arguments */
Because each element in the args array is a command-line argument, the length of the array is equal to
the total number of command-line arguments the user provided when executing the application. By
referencing the number of elements in the array, as shown above, your Java applications will know
exactly how many command-line arguments were provided when executed. This eliminates the need for
a second variable to keep track of how many command-line arguments were provided.
Argument variable type
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In addition to eliminating the need for a variable to hold the number of command-line arguments passed
to your application, Java differs from C and C++ in the data type used to hold these arguments. In C/C+
+, this variable is a pointer to an array of strings. In Java, it’s simply an array of String objects; you don’t
have to dereference a pointer and then deal with an array to get to the arguments.
In Java, you deal directly with the array. To access a command-line argument, you only need to access a
particular element in the args array. Suppose, for instance, that you wanted to get the third command-line
argument provided by the user. Since all array indexing begins with 0 (zero; just as with C/C++), this
would do the trick:
String theArg; /* variable to hold argument */
theArg = args[2]; /* retrieve third argument */
If you’re already comfortable using C or C++, this approach makes plenty of sense. If not, you’re
probably wondering why in the world we’re using an index of 2 in order to retrieve the third value in the
array! While it may be confusing at first, once you commit this indexing convention to memory (or
carve it in your mousepad), you’ll have no problem dealing with this “off by one” situation.
In C, C++, and Java, the individual elements in an array are accessed by supplying an index, or
subscript, to the element in its position in that array. In the example above, we’ve provided a subscript
of 2 in an attempt to retrieve the third element, or member, of the args array. Because array indexing
begins with 0 in these programming languages (and not 1, as you might expect), we need to subtract 1
from our subscript value before attempting to use it. Since we want item 3 in the array, we come up with
a subscript value of 2. Perhaps the following will help you commit this to memory:
String theArg; /* variable to hold argument */
theArg = args[0]; /* retrieve first argument */
theArg = args[1]; /* retrieve second argument */
theArg = args[2]; /* retrieve third argument */
theArg = args[3]; /* retrieve fourth argument */
theArg = args[4]; /* retrieve fifth argument */
In this example, I assume at least five elements are in the array. If there were fewer than five
elements, this code would be attempting to access an element that does not exist. In this case,
our subscript would be out of the legal range and would cause the runtime system to throw an
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException exception. See the discussion on applets later in this chapter for
details on exceptions, or refer to Chapter 10, “Language Fundamentals.”
It’s considered bad programming style to use explicit numbers as subscripts to arrays (as we’ve been
doing), so array elements are usually accessed with an integer index variable. Keep in mind that the
index variable must be one less than the element you wish to retrieve. To keep confusion to a minimum,
it’s a good idea to initialize this variable to zero (0) and use the following “off by one” method when
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changing its value:
String theArg; /* variable to hold argument */
int i:0; /* index variable, initialized to zero */
theArg = args[i]; /* retrieve first argument */
i = 5 - 1; /* prepare index to retrieve 5th element in array
*/
theArg = args[i]; /* retrieve fifth argument */
Although subtracting 1 from the value of the index you want to access (five in this case) might seem like
extra work, doing so will help you become comfortable with the idea that the array subscript is always
one less than the element you want to retrieve. After using this “off by one” method for a while, you’ll
have no need for it: The technique will become second nature. If you want to access the fifth element in
an array, you’ll automatically use an array subscript of 4.
It may help to mentally repeat “off by one” to yourself every time you think of arrays. But be
warned: While this method will almost certainly guarantee that you subtract 1 from your
subscript values, it may have disastrous consequences in your personal life. Without getting
into such details, let’s just say you’ll come up one short in just about everything you do.
Shopping, paying bills, and having children will never be the same again.
Argument variable contents
Aside from the number of variables and their data type, yet another difference exists between Java and C/
C++ command-line argument variables: the contents of the argument array. In C and C++, the command-
line argument array variable contains the name of the program that is executed, in addition to the
command-line arguments:
c:\> HelloWorld howdy doodie
In this C/C++ example, the array variable would contain all three strings on the command line:
HelloWorld, howdy, and doodie. In Java, this array consists only of command-line arguments:
c:\> java HelloWorld howdy doodie
Upon execution, only howdy and doodie would be in the args array. Only the actual command-line
arguments would be passed to your program by the runtime system. There is no need for your program
to receive the name of the application, since it’s always the same as the name of the class where the main
() method is defined. In this example, main() would have been defined in class HelloWorld.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Java strings are first-class objects
As you now know, all elements in a Java command-line argument array are strings. Perhaps you’ve
noticed that the word string often begins with a capital S when we talk about Java, yet also appears in
lowercase from time to time and whenever we’re talking about the C and C++ languages. Why is this?
Java strings are defined in the String class; when we instantiate and use them, we’re dealing with String
objects. Anytime we’re talking about the String class or String objects, the S is capitalized. It we’re just
talking about strings in general, without any specific reference to the class or object, the S is in
lowercase. But when it comes to C and C++, there are no built-in String classes or objects. Here, we’re
always dealing with the generic concept of strings, not a formal class or object that is identified by an
uppercase S.
In C/C++, a string is nothing more than an array of null-terminated characters. As a result, C/C++ strings
don’t have well-defined behavior or mechanisms for manipulating them. A common problem with C/C+
+ strings is that it’s very easy to overrun their array boundaries.
Since no error-checking is performed with C/C++ strings, there is no way to be certain if the subscript
you provide is out of range. Suppose you were dealing with a C string 15 characters in length, but forgot
that array indexing begins at zero. By accessing an element in the array using a subscript value of 15,
you’d actually be attempting to access the sixteenth element. But you might not realize it, since it’s
possible in C/C++ to reference any location in memory! A value would be returned, and you might go
merrily along your way none the wiser.
Now, suppose you later tried to change the value you had just referenced. In that case, you’d be hip-deep
in trouble. You’re not changing the string, as you think, but altering some unknown memory location by
mistake. You would be lucky to get out alive, and your program runs the risk of crashing. When reading
and writing to data in such a situation, you’re dealing with garbage values at best and running the risk of
corrupting your data. But with Java, this won’t happen.
Java strings behave predictably
With Java strings, you’re dealing with first-class objects that have a number of methods created
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specifically for retrieving and setting data. To prevent problems like the one I just described from
sneaking up on the unsuspecting programmer, bounds-checking is performed at compile and run time.
If you explicitly exceed the value of an array directly in your code, the compiler will catch the mistake
and let you know. If the index can’t be checked at that time, as is often the case, the runtime
environment will catch any out-of-range values. Unlike C/C++, you’ll know immediately where the
problem is and have an opportunity to fix it.
With C/C++, you make a small sacrifice to the beta-test gods and pray each night to the software testing
cycle that any such errors are caught before the product ships. Okay, to be fair, there are tools that help
find these problems during the development stage, but you have to use them. With Java, it’s all taken
care of within the environment itself.
Java provides two classes for dealing with strings: String and StringBuffer. String is used for strings that
will not change, while StvingBuffer is a class for dealing with strings that may be changed. Since we don’t
alter the command-line arguments in our applications, this chapter focuses on the String class. For details
on both String and StringBuffer, refer to Chapter 12.
You should also note that both the String and StringBuffer classes are part of the java. lang
package. A package is a group of related classes. For details on packages, refer to Chapter 11.
Java Command-Line Argument Conventions
The Java language adheres to UNIX conventions for command-line arguments, defining three different
types:
• Word arguments
• Arguments that require arguments
• Flags
You should be sure to adhere to the conventions listed in the next three sections when dealing with
command-line arguments.
Word arguments
Word arguments, such as -verbose, must be specified precisely on the command line. As a result, -ver
would not be valid if you wanted to invoke the -verbose option: only - verbose would work!
Typically, your program will test to see if a particular word argument has been specified, and set a flag
accordingly:
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if (argument.equals(“-verbose”)){
verbose = true; // turn the verbose flag (verb) “on”
}
In this case, we’ve tested for the-verbose word argument and set the verb flag accordingly.
Arguments that require arguments
In many cases, you’ll want to use arguments that are followed by some type of information (that is, more
than just the argument itself is necessary). You might, for example, want to use a command-line
argument such as -file to redirect output of the program into a file. The -file option alone, however, isn’t
enough. A filename must also be supplied.
In this case, you need to read in the filename following the -file argument. That is, you must parse the
command line to retrieve the additional information:
if (argument.equals(“-file”)) {
if (nextarg < args.length)
filename = args[nextarg++]; // set the “filename” variable
else
System.err.println(“-file must be followed by a filename!”);
}
In this example, we test to see whether the user actually supplied an argument following - file. If so, it’s
retrieved and assigned to a variable. If not, a message is output to the user telling him or her how to use
this argument.
Flags
Single-character codes used to modify the behavior of a program are known as flags. You might, for
example, want to supply a help option in your program. In this case, you would use the -? flag. Of
course, you could also implement a -help word argument. In fact, you might want to use both.
Typically, flags can be specified separately and in any order. For example, either -?, -z, or -z -? work just
fine. In addition, flags can typically be concatenated and specified in any order. Thus -z? and -?z are also
hunky-dory.
Other conventions
In addition to the conventions described in the three previous sections, there are a few others that you
should be aware of when developing Java applications:
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• You can assume the user will precede all options, flags, or series of flags with the dash
character(-).
• The names of files your program will use (operate on) are typically the last argument on the
command line.
• Your application should output a usage statement whenever a command-line argument can’t be
recognized; it should have the following form:
usage: application_name [ optional_args ] required_args
Using Command-Line Arguments in the HelloWorld Application
Now that you are comfortable with the concept of command-line arguments, it’s time to put what you’ve
learned to good use. We’ll start by enhancing HelloWorld to accept and process the most basic
command-line argument, and then walk through a generic command-line parser that you can customize
for your own specific purposes.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Enhancing the HelloWorld application
When it comes to enhancing our existing HelloWorld application, there really isn’t much to work with.
The program was only a few lines of Java code that output “Hello World!” when executed. Since there
isn’t a lot of code to integrate with support for command-line arguments, this will seem like a major
overhaul. But, in reality, we’re only adding very rudimentary command-line argument support for the
moment.
As always, we’ll choose a new name for our program, since it’s a very different program than the one
we created several chapters ago. The real reason we’re adding support for command-line arguments
(aside from the pulse-pounding adrenaline rush) is to make our program more flexible by being able to
process information supplied by the user at the time of execution. For this reason, we’ll call our new
program FlexibleHelloWorld (see Listing 7-1).
Listing 7-1: FlexibleHelloWorld.java source code
/**
* FlexibleHelloWorld.java
*
* “Flexible” HelloWorld application. Uses command-line
* arguments as part of the standard “Hello” output to user.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.0, 17 Jan 98
*/
class FlexibleHelloWorld {
public static void main (String args[]) {
int argCount, i=O;
String theArg;
argCount = args.length;
System.out.println(“Total number of arguments: ” +
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argCount);
while (i < argCount) {
theArg = args[i];
i = i+1;
System.out.print(i + “:” + theArg );
System.out.println(“...Hello ” + theArg + “!”);
}
}
}
Did you notice that the name of the class, FlexibleHelloWorld, isn’t exactly the same as the name
of the file it is saved in? This is because we didn’t specify the class as being a public class. If
we had, the name of the source code file would have to be the same as the public class it
contains. In this case, the source code file would be named FlexibleHelloWorld.java to reflect the
public FlexibleHelloWorld class it defines. However, since the class isn’t public, the file name
can be anything we’d like. For details on public classes, see Chapter 11.
By this point, you should be comfortable with the process of creating and compiling a new Java
program. Assuming you’ve entered the source code exactly as it appears in Listing 7-1, it will compile
without a problem. With that done, let’s step through the code that you may not be familiar with. That is,
the code dealing with command-line arguments:
public static void main (String args[]) {..}
Although you’ve seen the main() method signature several times before, now you’re seeing it with new
eyes. In particular, the args parameter stands out. And for good reason: It’s the array that contains all
command-line arguments received by our program. It’s easy to see that we’re dealing with an array, and
not just one string, thanks to the brackets ([]) that appear immediately after the variable name.
Following this method signature (which happens to be the only method in the program) are the variables
our program uses when processing the arguments:
int argCount, i=0;
String theArg;
The first two variables, argCount and i, are integers. You’ll notice that i is initialized to zero, while
argCount isn’t initialized at all. The i variable is used as a subscript for accessing elements in the args
array, and so I’ve taken the liberty of initializing it to the index value for the first element. This
technique was described earlier, and ensures we begin accessing array elements at the very beginning.
By initializing it here, we don’t have to worry about setting its value later.
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We don’t have to bother initializing argCount, however, since the first line of code sets this variable equal
to the total number of elements in the array:
argCount = args.length;
Here, we’ve used the array instance variable length to determine how many command-line arguments
were passed into our application. We then output this value to the screen with the following line:
System.out.println(“Total number of arguments: ” + argCount);
The last portion of code is a while loop, in which each argument in the args array is retrieved in
succession and output along with its position in the array:
while (i < argCount) {
theArg = args[i];
i = i+1;
System.out.print(i + “:” + theArg );
System.out.println(“...Hello ” + theArg + “!”);
}
Executing with command-line arguments
When executed, this program outputs the number of command-line arguments supplied at the time of
execution and then drops into the while loop. Once in the loop, each element in the args array at index
value i is retrieved and output, as shown in Figure 7-1.
The four lines of code inside the loop were chosen to illustrate the “off by one” problem discussed
earlier. Experienced programmers would likely have written the loop with only two lines of code in the
body:
while (i < argCount) {
theArg = args[i++];
System.out.println(i + “:” + theArg + “...Hello ”+
theArg + “!”);
}
This loop is functionally the same as our original one, yet takes half as many lines of code. You’ll notice
in both cases that our array subscript, i, is increased by one inside the body of the loop. Of particular
interest is where this increment takes place: after the array element has been retrieved, yet before it is
output to the screen. This is due to the “off by one” situation we’ve been dealing with all along.
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Figure 7-1: When in the while loop, each element in the args array is retrieved and output.
Coming into the loop for the first time, our subscript i is 0 (zero). Using an index value of 0 ensures that
we retrieve the first element in the array. However, we want to tell the user that we’ve received the first
command-line argument, not the zero item! So, we bump up the index value by one before using it, to
tell the user what argument we’ve processed.
In doing so, we’ve dealt with the “off by one” situation, while also incrementing the index to ensure that
the next element in the array is retrieved as we repeat the loop. If we incremented the index after the
output statement, as shown in the following code snippet, we’d be off by one (see Figure 7-2):
while (i < argCount) {
theArg = args[i];
System.out.print(i + “:” + theArg );
System.out.println(“...Hello ” + theArg + “!”);
i = i+1; /* RESULTS IN THE ABOVE OUTPUT BEING OFF BY ONE! */
}
Figure 7-2: By incrementing our counter after the print statements, our output appears “off by one,”
even though it is correct: The user would prefer to see the numbering begin at one, not zero.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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However, we could have incremented the index inside the conditional portion of the while statement, as
long as we subtracted one from it when retrieving elements in the array:
while (i++ < argCount) {
theArg = args[i-1];
System.out.print(i + “:” + theArg );
System.out.println(“...Hello ” + theArg + “!”);
}
Many programmers prefer this style of code; it’s very clear, going into the loop, where the index is
incremented and by how much. And, since there is only one line of code that accesses the array, we
don’t have to spend much mental energy keeping track of what’s going on.
But suppose we forgot to subtract one from the index in that line of code? Thanks to Java’s runtime
bounds-checking facilities, you’d know the first time the program was executed. In this case, the runtime
system throws an ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException exception, as shown in Figure 7-3.
Figure 7-3: The runtime system throws an ArrayindexOutOfBoundsException exception if the index in
the code is out of the legal range.
Spaces and quotations
In each of the preceding examples, we’ve supplied two command-line arguments: howdy and doodie. I
stuck to these two arguments throughout the examples in order to make the output in each case
consistent and easy to follow. However, any number of arguments could have been provided. Since the
system interprets the space character as a separator for command-line arguments, we can feed our
program as many arguments as we’d like, as long as each is separated by a space.
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But what if you need to supply a space as part of the argument itself? In this case, you would need to use
quotation marks on the command line. Any text surrounded by quotation marks is treated as a single
argument, as illustrated in Figure 7-4.
Figure 7-4: Text surrounded by quotation marks is treated as a single argument.
Parsing arguments
Our FlexibleHelloWorld application is an extremely simple program. It accepts command-line
arguments and outputs them in the order they were supplied. Sure, it also outputs the total number of
arguments supplied, and uses the arguments as part of the Hello output, but as far as real functionality
goes, the program is just about worthless.
Many programs that accept command-line arguments do so to allow the user a degree of control over
some aspect of execution. Such is the case with UNIX and DOS utility programs. Take, for instance, the
utility program that displays files in a directory. In DOS, the dir program is used, while UNIX users rely
on ls. In both cases, the user can supply command-line arguments along with the program that affect the
way in which files are listed.
Since a number of different arguments can be provided, the program must somehow find out which one
(s) the user is supplying. To complicate matters, these arguments can be supplied in any order. Because
it’s entirely up to the program to figure out which commands were used and act accordingly, the
program must parse the command line.
To help you parse command-line arguments in your own Java applications, you can use a generic
command-line parser (see Listing 7-2) as the basis for your own work. This skeleton program accepts
command-line arguments of each type: a word argument (-verbose), an argument that requires an
argument (-out, which must be followed by the name of a file to be used for output), and several flags (?,
x, y, and z). In addition, this program requires a file name (an input file). If the program is invoked
without the proper arguments, a usage statement is output in accordance with command-line argument
conventions. (See the “Other conventions” section earlier in this chapter.)
Listing 7-2: ParseSkeleton .java, a generic command-line\ argument parser
/*
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A generic command-line argument parser. (you must first
understand Java strings, arrays, and loops before this code
will make complete sense).
*/
class ParseSkeleton {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String command = “”; /* to hold each command-line
argument as
they are processed */
boolean verbose = false; // initialize verbose flag to
false
boolean xFlag= true, yFlag= true, zFlag = true; /* a few
flags, initialized to false
*/
String outputfile = “”; /* variable to recieve -out
argument’s
argument */
int i = O; // a little variable to control our while
loop...
/* — Parse all command-line arguments via a while loop —
*/
while (i < args.length && args[i].startsWith(“-”)) {
command = args[i++];
/* --- Parse Word Arguments --- */
if (command.equals(“-verbose”)) {
verbose = true;
}
/* —- Parse Arguments That Require Arguments —- */
else if (command.equals(“-out”)) {
if (i < args.length) {
outputfile = args[i++];
} else {
System.err.println(“The -out argument must be
followed
by an output file name!”);
}
}
/* —- Parse Flags —- */
else {
char flag; // a temporary variable to process flags
for (int loop = 1; loop < command.length(); loop++) {
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flag = command.charAt(loop);
switch (flag) {
case ’?’:
System.out.println(“ --------- HELP ----------
”);
System.out.println(“Help? You want help? Try calling 911...”);
System.out.println(“Ring...”);
System.out.println(“Ring...”);
System.out.println(“Ring...”);
System.out.println(“Sorry, all operators are taking a coffee
break. Try again
later.”);
System.out.println(“-----------------------------”);
break;
case ’y’:
yFlag = true;
if (verbose) System.out.println(”The y option has been
specified.“);
break;
case ’x’:
yFlag = true;
if (verbose) System.out.println("“he y option has been
specified.”);
break;
case ’z’:
zFlag = true;
if (verbose) System.out.println(“The z option has been
specified.”);
break;
default:
System.err.println(flag + “ is not a valid option!”);
break;
}
}
}
}
/* — The final verdict? — */
if (i == args.length) {
System.err.println(“Usage: ParseSkeleton [-verbose] [-?xyz]
[-out outputFile] inputFile”);
}
else if (verbose) {
System.out.println(“Input file = ”+ args[i++]);
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System.out.println(“Output file = ”+ outputfile);
}
}
}
The following is the usage statement for the program:
Usage: ParseSkeleton [-verbose] [-?xyz] [-out outputFile]
inputFile
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Java Bible:Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Although the arguments inside brackets ([ ]) are optional, the filename argument is required. If you don’t
include a filename argument when executing this program, the usage statement will be displayed. Figure
7-5 shows this output, in addition to the output produced when the program is executed properly.
Figure 7-5: ParseSkeleton is executed initially without command-line arguments and then again with
several arguments specified on the command line.
The ParseSkeleton.java program makes use of the Array, String, and System classes. If you find this
code difficult to understand, you might consider turning ahead to Chapter 12 and Chapter 13
for detailed information on these classes before attempting to integrate this program with your
own.
Applet Attributes
Now that you’re comfortable with receiving and processing command-line arguments within Java
applications, chances are your attention wants to turn to the applet. After all, most of you will be dealing
with applets, and many may never bother with applications beyond what we cover in this book. But how
is information passed to an applet?
While it’s pretty obvious that command-line arguments are supplied on the command line at the time of
execution, an applet is downloaded from the Web and passed to the Java runtime environment for
execution. At first glance, there doesn’t seem to be a mechanism for supplying applets with user-defined
information, as there is with applications. But there is, and it’s an elegant one: applet attributes.
What are applet attributes?
Applet attributes are specified in the <APPLET> HTML tag, and provide information that either the
browser, the Java runtime system, or the applet itself will use to execute properly. The HEIGHT and
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WIDTH items specified in all the HTML documents we’ve created so far are actually applet attributes,
just as the name of the class file we specify for CODE is:
<APPLET CODE:“MediaHelloWorld.class” WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=150>
At a minimum, these three attributes must be included in the <APPLET> tag. They are required, whereas
the majority of applet attributes are optional.
The identifiers used to specify applet tags (such as CODE, HEIGHT, and WIDTH) are not case-
sensitive. They can be in uppercase, lowercase, or a mixture of both. For the sake of
readability, however, it’s a good idea to use uppercase. The values you provide for these
attributes, such as MediaHelloWorld.class in the above example, are another matter. Be certain to
use the proper case: MediaHelloWorld.class is not the same as MEDIAHELLOWORLD.CLASS!
The following code illustrates the basic structure of the <APPLET> tag:
<APPLET standard-attributes>
applet-parameters
alternate-context
</APPLET>
Until now, we’ve only specified standard applet attributes. And of these standard attributes, we’ve only
used the three that are required: CODE, HEIGHT, and WIDTH.
There are a number of optional applet attributes. Although they are optional, they are still considered
part of the standard suite. Table 7-1 details all required attributes, while Table 7-2 describes the optional
ones.
Table 7-1
Required Applet Attributes
Attribute Description
CODE Specifies the name of the class file (applet), which must be a subclass of java.awt.
Applet.
WIDTH Specifies the initial width of your applet in pixels.
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HEIGHT Specifies the initial height of your applet in pixels.
To use an optional attribute, you simply include its name and an associated value within the <APPLET>
start tag. The start tag begins with <APPLET and ends with a closing angle bracket (>). You can supply
optional attributes after the required ones, as long as they are inside the closing angle bracket:
<APPLET CODE=“MediaHelloWorld.class” WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=150
ALIGN=top>
Table 7-2
Optional Applet Attributes
Attribute Description
ALIGN Specifies where your applet is placed on the page in respect to the text
around it. It can have one of the following nine alignments: left, right, top,
texttop, middle, absmiddle, baseline, bottom, and absbottom.
ALT Specifies alternate text to be displayed by text-only browsers.
CODEBASE Specifies the base URL for your applet. The applet itself must be located
relative to this URL If CODEBASE isn’t specified, the URL of the HTML
document in which the applet is embedded is used.
HSPACE Specifies the horizontal space surrounding your applet. The value you
specify for HSPACE is used only when the ALIGN attribute is set to left or
right.
NAME Specifies the symbolic name of your applet, allowing other applets
embedded in the same page to locate your applet by name.
VSPACE Specifies the vertical space surrounding your applet. The value you
specify for VSPACE is used only when the ALIGN attribute is set to left or
right.
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ARCHIVE Specifies one or more archives (for example, JAR files) that will be
preloaded. Classes are loaded using an instance of the AppletClassLoader
with the CODEBASE specified. JAR files are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 15, “Weaving Applets into Web Pages.”
OBJECT Specifies the name of a class that contains a serialized version of an
applet. When a serialized applet is loaded, its init() method is not invoked,
but its start() method will be. An applet must have either the OBJECT or
CODE attribute specified.
Although Applet Viewer will resize itself in response to an applet invoking the resize() method,
not all browsers will do so. Netscape Navigator, for example, sets the size of an applet to the
values specified in HTML by the WIDTH and HEIGHT attributes and ignores calls to resize()
altogether!
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Java Bible:Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
As a result, you shouldn’t rely on the resize() method to work as you’d expect. Instead, rely on the WIDTH
and HEIGHT attributes that are required in all <APPLET> tags.
Here, we’ve added the optional ALIGN attribute, specifying a value of top. When the browser loads this
applet, the top of it will be aligned to the surrounding text (see Figure 7-6). Had we specified bottom, the
bottom of applet would have been aligned to the surrounding text, as shown in Figure 7-7.
Figure 7-6: The top of the applet is aligned to the surrounding text, using the ALIGN attribute and
specifying a value of top.
Figure 7-7: The bottom of the applet is aligned to the surrounding text by specifying a value of bottom.
It’s worth noting that the start tag can extend over several lines, even though we’ve managed to cram it
onto a single line. As long as the opening and closing angle brackets are present, the start tag can span as
many lines as needed:
<APPLET CODE=“MediaHelloWorld.class”
WIDTH:200
HEIGHT=150
ALIGN=top>
Attributes can appear in any order, although it’s a good idea to place the required three immediately
following the word APPLET.
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The following is functionally equivalent to the start tag above, but more difficult to read because you
expect the required attributes to appear first and in a certain order:
<APPLET
ALIGN=top WIDTH=200
CODE=“MediaHelloWorld.class”
HEIGHT=150>
You might have noticed that i didn’t include the </APPLET> end tag in these examples. It is certainly
required! I omitted it simply so we could focus exclusively on the start tag. Without it, the browser
would consider everything following the start tag to the end of your HTML document as part of the
<APPLET> body. An example of proper usage follows:
<APPLET CODE=“MediaHelloWorld.class”
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=150
ALIGN=top>
</APPLET>
Similarity to command-line arguments
Applet attributes are similar in nature to command-line arguments in that they provide an easy way to
allocate the applet with information. However, the standard suite of attributes won’t allow you to pass
special information to your applet for processing. It merely allows you to set the various attributes
needed by the browser or Java runtime system to execute your applet.
Take, for instance, the CODE attribute. Your applet doesn’t do anything with it, or with any other
standard attribute for that matter. CODE simply tells the browser what file to download and hand off to
the runtime system; it means nothing to your applet.
In this sense, you can think of standard attributes as special settings that the browser and runtime system
use to execute your applet according to your specifications. And while it’s true that methods do exist
that allow your applet to retrieve the values for some of these attributes (such as getCodeBase(), which
returns the base URL for your applet), you can’t use any of the standard attributes to pass special
information to your applet.
If your applet is to be flexible—able to receive and process input—there must be a mechanism for
passing information to it. Thankfully, there is.
Applet “parameter” attributes
In order to pass information to your applet, such as the URL of a file on the Web or a text string to
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display when executed, you’ll need to use an attribute designed for just such a purpose. Specifically,
you’ll have to use an applet parameter attribute, more commonly known simply as an applet parameter.
Applet parameters follow the <APPLET> start tag, yet come before the </APPLET> end tag. They appear
as a pair of name and value attributes inside a <PARAM> tag:
<PARAM NAME=hello VALUE=“Hello World!”>
In this example, the parameter called hello is specified as having the value “Hello World!”. In order to
retrieve this value from within an applet, we must use the getParameter( ) method defined in the Applet
class:
String helloStr = getParameter (“hello”);
Here, we’ve declared a String variable, helloStr, into which we’ve received the value of the hello
parameter. After this line of code is executed, helloStr will contain the string “Hello World!”. Of course, we
could have just as easily declared the variable on one line and retrieved the parameter on another:
String helloStr; /* declare the variable first
*/ helloStr = getParameter (“hello”); /* and then get the
parameter */
Functionally, these two approaches are equivalent. Yet in both cases, we’re assuming an applet
parameter specifying a value for hello exists in the HTML document. We’re expecting something like
this:
<APPLET COOE=“MediaHelloWorld.class” WIDTH=90 HEIGHT=50
ALIGN=top>
<PARAM NAME:hello VALUE=“Hello World!”>
</APPLET>
This HTML code clearly specifies a hello parameter with the value of “Hello World!”. But what if the
second line of code didn’t exist? What if you forgot to include it when creating the HTML document,
yet included the code in your applet to retrieve a hello parameter. In this case, your helloStr variable
would be set to null, since the getParameter() method would fail to find the hello parameter and return null
instead of a valid string.
It’s a good idea to test for null values when processing applet parameters and act accordingly.
In some cases, such as with the code I’ll present here, you may provide default values to allow
your applet to continue executing where it would otherwise fail to run properly.
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As with the identifiers used to specify attributes (CODE, HEIGHT, WIDTH, PARAM NAME, VALUE, and so
on), you can use either uppercase or lowercase letters when associating a value with the PARAM NAME.
As you can see, I’ve supplied the word hello in all lowercase characters. I could just as easily have used
all capital letters (HELLO), or a combination of both (Hello).
Since the getParameter() method isn’t case-sensitive, it really doesn’t matter how we name an applet
parameter. The Java code getParameter(“hello”) will find and return the value associated with hello, HELLO,
or even Hello. However, to make your HTML code easier to read, it’s a good idea to use uppercase
letters for the attribute identifiers (CODE, HEIGHT, and so on) and lowercase for the actual parameter
(such as hello in our example).
Be extremely cautious when entering the attributes of your applet tag! Specifically, make sure when you
enclose items that you only use one set of quote marks. For example, the following is fine:
<PARAM NAME=hello VALUE=“Howdy”>
While this is not:
<PARAM NAME=hello VALUE=“ Howdy”“>
The parameter value in this code, Howdy, has an extra closing quote. No big deal, right?
Wrong! The current version of Applet Viewer will just wait around forever for another closing
quote, even if you didn’t bother to write a corresponding getParameter( ) method. Other
browsers may crash as well, or simply be unable to parse the HTML correctly. Picky, picky...
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Java Bible:Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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All applet parameters are strings
Because the getParameter() method always returns a String object, all applet parameters—even numeric
parameters—come to you in the form of a string. This is extremely important to realize, since you must
first convert the string to an actual number if you want to use it as such!
Suppose, for instance, that you want to specify an applet parameter that controls how often a while loop
is executed. Your HTML parameter tag might look like this:
<PARAM NAME=loop VALUE=5>
This is just fine. However, the Java source code that you might be tempted to write to retrieve this
parameter might look like this:
int loop = getParameter ("“loop”);
At first, this might look fine as well. But it’s not. Since the getParameter() method returns a string, not an
int, the compiler will choke when it gets to this line of code and generate a “type mismatch” error.
In order to properly retrieve this value, you must receive the parameter as a string and then convert it
into an int. There are two ways you can do this:
String loopString = getParameter(“loop”);
int loop = Integer.valueOf(loopString).intValue();
The first line retrieves the loop parameter in string form, as it should. The second line makes use of the
Integer class, a special class known as a type wrapper.
In Java, numbers (int, long, float, and double data types) are not actually objects. Since most of the Java
utility classes require objects, such numbers must somehow be converted into objects before they can be
used. A direct conversion, or cast, isn’t possible. As a result, we “wrap” the number inside an object
using type wrapper classes. (For details on wrapper classes, see Chapter 12.)
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In the second line of this code, we’ve used the Integer class to convert loopString into an Integer object. We
then invoke the intValue() method, which returns the value of this Integer as an int. It may seem a bit
complicated, but it’s necessary.
The valueOf () method requires a valid string, one that can be used to create an Integer object
initialized to an int value. If the string it receives can’t be treated as an int, an
exception—NumberFormatException—is thrown. For details on exceptions, see Chapter 10,
“Language Fundamentals”.
As an alternative, we could have used the parseInt() method without having to explicitly create a new
Integer object:
String loopString = getParameter(“loop”);
int loop = Integer.parseInt(loopString);
Assuming loopString represents an integer, parseInt() will return the value of that integer. If the String
object passed to parseInt() can’t be treated as an int, the method will throw an exception, just as valueOf ()
would.
When specifying an integer parameter in your HTML file, you either surround the value in quotes, as
you would a string, or leave the quotes off, as we did earlier. As far as your applet is concerned, the
following two lines of HTML code are functionally the same:
<PARAM NAME:loop VALUE=5>
<PARAM NAME=loop VALUE:“5”>
Alternate applet context
Now that you’re familiar with applet attributes and parameters, we come to the part of the <APPLET> tag
known as the alternate applet context. This allows you to include any type of HTML code between the
last applet parameter and the </APPLET> end tag. It is displayed by browsers that are not Java-savvy, and
won’t be visible to users viewing the document with a browser that is capable of dealing with Java
applets.
Alternate applet context can contain any type of HTML code you wish, such as text or tags, or both.
This is an example of text-only applet context:
<APPLET CODE= MediaHelloWorld.class” WIDTH=90 HEIGHT=50
ALIGN=top>
<PARAM NAME=hello VALUE=“Hello World!”>
...This page requires a Java-savvy browser: GET ONE!
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</APPLET>
The line immediately preceding the </APPLET> end tag will appear as standard HTML text to a browser
that doesn’t support Java, as shown in Figure 7-8.
Figure 7-8: Alternate applet context can contain any type of HTML code you wish; it will appear as
standard HTML would.
You’re free to include any type of HTML code to be used as alternate applet context. In the next piece of
code, I’ve added a simple hypertext link that will bring users to Sun’s Java home page when they click
the words “GET ONE!”:
<APPLET COOE:“MediaHelloWorld.class” WIDTH:90 HEIGHT=50
ALIGN=top>
<PARAM NAME=hello VALUE=“Hello World!”>
...This page requires a Java-savvy browser:
<A HREF=“http://www.javasoft.com”>GET ONE!</A>
</APPLET>
Of course, you’re not limited to text. You could just as easily display a graphic using the <IMG> tag, or a
combination of both text and graphics. What you provide as alternate applet context depends on how
you want your page to look to users who don’t use a Java-savvy browser.
In most cases it’s a good idea to include alternate applet context when creating your HTML
pages, even if it’s nothing more than a “You need a Java browser to see this page!” message. If
you don’t, those users who view your pages using a browser that doesn’t support Java will
have no idea that they are missing out on something.
Using Applet Attributes in MediaHelloWorld
Now that we’re comfortable with applet attributes, especially the special-purpose PARAM attribute, it’s
time to create a flexible version of the MediaHelloWorld applet created in Chapter 6. While there are
many ways to customize an application, we’ll extend MediaHelloWorld by allowing it to receive input
through parameter attributes.
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Java Bible:Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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The source code in Listing 7-3 adds great flexibility beyond the MediaHelloWorld applet it subclasses.
For this reason, we’ll call this new program FlexibleMediaHello. Unlike its predecessor,
FlexibleMediaHello does not rely on hard-coded filenames when it comes to displaying a graphic image
and playing a background sound track, since these may be supplied as applet parameters. If these
parameters are omitted from the HTML file in which our applet is embedded, FlexibleMediaHello uses
defaults that are defined in the program itself.
Listing 7-3: FlexibleMediaHello.java source code
/**
* FlexibleMediaHello.java
*
* “Flexible” extension of the HelloWorld applet.
* Displays “Hello World!” string in applet canvas while a
* background audio track plays and an image follows the mouse
* around.
* “Flexible” due to the ability to accept <PARAM> applet
* attributes specified within the <APPLET> tag, allowing URLs to
* audio and image files to be used in the HTML document that
* references this applet.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.0, 17 Jan 98
*/
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.net.URL;
import java.net.MalformedURLException;
public class FlexibleMediaHello extends HelloWorldApplet {
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String helloString;
Image myImage;
AudioClip myAudio;
int horizontal, vertical;
boolean SoundOn = true;
public void init() {
/* GET THE APPLET PARAMETERS: */
helloString = getParameter (“hello”);
String imageString = getParameter (“image”);
String audioString = getParameter (“sound”);
/* GET FILES USING PARAMETERS: */
if (imageString==null) {
myImage=getImage(getCodeBase(), “images/world.gif”);
}
else {
URL imageURL=null;
try {
imageURL = new URL(imageString);
}catch (MalformedURLException e) { ; }
myImage=getImage(imageURL);
}
if (audioString==null) {
myAudio=getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “audio/hello.au”);
}
else {
URL audioURL=null;
try {
audioURL= new URL(audioString);
}catch (MalformedURLException e) { ; }
myAudio=getAudioClip(audioURL);
}
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
if (myImage != null) {
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this);
}
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if (helloString==null) {
super.paint(g);
} else {
g.drawString(helloString,50,100);
}
}
public void start() {
myAudio.loop();
}
public void stop() {
myAudio.stop();
}
public boolean mouseDown(java.awt.Event event, iht x, int y) {
if (SoundOn) {
myAudio.loop();
SoundOn = false;
}
else {
myAudio.stop();
SoundOn = true;
}
return true;
}
public boolean mouseMove(java.awt. Event event, int x, int y) {
horizontal:x;
vertical=y;
repaint();
return true;
}
}
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Unlike our FlexibleHelloWorld application, we’ve defined the applet version of this program
to be public. More precisely, the class declaration of the applet shown in Listing 7-3,
FlexibleMediaHello, has been declared public. As a result, the file containing the source code
for this program must have the same name: FlexibleMediaHello.java. (For details on public
classes, see Chapter 11.) In addition, FlexibleMediaHello is no longer hard-coded to output
“Hello World!” in the paint() method; it will display whatever text is associated with the hello
parameter supplied in the <APPLET> tag. If this parameter is omitted, it calls upon its
superclass, MediaHelloWorld, to perform the paint() operation. Because MediaHelloWorld calls
upon its own superclass when paint() is invoked, the paint() method we created in our original
HelloWorldApplet program is used! As a result, “Hello World!” will be output to the screen
(see Figure 7-9).
Figure 7-9: Using the super keyword, our program can now invoke the paint() method of its superclass,
which itself invokes the paint() method of its own superclass!
At this point, the source code for FlexibleMediaHello should make sense to you. It may be a little more
complex than what we’ve dealt with so far, but there are only two elements that should cause you to
raise an eyebrow: uniform resource locators (URLs) and exceptions.
URLs and exceptions
Our original HelloWorldApplet program used a sound and image file, both located relative to the applet
itself. We have since augmented the program to make it more flexible (see Listing 7-3); it now has the
ability to retrieve these files, as specified by a URL. To provide our applet with this capability, we
imported the class that deals with URLs:
import java.net.URL;
However, to allow our program to form a URL from a String object, we also had to handle exceptions
that might arise in the process. Although exceptions are discussed in detail in Chapter 10, for now you
can think of them as general-purpose error handling mechanisms. In order to deal with the possible
exceptions that might occur when creating URLs, we included the following import statement:
import java.net.MalformedURLException;
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Both of these classes could have been included in your program using one line:
import java.net.*
The asterisk is treated as a wild card, meaning all classes in the network package will be available to
your program, instead of any specific one.
Understanding the code
The most significant changes to our original code are in the init() method. It is here that we retrieve and
process the applet parameters that our program now supports: hello, image, and sound. This code shows
you how these parameters might be specified:
<PARAM NAME:hello VALUE=“Hickory, dickory, doc.”>
<PARAM NAME=image
VALUE=“http://www.anywhere.com/images/picasso.gif”>
<PARAM NAME:sound
VALUE=“http://www.anywhere.com/audio/milesdavis.au”“>
Due to security restrictions imposed by Java, applets can only load URLs that point to
resources located on the host on which the applet itself resides. As a result, the URLs I’ve just
specified are only valid when the FlexibleMediaHello applet is executed from Mantis
Development Corp.’s Web site. This means that any Web page that references this applet must
either reside on this host, or use the CODEBASE applet attribute to point to it. For more details
on the CODEBASE applet attribute, refer to Chapter 15.
The changes to the init() method are substantial, although easy to understand if you walk through them
step by step. The first three lines of code do nothing more than load the applet parameters:
helloString = getParameter (“hello”);
String imageString = getParameter (“image”);
String audioString = getParameter (“sound”);
The first line sets the variable helloString equal to the value associated with the hello applet parameter
specified in our HTML file. Unlike the next two lines, which declare the variables imageString and
audioString on the same line as their assignment statements, the helloString variable is declared outside the
scope of init().
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Java Bible:Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
As such, it is available to all methods in the class, not just init(). Since we only need imageString and
audioString long enough to create a URL object from each, we declared these variables on the spot.
Thanks to Java’s automatic garbage collection, the memory associated with these variables is released
once the init() method has executed.
Most programmers are accustomed to declaring ali variables before the first line of executable
code. In C, the compiler would choke because the executable line of code helloString =
getParameter (“hello”); appears before the string variables are declared. With Java (and C++) you
can declare a variable where it is needed, just as we have done.
Once we’ve retrieved the parameters, they are processed. We begin with the image parameter, using the
imageString variable that now contains the value associated with this parameter:
if (imageString==null) {
myImage=getImage(getCodeBase()?? “images/world.gif”);
}
else {
URL imageURL=null;
try {
imageURL = new URL(imageString);
}catch (MalformedURLException e) { ; }
myImage=getImage(imageURL);
}
First, we check to see if the HTML document did indeed specify an image parameter. If the parameter
isn’t specified, imageString will be null. In this case, we use the same line of code found in
MediaHelloWorld as a default.
If an image parameter was specified in the HTML document, we attempt to build a URL from it. First,
we declare a URL variable, and set it to null:
URL imageURL=null;
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Once the variable exists, we use a special try-catch clause to form what is known as an exception
handler. We “try” to form the URL, and if the operation fails we “catch” the error:
try {
imageURL = new URL(imageString);
}catch (MalformedURLException e) { ; }
However, you’ll notice that we don’t actually do anything if an error occurs. Rather than add complexity
to the code, we ignore it entirely. This is intentional, since we’ll deal with exceptions in Chapter 10. For
this chapter, you need only know that any error-handling code would appear in the braces, where now
only a semicolon exists.
Regardless of the outcome from our exception handler, we next attempt to load the image from the
resulting URL:
myImage=getImage(imageURL);
In an actual production environment, you’d handle any exceptions and ensure the URL was valid before
attempting to use it. For details on how this is done, refer to Chapter 10. At the moment, we’re not
concerned with making this applet bulletproof; we’re mainly concerned with processing parameters.
You may have noticed that our code contains two versions of the getImage() and getAudioClip()
methods. In procedural programming languages such as C, the compiler wouldn’t permit two
versions of the same function to exist. Yet in Java and C++ it is not only possible but is a vital
part of the language: Methods in a class can share the same name as long as the parameter list
is different. This is a feature known as overloading, which is supported by most object-
oriented programming languages.
After processing the image parameter, we process the sound parameter, following the same steps. When
our init() method is complete, we’ve retrieved all three parameters and processed two of them. With that
done, the remaining code is nearly identical to that of our original HelloWorldApplet program. The only
place where the code differs is in the paint() method:
public void paint(Graphics g) {
if (myImage != null) {
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this);
}
if (helloString==null)
{super.paint(g);
}
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else {
g.drawString(hellloString,50,100);
}
}
Here, we draw the image at the horizontal and vertical coordinates set in our mouseMove() method, just as
we did in HelloWorldApplet. However, we also test helloString to determine if a hello applet parameter was
supplied in our HTML document. If this parameter was omitted, our helloString is null. In this case, we
invoke the paint() method of FlexibleMediaHello’s superclass. If not, we output the value supplied with the
hello parameter.
Writing the HTML document
The next piece of code supplies all the applet parameters in the HTML document. FlexibleMediaHello
will use each one during execution. You should keep in mind, however, that applets are only able to
access files residing on the same Web site from which they come. This security restriction, discussed in
Chapter 15, means the following HTML example will work only when the applet itself resides on the
Mantis Development Corp.’s Web server or on your local computer. Of course, you’re free to change the
image and sound URLs to point to files on your own server.
When an applet doesn’t reside on the Web, however, it’s treated as a “trusted” program. As a result,
your Web browser isn’t as paranoid: Local applets are allowed to access files residing on the Web
without concern for what server these files are coming from. This means you’ll be able to hear and see
the files the following HTML document points to, if it and the applet are located on your hard drive (or
CD-ROM, as the case may be):
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> “Flexible” MediaHelloWorld Applet Test </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
Here is our flexible applet:
<APPLET CODE=“FlexibleMediaHello.class”
WIDTH:200 HEIGHT=150
ALIGN:top>
<PARAM NAME=hello VALUE=“Hello! How are you?”>
<PARAM NAME=image
VALUE:“http://www.mantiscorp.com/images/mdchomebutton.gif”>
<PARAM NAME=sound
VALUE=“http://www.mantiscorp.com/java/classes/audio/welcomeIntr
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o.au”>
...This page requires a Java-savvy browser:
<A HREF=“http://www.javasoft.com”>GET ONE!</A>
</APPLET>
</BODY>
</HTML>
This use of applet parameters is illustrated in Figure 7-10. If the sound and image files pointed to by the
URL exist on the same host as the applet itself, they are utilized.
Figure 7-10: FlexibleMediaHello, no longer bound to hard-coded values, displaying an image pulled
off the Web
The CODEBASE Attribute Saves Time
Using the CODEBASE attribute, HTML documents can utilize applets residing anywhere on the Web.
Suppose, for example, that the following CODEBASE attribute were included in the HTML file:
CODEBASE:“http://www.mantiscorp.com/java/applets/FlexibleMediaHel
lo/”
In this case, the applet specified by the CODE attribute would be coming from the Mantis Development
Corp’s Web server. As a result, the files pointed to by the image and sound URLs would also have to be
located on this server.
Also note that, even though the image and sound files appear to be loaded in our init() method, this isn’t
the case. Only when the image is first drawn is it downloaded to the user’s computer, and the sound file
isn’t downloaded until it’s first played. This saves time and processing power in the event that you
reference an audio or graphics file that isn’t used. Why bother downloading a file if it isn’t actually used?
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Java Bible:Command-Line Arguments and Applet Tag Attributes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Applets that make use of parameters are tightly coupled to the HTML file in which the parameters are
supplied. As a result, you must consider the HTML file as you design your program. You must consider
not only the parameters that your applet will use, but what each should be named and how they should
be organized.
Applet usage guide
Some applets require a great number of parameters to be specified in the HTML document, making it a
chore to recall which parameter does what. It’s a good idea to provide a usage guide with your applets
that specifies how the parameters are to be used. In this guide, you should group similar parameters.
This will reduce any confusion that may result when someone else attempts to configure an HTML
document that references your applet. Following is a sample usage guide for FlexibleMediaHello:
<APPLET CODE:“FlexibleMediaHello.class” WIDTH:ZOO HEIGHT=150>
<PARAM NAME=hello VALUE:“Hello! How are you?”>
<PARAM NAME=image
VALUE=“http://www.mantiscorp.com/images/earth.gif”>
<PARAM NAME=sound
VALUE=“http://www.mantiscorp.com/audio/welcome.au”>
...This page requires a Java-savvy browser:
<A HREF=“http://www.javasoft.com”>GET ONE!</A>
</APPLET>
FlexibleMediaHello is a simple applet that takes three parameters:
• hello: A string that is output as text on the Web page. The default for this parameter is “Hello
World!”.
• image: A URL pointing to a GIF or JPEG graphics file that will follow the mouse cursor around
as it’s moved in the applet. The default for this parameter is not a URL, but a GIF file named
world.gif, which is assumed to be located in an images directory relative to the applet itself.
• sound: A URL pointing to a AU format sound file that will play continuously once the applet is
loaded. The default for this parameter is not a URL, but an .au file named hello.au, which is
assumed to be located in an audio directory relative to the applet itself.
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If one of these three parameters is omitted, the defaults are used. The HTML file shown next omits all
three parameters, relying on the default values our applet provides for each:
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> “Flexible” MediaHelloWorld Applet Test </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
Here is our flexible applet:
<APPLET CODE:“FlexibleMediaHello.class” WIDTH=200 HEIGHT=150>
...This page requires a Java-savvy browser:
<A HREF=“http://www.javasoft.com”>GET ONE!</A>
</APPLET>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Summary
With Java, we can write two very different types of programs: applications and applets. In this chapter
you learned how to prepare you Java applications and applets for the ever changing world out there.
Things to remember when writing dynamic applications and applets include:
• Java command-line arguments are arguments that are passed to a Java application when it is
invoked from the command line.
• Where applications are stand-alone programs that reside in and are executed on a local
environment, applets live on the Web and are downloaded by a Java-savvy browser before they
are executed.
• By necessity, and due to their very nature, applications and applets are further distinguished by
the manner in which you can pass information to each prior to execution.
• Applications accept arguments on the command line, much like C/C++ programs, while applets
accept special attributes supplied in the <APPLET> HTML tag. By taking advantage of these
mechanisms, we’re able to develop robust, powerful, and fully customizable Java programs.
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Java Bible:Surfing the Web for Java Source Code
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 8
Surfing the Web for Java Source Codey
In This Chapter
Finding cool Java applets — rely to use in your own applications — on the Web
Surfing up some coot Java development resources on the Web
Using Internet search engines to find Java applets
Making sure you give the pro per credit for code you’ve borrowed
Although the CD-ROM included with this book contains a hefty number of applets and their source
code, including those supplied with the original and current Java Development Kit (JDK 1.02 and JDK
1.1.5), you’ll probably want even more. Perhaps you need an example not provided with the JDK, want
to see how a particular feature is coded, or are simply interested in the latest Java developments.
Whatever the case, you’ll be happy to know that a great deal of Java source code is available directly on
the World Wide Web.
A surprising number of Java developers have made their source code public on the Web, providing a
large repository of Java code that’s there for the taking. More often than not, the source code is provided
as a link on the applet page itself, so you can see the applet in action and download the source code then
and there if you need it. In fact, Java programming has become so popular that several sites have been
established as a resource for developers looking for code.
Table 8-1 lists a few places to visit when looking for Java source code. These Web-based Java developer
resources are broken up into three main categories:
• Code repositories
• Support areas
• Electronic magazines
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Although most sites provide some degree of coverage in all three categories, they are strongest in the
category listed in the table.
Table 8-1
Java Developer Resource
Name Category Address Description
(URL)
Mantis Java Links Code http://www. A master page providing Java links to all sites
repository mantiscorp. mentioned in this book and up-to-date links and
com/java/ source code for each applet provided on the CD-
ROM with this book (and many that weren’t
available at press time). Includes links to source
code repositories and other Java resources on the
Web beyond those listed here.
Gamelan Code http://www. A comprehensive Java applet and source code
repository gamelan.com/ repository. It includes the ability to search for
specific files at the site.
JARS Code http://www. A code repository with a twist: a rating system!
repository jars.com/ Here you’ll find links to top-rated applets, as rated
by a large panel of judges.
Sun’s Java Site Support area http://www. This is Sun Microsystems’ official Java site. It
javasoft.com/ includes Sun’s latest Java tools, documentation,
and source code examples.
Java Language Support area news:comp.lang. The “official” Java language newsgroup. Here
Newsgroup java you’ll find answers to Java problems of all levels,
source snippets, links to Java sites, and heated
debates about the Java language.
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Digital Espresso Support area http://www. A well-organized summary of the Java Language
mentorsoft. Newsgroup (news: comp.1ang.java). If you don’t
com/DE/ want to wade through the sometimes
overwhelming newsgroup, this is the place to visit.
Java FAQ Archives Support area http://wwwnet. Do you have a question about Java? Chances are,
com/java/faq/ you’ll find the answer in one of the many Java-
specific frequently asked questions (FAQ)
documents archived here.
IDG’s JovaWorld Electronic http://www. A Web-based magazine dedicated to to Java
magazine Javaworld. development.
com/
Table 8-2 suggests a number of search engines you might use if you can’t find the code you need on the
sites listed in Table 8-1. Although the majority of search engines are more or less the same, in that they
index pages on the World Wide Web, many have areas dedicated to Java. One of the engines, Alta Vista,
allows you to do an actual search by class name for applets embedded into Web pages (see “Alta Vista”
later in this chapter).
Between the online Java resources and the large number of search engines to choose from, you could
spend the better part of your waking hours trolling through the thousands of Java links out there.
Whatever your needs, you’re likely to find the source code you’re looking for and much, much more
along the way.
Fire up your browser and dig in!
Table 8-2
World, Wide Web Search Engines
Engine Name Web Address (URL)
SEARCH.COM http://www.search.com/
Lycos http://wwwo.lycos.com/
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WebCrawler http://webcrawler.com/
Internet Search http://home.netscape.com/home/internet-search.html
InfoSeek http://www.infoseek.com/
Yahoo! http://www.yahoo.com/
World Wide Web Worm http://www.cs.colorado.edu/home/mcbryan/WWWW.html
Alta Vista http://www.altavista.digital.com/
DejaNews http://www.dejanews.com/
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Java Bible:Surfing the Web for Java Source Code
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Java Developer Resources
With Java-powered pages spreading like wildfire—thanks to hundreds of thousands of Java developers
scattered around the world—the demand for comprehensive developer support has gone through the
roof. In response to this need, a number of sites dedicated to assisting Java developers have emerged.
Although it’s difficult to pigeonhole these sites, they can, more or less, be distinguished by the resource
(s) they provide. Three significant categories become apparent: code repositories, support areas, and
electronic magazines. These aren’t hard-and-fast categories, however, since many of the sites you can
visit feature a bit of all three!
Depending on what you’re looking for, you’ll find yourself visiting certain sites more than others. For
example, if you’re looking for source code, hit the code repositories first. If you’re looking for support
resources, such as tools, newsgroups, or FAQs, hit the support areas first. If you want instructional
resources in the form of articles and tutorials, hit the electronic magazines first. !f your first shot draws a
blank, visit the others in that category. If you still don’t find what you’re looking for, try resources listed
in another category. Eventually you’ll find what you’re looking for.
Just because you’re looking for source code, for instance, is no reason to ignore the support areas. You’ll
find that most support areas also provide some amount of source code, and vice versa. Likewise, the
source code you’re looking for may wind up being discussed in detail in an online article in one of the
electronic magazines. It’s hard to know exactly where the information you’re looking for will surface,
but starting in the category that best matches your needs is a wise move.
Depending on your needs, you may find yourself hitting sites in all three categories during your quest
for Java. If these fail to produce what you’re looking for, you can always turn to the search engines.
Personally, we tend to use search engines as a last resort, and only after making the rounds of my tried-
and-true Java sites. Since what we’re looking for is usually located at one or more of the sites listed in
Table 8-1, we usually turn to the search engines only after coming up empty-handed.
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For fast access to these sites, add them to your browser bookmarks (also called hotlinks or
favorites). If you don’t want to bother keeping track of the links—some of these addresses may
change over time—or if you would like a current list of the best resources as they emerge,
bookmark the Mantis Java Links site (http://www.mantiscorp.com/java/). Here you’ll find all
of the links mentioned in this book, including developer resources and search engines, updated
regularly and categorized for easy access.
Code repositories
If you’re looking to get your hands on a specific piece of source code, either to plug into what you’re
doing or to learn how to do something in particular in Java, a code repository is the first place to hit.
Mantis Java Links
The code repository established for this book, Mantis Java Links, is a repository in the purest sense of
the word (see Figure 8-1). Here the applets and their source code physically reside on one Web server
and are maintained by a team of Webmasters dedicated to this site alone. The applets and source code
you’ll find here are an extension of those found on the CD-ROM that accompanied this book; you can
think of this site as a Web-based “upgrade” to the CD-ROM Not only are all the applets found on the
CD-ROM at this site, many more have been added.
Figure 8-1: You can think of the Mantis Java Links code repository as a Web-based upgrade to this
book’s CD-ROM.
As a self-contained code repository, all Mantis Java Links applets and source code reside on the Mantis
Development Corporation server. Because they’re located and managed at a single site, these links are
not dependent on external resources. This is a controlled approach to maintaining a code repository,
since you don’t have to click a hyperlink and jump to the applet author’s site to view the applet or
retrieve the source code. As a result, the authors of the applet are free to rearrange their Web pages (or
entire site!) without fear of “breaking” the Mantis Java Links site. Since external links are not provided,
applet authors don’t have to worry about maintaining the applet once it has been placed in this
repository.
Gamelan
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Gamelan is perhaps the best known, most used, and most comprehensive code repository on the Web,
and it is a favorite among Java developers. Rather than maintaining applets and source code on its own
Web server, Gamelan provides links to external pages maintained by the applets’ authors. Although this
might not sound like a “true” repository, in the traditional sense of being a single storage area, it really
is. If you think of the Web as being a seamless network of storage devices, a repository is any site that
maintains links to resources that span the network.
And maintain links it does! Gamelan offers links to hundreds of applets and source code (see Figure 8-
2). But it doesn’t stop there; Gamelan is a place where Java developers can register themselves as
resources. Later, when someone searches for a particular piece of code using Garnelan’s private search
engine, the author’s profile is made available along with any matching applets.
Figure 8-2: Gamelan is the mother of all code repositories.
Gamelan is also a wonderful place to find anything related to Java, not just source code. You’ll find
links to applets, source code, electronic magazines, developers, newsgroups, support areas, and
everything else having to do with Java. In addition to being a wonderfully rich storehouse of Java-
related links, Gamelan has categorized its contents nicely, allowing developers to browse for code
according to functionality rather than forcing them to rely on the search engine provided.
Java Applet Rating Service (JARS)
Where Gamelan is a code repository of impressive proportions, the Java Applet Rating System (JARS)
intentionally pares clown its offering by rating the applets it references. Although JARS provides
hyperlinks to external Java-powered pages, it ranks the applets in these pages according to the average
score it receives by a large panel of judges. When you look at the “JARS Top 1%” list of applets, you
know you’re dealing with the cream of the crop (see Figure 8-3).
Figure 8-3: JARS applets are ranked by a large panel of judges using a “best of breed” approach to
categorizing the applets.
Support areas
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Support areas, unlike code repositories, attempt to provide you with the tools and information you’ll
need as a developer. They may also provide source code, but that’s not their focus. Instead, you’re more
likely to find Java development tools, documentation, technical support, frequently asked questions
(FAQ), and other information that is extremely valuable to programmers.
The most obvious Java support area is Sun’s own Java site, JavaSoft. This is the official home of Java,
available at http://java.sun.com/. Here you’ll find all supported versions of the Java Developer’s Kit,
extensive documentation, frequently asked questions, source code samples, and links to other Java
resources.
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Java Bible:Surfing the Web for Java Source Code
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Another area of support is the Java newsgroups. There are now a number of Javalanguage newsgroups,
including these:
comp.lang.java.advocacy comp.lang.java.announce
comp.lang.java.api comp.lang.java.misc
comp.lang.java.programmer comp.lang.java.security
comp.lang.java.setup comp.lang.java.tech
Here you’ll not only find tons of questions and answers running the gamut of Java issues, but you’ll also
find links to source code and other Java resources (see Figure 8-4).
Figure 8-4: The Java newsgroups are chock-full of text-based conversations between Java developers;
these messages often contain source-code snippets and links to other Java resources.
They’re great places to visit if you’re having a problem and need help, or have a useful nugget of Java
code in which you think others might be interested.
Unfortunately, the Java newsgroups have become so popular recently that they’re regularly flooded with
scores of new questions every day, most of which go unanswered. As a result, you’ll spend a lot of time
wading through messages to find the piece of information for which you’re looking. In the process, you
can learn a lot about Java, but it can be frustrating if you’re pressed for time.
Worse, a lot of tripe finds its way into the discussions. Since they are not monitored (led in a general
direction), discussions that contribute little or nothing to the Java programming community often
surface, if you have the time, it can be a real hoot to follow the messages and flames that abound on
these newsgroups, and pick up some real Java gems along the way. If you don’t have much time, or
aren’t in the mood to explore, you’ll probably just find yourself knee-deep in Java drivel.
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If you need to find the answer to a question that you think might have been posted to a Java newsgroup,
but don’t have the time or patience to filter through ali the messages, take heart: Digital Espresso comes
to the rescue. Digital Espresso is a standard Web site, not a newsgroup, that distills the best of the Java
language newsgroups into a well-organized set of pages, as shown in Figure 8-5. This is especially nice
if you don’t have a newsgroup reader or access to a newsgroup server. Fire up your ol’ Web browser and
take a sip of Digital Espresso. It’s just the thing for frazzled nerves.
Figure 8-5: Digital Espresso distills the best of the Java language newsgroups into a well-organized set
of Web pages.
In addition, many search engines allow you to search through newsgroup messages, meaning that you
can bypass the newsgroup entirely by searching for what you need through the engine, rather than
manually. If you’re interested in saving time, check out DejaNews at http://www.dejanews.com. The
DejaNews Web site is a search engine dedicated to newsgroups, and well worth a visit if you haven’t
been there before.
When it comes to the Java newsgroup, become part of the solution and not the problem: Look
high and low for the answer to your question rather than simply posting it to the group right
off the bat. There are far too many unanswered questions on the newsgroup, probably because
most of the answers to these questions have been posted time and time again! With a little
research, most of the folks posting questions could find the answer elsewhere (even by looking
farther back in the newsgroup, in the “digests” of questions answered in the past) and save the
group from being further saturated with unanswered queries.
If newsgroups aren’t your style, you can turn to any number of sites popping up on the Web to help
answer Java questions. After a trip or two to Mantis, Gamelan, and JARS, you’ll have found more Java
links than you probably dreamed were possible. But perhaps you’re a cut-and-dry, no-nonsense type of
person. You may have a bunch of questions and no time to hunt down the answers. Time is of the
essence, and you just don’t seem to have any. Clearly, you need to take a vacation. But until then, you
can visit the Java FAQ Archives.
The Java FAQ Archives could be considered a FAQ repository; it’s dedicated to documents answering
frequently asked questions. If you have a question, and it’s been asked enough times by other folks, it
will likely have made its way into a FAQ document. Since they are nothing more than text documents,
you can download FAQs to your local computer and then use them anytime you have a question. If you
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don’t want to spend a lot of time scanning through FAQ documents, you can always use a text-search
tool (such as that of your word processor) or any “find” utility that allows you to search the contents of
files.
There are a number of FAQs out there related to Java, and there’s no better place to get to them all than
the Java FAQ Archives (see Figure 8-6). You’ll find Java-related FAQs of all stripes and colors here,
and it’s worth visiting them from time to time if you like to stay current.
Figure 8-6: The Java FAQ Archives site is dedicated to Java-related FAQ documents.
Electronic magazines
A new breed of Java resource has emerged on the Web. Electronic magazines, or e-zines, are sprouting
up at every turn. Much like traditional magazines, e-zines contain articles written to inform you about
something. In the case of Java e-zines, that “something” is...drum roll...Java!
A lot of e-zines are out there, but relatively few are dedicated to Java. This will change over time, as
more publishers migrate to the Web. I’m talking about professional publishers here, a small minority
when compared to the millions of folks out there who happen to publish information on the Web, in
between their full-time jobs and weekend outings.
With professional e-zines, you can expect consistent, well-written information to be published on a
regular basis. The others aren’t usually as reliable, well thought out, or comprehensive. However, they
are often much more creative, irreverent, exciting, and visceral. Since they’re not tied to a corporate
culture or required to conform to standards or regulations that might otherwise be imposed on a
professional publisher, independent e-zines are the free spirits of publishing.
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Java Bible:Surfing the Web for Java Source Code
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Unfortunately, they have a much more difficult time attracting professionals to contribute articles. When
it comes to Java, this means the caliber of content in independent e-zines tends to pale in comparison to
their professional brethren, I suspect this will change in time, however, as more and more developers
become fluent in Java and are willing to contribute to independent e-zines.
Until then, you can turn to JavaWorld. This online magazine, published by IDG Books Worldwide (the
same company that published the book you’re now reading) is a wonderful piece of work. So wonderful,
in fact, that we’ve included on the CD-ROM all the back issues of JavaWorld available at the time this
book went to press.
JavaWorld (http://www.JavaWorld.com) is packed with detailed articles written expressly for Java
developers (see Figure 8-7). Here, you’ll not only read about the technology, you’ll see it working right
then and there. With a click of your mouse, you’ll see the entire source code listing, ready to copy/paste
into your own programs, or save to disk for later. It’s one of my all-time favorite Java resources, and one
you shouldn’t ignore.
Figure 8-7: JavaWorld is packed with detailed articles written expressly for Java developers.
Search Engines
When standard Java resources don’t deliver, it’s time to turn to search engines. More often than not, we
turn to these only as a last resort, since the plethora of Java resources just discussed usually turns up
whatever we’re looking for. In the rare occasion that I come up empty-handed, I call in the Mounties.
Actually, using a search engine is more like calling in the dogs; bloodhounds, to be precise. Search
engines typically employ a technology known as a spider, or agent, which scours the Web tirelessly,
looking for new pages and information day and night. (If you’re wondering why I used the analogy of
“calling in the dogs,” rather than spiders, just think about it; if you were lost in the woods, cold, hungry
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and near death, which would you prefer the authorities send in to find you? A dog or a spider?)
Spiders return information to the search engine in the form of hyperlinks, along with some details about
the information itself. Using this data, the search engine provides an “index” (actually a gigantic
database) of the Web, which you can query. If, for example, you search for the keyword applet, the
search engine will return all the occurrences of applet in the database, along with a brief description of
each. If a particular description sounds interesting, you can click on that item to visit the actual site.
The problem with this approach is that you will receive a vast quantity of information if you don’t
qualify your search. Instead of searching for a general term such as applet, you should supply specific
details about what you are actually looking for (such as ticker tape applet, Java games, and the like). But
even in this case, you’re going to get back a large number of matches. To see whether these are really
what you want, you’ll have to visit each one. This is why we rarely use search engines; we’d rather
spend the time prowling around newsgroups and code repositories.
Luckily, the best search engines also categorize their index for you. Rather than visiting all the links
returned by a query, you can see all those that fall within a specified category. Yahoo!, for example,
features a Java category that contains only links to valid Java sites (see Figure 8-8). As a result, you
won’t be off on a wild goose chase; Yahoo! chases the geese for you.
Figure 8-8: The best search engines categorize their links to save you from wild goose chases.
Many search engines allow you to search newsgroups. If time is of the essence, and you don’t
want to waste time sifting through the messages in a newsgroup, you can use a search engine
instead. We don’t mind searching through newsgroups manually, since we usually find three
or four useful pieces of information having nothing to do with our original quest in the
process. If you’re interested in saving time, check out DejaNews at
http://www.dejanews.com. The DejaNews Web site is a search engine dedicated to
newsgroups; it’s well worth a visit if you haven’t been there before.
Alta Vista
Although the best search engines are similar in their capabilities, one alone demands special attention.
Digital Equipment Corporation’s Alta Vista search engine claims to be the fastest and most
comprehensive. But really, don’t they all?
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The most impressive part of Alta Vista isn’t how big or fast it is. That’s not much of a help when it
comes to finding Java on the Web, since you have to sift through all the sites manually unless they’re
categorized for you. What makes Alta Vista worth mentioning is a unique feature it offers when
searching for applets.
Where other search engines simply return all matches to the word applet wherever it occurs in a
document, Alta Vista lets you search for the name of the applet class file itself. You can actually search
inside the <APPLET> tag! If you wanted, for example, to find all the pages that had an applet named
LivingLinks embedded in them, you could do just that (see Figure 8-9). Using Alta Vista, you’d simply
precede the name of the applet with applet: as follows:
applet: LivingLinks
Other search engines, in contrast, would return every page that had the word LivingLinks in it, even if
they had nothing to do with applets or Java. Rather than having to separate the wheat from the chaff
yourself, so to speak, Alta Vista does it for you. This is particularly helpful if you need to track down a
particular applet or are looking for one that has a certain functionality.
If you don’t know the name of the applet you’re looking for, you can take a pretty good guess. Since
most programmers tend to name classes based on their functionality, a few reasonable guesses would do
the trick. For example, If you wanted to find an applet that performed texture mapping on 3D wire-frame
models, you might try the following variations:
applet:texture
applet:map
applet:3-D
applet:wireframe
applet:wire
applet:model
LivingLinks is a powerful applet that brings Web pages to life with animation, special effects,
sounds, music, and multiple hyperlink capabilities. It’s highly configurable, thanks to the rich
set of PARAM settings it understands, and Java programmers can extend it by using “effect”
plug-ins. The LivingLinks applet is provided on the enclosed CD-ROM, along with the
LivingLinks Software Developer’s Toolkit (LivingLinks SDK), should you want to create your
own special effects.
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Figure 8-9: Alta Vista allows you to search for applets embedded in Web pages; it looks inside the
<APPLET> tag.
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Java Bible:Surfing the Web for Java Source Code
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Although you’d have to manually visit each site Alta Vista returns to see whether the applets did what
you wanted, at least you’d know they all contain applets. With other engines, performing a search with
these keywords will return zillions of pages of information having nothing to do with Java applets.
Clearly, the example I’ve used here is fictional. A 3D texture-mapping applet is way too cool
to live in obscurity; as soon as one becomes available, every Java resource will have a link to
it. If you happen upon one before the general Java public does, drop me a note at
[email protected]. (It’ll be our little secret.)
Don’t think for moment, however, that Alta Vista will be the only ticket in town for this show. By the
time you read this, or shortly after, l’d bet most of the other search engines add the same capability.
Searching for applets by name, inside the <APPLET> tag itself, is a useful feature. It won’t be long before
they all have it.
In fact, I’ll rub my crystal ball a little harder. I’ll bet $1.50 that in less than a year, one of the search
engines out there will unveil the ability to search for applets based on what they do, not just their names.
What!? How’s that possible? Ahhh... now I’ve got your attention, eh? Check out the “Peering into the
Crystal Ball” sidebar (coming up) for a peek into the future.
Peering into the Crystal Ball
All applets have the ability to implement the getApptetInfo() and getParameter Info () methods, which
programmers use to return detailed information about the applet. When the getAppletInfo() applet is
invoked, it returns a string containing the author of the applet. Typically, applet authors return a string
containing their name, the name of the applet, and the applet version. However, authors can provide
anything they like, as long as it’s in a String object.
The getParameter Info() method, on the other hand, returns details about the parameters that the applet
understands. This method, according to Sun Microsystems, can be used as the basis of a tool designed to
set parameters graphically. Come to think of it, typing in applet parameters really is a pain. Wouldn’t it
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be much more fun and effective to use sliders, pop-up menus, and text entry boxes? You bet– wouldn’t
it be great to see the applet respond immediately, as you change the parameter, instead of having to save
the HTML code and reload? Absolutely!
With these two methods in the back of your mind, it doesn’t take long before the idea of another one, or
better yet, an extension to getAppletInfo(), surfaces. How about a String object that is used to describe the
applet in layman’s terms? When taken all together, a search engine’s spider could easily invoke the
appropriate methods to find out the complete functionality of an applet. Not just a description, mind you,
but all the parameters with which the applet knows how to deal.
In fact, an addition to these methods really isn’t needed at all. The getParameterInfo() method already
allows the applet author to provide a description of each parameter it supports. This alone is enough! All
it takes is a spider smart enough to query the applets it encounters and to store that information in the
search engine database for you to query.
No problem. I give it a year, tops, before a search engine is announced with just such a feature. In fact,
just to be safe, I’ll e-mail this sidebar to all the ones listed here. Hey, a dollar fifty is a dollar fifty.
Also new to JDK 1.1 is the reflection APl. Reflection allows a Java class to look inside itself. The
java.1ang.Class class has been enhanced to include methods which now return the fields, methods, and
constructors defined by a class. The java.lang.reflect package defines the Field, Method, and Constructor
classes that are returned by the reflection methods. Reflection allows your applications to obtain
complete and detailed information about any class during runtime. The most prevalent use of reflection
is with JavaBeans, which is discussed in more detail in Chapter 6. For further information about class
reflection, consult the Reflection Web page on the JavaSoft Web site at http://java.sun.com/products/
jdk/1.1/docs/guide/reflection/index.html.
Do the Right Thing
When you do find a piece of source code that fits your needs, you should give the person who wrote it
some degree of credit. You might drop him or her an e-mail, as a personal thank-you for freely
supplying something you need. Of course, how you use the source code greatly influences what type of
credit you give the person who wrote it.
If you only use it to see how something is done, as a sort of detailed documentation, then a personal
“thank-you” e-mail message may be fine. But what if you actually incorporate the source code into your
own program, meaning that you’re putting someone’s personal effort into your own work?
Electronic mail and Web page footnotes
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If you actually use somebody’s source code, why not give the person credit in your applet?
Some folks give credit by providing a note at the bottom of the page in which they’ve used the other
programmer’s source code. In this case, the note might read something like “Special thanks to J. Doe,
Benjamin Spock, and Dr. Kevorkian.” Others might go so far as to specify precisely what functionality
the other programmer contributed, and even provide a link to his or her home page though standard
HTML.
Applet-based credit
The manner in which you credit someone really depends on how much you value the person’s effort,
how critical it is to your program, and whether you can provide thanks on the Web page their work is
part of. Non-personal sites (such as your company’s home page) might be prohibited from including a
line of thanks at the bottom of a page containing such an applet. If the site is your own, or you have
authority over what the site is comprised of, you really aren’t prohibited from providing a word of
thanks directly on the Web page in which the applet appears. But with many commercial sites (and
similar ones such as government, company, and network sites), you might not be able to include credit
directly on the Web page because of organization policy. What then?
Again, it comes back to how much or how little the contribution means to you and your program. How
do you really want to say thank you? A personal “thank-you” e-mail might be just fine, but if you want
to include credit to a programmer who really helped you out, you’ll find a way, even if the site your
applet appears on is prohibited from displaying an explicit “Thanks to J. Doe” directly on its page. In
these cases, you can include thanks in the applet itself, if the program lends itself to such a thing.
Say, for instance, the applet is a Web-based video game. You might include a scrolling list of credits in
the game introduction splash screen, at the end of each game played, or somewhere in the online
documentation. In this case, you’ve included credit in a way that doesn’t alter the look of a Web page,
yet manages to extend a word of thanks to those who helped you when you were in a pinch.
For an example of scrolling text, take a look at any one of the “ticker tape” applets provided on
the CD-ROM. Although these applets are generally used to display a scrolling message on the
screen, you can use the source code in any way you see fit. In this case, simply copy the source
code that performed the scrolling text functionality and use it as a method (or perhaps even a
class) in your own program.
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Java Bible:Surfing the Web for Java Source Code
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
In fact, this is the reason so many different applets have been provided on CD-ROM. Not only will
examining the source code show you how to get the most out of Java, you can use them as the basis for
your own programs.
If displaying credits directly in the applet itself isn’t possible, you can alternately display them on the
status bar of the browser itself. This is generally the area you’ll see messages such as “Connecting to
host... Please wait,” and a general progress report on what’s going on with the browser (such as what
percentage of the page transfer is complete, what state the applet is in, and so on).
To display text on the browser’s status bar, simply call the following method with the message you want
displayed:
showStatus(“Special thanks to Tiny Tim for all his help...”);
That’s it! This showStatus() method, defined in java.applet.Applet, shows the string you pass to it in the
status portion of the browser (see Figure 8-10). Actually, this method is described in Sun’s application
programming interface (API) documentation as one to “show a status message in the applet’s context.”
Most Java-savvy browsers respond to the method by displaying whatever string you pass to it directly on
the status area, although future browsers may handle it differently. (Browsers are free to handle this
method however they’d like, and aren’t even required to have a status area in the first place!)
To that end, another showStatus() method is defined in the java.applet.AppletContext class. Here, the API
documentation is even more terse, describing the method in four words: “Shows a status string.” This
method is usually cascaded with the getAppletContext() method (defined in java.applet.Applet), which returns
an AppletContext object:
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Howdy!”);
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Figure 8-10: With showStatus() you can output text messages to the status area of a browser window,
which is typically located in the lower-left corner, as shown here.
The applet context allows an applet to control its environment, which is typically the browser
or the Applet Viewer.
In both cases, Netscape Navigator and Microsoft’s Internet Explorer display the string parameter you
pass to it in their status area. Although other browsers may deal with this call differently, Navigator
originally set the precedence for how showStatus () should be handled, since it was the first Java-savvy
browser to hit the ether. Many developers already rely on this method to display a message in the status
bar of the browser, and so it’s unlikely that a browser would do anything differently when showStatus () is
invoked. Although the status area may be located in different areas, depending on the browser itself, it’s
unlikely that it would ignore the call and refuse to output a message to the status area.
HTML comment tags
If the applet you’re creating doesn’t lend itself to an embedded credit, and if you’re prohibited from
including thanks in the applet’s documentation, there’s still hope: HTML comment tags. Using HTML
comment tags to give credit is about as unobtrusive and clean a way as you’ll find, outside of actually
dropping the contributor a personal e-mail. You can include anything you want in an HTML comment
tag, and it will never be seen by casual webbers unless they explicitly choose to view the HTML source
code of your page. Because Java programmers often peek at the HTML source code for pages with
embedded applets, your note of thanks won’t go unnoticed. In fact, it will be seen by that group of
people most likely to understand and appreciate it.
The following is an example of placing credit inside an HTML document. After the applet is specified
with the <APPLET> tag, a < ! > tag (comment tag) containing a word of thanks is included:
<APPLET = “CoolApplet.class” HEIGHT = 200 WIDTH = 300>>
<! This applet was written by me, with special thanks to
J. Doe for graciously providing the widget functionality.>
Give As Good As You Get
If you’ve used source code provided by others, either something from the CD-ROM included with this
book or code you found on the Web, consider going one step further and placing your own code on the
Web in return.
All you have to do is provide a hyperlink to the source code file somewhere in the page that contains
your applet; it’s that simple. For an example of how this is usually done, take a look at any of the applets
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provided on the CD-ROM that comes with this book. Each of these pages contains a hyperlink to the
applet source code, allowing one-click access.
Once you’ve made your source code available, get the word out! Register your applet with Gamelan and
sign yourself up as a contributor on their site. Stop by the Mantis Java Links page, and take a look at the
other code repositories with which you can register your applet.
If you’ve developed an applet that you think would be of interest to fellow developers, register it with
the Mantis Java Links site or drop our Webmasters an e-mail at [email protected].
Don’t be shy! There’s a good chance your applet and source code could wind up on the CD-
ROM to be included with this book when it’s revised, as well as on our Web-based update.
By placing your code on the Web, you’re doing a great service to existing Java developers and those just
learning the language. Scores of people are looking for source samples of all levels of complexity and
you stand a good chance of helping somebody out by making yours freely available.
This is also a good idea from the perspective of the World Wide Web community in general. The Web
has become a place where businesses attempt to extract a profit in one way or another, sometimes at the
expense of good taste and ethics. It has also become tainted by some folks who have no apparent
restraint or responsibility for what they spew out into our community. In both cases, the spirit of the
Internet and World Wide Web has suffered.
By putting some of your own intellectual property out on the Web, you are taking another step towards
preserving it and the Internet as a universal conduit for give and take, fostering the notion of a truly
global village.
Summary
A great deal of Java source code is available directly on the World Wide Web. With the number of Java-
powered pages spreading like wildfire, thanks to hundreds of thousands of Java developers scattered
around the world, the demand for comprehensive developer support has gone through the roof. In
response to this need, a number of sites dedicated to assisting Java developers have emerged.
• If you’re looking to get your hands on a specific piece of source code, either to plug into what
you’re doing or to learn how to do something in particular in Java, a code repository is the first
place to hit.
• Support areas attempt to provide you with the tools and information you’ll need as a developer.
You’re likely to find Java development tools, documentation, technical support, and frequently
asked questions (FAQs).
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• A new breed of Java resource has emerged on the Web. Much like traditional magazines, e-
zines contain articles written to inform you ali about Java.
• When standard Java resources don’t deliver, it’s time to turn to search engines. More often than
not, I turn to these only as a last resort, since the plethora of Java resources just discussed usually
turns up whatever I’m looking for.
• When you do find a piece of source code that fits your needs, you should give some degree of
credit to the person who wrote it.
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Java Bible:Tokens, Types, and Values
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
PART III
Programming Elements and Techniques
In This Part
Chapter 9:
Tokens, Types, and Values
Chapter 10:
Language Fundamentals
Chapter 11:
Classes, Interface, and Packages
Chapter 12:
Strings and Arroys
Chapter 13:
Input/Output: Java Streams
Chapter 14:
Threads
Chapter 15:
Weaving Applets into Web Pages
This part introduces the brass tacks of the Java programming language. Beginning with the basic
concepts of tokens, types, and values, the chapters explore all the nooks and crannies of Java. Part III
will be an ideal reference to use as you create your own applications.
These chapters show you how to do language basics such as defining and using variables, controlling
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program flow, creating your own classes, and handling exceptions—demonstrating that Java is more
than just a programming language. Much of the beauty of the java language is in its
packages—predesigned classes available for your use in your own applications. The chapters introduce
you to all the standard Java packages and classes, including strings, arrays, streams, and threads.
Finally, this part shows you how to weave your Java applications into Web pages—introducing you to
the HTML programming that’s required, and showing how to have your Web browser communicate
with your applications. You also learn how to package your Java applications efficiently, using Java
Archive (JAR) files for fast Web access.
CHAPTER 9
Tokens, Types, and Values
In This Chapter
Getting down to the basics of the java programming language
Attaining an overview of types and values provided by Java
Using the built-in language operators and methods
Understanding how to use objects, methods, and references to objects
Atsome or other, you’re going time to need detailed information on exactly how to use the Java
language. If you’ve made it this far, you’re probably ready for the hard stuff. At this point, you need
more than concepts, examples, and step-by-step explanations of different facets of the language. You
need the nuts and bolts of the language, detailed syntax, brass tacks.
Brass Tacks
Don’t worry, you’re not alone. Everyone learning a new programming language must, sooner or later,
learn proper syntax. Even language experts must learn the syntax for each language in their repertoire.
Depending on your personal tastes, the following chapter will be either exciting and revealing, or dry
and painful. Some folks absolutely love learning the details of new programming languages, while
others might prefer having root-canal work done instead. Either way, this chapter must be dealt with.
As you read, your eyes are guaranteed to glaze over at some point. What you’re about to experience is a
solid case of information overload; this chapter is packed with details. However, there’s no need to try
and memorize everything you read. This is an excellent chapter to skim though and come back to, time
after time, as needed. Eventually, you will absorb a large portion of it as you continue along the path to
Java enlightenment. And what you don’t remember will be waiting right here, in case you need a
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refresher or forget exactly how a particular syntax is supposed to be written.
This chapter was distilled from Sun’s official Java Language Specification document. For thrill seekers
and language lovers, I’d suggest taking a peek at that. You’ll find it loaded with more information than
you can imagine—it’s an essential guide to becoming a Java language expert. But for now, you can
warm up for that tome by concentrating on this chapter.
Let’s begin by examining how the lines of code you write are broken into pieces, or tokens, by the
compiler.
The Java Language Specification is available through the documentation section of JavaSoft’s
Web site: http://java.sun.com.
Tokens
Java is a tokenized language: The lines of code that you write are translated by the compiler into discrete
elements known as tokens. Working from left to right, the compiler discards all comments and
whitespace (blank spaces and similar meaningless characters). What remains is separated into one of
five possible tokens:
• Keywords
• Identifiers
• Literals
• Separators
• Operators
In order to fully understand the Java language, it’s important to have a solid grasp of each of these five
tokens. Of course, you don’t have to memorize this section in one pass, or even memorize it at all.
However, you’ll find it beneficial to understand the purpose of each type of token now. You can always
return later for details, as needed. Let’s begin by looking at keywords.
Java programs are written to the Unicode character encoding standard, which is a superset of
the ASCII character set. Unicode expands the number of bits used to represent characters to
16, whereas ASCII uses only eight. Unicode also provides characters for many non-Latin
languages, which ASCII does not.
Despite these differences, you need not concern yourself with finding a Unicode text editor! As long as
your Java programs are stored in ASCII text format, the compiler can do its job. For details on the
Unicode standard, see “The Unicode Standard: Worldwide Character Encoding” at http://unicode.org or
use FTP to connect to ftp://unicode.org.
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Keywords
Keywords are character sequences formed by ASCIi letters that are reserved by the Java language for
special purposes. You cannot use them for anything other than their intended purpose. For instance, you
can’t give a class, method, or variable the same name as a keyword.
Table 9-1 contains all the reserved keywords for the 1.0 release of Java, although a few aren’t actually
used by the language. The keywords gotto, byvalue, cast, const, future, generic, inner, outer, operator, rest, and
var are all reserved, even though they’re not used, They may be used in a future release of the language.
You should note that although true and false look as though they might be keywords, they are not.
Technically, true and false are boolean literals.
Since there are a large number of keywords, chances are you won’t remember most of them.
As a result, you may accidentally use a keyword without realizing you are doing so. If the
compiler doesn’t stop you, this may lead to unexpected problems with that code. If this
happens, check to see whether you’re using a keyword as an identifier. This can only happen
if the identifier in question is a sequence of all lowercase letters, however, since keywords are
never uppercase and do not contain numbers.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 9-1
Java Keywords
abstract boolean break byte
case cast catch chars
class const continue default
do double else extends
final finally float for
future generic goto if
implements import inner instanceof
iht interface long native
new null operator outer
package private protected public
rest return short static
super switch synchronized this
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throw throws transient try
var void volatile while
Class modifier keywords
A subset of Java keywords, known as access specifiers, are used to control the access that objects have
to classes, methods, and variables. You can apply the Class Modifier access specifiers listed in Table 9-2
to classes and interfaces to define the extent to which other objects can access that class or interface.
(Interfaces are discussed later in this chapter, and in more detail in Chapter 11.)
Table 9-2
Class Modifier Keywords
Class Modifier Description
<blank> When no class modifier is specified, the class or interface is accessible to
objects within the current package.
public Specifies that the class or interface is accessible to objects outside the
package it is part of. Only one public class is permitted per source code file,
and that file must have the same name as the class and a .java extension (for
example, HelloWorldApplet.java).
final Specifies that the class or interface cannot be subclassed. The String class, for
example, is final. As a result, you can’t create a String subclass.
abstract Specifies that the class or interface contains abstract methods (methods
having no actual implementation), or that it isn’t directly implemented.
The following is the syntax for class modifiers. Note that items in square brackets ([]) are optional:
ClassModifier class name [extends superclass] [implements
interfaces] {
...
...
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For instance, suppose we don’t want our HelloWorldApplet to be subclassed. We can do this easily using
the keyword final, a modifier that prevents the class from being subclassed:
final class HelloWorldApplet extends java.applet.Applet {
...
...
}
What if we want to allow subclassing? Better yet, we might also want to allow other objects outside the
HelloworldApplet.class source code file to access this class:
public class HelloWorldApplet extends java.applet.Applet {
...
...
}
In this case, it can be subclassed. Since it’s public, HelloWorldApplet can be used by any other Java
program. If we hadn’t specified a class modifier, the class would have been available only within the
package it was part of (see Chapter 11 for information on packages):
class HelloWorldApplet extends java.applet.Applet {
...
...
}
Method modifier and field modifier keywords
Two other sets of access specifiers, Method Modifiers and Field Modifiers, also let you control the
access that objects have to methods and variables.
Method modifiers
The Method Modifier access specifiers listed in Table 9-3 can be applied to methods. Field Modifiers
are applied to class or method variables, which are also known as fields. They are the same as Method
Modifiers, with the exception of abstract, synchronized, and native (variables cannot be defined as abstract,
synchronized, or native).
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Table 9-3
Method Modifier Keywords
Method Modifier Description
<blank> When no access modifier is specified, the method or variable is accessible
only within the current package.
abstract Specifies that implementation for the method will be supplied by a subclass.
public Specifies that the method or variable is accessible outside its class.
private Specifies that the method or variable is only accessible to other methods
inside its own class.
protected Specifies that the method or variable is accessible to subclasses, and also to
the package in which it is defined.
private protected Specifies that the method or variable is accessible only within its class and
subclasses. A subclass can access variables it inherits, but not directly
through an instance of the superclass.
final Specifies that the method cannot be overridden, or that the value of a
variable won’t change.
Static Specifies that the method can be invoked without first instantiating an object,
and can only access static variables. Static variables are shared by all objects;
only one copy is available to all instances.
Synchronized Used with threads; specifies that the method will be locked when executed
by a thread, preventing another thread from invoking it until it is unlocked
upon exit by the first thread. (See Chapter 14.)
native Specifies that the method is actually a code stub written in another language,
such as C.
This is the syntax for method modifiers:
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MethodModifiers returnType name (argumentType1 argument1, ....) {
...
...
}
For instance, if we didn’t want any methods other than those defined in our HelloWorldApplet class to
have access to the paint() method, we would use the following:
private void paint (Graphics g) {
...
...
}
However, since we do want to grant methods outside the HelloWorldApplet class access to paint(), we
declare it as public:
public void paint (Graphics g) {
...
...
}
If we hadn’t specified a method modifier at all, the paint() method would have been available only to
methods within the package it was part of (see Chapter 11):
void paint (Graphics g) {
...
...
}
Field modifiers
When you apply access modifiers to variables, you should use this syntax:
FieldModifer type name;
For instance, the integer horizonta1 and vertical variables we defined in HelloWorldapplet could have been
restricted to only methods in that class:
private int horizontal, vertical;
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And we could have just as easily made them available to methods outside the HelloWorldApplet class:
public int horizontal, vertical;
However, we didn’t specify an access modifier for these two variables (or any other HelloWorldApplet
variables). As a result, they are available to all methods in the same package:
int horizontal, vertical;
Keep in mind that field modifiers are the same as method modifiers, with this exception:
abstract, synchronized, and native are not supported.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Identifiers
An identifier is a sequence of Unicode characters that you use to name a class, method, or variable.
Identifiers can be of any length, and they can contain both letters and digits. However, they must begin
with a letter, not a digit. You can use any name you can think of for an identifier, provided it doesn’t
begin with a digit and is not the same as a keyword. Because identifiers are Unicode, they can even
include non-Latin letters and digits.
As a general rule, you should use uppercase letters in your identifiers only if they help improve
readability. Identifiers that are all uppercase can make your code difficult to read, and they may reduce
the impact capital letters should have for emphasis. There is an exception to this rule, however (isn’t
there always?): Variables declared as final should be entirely in uppercase characters. Final variables
can’t be altered once declared, and are used to represent constant values (constants) in Java. For more
details on final variables, see Chapter 11.
Also, you should avoid the use of the underscore character (_), except when it appears between two
words as a way to improve readability. See Table 9-4 for examples of legal and illegal use of identifiers,
as well as those you should avoid, even though they may be legal.
Table 9-4
Examples of Legal and Illegal Identifiers
Legal Illegal Legal but Not Recommended
i if IF
dollar 1dollar _dollar
speed 5speed SPEED
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customerLastName customer-last-name customerlastname
leapYear leap-year leapyear
minutes_In_365_Days 365Days MinutesIn365DAYS
monthlyIncome monthly Income $monthlyIncome
Tables 9-5 and 9-6 contain the range of Unicode characters that comprise the digits and letters you can
use to form an identifier. Each table contains raw Unicode characters; they begin with \u and are
followed by four hexadecimal digits. When you use raw Unicode characters (as opposed to actual
characters, as shown in Table 9-4), Java converts them into the actual characters they represent.
Table 9-5
Unicode Digits
Point Code Range Description
\u0030-\u0039 ISO-LATIN-1 digits (0-9)
\u0660-\u0669 Arabic-Indic digits
\u06f0-\u06f9 Eastern Arabic-Indic digits
\u0966-\u096f Devanagari digits
\u09e6-\u09ef Bengali digits
\u0a66-\u0a6f Gurmukhi digits
\u0ae6-\u0aef Gujarati digits
\u0b66-\u0b6f Oriya digits
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\u0beT-\u0bef Tamil digit
\u0c66-\u0c6f Telugu digits
\u0ce6-\u0cef Kannada digits
\u0d66-\u0d6f Malayalam digits
\u0e50-\u0e59 Thai digits
\u0edo-\u0ed9 Lao digits
\u1040-\u1049 Tibetan digits
Table 9-6
Unicode Letters
Point Code Range Description
\u0024 $ (dollar sign—for historical reasons)
\u005f _ (underscore—or historical reasons)
\u0041-\u005a Latin capital letters (A-Z)
\u0061-\u007a Latin small letters (a-z)
\u00c0-\u00d6 Various Latin letters with diacritics
\u00d8-\u00f6 Various Latin letters with diacritics
\u00fS-\u00ff Various Latin letters with diacritics
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u0100-\u1fff Other non-CJK1 alphabets and symbols
\u3040-\u318f Hiragana, Katakana, Bopomofo, and Hangul
\u3300-\u337f CJK squared words
\u3400-\u3d2d Korean Hangul Symbols
\u4e00-\u9fff Han (Chinese, Japanese, Korean)
\ufg00-\ufaff Han compatibility
With the introduction of JDK 1.1, the Unicode 2.0 standard has been adopted. The Unicode
2.0 standard contains 38,885 distinct characters and covers the major written languages of
America, Europe, Middle East, Africa, India, Asia, and Pacifica. For more information on
Unicode and the Unicode standard, visit the Unicode Consortium at http://www.unicode.org
Identifiers are considered the same only if they have an identical Unicode code point for every
letter or digit. For instance, the single letters Latin capital A (\u0041), Latin small a (\u0061),
Greek capital A (\u0391), and Cyrillic small a (\u0430) each have a distinct code point and
therefore would not be considered identical.
Literals
Literals are explicit values, such as 18345 or “Helloworld!”, that are specified directly in your Java code.
Java supports three categories of literals:
• Those that are numbers (integer and floating-point literals)
• Boolean literals (true and false)
• Those that are composed of characters (character literals and string literals)
You use literals to specify values for variables, or to place explicit values directly in your source code.
For instance, in the following line of code, 135 is a numeric literal used to initialize an integer variable:
int myInteger = 135;
We can also assign a boolean literal, either true or false, to boolean variables:
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boolean myFlag = true;
You can also use literals to control the flow of program execution, as we’ve done here with the integer
literal 15 and the boolean literal false:
while (x < 15) {
...
}
while (myFlag != false) {
...
}
And, as you may recall from our “Hello World!” programs, you can also use literals as arguments to
methods. In our application, we used the string literal “Hello World!” to communicate with the user:
System.out.println(“HelloWorld!”);
In the applet version of Hello World, we used a string literal and two integer literals to position output at
an exact location on the screen:
g.drawString(“HelloWorld!”,50,100);
As with keywords and identifiers, you’ve been using literals all along in previous chapters. But now that
you’ve been formally introduced to them, let’s take a closer look at each type of literal in the Java
language.
Numbers
Java supports two types of numeric literals:
• Integer literals
• Floating-point literals
Integers are numbers that do not have a decimal point, while floating-point numbers do. Following are a
few integer numbers: 545, 43, 7632, 4367, 2346, and 57. And here are some floating-point numbers:
545.00456, 43.3535, .76326464, 4367.26, 2346.00, and 5.7.
Integer literals
The most common literal is the integer literal. Using ASCII characters, integer literals may be expressed
in three different ways:
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• Decimal (base 10)
• Hexadecimal (base 16)
• Octal (base 8)
The legal positive and negative ranges for each notation are shown in Tables 9-7, 9-8, 9-9, and 9-10 in
the next three sections.
An integer literal is considered to be of type int unless it is suffixed with an upperor lowercase
“L” (L or I). For instance, 15 is an integer literal of type int, while 15L and 15l are both integer
literals of type long.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Decimal literals
Decimal literals represent positive integer values, and consist of an initial digit ranging from 1 to 9,
which may be followed by one or more digits ranging from 0 to 9, such as: 935, 467L, 534643, 63036, 2,
and 2L.
The legal ranges of decimal literals are expressed in Table 9-7.
Table 9-7
Legal Ranges of Decimal Literals in Java
Literal Legal Range
Max Positive (2^31 - 1) int 2147483647
Max Negative (2^31) int n/a
Max Positive (2^63 - 1) long 9223372036854775807L
Max Negative (2^63) long n/a
Hexadecimal literals
Hexadecimal literals represent a positive, zero, or negative number. They consist of a leading 0x or 0X,
followed by one or more hexadecimal digits. The hexadecimal representation of decimal digits is shown
in Table 9-8. Hexadecimal digits 10-15 aren’t represented by digits, but are instead represented by the
letters A through F (or by a through f—these letters can be either uppercase or lowercase).
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Java’s Forbidden Numbers
The largest negative int (-2147483648, or -231) can’t be represented in Java as a decimal literal! Since
the literal - 2147483648 is tokenized as the unary operator “-” followed by the decimal literal value of
2147483648, the compiler generates an error (2147483648 exceeds the legal maximum value for
decimal integer literals, as shown in Table 9-7). You should represent this value in hexadecimal notation
(O×80000000).
Similarly, a compile-time error is generated if a decimal literal of type long is larger than 263-1. This
means the largest negative long can’t be represented as a decimal literal, because - 9223372036854775808L
is tokenized as the unary operator “-” followed by a decimal literal value of 9223372036854775808L
Because 9223372036854775808L is not a valid decimal long-integer literal, an error is generated. On the
off chance that you need to represent this value, use the hexadecimal literal 0×8000000000000000L
instead.
Table 9-8
Hexadecimal Digit Representation
Decimal Hexadecimal
1 0x1 or 0X1
2 0x2 or 0X2
3 0x3 or 0X3
4 0x4 or 0X4
5 0x5 or 0X5
6 0x6 or 0X6
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7 0x7 or 0X7
8 0x8 or 0X8
9 0x9 or 0X9
10 0xA, 0XA, 0xa, or 0Xa
11 0xB, 0XB, 0xb, or 0Xb
12 0xC, 0XC, 0xc, or 0Xc
13 0xD, 0XD, 0xd, or 0Xd
14 0xE, 0XE, 0xe, or 0Xe
15 0xE 0XE 0xf, or 0Xf
The legal ranges of hexadecimal literals are expressed in Table 9-9.
Table 9-9
Legal Ranges of Hexadecimal Literals in Java
Literal Legal Range
Max Positive (2^31 - 1) int 0x7fffffff
Max Negative 2^31) int 0x80000000
Max Positive 2^63 - 1 ) long OX7fffffffffffffffL
Max Negative (2^63 ) long 0x80000000000000000L
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Here are some examples of hexadecimal literals: 0xA887, 0X20C15E0, 0xFFFA9B12, 0xSAD6, 0x63036, 0X2,
and 0x2L.
Octal literals
Octal literals also represent a positive, zero, or negative number. They consist of a leading 0 (zero),
optionally followed by one or more digits in the range 0 through 7, like this: 0235, 05323434, 0000,
035674L, and 000235.
The legal ranges of octal literals are expressed in Table 9-10.
Table 9-10
Legal Ranges of Octal Literals in Java
Literal Legal Ranges
Max Positive (2^31 - 1) int 017777777777
Max Negative (2^31) int 020000000000
Max Negative (2^63 - 1) long 0777777777777777777777L
Max Negative (-2^63) long 0400000000000000000000L
Floating-point literals
Floating-point literals represent numbers with decimal values. A floating-point literal is composed of
five parts:
• A whole number
• A decimal point
• A fractional part
• An exponent
• A type suffix
Floating-point literals must have at least one digit, which may appear in either the whole number or the
fractional part of the number. They must also have either a decimal point or an exponent, although all
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other parts are optional.
The exponent, if one exists, is represented in scientific notation by the letter E (or e), which may be
followed by a signed integer.
A floating-point literal is considered to be of type double unless it is suffixed with an F or f, in
which case it’s of type float. For instance, 15.35 (as well as 15.35 D and 15.35d) is a floating-
point literal of type double, while 15.35F and 15.35f are both floating-point literals of type float.
The float type is used to represent single precision floating-point numbers, whereas the double
type represents numbers as double precision values. If your calculations need to be
exceptionally accurate, be sure to specify floating-point numbers as type double. Examples of
floating-point literals of type double include these: 3el, 5.34, 5.34d, 2., .366, and 3e-6. Floating-
point literals of type float include these others: 3elf, 5.34F, 5.34f, 2. f, .366F, and 3.03e+6f.
Boolean literals
In Java, boolean literals are of type boolean, and can have one of two possible values: true or false. Java’s
boolean literals are actual literals, not strings, and can’t be converted into string literals (see “String
literals” later in this chapter). Nor are they integer values of zero and one, as booleans in C and C++ are.
Character literals
An addition to the numeric and boolean literals described in the preceding sections, Java supports literals
that are composed of characters. These can be:
• An individual character (character literal)
• A number of characters in a string (string literals)
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Character literals are expressed as a single character, or an escape sequence beginning with the
backslash character enclosed in single quotes (‘ \ ’). The escape sequence permits non-graphic characters
to be represented, in addition to the single quote (’) character and the backslash (\) character themselves.
Character literals are 16-bit integer values. Following are a few examples of valid character literals: a, A,
z, Z, ‘ \t ’, ‘ \b’, ‘ \ul2d ’, ‘ \\ ’.
Table 9-11 shows the character literal escape codes for each escape sequence, as well as what they
represent.
Table 9-11
Character Literal Escape Codes
Escape Sequence Unicode Escape Code What It Represents
\b \u0008 backspace (BS)
\t \u0009 horizontal tab (HT)
\n \u000a linefeed (LF)
\f \u000c form feed (FF)
\r \u000d carriage return (CR)
\“ \u0022 double quote (“)
\’ \u0027 single quote (’)
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\\ \u005c backslash (\)
\? \u0034 question mark (?)
Unicode escapes are processed very early on in the compilation of Java code. For instance, if
you were to use a character literal escape sequence of \u000a (for linefeed), Java would see
the u000a Unicode escape and translate it into an actual linefeed on the spot. even before
realizing that it is part of a character literal escape sequence! This linefeed is then further
reduced to a line terminator, blowing your character literal out of the water. The same thing
happens when u000d is encountered As a result, you should use ‘ \n ’ for a character literal
linefeed and ‘ \r ’ for a carriage return.
String literals
String literals are comprised of zero (0) or more characters enclosed in double quotes (“ ”), and may use
the same escape sequences as character literals. Table 9-12 shows examples of valid string literals.
Table 9-12
Examples of Valid String Literals
Literal String Type
“Hello World!” basic string
“Are you looking at me?” your basic string, with an attitude
“” an empty string
“\”“ a sting containing only a double quote (“)
“This string is ” + three strings treated as
“too long to fit ”“ + an expression using the
“on one line!” +operator
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If your string literal contains a line separator (such as a carriage return or linefeed) between
the opening and closing double quotes (“ ”), the compiler generates an error. If necessary, you
can use the string concatenation operator, +, to break your string into smaller pieces, as shown
in Table 9-12.
Separators
Separators are characters used to group and arrange Java source code. They let you organize your code
into a form the compiler understands. The following characters are valid Java separators:
( ) { } [ ] ; , .
You’ve already seen all of these used in some way or other. For instance, the while loop used in Chapter
7 makes use of the ( ) and { } separators:
while (x <15) {
...
}
Perhaps you’ve used a for loop? If so, you’ve also used the; separator:
for (x=0; x<l00; x++) {
...
}
You’ve even used the; and. separators in one line of code, along with the () separators:
System. out. println(“HelloWorld!”);
And how about the comma (,) separator? We use that, and the () and; separators in every method that has
more than one argument:
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this);
Finally, we’ve dealt with arrays. As a result, we’ve already used the [] separators:
theArg = args[i];
Operators
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Operators are individual characters and combinations of characters used to perform calculations. Table 9-
13 lists ali of the Java operators, current as of JDK 1.2. Chapter 10 provides a detailed overview of these
operators, including precedence and associativity.
Tables 9-13
Java Operators
= > < ! ~ ? : ==
<= >= != && || ++ - +
- F / & | ^ % <<
> >> += -= *= /= &= |=
^= %= <<= >= >>=
Types and Values
In this section, we shall look at two more important elements of Java syntax, types and values.
Types
Types are used to identify the information stored in variables and returned by methods (on those
occasions when a method does in fact return data when called). The information stored in a variable or
returned by a method is known as the value of the variable or return. In essence, you create variables that
have a certain type. The type, in turn, determines what values can be stored in the variable. The same is
true for method return types: You define what information will be returned by specifying a return type.
As a result, only values conforming to the type can be returned.
Because Java is a strongly typed language, you’re prevented from making common programming
mistakes seen with loosely typed languages. Passing incorrect data types as parameters to a method,
treating return values in a manner inconsistent with their type, and unwittingly casting data values from
one type to another are all prevented thanks to Java’s strong adherence to data typing.
Java supports four distinct categories of data types:
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• Primitive types
• Class types
• Interface types
• Array types
Every variable in a Java program has an associated data type, often called its compile-time type because
the compiler can always determine the type before the program is executed.
Values
Java also supports two kinds of data values:
• Primitive values
• References
These values can be stored in variables, passed to methods as arguments, returned as values, and
operated upon. In this section, we’ll take a look at the types and values that are supported by the Java
language.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Primitive values
Primitive values are indivisible, meaning they can’t be reduced any further. They don’t share state with
other primitive values. A variable defined as having a primitive compile-time type always holds a value
of that exact primitive type. Such a value is not shared in any way with any other variable, so the value
of the variable can be changed only by operations using that variable.
Values stored in a variable must be compatible with the compile-time type of that variable.
That is, you can’t define a variable of type int and then attempt to store a string in it.
References
References are pointers to dynamically allocated objects (here we mean the concept of pointing to
something in memory, not actual pointers of the kind found in C/C++; Java doesn’t support such
pointers). These objects are composed of primitive values, and are sometimes called composite data
types for that reason.
The rest of this chapter is dedicated to Java’s data types and values. To help organize this material, we’ll
explore these in the context of primitive types and references. Let’s begin with primitives.
Primitive types and values
Primitive types, also known as simple or basic types, are the fundamental data types of Java. They are
defined the same way in all implementations of the language, regardless of platform, making them more
portable than primitive data types of other languages, such as C and C++. When you use primitive data
types in Java, their representation and arithmetic behavior are consistent from system to system.
Primitives are named by one of the reserved keywords listed in Table 9-14, and fall into one of three
categories:
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• gxithmetic (integral or floating-point)
• Boolean
• Character
Table 9-14
Primitive Data Types
Type Category Values
byte intergral arithmetic 8-bit signed two’s complement intergers
short integral arithmetic 16-bit signed two’s complement integers
int intergral arithmetic 32-bit signed two’s complement integres
long integral arithmetic 64-bit signed two’s complement integers
float floating-point 32bit IEEE 754 floating-point numbers
arithmentic
double floating-point arithmetic 64-bit IEEE 754 floating-point numbers
char character 16-bit Unicode characters
boolean boolean true and false
The values that a primitive variable can contain depend upon the data type of that variable. It’s
interesting to note, however, that you can’t treat primitive types as objects. Instead, you have to place
them in what’s known as an object wrapper before passing them as arguments to most methods, in
addition to allowing you to embed primitive types in objects, type wrapper classes (discussed in detail in
Chapter 12) also contain MIN_VALUE and MAX_VALUE class variables for easy access to the upper and
lower range of values permitted for each type.
Integral arithmetic type and values
The primitive integral data types—byte, short, int, and long—are used to perform integer arithmetic. These
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types do not support numbers with decimals. The char data type is compatible with integral types
because it supports 16-bit unsigned integer values, which are used to represent a Unicode code point.
Ranges and casts
Table 9-15 shows the legal range for each integral type. Although the char type is not represented in this
table, any integral value may be cast to a type char, while any character may be cast to any of the integral
types. And, not surprisingly, any integral value may be cast to any other arithmetic type.
Table 9-15
Legal Value Ranges for Integral Types
Type Legal Range
byte -128 to 127,inclusive
short -32768 to 32767, inclusive
int -2147483648 to 2147483647, inclusive
long -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807, inclusinve
Although integral types can be cast to a char type and vice versa, the same cannot be said for
boolean types. It is illegal to attempt a cast between integrals and booleans.
Operands
Table 9-16 includes the various operators that Java provides for performing integral operations.
Table 9-16
Java Operators for Integral Operations
Type Operators
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equality operators = and !=
relational operators <, <=, >, and >=
unary operators + and -
additive and multiplicative operators +, -, *, /, and %
prefix and postfix increment/decrement operators ++ and - -
signed and unsigned shift operators <<, &lg>, and >>>
unary bitwise logical negation operator ~
bitwise logical operators &, |, and ^
Widening
If an operation is performed on integrals, it is considered an integer operation, provided that both
operands are of the integral type. However, if one of the operands is of type long, the operation is
performed using 64-bit precision. In this case, all operands that are not also of type long are first widened
(as if a cast was performed) to type long, and the result is of type long as well (assuming the operation
wasn’t meant to return a boolean, in which case a boolean type is returned).
If none of the operands are of type long, the operation is performed using 32-bit precision. In this case,
ali operands that are not of type int are first widened to type int and the result is also of type int (once
again, assuming the operation wasn’t meant to return a boolean, in which case the boolean type is
returned).
Although the built-in integral operators widen their operands to perform 32-bit or 64-bit
precision operations, values of integral type are not automatically widened when used as
arguments in method calls. You can write individual methods to do so, but the calling process
does not automatically perform widening.
Exceptions
If the right-hand operand to an integer divide operator (/) or integer remainder operator (%) is zero, Java
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throws an ArtihmeticException. Some programmers may recognize this as the ol’ “divide by zero” error,
which everyone encounters at some time or another. However, this is the only way for an exception to
be generated by an operator on integral types.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Floating-point arithmetic types and values
The primitive floating-point data types—float and double—are used to perform single precision 32-bit
and double precision 64-bit format operations, respectively, on values that conform to the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers’ IEEE 754 standard. Unlike integrals, floating-point data types
support numbers with decimals. Their values can be positive, zero, or negative.
For detailed information on the IEEE 754 specification, refer to the publication “IEEE
Standard for Binary Floating-point Arithmetic,” ANSI/IEEE Std. 754-1985 (IEEE, New
York).
Ranges and casts
Table 9-17 shows the legal range for float and double data types. As with integrals, any floating-point
value may be cast to a type char, while any character may be cast to any floating-point type. In addition,
any floating-point value may be cast to any other arithmetic type.
Table 9-17
Legal Value Ranges for Floating-Point Types
Type Legal Range (Arranged from Smallest to Largest)
float negative infinity, negative finite values, negative zero, positive zero, positive finite
values, and positive infinity
double negative infinity, negative finite values, negative zero, positive zero, positive finite
values, and positive infinity
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And, just as with integrals, it is illegal to attempt a cast between floating-point types and the
boolean type. Booleans can only hold true or false values, and can’t be cast into other data types.
Finite non-zero values
Finite non-zero values of type float are of the following form:
s(m × 2e)
where s is +1 or -1, m is a positive integer less than 224, and e is an integer between -149 and 104,
inclusive.)
Don’t be confused by the ^ appearing in this section (as in 224). In this case, it’s used to
indicated a value “raised to the power of” another value. This isn’t Java code, mind you, but
simply a mathematical notation appearing in regular text.
In contrast, Java’s ^ operator has two different meanings, depending on the operands involved. When
used with integral operands, a bitwise exclusive OR (XOR) operation is performed. With boolean
operands, however, a logical exclusive OR (XOR) operation is performed, where the result is either true
or false.
Finite non-zero values of type double are also of the form:
s(m. 2e )
where s is +1 or -1, m is a positive integer less than 253, and e is an integer between –1045 and 1000,
inclusive.
NaN: Not-a-Number
Floating-point data types support a special value known as Not-a-Number (NAN). NaN is used to
represent the result of operations where an actual number isn’t produced. Most operations that have NaN
as an operand will produce NaN as a result.
The presence of NaN can produce unexpected results when dealing with floatingpoint data
types. Since NaN is unordered, the result of a <, <=, >, >=, or == comparison between a NaN
and another value is always false. In fact, == always produces false when both operands are
NaN. However, the result of a != comparison with a NaN is always true, even if both operands
are NaN.
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Operands
Table 9-18 lists the various operators that Java provides for performing floatingpoint operations.
Table 9-18
Java Operation for Floating-Point operations
Operation Operators
basic equality operations = and !=
relational operations <, <=, >, and >=
unary operations + and -
additive and multiplicative operations +, -, *, /, and %
prefix and postfix increment/decrement operations ++ and -
Operations
If an operation is performed on floating-point data types, it’s considered a floatingpoint operation if both
operands are of the floating-point type. An operation is also considered a floating-point operation if one
of the operands is a floating-point type and one is an integral data type.
If one of the operands is of type double, the operation is performed using 64-bit floating-point arithmetic.
In this case, any operand that is not also a double is first cast to type double and the result is of type double
(assuming the operation wasn’t meant to return a boolean, in which case a boolean type is returned). If
none of the operands are of type double, the operation is performed using 32-bit floating-point arithmetic.
If this is the case, all operands that are not float are first cast to type float and the result, if not boolean, is
of type float.
All operations on floating-point numbers behave exactly as specified by the IEEE 754
standard.
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Rounding
In Java, floating-point arithmetic is performed as if every floating-point operator rounds its floating-
point result to the result precision. Inexact results are rounded to the nearest representable value, in
accordance with the IEEE 754 “round to nearest” mode. For instance, if two representable values are
equally distant from the true mathematical result of the operation, Java returns the value whose
leastsignificant bit is zero (0).
Similarly, Java rounds towards zero when floating-point values are cast to integers.
Exceptions
In Java, floating-point arithmetic will not generate an exception. Any operation that overflows will
produce a signed infinity value, so there’s no need to throw an overflow exception (see Chapter 10 for
details on exceptions). Likewise, when an operation underflows, a signed zero is produced. If an
operation produces a result that has no mathematically definite value, NaN is produced. Since these are
all valid results, no exceptions are generated.
Character types and values
In Java, the char type is used to store a Unicode character value. While Unicode values are two bytes in
size, you don’t have to do anything special when assigning values to Java char types. Their internal
representation is not of concern to you, and, in fact, you can’t even tell what size a char type is (Java
doesn’t support the sizeof operation popular with C/C++).
Java char types are unsigned. As such, if a char is cast to another type (such as a byte or short) the result
may be a negative value.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Boolean types and values
Java’s boolean data type represents a 1-bit logical quantity with only two possible values: true and false.
Casts
No casts are defined for booleans, although an integer can be converted to a boolean following the
convention of the C programming language. Suppose we have an integer, x. Since C treats 0 as false and
every non-zero value as true, we can use the expression x!=0 to convert x into a boolean.
Likewise, a boolean value b is converted to a zero/one integer value using the expression b?1:0.
However, there are no explicit casts on booleans. You cannot, for instance, convert a boolean type to a
floating-point data type or String object.
Operands
Operations defined on booleans appear in Table 9-19.
Table 9-19
Java Operators for Boolean Operations
Operation Operators
relational operations == and !=
logical operations !, &, |, and ^
short-circuit logical operations && and ||
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The if, while, do, and for statement, all rely on boolean truth values to control the flow of
program execution. Likewise, the conditional ?: operator uses boolean truth values to
determine which subexpression is selected.
Reference types and values
In Java, there are two kinds of dynamically allocated objects:
• Class instances
• Arrays
These non-primitive types are commonly known as reference types, since they are dealt with using the
address of the object or array rather than the actual value of the object or array itself. The address, or
reference, of an object or array is what’s stored in variables and passed as an argument to methods. In
contrast, primitive types are handled by value: Actual values are stored in variables and passed as
arguments to methods. This makes for two very distinct types in Java:
• Primitive
• Reference
Since arrays are covered in detail in Chapter 12, this section focuses more on the nature of
objects. While arrays are treated a lot like objects, they are unique beasts. As such, special
attention is given to them later in this book. Feel free to skip ahead for details on arrays if
you’d like, or read on to learn more about objects.
Creating objects
Objects are created, or instantiated, from class definitions using the new keyword:
new ClassName(); // instantiates an object from class
When a constructor is used in the instantiation of an object, parameters are often required:
new ClassName(param1.param2.param3.... );
Typically, the objects you create are assigned to a variable. To do this, you must declare the variable as
being of the same data type as the class itself (or of a data type compatible with the class):
ClassName myObject = new ClassName(); // set variable equal to
new object
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Accessing methods
Methods in an object are invoked by sending that object a message using dot notation. The message you
send is actually the name (and parameter list, if parameters are required) for the method to invoke:
myObject.methodName(); // invoke method requiring no parameters
myObject.methodName(paraml.param2.param3....* ); // parameters
are required
Variables in an object may (or may not, depending on implementation) be available using dot notation.
Typically, variables are accessible only though special accessor methods:
myObject,variableName; // direct access
myObject.getVariableMethod(); // access via method
Class variables may be directly accessed without having to first instantiate an object, if they are declared
as static, by providing the name of the class in dot notation:
ClassName.classVariable; // class variable access without
instantiation
Likewise, static class methods may be accessed without first requiring object instantiation:
className.classMethod(); // class method access without
instantiation
For information about static variables and methods, see Chapters 5 and 11.
Object references
Whenever you assign an object to a variable or pass an object as a parameter to a method or class, it is
done by reference. That is, instead of the object itself, the address of the object is used. As a result,
dealing with objects is very different from dealing with primitive types.
Variables of interface types can contain references to objects that implement that interface.
For details on interfaces, see Chapter 11.
Copying objects
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Perhaps the most obvious difference between objects and primitives is seen with the = assignment
operator. With primitive types, this operator is used to store a value in a variable. With objects, however,
it stores the reference instead of the value.
For example, consider the following:
objectVariable1 = objectVariable2;
In this example, we don’t copy objectVariable2 into objectVariable1. Instead, objectVariable1 now merely
references (or points to) objectVariable2. Whenever objectVariable2 is altered, ObjectVariable1 sees the result.
This is very different from actually copying an object’s value, because both variables point to the same
instance instead of each maintaining a separate copy.
To copy the value of an object into another, you can use either the copy() or clone() method:
objectVariablel.copy(objectVariable2); // copy objectVariable2
into objectVariablel
objectVariablel = objectVariable2.clone(): // clone object
When using copy(), both objects are instances of the same class. The value of ali instance variables of the
object you pass as an argument to copy() are copied into the instance variables of the object on the left
side of the dot notation. If an instance variable contains the reference to an object, only the reference is
copied, not the object itself.
With clone(), a new instance is created and the value of all instance variables of the current object are
copied into the new one. Just as with copy(), if an instance variable contains the reference to an object,
only the reference is copied (not the object itself). If the two objects aren’t of the same type, you must
perform a cast:
objectVariablel = (objectVariablel) objectVariable2.clone();
Not all objects support copy() and clone(). When they are supported, you may need to cast
objects from one type to another in order to carry out the method. Casting objects is possible
as long as the object you’re casting is related (by inheritance) to the object it’s being cast to.
This means you can only cast an object to an instance of its superclass or subclass. To perform
the cast, enclose the name of the class you are casting the object to in parentheses:
(ClassName) theObject:
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When a cast is performed, a new instance of the specified class is created, which has the contents of the
object. The original object isn’t altered, and can be used exactly as it was before the cast was performed.
In addition to explicit casts, variables can contain references to objects whose runtime type can be
converted to the variable’s compile-time type through assignment conversion.
Testing for equality
Dealing with objects by reference rather than by value also affects the way in which the objects are
tested for equality. With primitive types, the == operator is used for this. With objects, however, this
operator only tests the references to objects for equality. As a result, the following does not tell you if
the two objects are equal:
objectVariablel == objectVariable2; // test references for
equality
While this will tell you if two variables refer to the same thing, it doesn’t compare the contents of what
each points to. In order to find out if the objects themselves are equal, you must use the equals() method:
objectVariablel.equals(objectVariable2); // test value of
objects for equality
Null references
The null reference is used to specify an object that has no instance. We can set objects to null, and test
them to see if they are null or an actual instance:
anyObject = null; // set an object to null
if (anyObject = = null) { // test for null
...
}
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Determining an object’s class
Every object that isn’t an array is an instance of a class. An object’s class is often called its runtime type.
You can find out what class an object was created from by cascading the getClass() and getName()
methods, as follows:
anyObject.getClass().getName();
// retrieve the class name (returns a string)
Since cascading these two methods returns a String object, you’ll often assign the object to a string
variable for future use:
String theClassName = anyObject.getClass().getName();
The getClass() method is defined in the Object class (java.lang.Object), from which all classes are derived.
Since every Java class is ultimately a descendant of the Object class, the variables and methods defined in
this class are available to every object (see Table 9-20). As a result, we can send any object the getClass()
message in order to invoke that method and retrieve the class it was instantiated from.
Table 9-20
Class java.lang.Object
Method Signature Description
object public object () creates a new object.
clone protected Object clone() throws Creates a clone of the object.
CloneNot SupportedException
equals public boolean equals (object obj) Compares two objects for equality, returning
true if they are equal false if not
finalize protected void finalize() throws Code to execute when this object is garbage-
Throwable collected.
getClass public final Class getClass() Returns the class of this object.
hashCode public int hashCode() Returns the hash code for this object.
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notify public final void notify() Notifies a single waiting thread that another
thread’s conditions has changed (can only be
called from within a synchronized method or
block of code).
notifyAll public final void notifyAll() Notifies all waiting threads that a condition
has changed (can only be called from within
a synchronized method or block of code).
toString public String to String() Returns a string representing the value of
this object. Subclasses should override this
method
wait public final void wait(long timeout) Causes a thread to wait for a notification, or
throws InterruptedException until the specified timeout value expires (can
only be called from within a synchronized
method or block of code).
wait public final void wait(long timeout, int A more precise wait method (can only be
nanos) throws InterruptedException called from within a synchronized method or
block of code).
wait public final void wait() throws Causes a thread to wait indefinitely until
InterruptedException notified (can only be called from within a
synchronized method or block of code).
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Java Bible:Tokens, Types, and Values
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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The getName() method is defined in the Class class (java.lang.Class), which contains the runtime
representations of classes. Since every Java object is an instance of some class, the methods in Table 9-
21 can be invoked when combined with the getClass() method, as we’ve done.
Table 9-21
Class java.lang.Class
Method Signature Description
forName public static Class fornName Returns runtime class descriptor for this
(StringclassName) throws class.
ClassNotFoundException
getClassLoader public ClassLoader getClassLoader() Returns the class loader of this class.
Returns null if a class loader isn’t used by
the class.
getInterfaces public Class[] getInterfaces() Returns the interfaces implemented by
this class (an array of length zero [0] is
returned if no interfaces are
implemented).
getName public String getName() getSuperclass() Returns the name of this class.
getSuperclass public Class Returns the superclass of this class.
isInterface public boolean, isInterface() Returns true or false, indicating whether
the class is an interface or not.
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newInstance public object newInstance() throws Creates a new instance of this class.
InstantiationException,
IllegalAccessException
toString public String toString() Returns the name of this class or
interface, with the word class prepended
to classes and the word interface
prepended to interfaces.
At times, you’ll want to know what class an object was created from. To do this, you can use the
instanceof operator, by providing the object to the left of the operator and the class name to the right:
anyObject instanceof ClassName
The boolean value of true is returned if the object is an instance of the specified class, otherwise false is
returned.
if (theObject instanceof ClassName) { // returns true if of
same class
}
Standard default values
In Java programs, every variable has a default value. If you don’t initialize a variable when it’s first
created, the default for that variable type is automatically provided in accordance with Table 9-22.
Although Java automatically initializes variables to their standard default values, it’s poor
programming style to rely on this process. These automatic default values are required to
guarantee portability of Java code, at considerable expense to the compiler. The compiler
must locate all variables that are used by your program before a value is provided for them.
Do the compiler a favor, and supply a value (either through initialization or later in the
program) for each variable before it is used.
Table 9-22
Default Values for Types
Type Default
byte zero: (byte)0
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short zero: (short)0
int zero: 0
long zero: 0L
float positive Zero: 0.0f
double positive zero: 0.0d
char null character: ’\u0000’
boolean false
reference null
Summary
This chapter reviewed the core of the Java language. Each of the elements described are essential to
understand before you begin to develop your own Java applications. Before you continue make sure that
you understand these key concepts presented in this chapter:
• Java is a tokenized language: The lines of code that you write are translated by the compiler
into discrete elements known as tokens. Working from left to right, the compiler discards all
comments and whitespace. What remains is separated into one of five possible tokens: keywords,
identifiers, literals, separators, operators.
• Keywords are character sequences formed by ASCII letters that are reserved by the Java
language for special purposes. You cannot use them for anything other than their intended
purpose.
• An identifier is a sequence of Unicode characters that you use to name a class, method, or
variable. Identifiers can be of any length, and they can contain both letters and digits. However,
they must begin with a letter, not a digit. You can use any name you can think of for an identifier,
provided it doesn’t begin with a digit and is not the same as a keyword. Because identifiers are
Unicode, they can even include non-Latin letters and digits.
• Literals are explicit values, such as 18345 or “Hello World!”, that are specified directly in your
Java code. Java supports three categories of literals: Those that are numbers (integer and floating-
point literals), boolean literals (true and false), and those that are composed of characters
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(character literals and string literals).
• Types are used to identify the information stored in variables and returned by methods (on
those occasions when a method does in fact return data when called). The information stored in a
variable or returned by a method is known as the value of the variable or return, in essence, you
create variables that have a certain type.
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Java Bible:Language Fundamentals
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 10
Language Fundamentals
In This Chapter
Declaring, initializing and using variables in your Java applications
Using expressions to perform calculations and store values in variables
Controlling the flow of your Java applications with control-flow statements
Understanding and handling exceptions in your java applications
In This chapter, we’ll continue to explore the fundamental elements of the Java language. We’ll begin
with a look at variables and see how to declare, initialize, and use them in our programs.
From there, we’ll proceed to expressions, and learn how these statements are used to perform
calculations and store values in variables. Since expressions make use of operators, we’ll explore in
more detail the Java operators introduced in the previous chapter.
Next, we’ll see how the control of program execution is directed with Java’s control-flow statements.
We’ll discuss branching statements and loops, and see how they are used to control the way in which our
programs are executed.
Finally, we’ll cover Java’s general-purpose error processing mechanism, using what are known as
exceptions. By learning to use them, we can create robust and reliable Java programs.
Variables
Variables are used to store values in Java, something we’ve been doing all along without much ado.
Once a value is stored in a variable, we can use it for any number of purposes.
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One such purpose is to represent an object’s state, as discussed in Chapter 2. Since the value stored in a
variable can be altered, the state of an object can also be altered by changing the value of its variables.
Variables are also used to perform calculations, control the flow of program execution, and effect the
overall state of a program. They are a fundamental part of programming languages; without them we’d
be hard pressed to develop software.
Declaring variables
To use a variable, you first have to declare it. A variable declaration consists of two parts:
• A data type: This determines the legal range of values a variable may contain, what operations
may be applied to the variable, and how such operations are performed.
• An identifier: An identifier is used to associate a name with a variable:
type identifier [, identifier];
Any number of variables can be declared on a single line, each of the same type, as long as each
identifier’s name is unique and separated from the others by a comma. A semicolon is used to signal the
end of a variable declaration.
Here, we declare an integer variable and give it the name horizontal:
int horizontal;
And here we declare several integer variables, all on the same line:
int horizontal, vertical, x, y, z, months, years, days,
ageInDays;
However, we could have broken the above declaration into a number of declarations:
int horizontal;
int vertical;
int x;
int y;
int z;
int months;
int years;
int days;
int ageInDays;
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How you declare your variables depends mainly on personal taste, although most programmers would
have chosen the first example for ease of readability. You aren’t required to place all variable names on
the same line, as I did in the example, however. You can spread them over several lines, if you want, as
long as the last variable name is immediately followed by a semicolon:
int horizontal,
vertical,
x,
y,
z,
months,
years,
days,
ageInDays;
In fact, you can group variable names over several lines, in any way you see fit:
int horizontal, vertical,
x, y, z,
months, years, days,
ageInDays;
Variable types
As you learned in the previous chapter, Java data types fall into two major categories: primitives and
references to objects.
Primitive variables
Your programs will likely use a large number of different primitive variables. Any variable that you
declare of type byte, short, int, long, float, double, char, or boolean is a primitive variable. The following are
examples of variable declarations for each primitive type:
byte x;
short days InMonth;
int counter;
long bacteriaCount;
float accountBalance;
double exactBalance;
char middleInitial;
boolean quit;
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Reference variables
Reference variables are used to store references, or pointers, to objects. (Keep in mind that we’re not
referring to pointers such as those used in C and C++ here, but simply the concept of pointing to an
object in memory.) These objects can be class instances, class instances that implement interfaces, or
arrays.
An interface is a collection of methods that are not implemented in code; interfaces are
explained in detail in Chapter 11.
Following are examples of reference variable declarations for each category of objects (class instances,
instances that implement interfaces, and arrays):
int highScores[]; /* array of integers */
Initializing and storing values in variables
Once a variable has been declared, a value may be stored in it. This may be done either at the time a
variable is declared—a process known as initialization—or anytime after it has been declared. In either
case, any value assigned to a variable must be of the same type as the variable itself.
These are examples of variables being initialized at the time of declaration:
byte x = 2;
short daysInMonth = 31;
int counter = 1043;
long bacteriaCount = 12239493;
float accountBalance = 533.35;
double exactBalance = 464.3243003;
char middleInitial = ’E’;
boolean quit = false;
String helloString = “Hello World!”;
AudioClip music = getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “audio/hello.au”);
In each of the above examples, a value consistent with the variable’s data type is assigned to it at the
time of declaration. These variables have been initialized. From the moment they are created, they
contain a value. You’ll notice, however, that there is no example of an array being initialized.
Array initialization
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In the case of arrays, each element may contain a value. If we declare an array having a dozen integer
elements, it can hold 12 different integers.
An array is typically initialized in two steps. First, we declare the number of elements it will have. Then
each element in the array is individually initialized, or set to a value (usually zero). Here is an example
of how we would initialize our array of integers:
int highScores[] = new int[12]; /* declare array of 12
integers */
for (short i=0; i < 12; i++) {
highScores[i] = 0; /* initialize each array element to zero */
}
As you can see, the for loop used above also contains a variable declaration. We declare an index, i, that
is used to access each element in the array. Before using i, we initialize it to zero (0), since the first
element in every array is at position zero (arrays in Java are zero-based, just as C/C++ arrays are). Each
time through the loop, the ith element in the array is initialized to zero. After 12 iterations, each element
in the array has been initialized to zero.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Arrays can be declared and initialized in a single step, instead of in two steps as shown here.
For details, see Chapter 12.
Variable scope
Every variable has an associated scope—the extent to which it can be used. The scope of a variable
begins immediately where it is declared, and ends with the closing brace (}) of the block of code in
which it is declared. You can access a variable only within its scope. If you attempt to access a variable
outside its scope, the compiler generates an error.
For instance, the scope of the variables declared in our MediaHelloWorld applet in Listing 10-1 is the
class definition itself. The variables myImage, myAudio, horizontal, vertical, and SoundOn are all declared
immediately following the class signature, and can therefore be accessed inside the scope of that class.
This means that any of the class methods can access these variables. And, as you can see, each of the
methods accesses at least one class variable.
Listing 10-1: Declaring Variables in the MediaHelloWorld applet
public class MediaHelloWorld extends HelloWorldApplet {
Image myImage;
AudioClip myAudio;
int horizontal, vertical;
boolean SoundOn = true;
public void init() {
super.init();
myImage=getImage(getCodeBase(), “images/world.gif”);
myAudio=getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “audio/hello.au”
}
public void paint(Graphics g)
{
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if (myImage !: null)
{ // only draw if the variable contains data!
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this);
}
super.paint(g);
}
public void start()
{
myAudio.loop();
}
public void stop()
{
myAudio.stop();
}
public boolean mouseDown(java.awt.Event event, int x, int y) {
if (SoundOn) {
myAudio.loop(); SoundOn = false;
}
else {
myAudio.stop();
SoundOn = true;
}
return true;
}
public boolean mouseMove(java.awt.Event event, int x, int y) {
horizontal=x;
vertical=y;
repaint();
return true;
}
} /* the variable scope ends here! */
However, suppose the horizontal and vertical integers were declared in the paint( ) method instead of in the
class itself. If this were the case, the scope of these variables would be the paint() method only Any
attempt to access these variables outside paint( ) would generate an error, since they can’t be accessed
outside of their scope:
public void paint(Graphics g) {
int horizontal=100, vertical:50; /* declared inside the
method */
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this); /* so this
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is fine */
super.paint(g);
} /* the scope of horizontal and vertical ends here! */
public boolean mouseMove(java.awt.Event event, int x, int y) {
horizontal=x; /* ILLEGAL - attempt to access outside of
scope! */
vertical=y; /* ILLEGAL - attempt to access outside of
scope! */
repaint();
return true;
}
A special situation can occur in which a variable is hidden by the declaration of another variable with
the same name. This happens if the second variable declaration happens within a sub-block of code
residing in the original variable’s scope. For instance, suppose we declared our horizontal and vertical
variables immediately following the class signature, as in Listing 10-1. Clearly, the scope of these
variables would be the entire class itself.
However, if we also declared horizontal and vertical integer variables inside the paint() method, the original
ones would be hidden from that method. In this case, any reference to horizontal or vertical inside paint( )
would refer to the variables declared in that method, instead of to the class variables of the same name:
int horizontal, vertical; /* original variable declaration */
public void paint(Graphics g) {
int horizontal=100, vertical=50; /* method variables of
same
name */
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this); /*
refers to
paint() method variables, not those declared earlier */
super.paint(g);
} /* the scope of paint() horizontal and vertical ends here! */
public boolean mouseMove (java.awt.Event event, int x, int y) {
horizontal=x; /* refers to original variable */
vertical:y; /* refers to original variable */
repaint();
return true;
}
Expressions
Expressions are statements that, when executed, result in a value. When programming, we use
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expressions all the time, sometimes without even realizing it. Java expressions are similar in syntax to
those of C and C++. The following are examples of Java expressions:
65 + 5 /* produces a value of 70 */
(i < 10) /* produces true or false, (depending on the value of
i) */
5 * 100 /* produces 500 */
x = 25 - 5; /* subtracts five from 25, then places the result
(20) in the x variable */
(35*5) - 4 /* produces 171 (multiples 35 and 5, then subtracts
4) */
Expressions are typically composed of several smaller expressions, or subexpressions, connected by
operators. For instance, consider the following lines of code:
iht x = 100, y;
y = (x/4) + 3;
The first line of code, where our variables are declared, actually contains an expression in the
assignment of 100 to the x variable. The integer literal 100 is an expression, albeit a simple one. When
the compiler looks at this line, it sees something like “evaluate the expression to the right of the
assignment operator, =, and place its value in the variable on the left.” Since the expression is the integer
literal 100, it evaluates to 100 and is then stored in the x variable. Pretty simple, yet it’s an expression.
Now take a look at the next line. The complete expression would be:
y = (x/4) + 3;
However, this expression is made up of several subexpressions. You might recognize one right off the
bat:
x/4
While you’d be correct, there are even subexpressions inside this simple statement! The x variable is a
subexpression that evaluates to 100, and the integer literal 4 is another subexpression that evaluates to 4.
After each of these is evaluated and the division operation is performed, the result is 25. To this, the
value 3 is added, yet another subexpression! And finally, the entire value (28) is placed inside the y
variable. As you can see, there are many levels of expressions, even in what appear to be simple
statements.
Operators
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Since Java expressions are typically several subexpressions linked together by operators, it’s important
to understand exactly how operators work. Java supports both unary and binary operators. Unary
operators are those that act on a single operand, while binary operators act on two operands.
The following is an expression using the unary postfix increment operator. As you can see, it requires
only one operand (x, in this case):
X++;
And here is the functional equivalent of the above using the binary addition operator:
x=x+1;
In this case, the binary addition operator acts on two operands (x and 1). Once the right-hand side of the
assignment operator is evaluated, the result is stored in the x variable on the left.
These two expressions do the same thing; they both increase the value of x by one. However, we’ve used
a different operator in each case. In the first example, the unary operator ++ was used. In the second
example, the binary addition operator + was used.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Operator precedence
Expressions are evaluated from left to right, according to the precedence of the operators in the
expression—that is, the rules that determine which operators are executed first. By following a
precedence order, Java guarantees that a particular expression will produce the same results every time it
is executed. For instance, take into consideration the following expression:
x = 15 + 3 * 2 - 14;
Without a precedence order, which subexpression is evaluated first? Should it be 15 + 3, 3 * 2, or 2 - 14?
For that matter, once the first subexpression is evaluated, which is next? Clearly, the value of the
expression changes, depending on the order in which its subexpressions are evaluated.
If we couldn’t rely on the order in which operations were performed, it would make our programs about
as consistent as the New York City subway system. Luckily, Java operators are arranged and executed in
order of precedence. Table 10-1 lists all Java operators according to their precedence order. You’ll see
that I’ve placed parentheses first in this table. They aren’t really an operator, since they don’t perform an
operation on data types, but they appear in the table nonetheless to emphasize that they’re given top
priority during evaluation (see “Forcing order” later in this chapter).
Table 10-1
Java Operator Precedence
Precedence Associativity Operator Description
First N/A () parentheses (forcing order)
Second R-to-L ++ pre/post increment (unary)
R-to-L -- pre/post decrement (unary)
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R-to-L ! logical complement (unary)
R-to-L ~ unary bitwise logical negation
R-to-L + addition (unary)
R-to-L - subtraction (unary) cast object to class
(className) type
Third L-to-R */% multiplication, division, and remainder
Fourth L-to-R +- addition and subtraction
Fifth L-to-R << shift left
L-to-R >> shift right (sign extension)
L-to-R >>> right shift (zero extension)
Sixth L-to-R < <= “less than” and “less than or equal to”
L-to-R >>= “greater than” and “greater than or
equal to”
L-to-R instanceof “is the object an instance of this class?”
Seventh L-to-R == equality
L-to-R != non-equality (not equal)
Eighth L-to-R & bitwise AND, boolean AND
Ninth L-to-R ^ bitwise EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR),
boolean EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR)
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Tenth L-to-R | bitwise OR, boolean OR
Eleventh L-to-R && AND (boolean conditional “short-
circuit”)
Twelfth L-to-R || OR (boolean conditional “short-
circuit”)
Thirteenth R-to-L ?: ternary conditional
Fourteenth R-to-L = assignment
Last R-to-L *= /= assignment (and operation)
%= += -=
<<= >=
>>>= &=
^=|=
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Since all operations are performed according to the precedence of the operators involved, Java
expressions are evaluated in a predictable manner. Operations whose operators have the highest
precedence are performed first, with lower precedence operators following in sequence. When
operations of the same precedence occur within the same expression, they are processed according to
operator associativity.
When two operations of the same precedence are encountered, which is performed first? It all
depends on the order, or associativity, specified for the operators involved. An operator’s
associativity determines whether it is evaluated from right to left (R-to-L) or left to right (L-to-
R). See the next section, “Forcing order,” to learn how to bypass an operator’s natural
associativity.
Now, let’s return to our example:
x = 15 + 3 * 2 - 14;
Thanks to operator precedence, we can see that it evaluates in a very specific order. The middle
operation (3 * 2) is performed first, and then the next two operations are carried out from left to right:
3*2 produces 6, which is used in the next operation
15 + 6 produces 21, which is used in the final operation
21 - 14 produces 7, which is stored in the variable x
Forcing order
If the natural order of evaluation isn’t desired, you can use parentheses to control the order of evaluation.
For instance, suppose you wanted the subexpression 2 - 14 to be evaluated first. You could ensure this by
placing it inside parentheses:
x = 15 + 3 * (2 - 14);
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In this case, the following steps are taken when the expression is evaluated:
2 - 14 produces -12, which is used in the next operation
3 * - 12 produces -36, which is used in the final operation
15 + -36 produces -21, which is stored in the variable x
Since multiplication operators have precedence over arithmetic ones, this operation is performed after
the subexpression inside parentheses. However, we could have added another pair of parentheses to
force the multiplication operation to take place last:
x = (15 + 3) * (2 - 14);
In this case, the subexpressions inside the parentheses are of the same precedence. As a result, they are
carried out from left to right. The steps are:
15 + 3 produces 18, which is used in the final operation
2 - 14 produces -12, which is used in the final operation
18 * -12 produces -216, which is stored in the variable x
And, of course, parentheses can be nested. We could, for example, group these three subexpressions by
surrounding them with parentheses and add another subexpression to the mix. Here are a few examples,
each producing a different data type:
x = ((15 + 3) * (2 - 14)) + 1; /* produces an integer value */
x = ((15 + 3) * (2 - 14)) + 1.2; /* produces a floating-point
value */
x = ((15 + 3) * (2 - 14)) > 1; /* produces a boolean value */
Types of operators
The types of operators that can be used in an operation depend on the data type of the operands
involved. For instance, the operators used in an integer operation are different from those used in a
boolean operation.
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Integer operators
The operators used in integer operations are listed in Table 10-2. The result of an integer operation
depends on the data type of the operands involved.
Table 10-2
Arithmetic Operators
Type Operator Operation Notes
Unary - negation
~ bitwise
complement
++ increment postfix and prefix
— decrement postfix and prefix
abs( ) absolute value usage: a = abs(3);
Binary + addition
+= addition ( a =a+b ) is equivalent to ( a+=b )
- subtraction
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-= subtraction ( a= a - b ) is equivalent to ( a -= b )
* multiplication
*= multiplication ( a=a*b ) is equivalent to ( a*=b )
/ division rounds toward zero; division by zero
throws ArithmeticException
/= division ( a=a/b ) is equivalent to ( a/=b )
% modulo %0 throws ArithmeticException
%= modulo ( a=a%b ) is equivalent to ( a%=b )
>>= right shift ( a=a>>b ) is equivalent to ( a>>=b )
(propagate sign)
<< left shift
> right shift sign is propagated
>>> zero-fill right shift pads with zeros on left
max( ) maximum value of usage: i = max(x,y);
range
min() minimum value of usage: i = min(x,y);
range
For instance, if both operands in an integer operation are int data types, the result will be an int. If one
operand is an int and the other a long, the result will be a long. However, regardless of the operands
involved, an integer operation will always produce either an int or a long value. This is true even in cases
where the operands are byte, short, or char data types.
As mentioned in the previous chapter, an ArithmeticException is thrown if an attempt is made to divide an
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integer by zero (0). The same holds true for modulo arithmetic: ArithmeticException is thrown whenever %
0 is encountered.
If the result of an integer operation overflows (that is, it is beyond the legal range of the result
type), it will be reduced by modulo arithmetic. It is important, therefore, to ensure that your
variables are capable of storing the range of values that might be returned when assigning the
result of operations to variables.
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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String operators
As you know, strings in Java are actually String objects. If the arithmetic addition operator (+) is used
when one (or both) of the operands is of type string, the operation is considered a string concatenation. If
only one of the operands is of type string, the other operand is converted into a string before the
concatenation is carried out.
When a nonstring operand is converted to a string, the process is carried out according to the compile-
time type of the operand.
If the value of the operand is null, then the literal string null is used. If the value is other than null, the
toString( ) method of the operand is invoked. This method returns a reference value of type string, which is
used (unless this value is null, in which case the literal string null is used). Since the class Object defines
a toString( ) method, this method is always available when dealing with objects, even if the operand itself
doesn’t implement a toString( ) method.
If the operand is of the primitive integral type, it’s converted into a string representing the value in
decimal notation. If the value of the operand is negative, the string is preceded by a minus sign. If the
value is nonzero, the first digit is nonzero. If the value is zero, the single digit 0 is produced.
If the operand is of type char, it’s converted to a string containing the single character of the char.
If the operand is of type boolean, it’s converted into a string containing the boolean’s value (either the
literal string “true” or the literal string “false”).
Array operators
When operations are performed on arrays, they return the value of a specific element in that array.
However, unlike the data types we’ve been dealing with thus far, an array must be allocated using the
new operator before it can be assigned to a variable:
int a[] = new int[15];
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In the preceding example, an array of 15 integer elements is created and assigned to the variable a. Once
this operation has taken place, we can store and retrieve values in the array elements using the following
syntax:
arrayVariable[expression]
For instance, each of the following lines of code accesses the same element in our array:
int x = 5, y = 2, z = 10; /* initialize a few integer
variables */
a[10] = 82569; /* store 82569 in 11th element */
a[z] = 4370; /* store 4370 in 11th element */
a[x*y] = 111791; /* store 111791 in 11th element */
a[x+5] = 592; /* store 592 in 11th element */
int i;
i = a[10]; /* retrieve 11th element */
i = a[x+5]; /* retrieve 11th element */
i = a[100/z+l] /* retrieve 11th element */
i = a[a.length - 5]; /* retrieve 11th element */
In the last example, we used the instance variable length in the expression. Since a.length returns the
number of elements in the array, this is a valid expression.
Since Java arrays are zero-based, like C/C++ arrays, using the subscript 10 as we do here
actually accesses the 11th element. For details on zero-based array access, see Chapter 12.
If, in any case, an array index is negative or greater than the number of elements in the array minus one
(14, in our example), an ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException is thrown. Continuing with our previous
example, the following operations would cause an out-of-bounds exception:
a[x+z]; /* expression evaluates to 15, an illegal index value */
a[x*x]; /* expression evaluates to 25, an illegal index value */
a[a.length]; /* expression evaluates to 15, an illegal index
value */
Array index values can be of byte, short, int, or even char types. However, array indexes of type long are
not permitted. In order to use a long, it must be cast into the int type, as the following example shows:
long myLong = 10;
a[myLong]; // illegal, since array indexes can’t be of type long
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a[(int) myLong]; // legal, since the long is cast into an int
Keep in mind that array indexing begins at zero, as explained in Chapter 7. In this example, as
with all arrays, the first element is accessed with an index value of zero: a[0]. Since we have 15
elements in this particular array (from index 0 to 14), the last element is referenced with an
index value of 14: a [14]. For details on arrays, see Chapter 12.
Object operators
In Java, a special operator exists that allows you to determine whether an object is an instance of a
particular class, subclass, or interface. Using the instanceof binary operator, you can test objects to
compare them against a specific class or interface type:
if (theObject instanceof ClassName) {
}
Control-Flow Statements
In order to direct the flow of program execution, Java supports several control-flow statements. These
are similar to their C and C++ counterparts, so they look and act as you would expect if you’re already
familiar with one (or both) of these languages. We’ll take a look at each, beginning with the popular if
statement.
if statements
Java supports two types of if statements, both of which require the use of a boolean expression. This is
the syntax for the most basic if statement:
if (boolean expression) { ...
}
Depending on the value of the boolean expression, the body of the if statement may or may not be
executed. If the expression evaluates to true, the body is executed. If the expression evaluates to false, the
body of code is skipped.
Take, for example, the following if statement:
if (x < 10) {
System.out.println (“The if block is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ” + x);
}
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When the preceding statement is encountered, this boolean expression is evaluated:
x<10
The body of code following the if statement executes only in cases where x is less than 10. If x is equal
to (or greater than) 10, the block of code is skipped and program execution continues immediately after
the closing brace (}).
This form of control flow is often called an if-then statement, since it follows the logic of “if the
expression is true, then execute this body of code.”
The second form of if statement makes use of the keyword else, directing program execution along one
of two distinct routes:
if (boolean expression) {
...
}
else {
...
}
If the boolean value evaluates to true, the block of code immediately following is executed. If the
expression evaluates to false, the else block is executed.
This form of control flow is often called an if-then-else statement, since it follows the logic of
“if the expression is true, then execute this body of code, or else execute this one.”
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Floating-point operators
Operations on floating-point numbers behave much the same as those on integers, using the same
operands (see Table 10-2). If both operands in an operation are of type float, the result is also of type
float. If one of the operands is of type double, the result will be of type double.
However, there are a few slight differences between integer and floating-point operations. For example,
when the unary increment (++) or decrement (- -) operators are used with a floating-point operand, the
value of 1.0 is added to the operand (when applied to integers, the value of 1 is added).
Another difference occurs with the modulo (%) operator. When applied to integers (such as 10%4), the
remainder of the division operation, 10/4, is returned as an integer (2). When the modulo operator is
applied to a floating-point number, the remainder of the division operation is returned as a floating-point
value.
Floating-point operations will never generate an ArithmeticException error, however, as explained in the
previous chapter. Instead, a special value, NaN (Not-a-Number), is used to represent the result of
operations that don’t return a number.
The presence of a NaN can produce unexpected results when dealing with floating-point data
types. Since NaN is unordered, the result of a <, <=, >, >=, or = = comparison between a NaN
and another value is always false. In fact, == always produces false when both operands are
NaN. On the other hand, the result of a != comparison with a NaN is always true, even if both
operands are NaN.
Boolean operators
When an operation involves the use of a boolean operator, the result of that operation will return a
boolean value of either true or false. This is the case even if the operands are not of the boolean data type,
as the following code snippet shows:
int x = 3: // declare integer variable initialized to 3
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boolean myBoolean; // declare boolean variable
myBoolean = x < 10; // a boolean expression
Since the expression x <10 uses the “less than” boolean operator, it returns a boolean value which we
store in the variable myBoolean. In this example, myBoolean would be set to true, since x is indeed less than
10.
Table 10-3 contains the boolean operators supported by Java.
Table 10-3
Boolean Operators
Type Operator Operation Notes
Unary ! negation
Binary & logical AND evaluate both operands
&= logical AND (a=a&b) is equivalent to (a&=b)
| logical OR evaluate both operands
|= logical OR ( a=a | b ) is equivalent to ( a | =b )
^ logical XOR evaluate both operands
^= logical XOR ( a=a^b ) is equivalent to ( a^=b )
&& logical AND short-circuit evaluation of operands
|| logical OR short-circuit evaluation of operands
> greater than
< less than
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>= greater than or
equal to
<= less than or equal
to
== equality
!= inequality
Ternary ?: if, then (if a. then b) is equivalent to (a?:b)
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Our previous example looks like this, using the if-then-else statement:
if (x < 10) {
System.out.println (“The if block is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ” + x);
}
else {
System.out.println (“The else block is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ” + x);
}
At any given time, only one of the above blocks of code will be executed. At no time will both be
executed, since the value of the boolean expression directs flow of execution in only one of two possible
directions, not both.
You can use the else-if construct to add another aspect of control to the if statement:
if (boolean expression) {
...
}
else if (boolean expression)
...
}
else {
...
}
Applying this to our previous example, we can exercise more precise control over the flow of program
execution:
if (x < 10) {
System.out.println (“The if block is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ”+ x);
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}
else if (x == 15) {
System.out.println (“The else-if block is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x MUST be 15!”);
}
else {
System.out.println (“The else block is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ”+ x);
}
Unlike if statements in C, Java if statement expressions must return a boolean value. In C, a
value of 0 (zero) is treated as false and a value of 1 is treated as true. This is not the case with
Java, where only boolean expressions can be used in an if statement.
switch statement
The switch statement is similar in nature to the if-then-else statement, although it makes the programmer’s
job a lot easier when a number of else clauses are needed:
switch (expression) {
case Constant1:
...
break ;
case Constant2:
...
break;
case Constant3:
...
break;
.
.
.
default:
...
break;
}
Upon entering a switch statement, the expression is evaluated.
The data type of the expression must be either char, byte, short, or int. Boolean expressions aren’t allowed,
although they are used in all other control-flow mechanisms.
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The value of the expression is then converted to the int type, as are all the case constants. Beginning with
the first case statement, the value of the expression is compared to the value of the case constant. If the
two values are equal, any code following the colon is executed, until the break statement is reached. If the
expression doesn’t match the case constant, it is compared to the next one. This process continues until
the default case is reached, at which point the code for this case is executed.
When a case is executed, the break statement is used to stop the flow of execution. When a break
statement is reached, execution stops immediately and resumes after the closing brace (}) of the switch
body. Since execution terminates when the first break is encountered, the default case will only be
executed if no match is found between the value of the switch expression and all other cases.
The switch statement is particularly useful when a number of cases exist. If you were to try and write
more than half a dozen else clauses in an if-else statement, you’d find the process more than a bit tedious.
It would be even more difficult to read the code, since if-else statements containing more than a handful
of clauses are typically messy when compared with a switch statement of the same length. With a switch
statement, lengthy code is clean and easy to read by comparison. You can use as many cases as you
need, without making a mess of the code. And, if none of the cases match the value of your expression,
you can rely on the default case being executed.
Be certain to end each case with a break statement. If you don’t, all cases following the
matching one will be tested as well! This is an undesirable condition known as fall-through,
which you can avoid by matching a break statement with every case.
Loops
Control-flow statements include a number of loops:
• while loops
• do-while loops
• for loops
while and do-while loops
Java while and do-while loops are identical to those in C:
while (boolean expression) {
...
}
do {
...
} while (boolean expression);
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In the while loop, the boolean expression is evaluated. The value of this expression determines whether
or not the body of the loop is executed. If the expression evaluates to true, the loop is executed. If
expression value is false, it does not execute. Each time through the body of the while loop, the
expression is re-evaluated. The loop continues until the expression evaluates to false:
int x = 0;
while (x++ < 10) {
System.out.println (“The while loop is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ” + x);
}
In the preceding example, the body of the loop continues executing as long as x is less than 10. Since we
increment the value of x by one (x++) in the expression itself, the loop is executed 10 times.
Note that the increment could also have taken place in the body of the loop itself, as follows:
while (x < 10) {
X++;
System.out.println (“The while loop is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ” + x);
}
With the do-while loop, the body of the loop executes once before the expression is ever evaluated. This
ensures that your loop code is executed at least once, regardless of how the expression evaluates:
do {
System.out.println (“The while loop is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ” + x);
} while (x++ < 10);
As with the while loop, we could have incremented our expression inside the loop body, rather than
inside the expression:
do {
System.out.println (“The while loop is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ” + x);
X++;
} while (x < 10);
The while loop is by far the most popular of the two, although the do-while loop has the advantage of
executing your code at least once, no matter what the expression evaluates to.
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Be sure to change your expression value either inside the body of the while or do-while loop, or
in the expression itself. If the value never changes, the expression always remains true and the
loop executes indefinitely!
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for loop
The for loop repeats program execution as controlled through a series of expressions, terminating when a
certain condition is no longer met. It continues looping until the specified boolean condition evaluates to
false, at which point the loop is broken and execution resumes after the loop body:
for (expression; booleanExpression; expression) {
...
}
The first expression initializes the loop variable. The second is a boolean expression that specifies the
condition that must be met in order for the loop body to be executed. The third and final expression
specifies how the loop variable is to change each time through the loop.
Consider the following example:
int x;
for (x=0; x<10; x++) {
System.out.println (“The for loop is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ” + x);
}
The first expression, x=0, sets our loop variable to zero. The loop executes until the second expression, x
<10, evaluates to true. And the final expression, x++, increments our loop variable by one every time
through the loop.
Unlike C, Java supports the declaration of loop variables inside the initialization portion of the loop
statement:
for (int x=0; x<10; x++) {
System.out.println (“The for loop is being executed.”);
System.out.println (“And the value of x is: ” + x);
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In this case, the scope of the loop variable is the loop itself. You’re free to access x, as long as you do so
in the body of the for loop. However, you can’t use x outside the closing loop brace (}), since access
outside the loop is beyond the scope of this variable.
break and continue statements
In addition to the if, switch, while, and do-while control-flow constructs, Java supports two additional
statements: break and continue. These are considered “jump” statements, because they allow the flow of
program execution to branch out in directions not seen with the standard control-flow statements we’ve
already discussed.
As you’ve seen, the switch statement makes use of the break statement to terminate a specific case’s
execution. However, those break statements were used without labels. Both break and continue can be used
with an optional label that specifies exactly where the execution will be transferred. Without a label,
break and continue behave exactly as they do in C.
Take a look at the following example of a labeled break statement in a switch occurring in a while loop:
int x=0;
enterLoop:
while (x++<10) {
System.out.println (“Inside the while loop, iteration:” + x);
switch (x) {
case 0: System.out.println (“Inside switch, x
equals: ” +
x);
break;
case 1: System.out.println (“Inside switch, x equals: ” +
x);
break;
case 2: System.out.println (“Inside switch, x equals: ” +
x);
break;
default:
if (x==5) {
System.out.println (“Break out of switch, and while loop
too!”);
break enterLoop; /* break to enterLoop label */
}
break;
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}
System.out.println (“Out of switch, back in while loop.”);
}
Each time through the while loop, the switch statement is encountered. Up until the time x is equal to 5,
standard break statements are used to break out of the switch statement and back into the while loop.
However, when x is equal to 5, the following line of code is executed:
break enterLoop
When this happens, not only does the break occur for the switch statement, but also for the entire while
loop! If this labeled break were not present, the while loop would execute ten times. However, it only
executes five times, since the labeled break kicks the flow of control out of both the switch and while loop.
While the break statement is used to break out of the loop, a labeled continue statement redirects it to the
label itself.
Unlike break, the labeled continue statement transfers control of program execution to the iteration
following the label:
int x=0;
enterLoop:
while (x++<5) {
System.out.println (“Inside the while loop, iteration: ” + x);
for (int i=0; i<10;i++) {
System.out.println (“Inside the for loop, iteration: ” +
i);
if (i == 5) {
System.out.println (“Transferring flow out of for
loop!”);
continue enterLoop; /* jump to enterLoop label when i
is 5*/
}
}
System.out.println (“Out of for loop, back in while.”);
}
Here, we’ve created a for loop inside a while loop. Each time through the while loop, the for loop is
executed until i equals 5, at which point program execution jumps out of the for loop and goes to the first
statement inside the while loop:
System.out.println (“Inside the while loop, iteration: ” + x);
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When this happens, the final output line in our while loop isn’t executed, since the flow of execution has
been rerouted to its beginning. However, if we hadn’t included a label, the break statement alone would
have rerouted the execution to the first line of code following the for loop. In that case, the final output
line would have been executed.
In Java, there are actually four jump statements:
• break
• continue
• return
• throw
The return statement is used to return program execution to the caller of a code segment, such as when a
method has been invoked. At any point in the method, a return statement can return the flow of control
back to the caller of that method.
The throw statement is used to signal a runtime exception, as described below, which interrupts the flow
of program execution while a hander is sought to deal with that exception.
Exceptions
Java features a general-purpose error processing system known as an exception mechanism. The
exception mechanism is composed of two parts: throwing exceptions and catching them. To throw an
exception means to signal an error, while to catch one is to trap and handle an error that has been
thrown. While new to C programmers, exceptions provide a uniform approach to signaling and
processing errors, removing much of the burden of traditional error processing.
The term exception is short for “exceptional event.” Exceptional events are those that disrupt
the normal flow of program execution. C++ programmers will find Java’s exception
mechanism very similar to that of C++, and will be throwing and catching exceptions in no
time. If you’re a C programmer, you’ll find learning to use Java’s exception mechanism well
worth the effort.
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In languages other than Java, such as C, each function is responsible for signaling success or failure
during its execution. In many cases, this is done by returning an integer value that the caller can test.
Typically, if the return value of a function is zero, the function has been executed without error. If a
nonzero value is returned instead, an error may have occurred during execution.
However, not all routines return error codes, and those that do don’t necessarily report errors in the same
way. Some may return an error code, others might return a null value, and still others might set a global
error variable. Such inconsistencies place a substantial burden on the programmer, who must learn the
error-reporting mechanism employed by each routine and write the appropriate code to test for such
errors.
As a result, many programmers save time by testing only for errors generated by critical routines, not
bothering with the others. In some cases, the programmer may not fully understand the routine in
question and handle errors incorrectly, in both cases, the integrity of the program suffers and error
checking becomes a nuisance, if not a nightmare.
Using exceptions, Java provides developers with a consistent and relatively simple mechanism for
signaling and dealing with errors. Exceptions provide methods with a way to stop program execution
when an error is encountered, while allowing the method to notify its caller that a problem has occurred.
If the caller chooses, it may ignore, or “duck” the exception, in which case the exception is passed down
the call stack until it is dealt with. However, exceptions only allow you to temporarily pass the buck
when an error is encountered, since you must deal with it eventually.
Call stack
A call stack is nothing more than the sequence of methods that have been invoked. For instance, if a
method named drawShape( ) calls another method named drawCircle( ), we’d have a pretty simple call
stack, as shown in Figure 10-1. Here, we can see that drawShape( ) called the drawCircle( ) method. The
drawShape( ) method is said to be at the “bottom” of the stack, while drawCircle( ) is at the “top.”
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Figure 10-1: A very simple call stack, having only two method calls
However, drawCircle( ) might invoke another method named draw(). This would then sit at the top of the
call stack. And draw( ) might call another method, named paint( ), as the call stack continued to grow. If
an exception occurred in paint( ), it could possibly be ignored by every method. As a result, the exception
would be passed all the way down the call stack, as illustrated in Figure 10-2.
Figure 10-2: An exception is passed down the call stack until it’s handled by a method.
If an exception isn’t handled by a method, it’s passed down the call stack to the method below it. If none
of the methods in the call stack catch the exception by the time it reaches the bottom, and the method at
the bottom doesn’t catch it either, the program is aborted!
Somewhere along the way, the exception has to be caught and dealt with. If it isn’t, the program is
aborted. If you attempt to write a Java program that would result in such a situation, the compiler warns
you about it.
In the last rendition of our HelloWorld applet, FlexibleMediaHello, we were forced to catch the
exception that might have resulted when converting strings into URLs. Since the compiler recognized
that the URL( ) method had the potential to throw an error (such as when the method is passed an invalid
string), it refused to compile our program until we wrote an exception handler to catch such errors. In
Java, all non-runtime exceptions must be caught or declared, as described below. If they are not, the
compiler spits out an error message (see Figure 10-3) and refuses to compile the program.
Figure 10-3: If a non-runtime exception is not caught or declared, Java throws out an error message.
If the compiler realizes that a non-runtime error hasn’t been properly handled, it refuses to compile the
code. When this is the case, you must either catch or declare the exception (see the section “Catch or
declare: It’s the law,” later in this chapter).
Throwing exceptions
Before an exception can be caught, it must be thrown. Exceptions can be thrown by any Java code: Your
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own code, code in the packages that come with the Java development environment, or code in packages
written by others. Even the Java runtime system can throw exceptions that your programs must catch.
When an exception is thrown, the Java runtime system receives a signal that an error has been generated.
Exceptions are thrown to flag errors, which is something you would do in your own programs to notify
the system that an error has occurred. As soon as an exception is thrown, the runtime system searches
for the matching catch clause to handle it.
Exceptions are thrown using the following Java syntax:
throw new AnyExceptionObject( );
Regardless of what code raises an exception, it’s always done using the throw statement. It takes a single
argument: a throwable object. Throwable objects are instances of any subclass of the Throwable class
defined in the java.lang package. In our example above, we instantiated a throwable object:
new AnyExceptionObject(); /* instantiate a throwable object */
If you attempt to throw an object that isn’t throwable, the compiler emits an error message and
refuses to complete the compilation process. Most exception objects you’ll encounter are
derived from either the Exception class, the RuntimeException class, or the Error class. Each of
these classes is a subclass of Throwable (java.lang.Throwable), and therefore produces objects (or
is extended by other classes) that are considered throwable.
Consider for a moment the following method declaration:
public static int myDivide(int x, int y) throws
ArithmeticException {
if (y==0)
throw new ArithmeticException( );
else
return (x/y);
}
In the method signature we declare this method as being capable of throwing ArithmeticException:
throws ArithmeticException
The Java language requires that methods either catch or declare all non-runtime exceptions they can
throw. With the line above, we declare that our myDivide( ) method throws the ArithmeticException,
satisfying this requirement.
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In cases where you wish to define your own methods, you simply create a new class that is a subclass of
Exception. Here is the same program, but using a custom exception:
class MyOwnException extends Exception {
}
public static int myDivide(int x, int y) throws MyOwnException
{
if (y==0)
throw new MyOwnException();
else
return (x/y);
}
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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However, throwing exceptions is only half the battle. In order to write effective Java programs, you must
be able to catch exceptions as well.
For detailed information on creating your own exceptions, refer to the Java Language Tutorial.
This step-by-step guide to learning the Java language is available in the documentation section
of the JavaSoft Web site:
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/index.html.
Catching exceptions
When an exception is thrown, the Java runtime system immediately stops the current flow of program
execution and looks for an exception handler to catch it. Searching backward through the call stack
(refer to Figure 10-2), a corresponding handler is sought starting with the method where the error
occurred.
The search continues down the call stack until a method containing an appropriate exception handler is
found. The first handler encountered that has the same type as the thrown object is the one chosen to
deal with the exception.
If the exception travels all the way down the call stack with no handler catching it, the program aborts
execution. Typically, an error message is output to the terminal display in such cases. This, of course,
assumes the exception is a runtime exception that can’t be seen by the compiler.
Dividing a number by a variable that happens to be zero, accessing an array element using an index
value (subscript) that is beyond the legal range, accessing null objects, and similar dynamic activities
produce runtime exceptions that aren’t recognized at compile time. As a result, the compiler can’t force
you to catch such exceptions, since it doesn’t even realize they exist. And, in cases where a runtime
exception propagates to the bottom of the call stack, your program is aborted.
try-catch clause
In order to catch an exception, you must write an exception handler using the try-catch clause. For
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instance, suppose we wanted to use the original myDivide( ) method created earlier. In order to catch the
exception that might result, we’d write the following try-catch clause:
try {
int y = myDivide(10,0);
} catch (ArithmeticException e) {
System.out.println(“Whoops There it is!”);
}
try block
The first part of a try-catch clause, the try block, encloses those statements that may throw an exception.
Here is the syntax of a typical try block:
try {
...
/* statements capable of throwing an exception */
...
}
The only code in our example capable of throwing an exception is the myDivide ( ) method. However, you
can include in the try block any number of legal Java statements that have the potential to throw an
exception. As you can see, we intentionally supply myDivide( ) with parameters that will cause an
exception to be thrown. Specifically, the second integer passed to the method is zero.
If we had additional lines of code following myDivide (10, 0), they wouldn’t be executed. Instead, myDivide
( ) would throw an exception that would immediately stop program execution at that point, which would
then drop into the catch portion of the try-catch clause.
catch block
Following the try block are one or more catch blocks that you can use to trap and process exceptions. This
is the catch block syntax:
catch (ThrowableClassName variable) {
...
}
Although we only supplied one catch block in the myDivide( ) exception handler, any number could have
been provided. However, since the myDivide( ) method throws only one exception, we have to catch that
one. In our example, we merely output a line of text to prove that our exception was indeed caught. In
the case of multiple catches, the try-catch clause has this syntax:
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try {
...
} catch (ThrowableClassName variable) {
...
} catch (ThrowableClassName variable) {
...
} catch (ThrowableClassName variable) {
...
} catch (ThrowableClassName variable) {
...
}
For instance, suppose myDivide( ) was capable of throwing two different exceptions. In this case, we
would provide a catch block for each of the possible exceptions:
try {
int y = myDivide(10,0);
} catch (ArithmeticException e) {
System.out.println(“Have caught an ArithmeticException.”);
} catch (MyOwnException e) {
System.out.println(“Have caught MyOwnException.”);
}
The exception that is thrown is compared to the argument for each catch block in order (the catch
argument can be an object or an interface type). When a match is found, that catch block is executed. If
no match is found, the exception propagates down the call stack, where it is compared against potential
exception handlers until a match is found. And, as always, if no match is found, the program is aborted.
You can access the instance variables and methods of exceptions, just as for any other object.
With this in mind, you can invoke the exception’s getMessage( ) method to get information on
the exception—get Message( ) is a method defined in the Throwable class:
System.out.ptintln(e.getMessage());
The Throwable class also implements several methods for dealing with the call stack when an
exception occurs (such as ptintStackTrace( ), which outputs the call stack to the display). The
Throwable subclass that you, or anyone else, creates can implement additional methods and
instance variables. To find out what methods an exception implements, look at its class and
superclass definitions.
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finally block
Unlike C++, Java’s try-catch clause supports the use of an optional finally block. If defined, this is
guaranteed to execute, regardless of whether or not an exception is thrown. As a result, you can use it to
perform any necessary clean-up operation (closing files and streams, releasing system resources, and so
on) that your methods require before the flow of control is transferred to another part of the program.
This is the syntax of the finally block:
finally {
...
/* statements here are executed before control transfers */
...
}
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Java Bible:Language Fundamentals
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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In the context of our myDivide( ) example, a finally block might look like this:
try {
int y = myDivide(10,0);
} catch (ArithmeticException e) {
System.out.println(“Have caught an ArithmeticException.”);
} catch (MyOwnException e) {
System.out.println(“Have caught MyOwnException.”);
} finally {
System.out.println(“cleaning up...”);
// do any clean-up work here
}
Upon executing the finally block, control is transferred out of the try-catch clause. Typically, whatever
event caused the try statement to terminate (fall-through; the execution of a break, continue, or return
statement; or the propagation of an exception) dictates where the flow of control will resume.
The finally block could also execute a jump statement. This would cause another unconditional control
transfer outside its block, or cause another uncaught exception to be thrown. In either case, the original
jump statement is abandoned, and the new unconditional control transfer (or exception) is processed.
All jump statements (break, continue, return, and throw) transfer control unconditionally.
Whenever one causes control to bypass a finally block, the control transfer pauses while the
finally part is executed, and continues if the finally part finishes normally.
Catch or declare: It’s the law
Java requires that methods either catch or declare all non-runtime exceptions that can be thrown within
the method’s scope. This means that if a method chooses not to catch an exception, it must declare that it
can throw it.
Sometimes, it’s not a good idea to catch exceptions. For example, if you catch an exception deep down
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in the call stack, you might not know how or why your method is being called. What would you do with
the exception, once caught?
Since you don’t know enough about what caused your method to be called, you might not be able to
adequately handle the exception. In that case, it would be better to pass the exception back down the call
stack: You should declare the exception rather than catch it.
To declare an exception, simply add the throw statement to your method signature, followed by the
exception name. To declare more than one exception, separate each name by a comma.
Suppose, for example, we wanted to define a new method that calls the myDivide( ) method we created
earlier. Instead of implementing an exception handler for myDivide( ) in our new method, we can declare
the potential exceptions in order to pass them down the call stack:
public void myMath() throws ArithmeticException, MyOwnException
{
...
}
Some programmers realize that it takes a lot less time to declare an exception than it does to
write an appropriate exception handler, and are often tempted to simply pass the buck rather
than deal with it. As a general rule, this is a bad idea. However, there are times when it is
appropriate to declare an exception rather than handle it. For a detailed discussion of this topic,
see “Handling Errors Using Exceptions” in the Java Language Tutorial (available on the
JavaSoft Web site at http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/index.html), specifically the
section named “Runtime Exceptions—The Controversy.”
Finally
In this chapter, as in the last one, we’ve covered the fundamentals of Java programming. Between the
two, we’ve dealt with the “nuts and bolts” of the language. As a programmer, you’ll be using these
elements on a regular basis. Without them, you won’t be able to write Java software.
As with the last chapter, there’s no pressing need to memorize all the material presented here. Simply
return when you need a refresher. With time, you’ll become comfortable with each of the subjects we’ve
covered.
At some point, you may have questions or issues regarding a specific facet or nuance of the language. In
that case, you can always turn to the Java Language Specification. This document covers all aspects of
the language in considerable detail. You can find it on Sun’s JavaSoft Web site: http://java.sun.com/
docs/ books/jls/.
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Summary
Well, this chapter gave you more of the puzzle pieces you need to start building your own Java
applications. With the knowledge you have gained in this chapter and Chapter 9, you should be well on
your way to creating simple applications using Java. Key points to remember about this chapter include:
• Variables are used to store values in Java. When a value is stored in a variable, you can use it
for a wide range of purposes. One such purpose is to represent an object’s state. Variables are
also used to perform calculations, control the flow of program execution, and effect the overall
state of a program. They are a fundamental part of programming languages; without them we’d
be hard pressed to develop software.
• Any variable that you declare of type byte, short, int, long, float, double, char, or boolean is a
primitive variable. Reference variables are used to store references, or pointers, to objects (which
can be class instances, class instances that implement interfaces, or arrays).
• Expressions are statements that result in a value when executed. When programming, we use
expressions all the time, sometimes without even realizing it. Java expressions are similar in
syntax to those of C and C++.
• The types of operators that can be used in an operation depend on the data type of the operands
involved. For instance, the operators used in an integer operation are different from those used in
a boolean operation.
• In order to direct the flow of program execution, Java supports several control-flow statements.
These are similar to their C and C++ counterparts, so they look and act as you would expect if
you’re already familiar with one (or both) of these languages. Control-flow statements include: if,
switch, while/do, for, and break/continue.
• Java features a general-purpose error processing system known as an exception mechanism.
The exception mechanism is composed of two parts: throwing exceptions and catching them. To
throw an exception means to signal an error, while to catch one is to trap and handle an error that
has been thrown. While new to C programmers, exceptions provide a uniform approach to
signaling and processing errors, removing much of the burden of traditional error processing.
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Java Bible:Classes, Interfaces, and Packages
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 11
Classes, Interfaces, and Packages
In This Chapter
Creating and using objects in java applications
Implementing methods and interfaces in your java Object classes
Organizing object collections in packages
Adding packages and classes to JAR (Java Archive) files — for easier and faster distribution
In order to write Java programs, must be able to create and manage objects. As you know, objects are
instantiations of classes, which you can think of as the code templates or blueprints for objects.
In this chapter, we get into the nitty-gritty of Java classes. In order to really understand how to create
and use them, we also discuss interfaces. You can think of interfaces as classes whose methods are not
actually implemented. Interfaces allow our Java programs to gain the advantages of multiple inheritance
without becoming weighed down by the complexity that goes along with true multiple inheritance.
Lastly, we see how classes and interfaces can be organized into packages. Packages allow us to group
classes and interfaces together as we see fit, helping to manage what might otherwise become
overwhelming, allowing us to create well-organized repositories of Java code.
Classes
You can think of classes as templates, or blueprints, from which objects are created. As such, we often
think of classes as data types. When objects are created or instantiated from the same class, they are
considered to be of the same type.
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All objects are an instance of a class. The class that an object is instantiated from determines
the type of that object. If two objects are instantiated from the same class, they are considered
to be of the same type. To find out whether an object is instantiated from a particular class, use
the instanceof operator discussed in the two previous chapters.
When writing Java programs, we use a number of classes that are supplied with the Java development
environment. We might also use classes written by fellow developers, and we will certainly create our
own. In fact, if you’ve been following the examples presented in the preceding chapters, you’ve already
created several classes based on the HelloWorld program introduced in Chapter 5.
In order to create a class, we must declare it and code the body of the class:
class declaration {
...
/* class body (typically variables and methods) */
...
}
Although this is an over-simplified example, it helps us see the two parts of a class implementation
clearly. The class declaration specifies such things as the name of the class, what type of access other
objects will have to it, and what superclasses (and interfaces) it inherits state and behavior from.
However, the real meat of the class is in its body. This is where the specific state and behavior of the
class are defined, through the implementation of variables and methods· Before getting into the class
body, let’s take a closer look at the class declaration.
In Java, only one public class declaration is allowed in each source file (you’ll learn about
public classes later). You can, however, have any number of nonpublic classes in one file.
Although this is technically possible, it’s not recommended. It’s best to create a separate
source file for each class and use the package mechanism, discussed in detail at the end of this
chapter, to organize and use them.
Class Declaration
The class declaration, which is followed by a block of code known as the class body, probably isn’t new
to you at this point. Yet the exact syntax of the class declaration demands another look:
[modifiers] class ClassName [extends superClass] [implements
interfaces]
As you can see, three elements in the class declaration, those in brackets ([]), are optional. You can
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declare a class by simply providing the keyword class, followed by a name, as shown in the next piece of
code. Here we have declared SimpleClass, an example of the simplest class signature you can declare:
class SimpleClass(){
}
Even so, you’ll need to learn and use each of the optional portions of the declaration in order to get the
most out of Java. Let’s take a look at them individually.
The class name you specify must be a valid identifier (see Chapter 9 for information on Java
identifiers). Although you can begin your class names with a lowercase letter, the convention
is to begin them with a capital letter. Variables, on the other hand, typically begin with a
lowercase letter.
Modifiers
Class modifiers declare whether a class is abstract, final, or public. If an access modifier such as final or
public isn’t specified, the class is abstract,
abstract
The abstract modifier specifies a class that has at least one abstract method in it. An abstract method is
one that has no implementation (see “Abstract classes and methods” later in this chapter for details).
The purpose of having an abstract class is to allow it to declare methods, yet leave them unimplemented.
As such, the subclasses of an abstract class are required to provide implementation for the abstract
methods.
You should declare a class as abstract when you know that its subclasses will implement a certain method
differently. Take, for instance, a method such as draw(). In a drawing program, several of the program’s
classes (such as Circ1e, Rectangle, Triangle, and others) will implement a draw() method, but each will
implement it differently. It makes sense in this case to declare the parent class as abstract, allowing all
subclasses to implement the abstract methods declared in the parent classes they wish:
abstract class MyGraphics {
...
}
In the preceding example, only the class declaration is shown. To be a complete and valid class
implementation, we’d also need to declare at least one abstract method such as draw(). Since we’re
concentrating only on the class declaration here, I’ve omitted the abstract method declaration.
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If you declare a class as abstract, at least one of the methods in that class must also be abstract.
The compiler kicks out an error message and refuses to compile an abstract class that has no
abstract methods in it.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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final
The final modifier specifies a class that can have no subclasses. Declaring a class as final ensures that any
objects instantiated from it are not created from a subclass that might introduce new and inconsistent
properties. Since final classes can’t be subclassed, additional variables and methods can’t be added, and
more importantly, methods can’t be overridden and implemented differently from the way the author of
the class intended.
For example, Java’s String class (see Chapter 12) is a final class. Whenever you use a string, you’re
dealing with an object that is instantiated directly from the String class, as defined in the java.lang
package. As a final class, you can be certain you’re always dealing with objects defined in the String
class, not something that is defined by a subclass of the String class.
To specify a final class, use the keyword final just before the keyword class. For example, the String class
defined in java.lang.String is declared as follows:
public final class String {
...
}
As you can see, the final modifier is preceded by yet another modifier: public. The public modifier,
discussed next, specifies the scope of the String class; it specifies what other objects can access it. The
public and associated modifiers are sometimes called access modifiers; they specify the access for a class.
Since it doesn’t make sense for a class to be both final and abstract, don’t bother trying it!
When a class is abstract, it leaves implementation of certain methods up to its subclasses.
However, because a final class can’t be subclassed, the two can’t coexist. The compiler
generates an error any time an attempt is made to declare a class as both abstract and final.
public
The public modifier specifies that a class can be used by objects outside the current package (see the
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“Packages” section later in this chapter). By default, when no access modifier is specified, classes can
only be used within the package in which they are declared.
For example, the String class is declared public because other classes and objects outside its package, such
as classes and methods in your programs, need to have access to it. Thus, Java’s String class is declared
as public:
public final class String {
...
}
When specifying a class as public, you should provide the public keyword first in the
declaration, as shown here. If your public classes also happen to be final or abstract, be sure
these words come after public. Although you don’t have to follow this convention, doing so
will make your class declarations consistent with Sun’s and those of your fellow developers.
Superclass
Arguably, the most powerful feature of any object-oriented programming (OOP) language is the ability
to reuse existing code through inheritance. For instance, rather than writing a class from scratch, we can
benefit greatly by inheriting the variables and methods defined in another class that has the basic
properties we require. When we do this, we create what’s known as a subclass of the original class. The
class we inherit from is known as the superclass. This relationship, described in detail in Chapter 2, is
illustrated in Figure 11-1.
Figure 11-1: A subclass descends from a superclass, inheriting the state (variables) and behavior
(methods) of that superclass.
In Java, all classes are descendants of the Object class. The Object class is at the top of the inheritance
tree, or class hierarchy, as illustrated in Figure 11-2. Every other class, either directly or indirectly,
subclasses the Object class. Even those classes at the bottom of the hierarchy are descendants of the
Object class; they subclass any class which, through a long chain of subclasses, can eventually be traced
back to the top of the tree.
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Figure 11-2: All classes are descendants of the Object class, which sits at the top of the Java class
hierarchy.
If it helps, you can think of the class hierarchy as a family tree for objects, in this sense, Object
is the great, great, great, great, great (well, you get the picture) grandparent of all other objects.
The further down the inheritance tree, or class hierarchy, a class is defined, the more
specialized it is. Classes at the top of the hierarchy are more general, with more specific state
and behavior being added with every subclass.
As you now know, almost any class can be subclassed as long as it’s not specified as final. The process
of subclassing is a natural and powerful feature of Java, allowing your classes to inherit functionality
that you would otherwise have to write yourself.
In order to inherit properties from an existing class, that class must be explicitly specified using the
extends keyword. In Java parlance, our subclass is said to “extend a superclass.” As you’ve seen in earlier
chapters, our applet version of “Hello World!” inherited a great deal of functionality by simply
extending the Applet class:
public class HelloWorldApplet extends java.applet.Applet {
...
}
In this case, we specified java.applet.Applet; the Applet class is defined in the java.applet package. However,
if the Applet class wasn’t part of a package, we would have used the following syntax:
public class HelloWorldApplet extends Applet {
...
}
In this case, the Applet class is expected to reside in the same directory as the HelloWorldApplet class itself.
Since a package wasn’t specified (such as java.applet), the Java compiler doesn’t have a clue where to
look for the superclass. As a result, it expects to find the class inside the same directory as the program
itself.
If you don’t explicitly extend a class, the compiler assumes the superclass to be Object. For instance,
consider the following class declaration, which omits the extends keyword and a superclass altogether:
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public class MyClassName {
...
}
This is functionally equivalent to:
public class MyClassName extends Object {
...
}
Of course, you don’t have to explicitly extend the Object class as just shown. The compiler does it for
you whenever you leave the “extends” portion blank in a class declaration.
Classes and interfaces
In addition to specifying a superclass, you can specify one or more interfaces in your class declaration.
An interface, discussed in more detail later in this chapter, declares a set of constants and methods but
doesn’t actually implement any of the methods. Similar to an abstract class, an interface requires other
classes to provide the implementation for its methods; it does not provide them itself.
However, with an abstract class, only one of the methods in it is required to be abstract. The remaining
methods can be fully functional, meaning your class inherits the functionality of all methods except the
ones defined as abstract. With an interface, none of the methods are implemented, leaving this
responsibility up to the classes that use it.
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Java Bible:Classes, Interfaces, and Packages
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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When a class implements an interface, it must provide implementations for all of the methods declared
in that interface. And, unlike the act of subclassing an abstract class, a class can implement any number
of interfaces. In other words, Java supports only single inheritance (meaning you can’t subclass more
than one class), whereas you can implement any number of interfaces to achieve a result similar to the
multiple inheritance found in C++.
To implement an interface, declare your class as usual with the keyword implements followed by the
name of the interface. The implements clause should come after the extends clause, if one exists, or
immediately following the class name otherwise:
class Triangle extends MyGraphics implements Brushes {
...
/* each method declared in Brushes must be implemented here */
...
}
The preceding example illustrates the declaration of a class named Triang1e, which is a subclass of
MyGraphics, and implements the Brushes interface. Since Triangle specifies the use of the Brushes interface,
it must also override and implement each of the methods declared in that interface.
Following is the same example, this time without explicitly specifying a superclass:
class Triangle implements Brushes {
...
/* each method declared in Brushes must be implemented here */
...
}
In this case, Triangle is a direct descendant of the Object class; it is said to be a subclass of Object.
However, it specifies the same interface and so must provide the implementation for each of Brushes’
methods.
In the case of multiple interfaces, a comma is used to separate the names of the interfaces:
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class Triangle implements Brushes, Paints, Surfaces {
...
/* every method in Brushes, Paints, and Surfaces must
be implemented in Triangle */
...
}
And, just as with a single interface, the Triangle class must implement the methods of each one it
specifies. In this case, Triangle must implement all the methods declared in Brushes, Paints, and Surfaces.
For a hands-on example of using interfaces, see the “LivingLinks Software Developers Kit”
provided on the CD-ROM. LivingLinks is a multipurpose animation applet that supports
special-effects plug-ins. To create your own LivingLinks special-effects plug-ins, you must
also use the “Effect” interface provided with the SDK. This ensures that each plug-in
implements the methods required by the LivingLinks applet. Check out the various
LivingLinks special-effects source-code examples provided on disc to see how easy it is to use
interfaces.
Class Body
So far, we’ve only discussed the class declaration. However, the real meat of a class is found in its body.
It is here that the variables and methods of a class are declared and defined, bringing it to life with
variables (state) and methods (behavior).
Variables
In Java classes, there are two types of variables:
• Non-member variables: These are not associated with the class (such as local variables used in
methods and variables used as parameters for methods).
• Member variables: These are directly associated with the class and objects made from it.
Non-member variables
Variables that are part of a method parameter list, or that are declared inside a class method, are not
considered member variables (see “Methods” later in this chapter). Although they may be critical to the
object, they aren’t considered part of the object’s formal state.
Member variables
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All member variables are declared within the body of the class, not inside a method or as a parameter to
a method. Member variables come in two flavors:
• Class variables
• Instance variables
Following is a summary of the possible member variable declarations (items in square brackets are
optional):
[accessSpecifier] [static] [final] [transient] [volatile] type
variablename
Transient is meant to specify variables that are not part of the persistent state of the class, it is
used to indicate a field that is not part of an object’s persistent state and needs to be serialized
with the object. Volatile specifies a variable whose value is vulnerable to thread access (and is
therefore read from memory each time it is used, and stored to memory after each occasion, to
ensure data integrity. (See Chapter 14 for information about threads.)
The keyword that has the most significant impact on the behavior of variables is static, which specifies
that a variable is either a class variable or an instance variable.
Access Control
Java supports five levels of access for variables and methods:
• Private
• Private protected
• Protected
• Public
• Friendly (if left unspecified)
Table 11-1 gives a breakdown of the access level each specifier provides.
A check mark in the first column indicates that the class in which the variable or method is declared has
access to use the variable or call the method.
A check mark in the second column indicates that subclasses of the class (regardless of which package
they are in) have access to the variable or method.
A check mark in the third column indicates that classes in the same package (regardless of their
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parentage) as the class in which the variable or method is declared have access.
A check mark in the fourth column indicates that all classes have access to the variable or method.
For an example of each specifier, as applied to both variables and methods, refer to the Java Language
Tutorial (specifically, “Controlling Access to a Class’s Variables” and “Controlling Access to a Class’s
Methods,” both of which are under the section entitled “Creating Your Own Class”). This step-by-step
guide to learning the Java language is available on Sun’s Java Web site: http://sun.java.com.
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Java Bible:Classes, Interfaces, and Packages
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 11-1
Variable and Method Access Specifiers
Specifier Class Subclass Package World
private ü ü ü ü
private protected ü ü ü ü
protected ü ü ü ü
public ü ü ü ü
<blank> (“friendly”) ü ü ü ü
For details on controlling access to member variables, be sure to read the previous sidebar entitled
“Access Control” before moving on to methods. In the meantime, we’ll focus on the difference between
class variables and instance variables.
Class variables occur only once per class, no matter how many instances of that class are created.
Memory for class variables is allocated by the Java runtime system the first time a class is encountered,
and only then.
In contrast, instance variables are allocated once for every instance of a class. Whenever an instance of a
class is created, the system allocates memory for all instance variables in that class. In essence, class
variables are shared by all instances of a class while each object gets its own copy of instance variables.
So, how are class variables distinguished from instance variables? With the keyword static, as the
following example illustrates:
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class Bogus {
static int myClassVar; // declare class variable of type int
int myInstanceVar; // declare instance variable of type int
...
/*Method Declarations would follow... */
...
}
When the keyword static precedes the data type in a variable declaration, that variable becomes a class
variable. In this example, memory for myClassVar is allocated only once, regardless of how many
instances of class Bogus are created. In contrast, myInstanceVar is created anew each time an instance of
Bogus is created.
As a result, the variable myClassVar is the same, no matter what object of type Bogus accesses it. For
example, suppose the value 3 were stored in myClassVar. Every time this variable was retrieved,
regardless of when or how, it would contain 3 in all cases (at least until a value other than 3 was stored
in it). When a class variable is altered (that is, changing myClassVar to 15), all instances of that class see
the change, it can be said that all instances of a particular class share the same class variables.
Since all the instances of a particular class share the static variables that are declared in that class, these
variables can be referenced directly without requiring that an object first be instantiated. For example, to
access the static variable declared in our Bogus class, we can simply do the following:
int i = Bogus.myClassVar; // set i equal to the class variable
As you can see, we’ve accessed the class variable directly and assigned it to i without first having to
instantiate a Bogus object using the new operator. While this may seem new to you, in truth we’ve been
dealing with class variables all along. Remember outputting data via System.out.println()? Since out is a
static variable declared in the System class, we don’t have to bother creating an instance of that class
before accessing this variable. Instead, we conveniently access the out class variable directly.
System’s out class variable is a PrintStrearm object, which implements the println() method. All
along we’ve been invoking this method, without concern for exactly what it is or how it does
what it does. To learn more about the System class, its out class variable, and PrintStreams, see
Chapter 13.
In contrast, because a new myInstanceVar variable is created with each instantiation, each Bogus object has
its own copy. This means the value of myInstanceVar is different from object to object; each has its own
copy of the variable, unlike myClassVar, which is shared by all. You have to access an instance variable
through an instance of the class:
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Bogus freshBogus = new Bogus(); // create an instance of Bogus
// set i equal to an instance variable:
int i = freshBogus.myInstanceVar;
Here we’ve created a Bogus object, through which we access the instance variable myInstanceVar. In this
case, the instance variable was available directly. In some cases, however, instance variables may be
declared private. If this is the case, the only way to access them is through an object’s methods. Such
data hiding is vital to an object-oriented language such as Java, as it prevents direct access to the internal
representation of an object and enforces a “black box” approach to software development (see Chapter 2
for details).
Constant variables (final variables)
Regardless of whether a variable is a class or instance variable, it can also be declared as final. A
variable that has been declared as final can never be changed once a value is assigned to it. You can
think of final variables as constants: Once they’re set, they can’t be altered. As such, they can be used
like #define statements are in C/C++. (Remember, Java doesn’t support #define statements, so this is the
closest you’ll get!) Attempting to alter the value of a final variable is illegal, and invokes an error
message from the compiler.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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If we did this with the two lines of code in HighNoon that reference the SHERIFF variable, the output of
the program would be radically different. Rather than comparing numbers to 100, as SHERIFF is defined
in HighNoon, they would be compared to 60000, as defined in ShowDown. As a result, all the numbers
would pass the test, as shown in Figure 11-4.
Figure 11-4: Using the super keyword allows you to access variables and methods that reside in the
superclass.
Methods
Variables are used to maintain an object’s state; methods provide the behavior. For those of you who are
new to object-oriented programming, you can think of a method as a function. However, unlike
procedural programming where functions sit out in the open (or, more accurately, are organized into
files) to be called upon at any point, a method is encapsulated inside the class in which it is defined,
along with the variables of that class.
In Java, every method must reside inside a class declaration. If you create a method outside the
body of a class declaration, the code will not compile.
Together, a class’s variables and methods give objects their state and behavior. The bulk of Java
programming is spent creating methods, just as the bulk of most software implementation efforts is spent
writing functions. It’s these code routines that really form the meat of a program, with variables (data)
being used to keep track of state.
Declaring methods
To create a method you must write a method declaration and then implement the body of it. At the least,
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a method is made up of
• A return type
• The method name
• A method body
You can see these three elements in this code:
returnType name() {
...
/* method body */
...
}
The preceding example is a simple skeleton of a method declaration, which has many optional parts. In
the following method declaration summary, each of the items in square brackets is optional:
[accessSpecifier] [static] [abstract] [final] [native]
[synchronized] returnValue methodname ([paramlist]) [throws
exceptionsList]
At a minimum, a method declaration must include a return type and a name for the method.
Beyond that, each option allows you to control how your method will act and to what extent it
may be used. As with variables, Java supports five distinct access levels for methods (see the
“Access Control” sidebar earlier in this chapter, for details).
As you’ve seen in our HighNoon example, the return type specified in the method declaration doesn’t
have to be an actual data type. In the case where a method does not return a data type, you must specify
void as the return type:
void SizeUp(int dude) { // void specifies method returns no
data
...
}
However, if the method does return a value, you must specify that data type in the method declaration.
Following are several variations of the SizeUp() method, each returning a different data type:
int SizeUp(int dude) { // specifies that method returns an int
...
return (anInt): // an int value must be returned!
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boolean SizeUp(int dude) { // returns a boolean
...
return (aBoolean); // a boolean value must be returned!
}
double SizeUp(int dude) { // returns a double
...
return (aDouble); // a double value must be returned!
}
String SizeUp(int dude) { // returns a String
...
return (aString); // a String value must be returned!
}
As you can see, when a return type is specified in the method declaration, a value of that data type must
be returned. When a return statement is executed, control transfers out of the method and back to the
caller of that method. Before the transfer of control is complete, the data being returned is placed on the
stack, where the calling method can retrieve it.
Any Java data type can be returned by a method. Data types in the Java language fall into two
categories:
• Primitive types: These comprise a single value and include integer and floatingpoint numbers,
boolean values, and single characters (such as a, b, and c).
• Composite types (also known as reference types): These comprise multiple values and include
classes, interfaces, strings, and arrays.
For instance, if SizeUp() were to return an int data type, a call to it might look something like this:
int x;
x = SizeUp(235); // call SizeUp, set x to whatever it returns
Since the return statement terminates the execution of a method, it is often the last line of code in the
body of a method (although it may occur elsewhere in the body). There follow two ways in which SizeUp
() might return a value:
boolean SizeUp(int dude) {
boolean beenWarned; // declare a variable to hold return value
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System.out.print(dude + “:”):
if (dude > SHERIFF) {
System.out.print1n(warning);
beenWarned = true; // set variable to true
}
else {
System.out.print1n(welcome);
beenWarned = false; // set variable to false
}
return (beenWarned);
}
In the preceding example, we declared a boolean variable to hold a value which changes, depending on
what happens inside the body of the method that is eventually returned. However, we could have also
used the following technique:
boolean SizeUp(int dude) {
System.out.print(dude + “;”);
if (dude > SHERIFF) {
System.out.print1n(warning);
return (true); // return true
}
else {
System.out.print1n(welcome);
return (false); // return false
}
}
Although these two code snippets are functionally the same, the latter can be contusing to follow since
more than one return statement is present. For ease of reading, it’s best to use a variable to hold and
manipulate the value to be returned, and only use one return statement whenever possible.
Even though a return statement is required if the method declaration specifies a return type, the
value returned doesn’t have to be what you might consider a “valid” value. For instance, when
a string return type is specified, a value of null can be returned. Likewise, zero (0) and
negative values can be returned for integral data types. Although you must return a data type if
one is declared, any value in the legal range for that type is acceptable.
The data type a method returns must match the data type in the method declaration. As a case in point, in
the two examples we are considering the data type declared is a boolean, so we can’t return anything but
a boolean value. To return an int, float, string, or anything other than a boolean would result in a compiler
error.
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However, when returning an object, that object’s class must either be the same as the class specified in
the method declaration or a subclass of it. If a method returns an interface, the object returned must
implement that interface.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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this
Whenever we’re dealing with member variables in the body of a class, we refer to them by name. Take a
Nook at the following code, which declares two classes (ShowDown and HighNoon):
class ShowDown {
final static int SHERIFF = 50000; // constant class variable
}
public class HighNoon extends ShowDown {
int good=20, bad=125, ugly=53256; // a few instance variables
final static int SHERIFF = 100; // constant class variable
static String welcome = “Have a pleasant stay.”; //class
variable
static String warning = “Get outta town!”; //class variable
public static void main (String args[]) {
System.out.println(“It’s a showdown...”);
HighNoon test = new HighNoon(); // instantiate object
test.Encounter(); // invoke Encounter() method
}
void Encounter() {
System.out.println(“Anything greater than ” + SHERIFF +
“ is out.”);
SizeUp(good);
SizeUp(bad);
SizeUp(ugly);
}
void SizeUp(int dude) {
System.out.print(dude + “:”);
if (dude > SHERIFF) { // is it bigger than SHERIFF?
System.out.println(warning); // Yes? Run ’em out of town
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}
else {
System.out.println(welcome); // No? welcome to
numberville!
}
}
}
In this example, our use of variables is pretty straightforward. We declare them, then use them. Since
we’re only referring to variables within the scope of HighNoon, there’s no problem. Although you might
not realize it, the this variable is implied each time we use a variable. Since this is a reference to the
current instance of an object, HighNoon in this case, we could have explicitly specified so in our code:
class ShowDown {
final static int SHERIFF = 50000; // constant class variable
}
public class HighNoon extends ShowDown {
int good=20, bad=125, ugly=53256; // a few instance variables
final static int SHERIFF = 100; // constant class variable
static String welcome = “Have a pleasant stay.”; /*class
variable */
static String warning = “Get outta town!”; //class variable
public static void main (String args[]) {
System.out.println(“It’s a showdown...”);
HighNoon test = new HighNoon(); // instantiate object
this.test.Encounter(); // invoke Encounter() method
}
void Encounter() {
System.out.println(“Anything greater than ” + this.SHERIFF +
“is out.”);
SizeUp(this.good);
SizeUp(this.bad);
SizeUp(this.ugly);
}
void SizeUp(int dude) {
System.out.print(dude + “:”);
if (dude > this.SHERIFF) / // is it bigger than SHERIFF?
System.out.println(this.warning);/* Yes? Run ’em out
of town! */
}
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else {
System.out.println(this.welcome); /* No? Welcome to
numberville */
}
}
}
In each of the variable references shown, with the exception of the parameter dude, we’re saying, “Give
me the variable declared in this class.” In either case, the program produces the same results when
executed (see Figure 11-3).
Figure 11-3: The this keyword is used to reference the current object.
Since all variables in a class are implicitly preceded with this, you aren’t required to explicitly
use it in your code. However, feel free to use it to clarify your code when dealing with
shadowed and hidden variables and overridden methods.
The this variable is used to reference an object’s instance variables, or pass the object as a parameter to a
method (more on that later).
Although it’s not necessary to explicitly use this in our example program, it comes in handy when you
need to access a member variable that has been hidden by a method (in other words, when a local
method variable of the same name exists). For example, suppose our Encounter() method were to hide one
(or more) of the member variables:
void Encounter() {
int ugly = 23; //declared here hides member variable of same
name
System.out.println(“Anything greater than ” + this.SHERIFF +
“ is out.”);
SizeUp(good);
SizeUp(bad);
SizeUp(ugly); // >- refers to the “ugly” method variable
declared above!
}
In this case, we need a way to refer to the member variable, as opposed to the one declared inside
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Encounter(). And thanks to this, we can do that (pardon the play on words):
void Encounter() {
int ugly = 23; // declared in method, hiding member
SizeUp(good);
SizeUp(bad);
SizeUp(this.ugly); // now refers to the member variable!
}
Since this refers to the object, the preceding example uses the member variable instead of the local one
declared in Encounter(). You might recall our MediaHelloWorldpaint() method, which also made use of the
variable this:
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this);
super.paint(g);
}
Here we needed to provide the drawImage() method with four parameters: an image, the horizontal and
vertical coordinates, and an ImageObserver object. An ImageObserver object receives information about an
image as it is being constructed, such as when it is being downloaded from the Web. Since our program
didn’t explicitly create an ImageObserver object, we simply passed it a reference to our MediaHelloWorld
class using this. (We were able to pass a reference to MediaHelloWorld because all applets are able to act
as ImageObserver objects — if applets didn’t have this ability, passing this would have caused the
compiler to choke.)
super
Another special Java variable is super, which refers to the parent class, or superclass, of an object. This is
useful in many cases, such as in MediaHelloWorld’s paint() method shown in the previous section. Since
we wanted to pass some of the responsibility for drawing to the MediaHelloWorld’s superclass, we used
the keyword super to invoke that class’s paint() method:
super.paint(g);
While this is an example of using super to invoke methods in an object’s parent class, it’s also helpful
when you need to access a member variable in a superclass that has been shadowed by a variable in the
subclass.
Suppose, for example, that we wanted to use the SHERIFF variable declared in ShowDown rather than the
one declared in HighNoon. All we’d have to do is replace references to SHERIFF or this . SHERIFF with:
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super. SHERIFF
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Date: 05/01/98
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Overloading methods
When choosing a name for your method, any valid Java identifier will do. However, if you choose the
same name as another method in the class, you’ll have to supply a different parameter list to differentiate
between the two. Having more than one method with the same name is known as method overloading,
and it is permissible only so long as the parameter list for each method is unique.
Suppose we wanted to create a few variations of our SizeUp() method. In C, we’d create a unique name
for each function: SizeUp(), SizeUpArray(), SizeUpCompare(), and so on. In Java, however, we can overload
the SizeUp() method by simply providing a different parameter list for each one:
void SizeUp(int dude) {
...
}
void SizeUp(int dude[]) {
...
}
void SizeUp(int dude, int dude2) {
...
}
Since each of these method declarations has a different set of parameters, they can all be included in the
same class file. When one of them is called, Java checks the type and number of parameters and invokes
the appropriate method.
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Overloading is not the same as overriding! When overloading a method, you create more than
one method with the same name (each having a distinct parameter list) in a class. When
overriding a method, you create a method in a class that has the same name and parameter list
as a method in the superclass. In this way, the method in the superclass is overridden by the
one in your class. For instance, when we declared a paint() method in our FlexibleMediaHello
program, we were overriding the paint() method declared in its superclass. However, we can
always use the super variable to execute the method in the superclass:
super.paint();
Class and instance methods
Just as there are class variables and instance variables, there are class methods and instance methods. By
default, all methods are instance methods, unless one is specified as a class method using the static
keyword:
static void SizeUp(int dude) {
...
}
As with class variables, class methods are shared by all objects instantiated via that class. And, just as
with class variables, they can be used at any time without first instantiating an object of that class. An
example of this is seen in the Math class, where all variables and methods are declared static. You can use
any of Math’s methods without first creating an object of that class:
int maxOfTwoNumbers = Math.max(x,y); // returns maximum of x
and y
double myRandomNumber = Math.random(); // returns random number
double mySine = Math.sin(45.56); /* returns trigonometric sine
of
the angle passed in */
The Math class is part of the java.lang package, and has a large number of mathematical
methods you may find useful. Before writing your own mathematics methods, check the Math
class first to see if the work has already been done for you.
Aside from this convenience, class methods operate on class variables. In contrast, an instance method
operates on instance variables: When an instance method accesses an instance variable, it is accessing
the one for that particular object. Since each object shares the same class variables, it makes sense to
declare methods as static if they operate on class variables, or have no need to operate on instances of a
class.
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final methods
The final keyword can be used to declare a final method. Final methods can’t be overridden by
subclasses. If you have a method that should never be overridden, declare it as final:
final void SizeUp(int dude) {
...
}
Method constructors
A constructor is a method that has the same name as the class in which it is declared. The purpose of a
constructor is to provide a way for new objects to be initialized in a special way. If a constructor isn’t
provided, as in the case of HighNoon, an object of that class can still be created. However, we would have
to set the good, bad, and ugly variables manually, if they weren’t already initialized. And we also had to
invoke the Encounter() method explicitly.
If a constructor had been provided, the variables could have been automatically initialized. In fact, a
constructor can even call methods:
HighNoon (int a, int b, int c) {
good = a; // initialize good to value of a
bad = b; // initialize bad to value of b
ugly = c; // initialize ugly to value of c
Encounter(); // now invoke the Encounter() method!
}
Now, rather than having to rely on the internal initialization of these variables, we can provide our own
values when creating a new HighNoon object:
// instantiate using constructor:
HighNoon test = new HighNoon(15, 25, 460);
When our new HighNoon object is created, the constructor is called. Not only are the good, bad, and ugly
instance variables set to the values we specify, but the Encounter() method is automatically invoked,
saving us from doing it explicitly.
Just as with regular methods, constructors can be overloaded. We can create as many constructors as
needed, provided they each have a unique parameter list. And if you ever need to invoke one constructor
from within another, you can do so using the this variable.
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For example, suppose we create another HighNoon constructor that takes an array as a parameter. Rather
than set the variables and call Encounter() here as well, we can simply invoke the original HighNoon
constructor and let it do all the work:
HighNoon (int dudeArray[]) {
// using “this” to invoke original constructor:
this(dudeArray[0],dudeArray[1],dudeArray[2]);
}
As with standard methods, you can invoke a constructor in the class’s superclass using the
super keyword.
finalize() method
While a constructor method initializes an object, a fina1ize() method may be created that is used to help
optimize the disposing of an object. It is called just before Java’s automatic garbage collection
mechanism reclaims an unused object, allowing your object to close any files or streams it has opened,
and perform similar housekeeping tasks:
finalize() {
...
}
When an object is no longer used, meaning there are no longer references to it, it is marked for garbage
collection. Unfortunately, you have no guarantee of exactly when an object will be garbage collected or
if your finalize() method will ever be called!
As a result, you should only use a finalize() method to optimize the disposing of your object. But you
should never depend on it to be executed, and your programs should never rely on it to work properly.
Use finalize() methods for optimization of your code only, if at all, and you’ll save yourself a great deal of
anxiety—since Java’s garbage collector isn’t guaranteed to invoke this method, mission-critical code
shouldn’t be placed in finalize().
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Java Bible:Classes, Interfaces, and Packages
Java Bible
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Date: 05/01/98
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It’s interesting to note that you can manually invoke an object’s finalize() method just as you would call
any other method. However, calling this method does not force garbage collection for that object.
Instead, you can force garbage collection for the entire program using this System method:
System.gc( );
You can also invoke the finalize() method for all recently released objects by calling this System method:
System.runFinalization();
These methods are particularly useful if a Java program is being run with the garbage collector disabled.
This is done by invoking an application at the command line with the -noasynchgc flag, as follows:
c> java -noasynchgc ProgramName
Method exceptions
As you learned in the previous chapter, methods can throw exceptions. In order to do so, the method
declaration must list each exception that the method can throw:
public static int myDivide(int x, int y) throws
ArithmeticException {
if (y==0)
throw new ArithmeticException();
else
return (x/y);
}
If more than one exception may be thrown, they are listed one after another and separated by commas.
Abstract classes and methods
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Java supports both abstract classes and abstract methods, which are similar in nature to interfaces. As
you know from our earlier discussion, interfaces declare a set of constants and methods but don’t
actually implement any of the methods. The class that implements an interface is responsible for
providing the implementation for each of its methods.
With an abstract class, only one of the methods it declares is required to be abstract. The remaining
methods can be fully functional, meaning the subclass inherits the functional methods but must provide
the implementation for those that are abstract. For example, we might have declared our ShowDown class
as abstract, in addition to one or more of the methods in that class, as shown here:
public abstract class ShowDown {
int aVar; // an instance variable
public abstract void Encounter(); // abstract method
public abstract void SizeUp(int dude); // abstract method
void aRegularMethod() { // a standard method, not abstract
... // implementation here...
}
}
In this case, an object of type ShowDown could never be instantiated. As an abstract class, it can only be
subclassed. And whenever subclassed, the two abstract methods, Encounter() and SizeUp(), must be
implemented by the subclass.
An abstract class is a nice intermediate between a standard class and an interface. Since it can actually
implement methods, it is useful when a class must be created that needs to rely on the subclass for the
implementation of one or more methods. Other than containing abstract methods, and the fact that an
object can’t be created directly from them since one or more of the methods are empty, abstract classes
behave like standard classes.
Inner Classes
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New in the JDK 1.1 is the concept of inner classes. Inner classes are primarily used for
defining simple helper classes, which are intended to be used for a specific function in a
particular place in a Java program. Inner classes are not for use as top-level, general-purpose
classes. With inner classes, you can define these specific-use classes right where they are
utilized—helping to make your application more understandable. There are three different
types of inner classes: nested top-level classes, member classes, and local classes. There is also
a fourth type of inner class—an anonymous class—which is actually an extension of the local
class type. OK, so that’s great. You know the different types of inner classes, but what does it
actually all mean? Well, let’s review each of the inner class types in detail. For even more
information about inner classes, visit the Inner Classes Specification Web page on the JavaSoft
Web site at
http://java.sun.com/ products/jdk/1.1/docs/guide/innerclasses/index.html.
Nested top-level classes and interfaces
A nested class is just what it sounds like—a class within another class. Nested top-level classes must be
declared as static, and they can only be nested within other top-level classes; the same applies. You
define a nested class like this:
public class TopClass {
public static class NestedClass {
...
}
...
}
As you can see, you can now define classes within other classes. Why would you want to do this? Well,
if the nested class is only used within the top class, defining it as a nested class makes it clear that this is
the only place this class is used.
Nested classes can be nested to any depth, which just means that you can keep nesting classes
as many times as you want! Don’t go too crazy with this capability—nesting your classes too
deep can make your code nearly impossible to understand. I recommend that you only nest
classes one level deep, unless you have a compelling reason to do otherwise.
Member classes
Nested classes are defined within top-level classes. Because they are essentially static classes, however,
they really aren’t any different from top-level classes. Member classes are different though, because they
aren’t declared as static. Member classes are truly members of the containing class; they are defined in
the same manner as nested classes, except the static option is omitted. Member classes can be defined as
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public, protected, or private. Methods of a member class can access the fields or methods of enclosing
classes—even private fields and methods.
There are two important restrictions to remember when using member classes:
• They cannot have the same name as any containing class or package.
• They cannot contain any static fields, members, or classes.
Local classes
Local classes are classes defined within a block of code. They are only visible within the block of code
in which they are defined. Local classes are analogous to local variables—they are defined just where
they are used. There are two important features of local classes:
• They are only visible in the block of code where they have been defined.
• They can use any final local variable or method parameters in the block of code where they are
defined.
The most common use of local classes is with event listeners and the new AWT model found
in the JDK 1.1. I discuss the Abstract Windowing Toolkit in Part IV.
A local class is defined as follows:
public class TopClass {
public void methodA {
class LocalClass {
...
}
...
}
...
}
This is a trivial example of a local class. I have omitted the class bodies for simplicity. As illustrated in
this example, the LocalClass class is only visible within the methodA method. LocalClass can access any
met hods and fields of the TopClass class.
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Like member classes, local classes cannot contain any static fields, methods, or classes.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Anonymous classes
Finally, the last type of inner classes are anonymous classes—a special case of local classes. The main
difference between local and anonymous classes is that anonymous classes are shy—they don’t have any
name. So, how can a class without a name be useful and used? Let’s take a closer look at how an
anonymous class is defined:
class A {
AnonymousClass method1 {
return new AnonymousClass() {
iht i = 0;
public int increment() { return(i++); };
public int decrement() {return(i-); };
};
};
}
In this example, method1 creates and returns the anonymous class—AnonymousClass. Anonymous classes
are created by calling following a class body definition after the new command. In this case, an
anonymous class is created that defines two methods, increment() and decrement().
Another important feature of anonymous classes is their use as instance initializers, which are similar to
static initializers found in the 1.0 JDK. An instance initializer is simply a block of code that is embedded
inside a class definition. Here is an example of an instance initializer:
class A {
// Example of an instance initializer...
int[] array1 = new int[5]; { for(int i=0; i<5; i++)
array1[i] = i * 100; }
}
Instance initializers are executed in the order they appear. They are run after any superclass constructors,
but before the constructor of the current class.
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When should you use an anonymous class over a local class? Well, if your class fits any of
these descriptions, it might be appropriate:
• Only one instance of the class is ever used.
• The class is used immediately after it’s defined.
• The class is small.
• Naming the class doesn’t make your code easier to understand.
There are four important restrictions to keep in mind when you’re using anonymous classes:
• Anonymous classes can’t have constructors.
• Anonymous classes cannot define any static fields, methods, or classes.
• Anonymous classes cannot be public, private, protected, or static.
• You can only ever create one instance of an anonymous class.
Reflection
Also new to JDK 1.1/1.2 is the reflection API. Reflection allows a Java class to look inside
itself. The java.lang. Class class has been enhanced to include methods that now return the fields,
methods, and constructors defined by a class. The java.lang.reflect package defines the Field,
Method, and Constructor classes that are returned by the reflection methods. Reflection allows
your applications to obtain complete and detailed information about any class during runtime.
The most prevalent use of reflection is with JavaBeans, which is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 28. For further information about class reflection, consult the Reflection Web page on
the JavaSoft Web site at http://java.sun.com/products/jdk/1.1/docs/reflection/index.html.
In JDK 1.2, a Field, Method, or Constructor object may be explicitly flagged as suppressing
default Java language access control. When the reflective object is used, this flag—a new
instance field—is consulted as part of access checking. If the flag is true, access checks are
disabled and the requested operation proceeds; otherwise, normal access checks are performed
as in JDK 1.1. The flag is false by default in a reflected member or constructor. Thus, in JDK
1.2 each concrete reflected class (Field, Method and Constructor) extends a new base class,
AccessibleObject.
Interfaces
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By this point in the chapter, you’re probably pretty comfortable with the concept of an interface. After
all, you’ve seen how to declare interfaces in a class using the implements keyword. And you’ve seen how
to declare abstract classes and abstract methods, which are similar in nature to an interface.
You might also realize that an interface is an entirely abstract class; not a single method declared in an
interface can be implemented by the interface. All methods in an interface must be implemented by the
class that claims to use them. (Refer to the “Classes and Interfaces” section earlier in this chapter to see
how your classes can claim to use an interface.)
And so it’s time to see how an interface is created. Let’s begin by looking at the declaration syntax for
an interface. Following is the syntax for declaring an interface (items in square brackets are optional):
[public] interface name [extends interface1, interface2, ...] {
...
}
As you can see, an interface can extend any number of other interfaces. And, if you recall, a class can
extend any number of interfaces. This allows for an extremely powerful capability, similar to multiple
inheritance found in C++.
In an interface, all variables are automatically treated as public, static, and final. You can explicitly specify
each, if you want, but it really doesn’t matter. However, you aren’t allowed to use anything other than
public, static, and final variables. If you were to specify a variable as protected, for instance, the compiler
would generate an error.
The same is true for an interface’s methods, which are automatically treated as public and abstract. You
can explicitly declare your interface methods as public and abstract, but it really doesn’t matter since the
system will do it for you automatically. However, just try to specify a private method, and see what the
compiler has to say about it!
Consider for a moment our ShowDown class, rewritten as an interface:
public interface ShowDown {
int SHERIFF = 60000; // all variables are public, static,
final
void Encounter(); // all methods are public and abstract
void SizeUp(int dude); // all methods are public and
abstract
}
You’ll notice that I didn’t bother to declare the constant variable SHERIFF as being final and static, as I did
when ShowDown was implemented as a standard class earlier in this chapter. I didn’t have to because it’s
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automatically treated as public, static, and fina1 when implemented as an interface. The same goes for
ShowDown’s methods. There’s no need to declare them as public because they already are when
implemented as an interface. And since each method is also abstract, we’re relying on the subclass to do
the implementation—don’t even bother with the body of methods declared in an interface.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
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Date: 05/01/98
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We only need to provide the name and parameter list of interface methods. The curly braces ({ }) of the
body block aren’t even needed. In fact, if you included them, the compiler would generate an error,
regardless of whether or not you actually provided code for the body:
void SizeUp(int dude){ // illegal! Can’t include braces!
}
With interfaces, you need to remove the method block entirely and replace it with a semicolon, as
follows:
void SizeUp(int dude); // this is fine
Even though all the variables and methods in an interface are implicitly prefixed with access specifiers
and modifiers, the same is not true with the interface declaration itself. If you don’t specify your
interface as being public, Java doesn’t automatically make it public. Instead, the scope of your interface is
“friendly,” making it available only in the package in which it is created. As a result, you may want to
explicitly declare a package for your interfaces (see the next section, “Packages,” for more details):
package numberville; // make part of numberville package
interface ShowDown { /* not public; making class available
only to the numberville package */
int SHERIFF = 60000;
void Encounter();
void SizeUp(int dude);
}
Since all variables in an interface are automatically considered public, static, and final (whether
or not you supply the keywords yourself), be sure to initialize them. If you don’t, the compiler
tells you to get your act together. Save yourself the embarrassment, and initialize all interface
variables before the compiler has a chance to give off attitude.
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Packages
After writing a few Java programs and creating a number of classes in the process, you’ll probably find
yourself wanting to reuse some of the classes in new projects. And this is exactly what you’re supposed
to do: Why rewrite when you can reuse?
To make it easier to reuse code and organize classes, Java supports a mechanism called packages.
Packages allow classes to be grouped according to their purpose, much like you might group files inside
a directory on your computer’s hard drive.
Actually, you’re already familiar with packages on a basic level; we’ve been importing them for use
with our HelloWorld programs in previous chapters. However, to really make use of them, we need to
explore packages in more detail. First we’ll learn how to fully use existing packages. Then we’ll see how
to create and manage our own packages.
Although I refer to packages in terms of classes, they can also contain interfaces. Rather than
having to say “classes and interfaces” every time I talk about packages, I’ll simply use the
term classes, with the understanding that interfaces are implied.
Using packages
As you know, packages are used to organize and categorize classes. In fact, the Java Developer’s Kit
(JDK) comes with eight packages that contain the Java Application Programmer’s Interface (API)
classes, and one that contains Sun’s debugging tool classes (see Table 11-2).
Table 11-2
Standard Java Packages
API Packages Description
java.applet Applet classes and interfaces
java.awt Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT) classes and interfaces
java.awt.image (Subpackage of AWT) Bitmap image classes and interfaces
java.awt.peer (Subpackage of AWT) Platform-specific AWT classes and interfaces
(such as Windows, Sun, and Macintosh)
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java.io Input/Output classes and interfaces
java.lang Core Java language classes and interfaces
java.net Network classes and interfaces
java.util Utility classes and interfaces
Other Packages Description
sun.tools.debug Debugging classes and interfaces
At the time this book went to print, the Macintosh JDK did not include a debugger or Sun’s
debugging classes.
Importing packages
There are a few ways to access classes that are in packages. The most basic method is to import a
package in the beginning of your programs, as we did in our FlexibleMediaHello applet. In this case,
you simply provide the import statement(s) before any other code in your program. (It’s okay if they
come after comments and white space such as character returns and linefeeds):
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.net.URL;
import java.net.MalformedURLException;
As you can see, we have imported four packages (or, more precisely, the public classes of four
packages) using two different techniques. In the first two lines of code, we used the asterisk (*) to
effectively tell the compiler to “Give me access to all of the public classes in this package”:
import java.applet.*; // import all public classes in
java.applet package
import java.awt.*; // import all public classes in java.awt
package
In the second two lines, we explicitly state the name of the public classes to import:
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// import URL class in the java.net package:
import java.net.URL;
// import MalformedURLException class in the java.net
package:
import java.net.MalformedURLException;
A Note About Importing Public Classes
You can only import the public classes in a package, and only those public classes that are directly part
of that package. You can’t, for example, import the java.awt subpackages, java.awt.image and java.awt.peer,
using the following import statement:
import java.awt.*; // import public classes in java.awt, but not
subpackages!
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Date: 05/01/98
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This example imports only the public classes that are directly part of the java.awt package. If you want to
import the classes in a subpackage, you have to specify each subpackage explicitly:
import java.awt.image.*; // import public classes in image
subpackage of java.awt
import java.awt.peer.*; // import public classes in peer
subpackage of java.awt
We could just as easily have used the asterisk to import all the classes in the java.net package, instead of
specifying the specific classes, as we just did:
import java.net.*; // import all public classes in the entire
java.net package
Although you might initially think this is excessive, since we only use the URL and
MalformedURLException classes, ifs really not. Even though it seems that the entire java.net class is
imported, in truth, only those classes that are used in the program are imported; Java links in classes
only when they are actually used.
Although I could have used asterisk notation to import all public classes in the java.net package (import
java.net.*), I explicitly specified the URL and MalformedURLException classes to make it clear to the reader
of this program what portions of the java.net package are used. In general, it’s better programming style
to explicitly import the classes you use in a program (as I’ve done with URL and MalformedURLException)
rather than using the asterisk approach. Clearly identifying the classes you import in this way makes it
much easier for others to maintain your code; they won’t have to search through your program to find
out which classes in a package you use.
Any time you want to use a class, you need to import the package it is part of (or reference it explicitly
in your code, as described shortly). However, you don’t need to import the java.lang package; these
classes are fundamental to Java and are automatically imported regardless of whether you explicitly
import them or not.
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Explicit class references in imported packages
Once a package has been imported, the public classes in it can be used as often as desired in your code.
This is all well and good, but what if you only need to use a class once? In this case, you can explicitly
reference the class, without having to import the package it is part of. For example, suppose we didn’t
want to bother importing the URL class in our earlier example. If we precede all references to URL with
the java.net package, we wouldn’t have to:
java.net.URL imageURL=null; // explicitly reference to declare
variable...
try {
imageURL = new java.net.URL(imageString); // and once again
in the code
} catch (MalformedURLException e) { ; }
Since we’ve explicitly specified the java.net package immediately before the URL class name, Java knows
exactly what package the URL class is part of. And, as a result, we don’t have to import the java.net
package at all. Contrast the preceding code snippet with how it was written originally:
import java.net.URL; // import the URL class
URL imageURL=null;
try {
imageURL = new URL(imageString);
} catch (MalformedURLException e) { ; }
If it weren’t for the fact that the URL class name is pretty descriptive, we wouldn’t have any idea where
it comes from just looking at the implementation: You can’t tell that URL is part of the java.net package
by merely looking at the code. This is a downside to importing packages; you can’t easily see where a
class is coming from by looking at the code alone. Instead, you have to have an understanding of what
classes are in each package and make an educated guess whenever a class name appears in code.
Unless you have a large number of references to a particular class in a program, it’s often more helpful
to precede the class with its package rather than import that package. In fact, our FlexibleMediaHello
program would be more readable in general if we discarded all of the import statements and explicitly
referenced the entire package each time a class is used. However, there is a trade-off between readability
and ease of coding. It’s much easier to simply type “URL” than it is to type “java.net.URL.” As result,
you may prefer to import packages, rather than reference them explicitly.
Naming conflicts
One of the main benefits of explicitly referencing packages, apart from the clarity of code produced as a
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result, is the fact that class names won’t conflict, as they could when using an import statement. At some
point, you’re going to create a class with the same name as one that exists in another class. For example,
how many understandable yet unique identifiers can you come up with for a Sort class?
Suppose, for a moment, that your Sort class is part of a package called uti1ityPackage. Now, what if you
imported that package and another one that happens to also have a class named Sort?
import utilityPackage; // contains your Sort class
import anyOtherPackage; // also contains a Sort class
Sort mySort = new Sort(); // which Sort class is instantiated?
As you can see, we’ve got a problem here. Which Sort class is instantiated when this code is executed?
Since that can’t be determined, the compiler kicks out an error and refuses to compile the code. You can
avoid this, however, by using an explicit class reference directly in the code:
utilityPackage.Sort mySort = new utilityPackage.Sort();
Here we resolved any potential conflict by explicitly declaring the package name along with the class.
There will be no confusion to a person reading your code, or when the compiler tries to create a Sort
object. It’s clear just by looking at the code that the object we’re talking about comes from uti1ityPackage.
Package levels
Package names are arranged in levels, with each level separated from the next with a period. Consider,
for example, the java.applet package. It’s comprised of two levels: The first level is java and the second is
applet. The java.awt.image package, on the other hand, is made up of three levels, with image being the
third level.
When you create your own packages, it’s up to you to decide upon the names and number of levels.
However, creating your own package isn’t as simple as merely dreaming up a nifty package name.
Packages are directly related to the directory structure containing the classes they’re composed
of—when you create your own packages, you do so based on the directory layout containing the classes
to be included in these packages.
Creating packages
It’s easy to create your own packages, something you’ll almost certainly want to do at some time or
another. To create a package (that is, to add a class to a package), simply use the following statement as
the first line of code in your source code file:
package packageName;
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Suppose, for example, we wanted to create a new package called numbervi1le to organize all the classes
that might be used to simulate a bunch of numbers living together in harmony. (Hey, even numbers need
a home!) We could easily do this by placing the following statement in every class file that we wanted to
be part of the package:
package numberville;
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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For instance, our ShowDown superclass would look like this:
package numberville; // make ShowDown part of numberville package
class ShowDown {
...
}
The HighNoon class file would look like this:
package numberville; // make HighNoon part of numberville package
public class HighNoon extends ShowDown {
... /* member variables */
void Encounter() {
...
}
void SizeUp(int dude) {
...
}
}
Now, whenever we need to use the HighNoon or ShowDown classes, we need only import the numberville
package or explicitly specify it when creating a HighNoon or ShowDown object. Furthermore, we could
continue to create classes that operate on numbers, as these two classes do, and easily add them to the
numberville package using only one line of code:
package numberville; // make this class part of numberville
package
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Java Bible:Classes, Interfaces, and Packages
Be sure to place your package statements first, before all other statements in your program. A
package statement should come before all other code, including import statements.
Unique names
The naming convention used when creating packages is designed to provide unique packages that can be
made universally available without causing a name conflict. Any packages that you create, and that will
be made available outside your organization, should use your organization’s Internet domain name in
reverse order to ensure a unique name.
For example, if I wanted to make an animation package available to the world, I’d use my company’s
mantiscorp.com domain name in reverse when creating the package:
COM.mantiscorp.animation: // this package is unique
As you can see, the first portion of a unique name must be in uppercase letters. The remainder of the
name should be in lowercase letters, with only the classes having a capital letter. For example, suppose
we needed to specify a Sprite class in the previous package:
COM.mantiscorp.animation.Sprite;
Due to the naming convention of unique packages, we can immediately tell that animation comes from
the mantiscorp.com domain. And since only classes begin with a capital letter (with the exception of the
first level in a unique name, in which all letters are capitalized), we know right off the bat that Sprite is a
class and not another level of the package.
JAR Files
Just as you can use a glass jar to can your tomatoes and peaches, you can use JAR (Java
Archive) files to can your Java packages. JAR files store Java packages, classes, and resources
in a compressed form. It takes time to download information over the Internet, so if you can
cram more information into less space, things will run faster. When adding applets to your
HTML files, you use the <ARCHIVE> tag to specify a JAR file. A more complete discussion on
the <ARCHIVE> tag and adding Java applets to your HTML can be found in Chapter 17. For
now, I review how to create JAR files.
If you’ve used any file-zipping utility, you should feel quite at home when creating JAR files. You use
the jar.exe tool to create a JAR file. If you want to create one that contains the COM.mantiscorp.animation
package, simply execute this command from the directory that contains the package:
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jar cvf mantiscorp *
The * causes all the files in the current directory to be added to the JAR file. The c, v, and f are
command-line options, and they are detailed in Table 11-3.
Table 11-3
JAR Tool Command-Line Options
Option Description
c Creates a new or empty archive.
T Lists the contents of the JAR file.
x [file] Extracts all files, or just the filenames specified.
f [jar-file] Specifies the name of the JAR file to work with. Without the f option, output will
be sent to standard output.
V Generates verbose output.
Summary
This chapter introduced the concept of creating and using objects in your Java applications. This is the
final big puzzle piece required to start developing your own Java applications. The upcoming chapters
will continue to take a closer look at fundamentals required to develop your own Java applications. Key
concepts to remember about this chapter include:
• Classes are templates, or blueprints, from which objects are created. As such, we often think of
classes as data types. When objects are created or instantiated from the same class, they are
considered to be of the same type. All objects are an instance of a class. The class that an object
is instantiated from determines the type of that object. If two objects are instantiated from the
same class, they are considered to be of the same type.
• All member variables are declared within the body of the class, not inside a method or as a
parameter to a method. They are used to maintain the state of an object.
• While variables are used to maintain an object’s state, methods provide the behavior. For those
of you who are new to object-oriented programming, you can think of a method as a function.
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However, unlike procedural programming where functions sit out in the open (or, more
accurately, are organized into files) to be called upon at any point, a method is encapsulated
inside the class in which it is defined, along with the variables of that class.
• An interface is an entirely abstract class; not a single method declared in an interface can be
implemented by the interface. Ail methods in an interface must be implemented by the class that
claims to use them.
• To make it easier to reuse code and organize classes, Java supports a mechanism called
packages. Packages allow classes to be grouped according to their purpose, much like you might
group files inside a directory on your computer hard drive.
• It’s easy to create your own packages, something you’ll almost certainly want to do at some
time or another. To create a package (that is, to add a class to a package), simply use the package
statement as the first line of code in your source code file.
• JAR files store Java packages, classes, and resources in a compressed form. It takes time to
download information over the Internet, so if you can cram more information into less space,
things will run faster. When adding applets to your HTML files, you use the <ARCHIVE> tag to
specify a JAR file.
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Java Bible:Strings and Arrays
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 12
Strings and Arrays
In This Chapter
Adding strings to your Java applications
Understanding arrays
Using the Java utility classes
By now you know that in Java strings aren’t merely arrays of characters; they’re first-class objects
(meaning they can’t be subclassed). In fact, Java offers two classes for dealing with strings: String and
StringBuffer.
In this chapter, we’ll learn about the String and StringBuffer classes, and find out what it means to be a
first-class object. We’ll also take a closer look at arrays, which are also first-class objects, and their
loosely related relatives, Vector and Hashtable.
As you’ll soon see, Java provides several ways to store, retrieve, and utilize data. In the next chapter,
we’ll take a look at streams, which give us an abstract ability to read and write to a flowing buffer of
data. However, streams are often overkill for many programming tasks, and so we need to look at easier
ways of storing and retrieving data.
With the String and StringBuffer classes, we can create objects that utilize character data. With arrays, we
can store and retrieve any type of data we’d like in each element, even other arrays. However, since we
create arrays with an explicit dimension, there’s no way of extending their size when we run out of
elements. As a result, we turn to the Vector class, which provides us with growable arrays.
Once the concept of arrays has been covered in detail, we’ll take a look at the Hashtable class. Here, we’ll
see how to create objects in which we can store values that are retrieved through a key, rather than an
index. In addition, we’ll see how the Stack class extends Hashtable to implement this familiar data
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structure.
And, since Vector, Hashtable, and Stack are all part of the java.util package, we’ll take this opportunity to
explore that package as well. We’ll see how out strings can be tokenized using StringTokenizer, allowing
us to break these objects into their discrete pieces. Finally, we’ll look at the purely utilitarian classes
found in this package, specifically Date, Calendar, TimeZone, Random, and the ResourceBundle classes.
But, before we get too far ahead of ourselves, let’s pull back and take a closer look at the String and
StringBuffer classes.
Strings (Java.lang.String)
As we learned in Chapter 7, Java strings aren’t like the ones we’re accustomed to in C and C++. In those
languages, strings are simply a null-terminated array of characters. Java strings, however, are actually
objects defined by the String class. As a result, they feature a number of methods that are used to access
(and, in the case of StringBuffer objects, manipulate) their contents.
Additionally, bounds checking is performed on Java strings at both compile and runtime. If we attempt
to access portions of a string outside the legal bounds, an exception is thrown, which we can catch and
handle (see Chapter 10 for details on exceptions).
C and C++ strings, in contrast, don’t support such well-defined behavior. In these languages, it’s quite
easy to overrun the boundaries of the array in which our characters are stored. Sometimes, the error is
immediately apparent, sometimes it’s not.
At best, we manage to identify the problem early in the development cycle and fix it. At worst, the
problem slips through our bug-hunting efforts and makes its way to the customer and surfaces
sporadically, perhaps causing the program to behave unexpectedly, or even crash.
Since the program’s behavior is normal for the most part, it can be difficult to track down and eliminate
the programming error. Often, the problem can be traced to an improper use of strings, such as
overshooting the string array boundary and accessing data in memory, rather than the contents of the
array.
Since no error checking is performed with C/C++ strings, we’re free to go right past the end of the array.
Of course, we don’t do this intentionally, but it tends to happen from time to time. Unfortunately, the
result is often a slippery bug that doesn’t rear its ugly-buggish head consistently. Such errors are
extremely tough to track down.
Java strings are first-class objects
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With Java, strings are first-class objects that support a well-defined set of methods, as shown in Table
12-1. Using these methods, out relationship with strings becomes one of trust and reliance, as opposed to
the paranoia C and C++ programmers sometimes develop after a few bad string experiences.
Table 12-1
java.lang.String
Constructor Signature Description
String public String() Constructs a new, empty string.
Constructs a new string that is a copy of
String public String (String value)
the specified string.
Constructs a new string whose initial
String public String (Char value)
value is the specified array of characters.
Constructs a new string whose initial
value is the specified subarray of
String public String (char value[], int offset, int count) characters. The length of the string will
be count characters, beginning at offset
within the specified character array.
Constructs a new string whose initial
value is the specified subarray of bytes.
public String (byte ascii[], int hibyte, int offset, int
count) count characters starting at offset within the
The high-byte of each character can be
String
string specified, although it is usually 0. The
length of the string will be the specified
character array.
Constructs a new string whose value is
the specified array of bytes. The byte
String public String (byte[] ascii, int hibyte) array will be transformed into Unicode
chars using hibyte as the upper byte of
each character.
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Constructs a new string whose value is
String public String (StringBuffer buffer) the current contents of the given string
buffer.
Returns the length of the string. The
length of the string is equal to the
length public int length()
number of 16-bit Unicode characters in
it.
Returns the character at the specified
charAt public char charAt(int index) index (index values range from 0 to length
() - 1).
Copies characters from this string into
the specified character array. The
public void getChars(int scrBegin, int scrEnd, char characters of the substring (as defined by
getChars
dst[], int dstBegin) scrBegin and scrEnd) are copied into the
array, starting at the array’s dstBegin
location.
Copies characters from this string into
the specified byte array. Copies the
public void getBytes(int srcBegin, int srcEnd, byte
getBytes characters of the substring (as defined by
dst[], int dstBegin)
scrBegin and scrEnd) into the byte array
starting at array’s dstBegin location.
Compares this string to the specified
object. Returns true if they are equal
equals public boolean equals(Object anObject)
(have the same length and the same
characters in the same sequence).
Compares this string to another object.
Returns true if the object is equal to this
string; that is, has the same length and
equals public boolean equalsIgnoreCase (String
the same characters in the same
IgnoreCase anotherString)
sequence. Uppercase characters are
folded to lowercase before they are
compared.
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Compares this string to another specified
string. Returns an integer that is less
than, equal to, or greater than zero. The
compareTo public int compareTo (String anotherString)
integer’s value depends on whether this
string is less than, equal to, or greater
than the anotherString.
Determines whether a region of this
public boolean regionMatches (int toffset, String
regionMatches string matches the specified region of the
other, int ooffset, int len)
specified string.
Determines whether a region of this
string matches the specified region of the
public boolean regionMatches (boolean ignoreCase, specified string. If the boolean ignoreCase
regionMatches
int toffset, String other, int ooffset, int len) is true, uppercase characters are
considered equivalent to lowercase
letters.
Determines whether this string starts
startsWith public boolean startsWith (String prefix, int toffset)
with some prefix, starting at toffset.
Determines whether this string starts
startsWith public boolean startsWith (String prefix)
with some prefix.
Determines whether the string ends with
endsWith public boolean endsWith(String suffix)
some suffix.
Returns a hash code for this string. This
hashCode public int hashCode() is a large number composed of the
character values in the string.
Returns the index within this string of
the first occurrence of the specified
indexOf public int indexOf(int ch)
character. This method returns - 1 if the
index is not found.
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Returns the index within this string of
the first occurrence of the specified
indexOf public int indexOf(int ch, int fromIndex) character, starting the search at
fromIndex. This method returns - 1 if the
index is not found.
Returns the index within this string of
the last occurrence of the specified
character. The string is searched
lastIndexOf public int LastIndexOf(int ch)
backwards, starting at the last character.
This method returns - 1 if the index is
not found.
Returns the index within this string of
the last occurrence of the specified
character. The string is searched
lastIndexOf public int lastIndexOf(int ch, int fromIndex)
backwards, starting at fromIndex. This
method returns - 1 if the index is not
found.
Returns the substring of this string. The
public String substring(int beginIndex, int
substring substring is specified by a beginIndex
endIndex)
(inclusive) and the end of the string.
Converts this string by replacing all
replace public String replace(char oldChar, char newChar)
occurrences of old String with newString).
Converts all the characters in this string
toLowerCase public String toLowerCase()
to lowercase.
Converts all the characters in this string
toupperCase public String to upperCase()
to uppercase.
Trims leading and trailing white space
trim public String trim()
from this string.
Converts a character array to a String
toString public String toString()
object.
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Converts this String object into a
toCharArray public char[] toCharArray(
character array.
Returns a string that represents the string
value of the object. The object may
valueOf public static String valueOf (Object obj)
choose how to represent itself by
implementing the toString method.
Returns a string that is equivalent to the
specified character array. Uses the
valueOf public static String valueOf (char data[]) original array as the body of the string
(in other words, it doesn’t copy it to a
new array).
public static String valueOf (char data[], int offset, Returns a string that is equivalent to the
valueOf
int count) specified character array.
Returns a string that is equivalent to the
public static String copyValueOf (char data[], int specified character array. It creates a
copyValueOf
offset, int count) new array and copies the characters into
it.
Returns a string that is equivalent to the
specified character array. It creates a
copyValueOf public static String copyValueOf (char data[])
new array and copies the characters into
it.
Returns a String object that represents the
valueOf public static String valueOf (boolean b)
state of the specified boolean.
Returns a String object that contains a
valueOf public static String valueOf (char c)
single character.
Returns a String object that represents the
valueOf public static String vatueOf (int I)
value of the specified int.
Returns a String object that represents the
valueOf public static String valueOf (long 1)
value of the specified long.
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Returns a String object that represents the
valueOf public static String valueOf (float f)
value of the specified float.
Returns a String object that represents the
valueOf public static String valueOf (double d)
value of the specified double.
Returns a string that is equal to this
intern public String Intern() string. but is guaranteed to be from the
unique string pool
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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With first-class objects, you can only use the String class to create new String objects, as we’ve been
doing all along. But since String is a final class, we can’t create our own subclasses:
class MyStrings extends String { // ILLEGAL!
. . .
}
If we try to extend String, as shown, the compiler spits out a “Can’t subclass Final Objects” message and
refuses to go on. Of course, we’re still free to use the String class to create String objects. We’ve been
doing that all along. However, attempting to create a subclass of String is forbidden.
String versus StringBuffer
As you’re now aware, Java provides two distinct string classes: String and StringBuffer. The String class is
used to create String objects which are immutable; their contents can’t be altered once characters have
been stored in them. StringBuffer, on the other hand, is specifically for strings that are mutable, or able to
be changed even after characters have been stored in them. We’ll get to StringBuffer in a moment, but for
now, let’s take a closer look at the String class.
In Java, the char data type is twice the size C/C++ developers might expect. Instead of being 8
bits, the Java char is a 16-bit unsigned type, capable of holding tens of thousands of values
associated with Unicode characters. However, if you are using standard ASCII or Latin-1
characters, there is no way to tell the difference between Java char values and their C/C++
counterparts. Due to char’s 16-bit size, the byte is actually the smallest of all integral data types
in Java, weighing in at a lean 8 bits.
Suppose we created a String object and then tried to change its value later in the program:
String myString = “There once was a mouse from Nantucket”;
myString = “Hickory, Dickory, Dock”; // legal?
Is this legal? Sure it is, even though you might think otherwise. In this case, we’re not attempting to alter
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the contents of the string; that is, we’re not trying to change the individual characters in the String object.
Instead, we’re storing a brand new set of characters into it, which is perfectly legal. The original string is
replaced entirely by “Hickory, Dickory, Dock”—the whole string is replaced, lock, stock, and barrel.
However, if we attempted to change the individual characters in a String object, we’d be in for a rude
awakening:
String myString = “There once was a mouse from Nantucket”;
myString[0] = ‘Z’; // ILLEGAL!
In this example, we’re trying to treat the Java String object as we would a standard C/C++ string.
However, when it attempted to set the first character in the String array to the character “Z”, the compiler
screamed bloody murder:
StringTest.java:8: [] can only be applied to arrays. It can’t
be applied to java.lang.String.
myString[0] = “Z”;
^
1 error
We’ve been told in no uncertain terms that a String object isn’t an array (we’ll get to arrays later), and so
we’d better not treat it as such. “No problem,” you might think to yourself, “I’ll just use the handy
setCharAt() method defined in StringBuffer.” But:
myString.setCharAt (0,‘Z’) ; // ILLEGAL!
A fine thought, except for the fact that the compiler will clutch its heart and gasp for air as you try to
manhandle an immutable String object. Remember, you can’t change the contents of a String object, only
StringBuffer objects. And, since setChar() isn’t defined in the String class, you can’t use it.
As you can see from the methods listed in Table 12-1, you can find out a lot about String objects, hut you
can’t change their contents. The closest you can get Is to blow away the entire string representation and
replace it with another, as we did earlier. But, no matter how hard you try, you can’t twiddle the contents
of a String object.
Creating strings
Although our programs have been giving birth to String objects all along, the process bears a closer look.
Clearly, one way they can be created is by assigning a string literal (we’ll get to literals in a moment) to
a String object variable:
String myString = “Whose whiskers were so strong”;
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This is the easiest way to create a string, as we’ve been doing for some time. However, you’ll notice that
the String class gives us seven different constructors as well. The previous statement is functionally
equivalent to the following:
String myString = new String (“Whose whiskers were so strong”);
And, for that matter, these are both functionally equivalent to creating an array of characters that are
then supplied to the constructor capable of converting arrays into String objects:
char myChars[] = {‘W’, ‘h’, ‘o’, ‘s’, ‘e’, ‘ ’, ‘w’, ‘h’, ‘i’,
‘s’, ‘k’, ‘e’, ‘r’, ‘s’, ‘ ’, ‘w’, ‘e’, ‘r’, ‘e’, ‘ ’, ‘s’,
‘o’, ‘ ’, ‘s’, ‘t’, ‘r’, ‘o’, ‘n’, ‘g’} // create array of
characters
String myString = new String(myChars); /* use array to create
new String object */
Of course, we can also create String objects from arrays of bytes, and even subsections of arrays. Using
the same character array declared in the previous example, we can grab a portion of it for use as a string:
String myString = new String(myChars,6,8);
Here, we create a String object using a slice of the myChars array. By providing the index in the array at
which to start, together with the number of elements to use, we can create a string from a subsection of
that array. In the current example, the String object would now contain “whiskers.”
Perhaps you noticed that the beginning index I provided for a slice of the array, 6, seems to
indicate the String object should include a space and drop the last character(s) in the word
“whiskers?”
Although this seems like a mistake, it’s not. You might recall from Chapter 7 that array indexing begins
at zero (0), and not at one (1), as you’d think. While C and C++ programmers are already familiar with
such zero-based array indexing, we’ll revisit the topic later, when we talk about arrays.
As it stands, this line of code creates a string using the characters “whiskers” not “hisker”.
However, if you happen upon a mouse from Nantucket having strong hiskers, be sure to drop
me a line; I’d be most curious to see such a creature.
Depending on your needs, there’s likely to be a constructor to fit the bill. As you can see, arrays and
strings work hand in hand; indeed, four of the seven constructors accept array parameters.
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You’ll also note that we can create an empty String object, which we can fill with characters later:
String myString = new String(); // create empty string object
myString = “Whose whiskers were so strong”; // fill with
characters
If you tried to print the empty myString before it was filled with characters, nothing would actually print.
Keep in mind that myString isn’t null, it’s simply empty—sort of like a mug of coffee without any coffee
in it. Sort of.
The null keyword has no meaningful value associated with it; it simply means an object is not
referenced anywhere. To determine if an object has a reference, you can test it against null:
if (anyObject = = null){
. . . // if true, object has no reference
}
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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This is particularly helpful when dealing with String objects, and in fact is how you determine if an
applet’s PARAM tag is provided. When an HTML document doesn’t contain a particular PARAM tag,
you’ll know by testing for null. In this case, you can supply a default value:
soundFile = getParameter(“sound”); // get sound PARAM
if (soundFile = = null){
soundFile = “audio\welcome.au”; // set default if not
provided
}E
Once we have a String object, it’s easy to make a copy of it using the appropriate constructor:
String anotherString = new String(myString); /* create copy of
myString */
Of course, we can also assign one String object to another. The following assignment is the functional
equivalent of the preceding constructor:
anotherString = myString; // copy myString into anotherString
Finally, we can create a String object from a StringBuffer object:
String myString = new String (anyStringBufferObject);
The contents of the StringBuffer object are copied into the new String object, effectively creating an
immutable copy of a once-mutable string.
Accessor methods
Once you’ve created a String object, chances are you’ll want to do something with it. This stands to
reason; why would you bother creating an object if you didn’t want to do something with it? As luck
would have it, we can do a lot with String objects.
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We’re already sent String objects to the standard output stream, which typically writes the contents to the
display (although they may be redirected, for example to a file):
System.out.print(myString);
System.out.println(myString);
We also use String objects in a variety of other methods, a few of which we’re already familiar with:
drawString(myString, 100, 100); // draw the string on screen
getImage(getCodeBase(), myString); // get an image file
getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), myString); // get an audio file
setTitle(myString); // set window/frame title
new Menu(myString); // create new menu with this name
new Button(myString); // create button with this name
However, aside from being used as parameters in method calls, there area number of methods that
operate on String objects, as seen in Table 12-1.
We might, for example, want to change a few characters in an existing String object. This we ran do
easily by using the replace () method, specifying the characters to be replaced, and specifying the
character to replace them with. However, since we can’t alter a String as we ran a StringBuffer, the result is
returned as a new String:
String myString = “Hickory, Dickory, Dock”;
String alterString = myString.replace(‘k’, ’c’); /* creates a
brand new string, an exact copy of the original with one major
exception — this one has all occurrences of k replaced with c
*/
After executing, alterString would contain “Hiccory, Diccory, Docc,“ and myString would remain
unchanged.
As you can see, the methods that would normally alter the contents of the string-such as replace()
—don’t. Instead, they return a new String object, since they can’t physically alter the one they are given.
While you may not make much use of such methods, depending on your needs, it’s nice to know they
exist, giving us a way to work around the restriction of Java strings being immutable.
One of the string methods you’re likely to use on a regular basis, on the other hand, is length(). This
method returns the number of characters in a String object, which you’ll need if you do any type of work
that requires a tun through each of the characters.
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For example, suppose you wanted to output a string in reverse, I’m not certain why you might want to
do such a thing, but you ran do it as long as you know the length of the string:
String myString = “Hickory, Dickory, Dock”;
int len = myString.length(); // get number of chars in array
for (; len>O; len—) {
System.out.print(myString.charAt(len-1)); // output a
character
}
System.out.println(); // flush output
Notice the parameter to charAt()? Again, since String objects are stored in the same fashion as arrays, you
need to be aware that the first character begins at zero (0), and the last character is at the position “length
of the array minus one.” If the concept of beginning at zero throws you off, you might want to revisit
Chapter 9 for a few moments.
A particularly handy method when gathering user input is trim(), which takes a string and returns a copy
of it without any preceding or trailing white space. For example, if you prompt the user for input, he or
she might enter spaces before and/or after the string.
Suppose, for instance, that you developed a spreadsheet applet that required valid numeric input. If,
instead of entering only the numerals 23415, the user added a few spaces, the result would need to be
trimmed:
String origString = “ 23415 ”;
String trimmedString = origString.trim();
When executed, the preceding code copies the characters “23415” into the trimmedString object.
However, all the whitespace before and after the characters is left out. We now have a nice, freshly
trimmed string. You’ll notice, however, that it’s still a String object, not a numeric value such as an int or
long. If we attempted to use this string in a loop, for example, the compiler would laugh out loud (if it
could):
for (int i=0; i<trimmedString; j++) {
System.out.println(“Iteration: ”+ j);
}
Survey says:
Incompatible type for <. Can’t convert java.lang. String to int.
for (int i=O; i<trimmedString; i++) {
^
1 error
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At first glance, the valueOf() constructors seem like they might do the trick; feed ’em a string and they’ll
return the value of it, right? Nope; they do just the opposite. If you supply valueOf() with a number, it
returns a string containing the character equivalent of those numbers:
String numString = new String().valueOf(“23415”);
For example, if we supplied valueOf () with “23415,” we’d get a string equal to that of trimmedString. In
fact, we can test for equality just to prove it:
String numString = new String().valueOf(23415);
if (trimmedString.equals(numString)) // test for equality
System.out.println(numString +“ and ”+ trimmedString +
“ ARE EQUAL”);
else
System.out.println(numString +“ and ”+ trimmedString +
“ ARE NOT EQUAL”);
But can’t we check for equality using the == operator? Sure, and in most cases you’ll get the result you’d
expect. However, you need to be extremely cautious. When you create a string using valueOf() , as shown
earlier, it won’t evaluate to true when compared with a String object created as usual. For example,
although the preceding snippet of code will tell you the two String objects are equal, try this;
String numString = new String().valueOf(“23415”);
if (numString == trimmedString)
System.out.println(numString + “ and ” + trimmedString +
“ ARE EQUAL”);
else
System.out.println(numString + “ and ” + trimmedString +
“ ARE NOT EQUAL”),
In this case, you’d still expect the evaluation to produce “true.” But it doesn’t. As a matter of fact, if you
want to test the concept of testing for equality, try this:
String numStringl = new String().valueOf(12345);
String numString2 = “12345”;
if (numString1 == numString2)
System.out.prinln(numString1 + “ and ” + numString2 +
“ ARE EQUAL”);
else
System.out.println(numString1 + “ and ” + numString2 +
“ ARE NOT EQUAL”);
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Even though they look equal, and are when using the equals() method, the internal representation of these
two String objects is different. The result is an equality evaluation of “false,” which can really throw you
off the mark, since you’d expect them to evaluate to “true.” The reason is that we’ve supplied an int to
valueOf(), which is different from supplying characters:
String numString1 = new String().valueOf(“12345”);
String numString2 = “12345”;
if (numStringl == numString2)
System.out.println(numStringl + “ and ” + numString2 +
” ARE EQUAL”);
else
System.out.println(numStringl + “ and ” + numString2 +
“ ARE NOT EQUAL”);
Now, this would indeed evaluate to “true.” We didn’t supply valueOf() with an int this time around; we
supplied a string literal. As a result, the == operator recognizes these as being the same. However, no
matter which way you create a string using valueOf(), it won’t be the same as one returned as the result of
the trim() method, as far as the == operator is concerned. To be safe, it’s best to use the equals() method
whenever you’re evaluating String objects for equality.
As you can see, I didn’t supply curly braces ( { } ) in the if statements here. Since only one line
of code is to be executed in both cases (that is, only one line of code follows the if clause, and
only one follows else), we aren’t required to use them.
In such cases, where you only have one line of code to execute following an evaluation, you don’t have
to bother surrounding it with curly braces. For example,
if (boolean) {
System.out.println (“Blah, Blah, Blah ”);
}
is functionally equivalent to:
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if (boolean)
System.out.println (“Blah, Blah, Blah ”);
This is all useful, but it doesn’t solve our original problem of wanting to use a String object such as
trimmedString as an actual number. Remember, the compiler won’t let us use a string in our loops, even if
that string is a set of digit characters. And since valueOf() converts values to String objects, not the other
way around as we originally thought, it’s of no help. So what do we do? Brace yourself; we wrap.
Type wrappers
I’d be willing to bet that most new programmers are drawn to their field because of the cool names used
for everything. We have “protocols,” “stacks,” “bits,” “bytes,” “RAM,” and “ROM.” On a good day, we
“push,” “poke,” “tunnel,” “loop,” and “bitblit.” On a bad day, we crawl through the “stack,” “trap”
errors, and hunt “bugs.”
And now we “wrap to the beat of primitive data types.” (This is, of course, a joke. Keep your flamemail
out of my inbox. Hmmm ... fiamemail... there’s another one.)
Aside from providing a nifty new term, type wrappers give us exactly what we’re looking for: a way to
extract numerical values from String objects.
And they do much more.
Since most Java methods expect objects as parameters, many don’t know how to deal with true numeric
data types such as int, long, float, double, and so on. You may recall that these are actually primitive data
types that can’t be reduced any further; in order to use them as objects, we must first wrap an object
around them.
For example, if we have an int value of 235, that value isn’t an object; it’s a primitive data type. In order
to treat it as an object, we must first wrap an Integer object around it. Now, don’t confuse the Integer class
(java. lang. Integer) with an int data type: they’re two different beasts. The Integer class defines the methods
we’ll use to treat an int as an object. As such, it’s known as a type wrapper; it allows us to wrap an
object around numeric data types. To be even more specific, the Integer class can be called an integral
type wrapper.
In order to use a type wrapper, you supply it with a value. What you receive in return is an object that
may be treated like any other object. You can send it messages to invoke methods and pass it as a
parameter to other methods:
Object myIntObject = new Integer(235); // create Integer object
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Now we have an object that can be treated like any other object. However, this still doesn’t help us use
our original triminedString variable as part of the for loop condition. It just allows us to create an Integer
object from an int data type. We need to do the reverse; we need to create an int data type from a String
object!
Wrapper classes allow us to do just that. First, we use the Integer constructor that takes as its parameter a
string. Once we’ve created an object using this type wrapper, we can use the intValue() method to retrieve
from it the int value we need:
int theInt = new Integer (trimmedString).intValue(); // get that
int!
for (int i=0; i<theInt; i++) { // and use it .
System.out.println(“Iteration: ” + i);
}
We’ve finally solved our problem of treating a String object as a primitive data type: We don’t actually
treat it as a primitive. Instead, we wrap an Integer object around the String object, then use the intValue()
method to extract the primitive.
At this point, you might ask, “Hey, why not just cast the String object into an Integer object instead of
instantiating a brand new object?” That’s a good question, since it would save three keystrokes by not
requiring us to type new code:
int theInt = ((Integer) trimmedString).intValue(); // ILLEGAL!
Unfortunately, this doesn’t fly. The compiler beats it to the ground, as if to make up for all the time it
spends sorting out your uninitialized variables (perhaps, if it didn’t bother assigning default values to
your uninitialized variables, the compiler would have the wherewithal to perform this cast). Instead, you
must instantiate an Integer object, as we did earlier. Anyway, if you take into account the extra
parentheses needed to perform the cast and make the statement readable, you would only save one
keystroke.
Although we’ve been wrapped up in integral type wrappers, you’ll be happy to know there are many
other wrapper flavors—one to satisfy every primitive data type need. Since there are several primitive
data types, there are several type wrapper classes. These are listed here, with the appropriate tables for
their constructors, methods, and variables:
• Boolean (java. lang. Boolean) (see Tables 12-2, 12-3, and 12-4)
• Character (java. lang. Character) (see Tables 12-5, 12-6, and 12-7)
• Integer (java. lang. Integer) (see Tables 12-8, 12-9, and 12-10)
• Float (java. lang. Float) (see Tables 12-11, 12-12, and 12-13)
• Double (java. lang. Double) (see Tables 12-14-, 12-15, and 12-16)
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• Long (java. lang. Long) (see Tables 12-17, 12-18, and 12-19)
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 12-2
java.lang.Boolean Constructors
Signature Description
Boolean(boolean) Constructs a Boolean object initialized to the specified boolean value.
Constructs a Boolean object initialized to the value specified by the String
Boolean(String)
parameter.
Table 12-3
java.lang.Boolean Methods
Method Signature Description
Returns the value of this Boolean object as a
booleanValue public boolean booleanValue()
boolean.
equals public boolean equals (Object obj) Compares this object against the specified object.
public static boolean getBoolean (String
getBoolean Gets a boolean from the properties.
name)
hashCode public int hashCode() Returns a hash code for this boolean.
Returns a new String object representing this
toString public String toString()
boolean’s value.
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Returns the boolean value represented by the
valueOf public static boolean valueOf (String s)
specified string.
Table 12-4
java.lang, BOolean Variables
Variable Signature Description
FALSE public final static Boolearl FALSE Assigns this boolean to be false.
MAX_VALUE public final static char MAX_VALUE The maximum value a character can have.
MIN_VALUE public final static char MI N_VALUE The minimum value a character can have.
TRUE public final static Boolean TRUE Assigns this boolean to be true.
Table 12-5
java.lang.Character Constructors
Signature Description
public Character(char value) Constructs a Character object with the specified value.
Table 12-6
java.lang.Character Methods
Method Signature Description
charValue public char charValue() Returns the value of this Character object.
Returns the numeric value of the character digit
digit public static int digit(char ch int radix) *
using the specified radix.
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equals public boolean equals Object obj) Compares this object against the specified object.
public static char forDigit (int digit, iht Returns the character value for the specified digit
forDigit *
radix) in the specified radix.
hashCode public int hashCode() Returns a hash code for this character.
Determines whether the specified character is an
isDigit public static boolean is Digit(char ch)
ISO-LATIN-1 digit.
Determines whether the specified character is ISO-
isLowerCase public static boolean isLowerCase(char ch)
LATIN-1 lowercase.
Determines whether the specified character is ISO-
isSpace public static boolean isSpace (char ch)
LATIN-1 whitespace, according to Java.
Determines whether the specified character is ISO-
isUpperCase public static boolean isUpperCase(char ch)
LATIN-1 uppercase.
Returns the lowercase character value of the ISO-
toLowerCase public static char toLowerCase (char ch) LATIN-1 character. Characters that are not
uppercase letters are returned unmodified.
Returns a String object representing this character’s
toString public String toString()
value.
Returns the uppercase character value of the
specified ISO-LATIN- 1 character. Characters that
are not lowercase letters are returned unmodified.
toUpperCase public static char toUpperCase (char ch) Note that the German and Latin ÿ have no
corresponding uppercase letters, even though they
are lowercase. There is a capital numberville ÿ, but
not in ISO-LATIN-1.
*
A positive integer, where the weight of the digit place is multiplied to obtain the weight of the
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digit place with the next higher weight.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 12-19
java.lang.Long Variables
Variable Signature Description
MAX_VALUE public final static long MAX_VALUE The maximum value a long can have.
MIN_VALUE public final static long MIN_VALUE The minimum value a long can have.
As you can see, each of these primitive data types is part of the java.lang package. Since this package is
automatically available to our programs, we don’t need to bother importing it. You might also be
interested to know that each one, with the exception of Boolean, descends from an abstract class called
java.lang.Number (Boolean is a direct subclass of Object).
Aside from providing the wrapper functionality we’ve just discovered, these classes also allow us to
extract values of different types from the wrapped value. For example, we could have retrieved the value
from our Integer object in the form of a long, a float, or a double, in addition to the int we actually received:
long theLong = new Integer(trimmedString).longValue();
double theDouble = new Integer(trimmedString).doubleValue();
float theFloat = new Integer(trimmedString).floatValue();
String literals
String literals are characters surrounded by double quotation marks (“ ”). We’ve been using them all
along, most obviously when we create a String object:
String myString = “You’re looking at a string literal”;
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In fact, we use string literals in method calls all the time:
drawString(“Hello World”, 100, 100);
get Image(getCodeBase(), “images/world.gif”);
getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “audio/hello.au”);
setTitle(“Widget Window”);
new Menu(“Edit”);
new Button(“Click Me”);
Anywhere a String object is used, we can substitute a string literal. This is because the compiler actually
instantiates a String object from our literal. String literals can be any number of characters surrounded by
double quotation marks, even no characters at all:
“ ”
The example shows an empty string literal. It’s just as valid a string as any others we’ve seen, even
though it happens to be empty.
Concatenation and the + operator
Java supports the use of a concatenation operator that joins two or more strings together to form one
string:
String myString1 = “Hickory”;
String myString2 = “Dickory”;
String myString3 = “Dock”;
String allInOne = myStringl + myString2 + myString3;
We can also concatenate string literals:
String allInOne = “Hickory” + “Dickory” + “Dock”;
The result is one string containing the contents of all three. In this case, we assign the result to a string
variable. If we were to take a peek at the contents of allInOne, it would look like this:
Hickory DickoryDock
Since we didn’t specify any spaces when concatenating these strings, they were placed one right after
the other. If we wanted spaces, we could have provided them in the string literals, or when performing
the concatenating operation:
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String allInOne = “Hickory ” + “Dickory” + “Dock”;
Or:
String allInOne = “Hickory” + “ ” + “Dickory” + “ ” + “Dock”;
When either of these two approaches is used, the result is a single string with spaces between each set of
characters being joined:
Hickory Dickory Dock
As you now know, we can join both String objects and string literals. In both cases, you are free to break
them up across several lines:
String brokenString = “The string literal you are now” +
“reading has been broken up ” +
“intentionally. In total, it spans ” +
“four lines”;
All four of the preceding string literals are joined as one using the string concatenation operator you’ll
read about in a moment. Using this operator, we can also break up strings inside constructors and
method calls:
String brokenString = new String (“The string literal you are”
+
“now reading has been broken up ” +
“intentionally. In total, it spans ” +
“four lines”);
drawString(“Hello ” +
“World”, 100, 100);
And, although we’ve used string literals already, this applies to String objects as well. In fact, we can
concatenate them both in any fashion we require:
String allInOne = myStringObject + “Here’s a literal” +
anotherStringObject + andAnotherStringObject +
“Plus one more string literal”;
Character constants
When specifying string literals, we can include escape sequences that represent characters such tabs,
carriage returns, and form feeds:
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String myString = “There is a tab between here and \t there.”;
String myString = “There’s a carriage return between here and \r
there.”;
String myString = “There’s a new line between here and \n
there.”;
String myString = “The word \“mouse\” is in double quotes”;
In addition, we can include Unicode escape sequences:
String myString = “There is a trademark symbol between here and
\u2122 there.”;
When adding Unicode escapes, however, keep in mind that just because you can do it doesn’t
mean users will see what you intend. If the system on which your program is executed doesn’t
support the full suite of Unicode characters, or the font used during output doesn’t support that
character, they’ll never see what you specify. As a result, be frugal with Unicode and test your
programs on as wide a range of systems as possible, if you do utilize it in this way.
StringBuffer (java.lang. StringBuffer)
By now, you’re probably pretty comfortable with immutable String objects. When you want to change
them, you can’t. Instead, you create a completely new String object that receives the result of whatever
you want to do to the original. In this way, the original string is preserved, pristine, untouched.
StringBuffer objects, however, allow you to create mutable strings (see Table 12-20). That is, we can rip
’em up without worrying about the compiler having a stroke. However, we don’t have the plethora of
methods to choose from with StringBuffer as we do with String, as you can see from Table 12-21.
Since StringBuffer objects are typically less efficient than String objects, they are usually used only in the
ultimate creation of String objects. In fact, the Java compiler uses StringBuffer objects to implement the
string concatenation operator we saw earlier:
“The string literal you are now ” +
“reading has been broken up ” +
“intentionally. In total, it spans ” +
“four lines”;
The string concatenation compiles like this:
new StringBuffer().append(“The string literal you are now ”).
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append(“reading has been broken up”). append(“intentionally. In
total, it spans ”).append(“four lines”).toString();
Although this might be a bit messy at first glance, begin reading carefully from left to right. You’ll see
that a new StringBuffer object is created, to which each string literal is appended using the append()
method. Finally, the results contained in the StringBuffer object are converted into a String object by way
of the toString() method.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 12-15
java.lang.Double Methods
Method Signature Description
public static long doubleToLongBits (double Returns the bit representation of a double
doubleToLongBits
value) float value.
doubleValue public double doubleValue() Returns the double value of this double.
Compares this object against the
equals equals(Object obj)
specified object.
floatValue public float floatValue() Returns the float value this double.
hashCode public int hashCode() Returns a hash code for this double.
Returns the integer value of this double
intValue public int intValue()
(by casting to an int).
Returns true if this double value is infinite
isInfinite public boolean isInfinite()
in magnitude.
Returns true if the specified number is
isInfinite public boolean isInfinite(double v)
infinite in magnitude.
Returns true if this double value is the
isNaN public boolean isNaN()
special Not-a-Number (NaN) value.
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Returns true if the specified number is
isNaN public static boolean isNaN (double v)
the special Not-a-Number (NaN) value.
Returns the double float corresponding to
longBitsToDouble public static double longBitsToDouble (long bits)
a given bit representation.
Returns the long value of this double (by
longValue public long longValue()
casting to a long).
Returns a string representation of this
toString public String toString()
Double object.
Returns a string representation for the
toString public static String toString (double d)
specified double value.
Returns a new double value initialized to
valueOf valueOf(String) the value represented by the specified
string.
Table 12-16
java.lang.Double Variables
Variable Signature Description
The maximum value a double can
MAX_VALUE public final static double MAX_VALUE
have.
The minimum value a double can
MIN_VALUE public final static double MIN VALUE
have.
NaN public final static double MIN_VALUE Not-a-Number (NaN).
public final static double NEGATIVE_
NEGATIVE_INFINITY Negative infinity.
INFINITY
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public final static double POSITIVE_
POSITIVE_INFINITY Positive infinity.
INFINITY
Table 12-17
java.lang. Long Constructors
Signature Description
public Long(long value) Constructs a Long object initialized to the specified value.
public long Long(String Constructs a Long object initialized to the value specified by the string
s) parameter.
Throws NumberFormatException if the string does not contain a parsable long.
Table 12-18
java.lang.Long Methods
Method Signature Description
doubleValue public double doubleValue() Returns the value of this long as a double.
equals public boolean equals(Object obj) Compares this object against the specified object.
floatValue public float floatValue() Returns the value of this long as a float.
public static long getLong (String
getLong Gets a long property. Returns zero (0) if it does not exist.
nm)
public static long getLong (String Gets a long property. Returns val if it does not exist. Deals
getLong
nm, long val ) with hexadecimal and octal numbers.
hashCode public int hashCode() Computes a hash code for this long.
intValue public int intValue() Returns the value of this long as an int.
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longValue public long longValue() Returns the value of this long as a long
public static long parseLong Assuming the specified string represents a long, return that
parseLong
(String s) long’s value.
Throws NumberFormatException if the string cannot be parsed
as a long.
Assuming the specified string represents a long, returns that
public static tong parseLong
parseLong long’s value. Throws NumberFormatException if the string
(String s, int radix)
cannot be parsed as a long.
toString public String toString() Returns a String object representing this long’s value.
public static String toString (long Returns a new String object representing the specified
toString
i) integer.
public static String toString (long Returns a new String object representing the specified long in
toString
i, the specified radix.
Assuming the specified string represents a long, returns a
public static Long valueOf (String new Long object initialized to that value. Throws
valueOf
s) NumberFormatException if the string does not contain a
parsable long.
Assuming the specified string represents a long, returns a
public static Long valueOf (String new Long object initialized to that value.Throws
valueOf
s. int radix) NumberFormatException if the string cannot be parsed as a
parsable long.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 12-20
java.lang.StringBuffer Constructors
Constructor Signature Description
StringBuffer public StringBuffer() Constructs an empty string buffer.
public StringBuffer (int Constructs an empty string buffer with the specified
StringBuffer (int)
length) initial length.
StringBuffer
StringBuffer (String str) Constructs a string buffer with the specified initial value.
(String)
Table 12-21
java.lang.StringBuffer Methods
Method Signature Description
Appends a boolean to the end of this
append public StringBuffer append(boolean b)
buffer.
Appends a char to the end of this
Append public synchronized StringBuffer append (char c )
buffer.
Appends a double to the end of this
Append public StringBuffer append(double d)
buffer.
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Appends a float to the end of this
Append public StringBuffer append(float f)
buffer.
Append public StringBuffer append(int i) Appends an int to the end of this buffer.
Appends a long to the end of this
Append public StringBuffer append(long l)
buffer.
Appends an object to the end of this
Append public synchronized StringBuffer append (Object obj)
buffer.
Appends a string to the end of this
Append public synchronized StringBuffer append (String str)
buffer.
Appends an array of character strings
Append public synchronized StringBuffer append (char str[])
to the end of this buffer.
public synchronized StringBuffer append (char str[], int Appends part of an array of characters
Append
offset, int len) to the end of this buffer.
Returns the current capacity of the
Capacity public int capacity()
string buffer.
Returns the character at the specified
CharAt public synchronized char charAt(int index)
index.
Ensures that the capacity of the buffer
public synchronized void ensureCapacity (int
capacity is at least equal to the specified
minimumCapacity)
minimum.
Copies the characters of the specified
public synchronized void getChars(int srcBegin, int srcEnd, substring (determined by srcBegin and
GetChars
char dst[], int dstBegin) srcEnd) into the character array, starting
at the array’s dstBegin location.
Insert public StringBuffer insert (int offset, boolean b) Inserts a boolean into the string buffer.
Insert public synchronized StringBuffer insert (int offset, char c) Inserts a char into the string buffer.
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Inserts an array of characters into the
Insert public synchronized StringBuffer insert
string buffer.
Insert public StringBuffer insert(int offset, double d) Inserts a double into the string buffer.
Insert public StringBuffer insert(int offset, float f) Inserts a float into the string buffer.
Insert public StringBuffer insert(int offset, int i) Inserts an int into the string buffer.
Insert public StringBuffer insert(int offset, long l ) Inserts a long into the string buffer.
public synchronized StringBuffer insert (int offset, Object
Insert Inserts an object into the string buffer.
obj)
Insert public synchronized StringBuffer insert (int offset, String str) Inserts a string into the string buffer.
Returns the length (character count) of
Length public int length()
the buffer.
Changes the character at the specified
SetCharAt public synchronized void setCharAt(int index, char ch)
index to be ch.
SetLength public synchronized void setLength(int newLength) Sets the length of the string.
Converts to a string representing the
ToString() public String toString()
data in the buffer.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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As you can see, the bulk of StringBuffer methods are variations of append() and insert(). This is because
StringBuffer is specifically built to grow as input is appended to it, and also to allow changes to the data,
as seen with the insert() method.
Creating StringBuffer objects
You’ll also notice three StringBuffer constructors, each of which creates a “buffer of strings.” One
constructor creates an empty string buffer, another creates an empty string buffer set to the initial length
you specify, and the last creates a string buffer from the String object you provide:
StringBuffer myBuffer = new StringBuffer(); // empty
StringBuffer myBuff2 = new StringBuffer(50); /* empty, 50
characters in length */
StringBuffer myBuff3 = new StringBuffer(“Hello”); // using String
Although it may be tempting to create empty buffers of unspecified length, it’s much more efficient to
specify the length if possible. When you don’t, or if you use a String object when creating a string buffer,
memory must be allocated whenever something is appended to the buffer. When the size is known, as in
the last two examples, the buffer allocates the memory in advance and doesn’t need to allocate more,
unless it grows beyond that size.
Thus, the following is discouraged:
StringBuffer myBuffer = new StringBuffer();
myBuffer.append(“There once was a mouse from Nantucket”);
In favor of this:
StringBuffer myBuffer =
new StringBuffer(“There once was a mouse from Nantucket”);
Or this:
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StringBuffer myBuffer =
new StringBuffer(37); /* exactly what we
need */
myBuffer.append(“There once was a mouse from Nantucket”);
Or even this:
StringBuffer myBuffer = new StringBuffer(50); /* a little more
than we need */
myBuffer.append(“There once was a mouse from Nantucket”);
Modifying StringBuffer objects
Once we’ve created a StringBuffer object, whether of a specified length or empty, we can add data to it or
change data already in it. To append data, we use one of the many append() methods. To change data, we
use one of the various insert() methods.
Although you’ve already seen append() in action, there are a number of other data types you can append.
In the preceding examples, we’ve appended strings. However, as you can see from Tables 12-2 through
12-19, we could add primitive data types (boolean, char, int, long, float, double) and other objects.
For example, assume in each of the following examples that the StringBuffer variable, myBuff, contains
“Hickory” already.
We can append a boolean such as this:
myBuff.append(false); // results in “Hickoryfalse”.
An int such as this:
myBuff.append(13565); // results in “Hickory13565”
What if we append a long?
myBuff.append(35356253565L); // results in “Hickory35356253565”
Perhaps a floating-point value?
myBuff.append(4564.62); // results in “Hickory4564.62”
Let’s not forget the double:
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myBuff.append(4.76645D); // results in “Hickory4.76645”
However, we might want to append an object, as opposed to these primitive data types:
Button myButton = new Button(“Click Me”);
myBuff.append(myButton); // append the button object
Before the appending takes place, the Button object is converted into a string. As a result, myBuffer would
be:
“Hickoryjava.awt.Button[0,0,0x0,invalid, label=Click Me]”
Since all objects know how to output themselves in string format, you can append them to or
insert them into StringBuffer objects. You can also determine whether String objects are equal to
other objects:
myString.equals(anyObject);
In addition to appending data to the end of a StringBuffer, you can insert data into a specific location. All
you need to do is provide an offset into the buffer:
myBuff.insert(3,true); // results in “Hictruekory”
myBuff.insert(6,13565): // results in “Hickor13565y”
myBuff.insert(2,4564.62); // results in “Hi4564.62ckory”
However, insert() won’t grow the buffer if you mistakenly provide an offset outside its bounds. For
example, suppose we tried to add the last floating-point value with an offset of 8:
myBuff.insert(8,4564.62); // exceeds bounds!
Since the buffer isn’t large enough to accommodate this insertion, the following exception is spit out at
runtime:
java.lang. StringIndexOutOfBoundsException
at java.lang.StringBuffer.insert(StringBuffer.java:333)
at java.lang. StringBuffer.insert(StringBuffer.java:432)
at StringTest.main(StringTest.java:97)
Although StringBuffer objects are most commonly used to create larger strings by appending and
inserting, you can directly change the contents of any of the elements in buffer using setCharat().
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Although this example, and our previous treatment of String objects, might lead to us believe that both
the String and StringBuffer classes are really arrays, the truth is they are both descendants of Object.
However, they do indeed seem to be arrays at times, especially when accessing or setting contents at a
specific offset.
Yet, they are not arrays. String and StringBuffer are defined in their own distinct classes, and merely
support the type of behavior we’re accustomed to seeing with arrays. To understand the difference, let’s
take a look at arrays.
Arrays
In Java, arrays are truly first-class objects. Not only are they impossible to subclass, you won’t even find
a class definition for them. Instead, Java knows internally about arrays and how to treat them, just as it
knows how to deal with primitive data types without offering a class for each (keep in mind that type
wrappers for primitives are different from the primitives themselves; there are type wrapper classes, but
no primitive classes).
Unlike String and StringBuffer objects, which can contain only character data, arrays are capable of
holding any type of data we need, even other arrays. The only restriction is that each element in the array
must be of the same type. You can’t, for example, have an int in one element of an array, and a char in
another. All of the elements in a given array must be of the same type.
As you might recall from Chapter 7, to declare an array we need specify only two things:
• A variable through which we’ll access the array
• The data type of the elements the array will contain
To signal that this isn’t a standard variable, we use a pair of braces ( [ ] ) to identify the object as an array:
int myIntegers[]; // declare an array of integers
char myCharacters[]; // declare an array of characters
float myFloats[]; // declare an array of floating point numbers
String myStrings[]; // declare an array of String objects
StringBuffer myStringBuffs[]; // declare array of StringBuffers
When you see the braces attached to a variable, you know immediately that it’s actually an array of
elements instead of a single element:
However, there is another way to declare arrays in Java:
int[] myIntegers; // declare an array of integers
char[] myCharacters; // declare an array of characters
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float[] myFloats; // declare an array of floating point numbers
String[] myStrings; // declare an array of String objects
StringBuffer[] myStringBuffs;// declare array of StringBuffers
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Here, we’ve declared exactly the same arrays, but used a slightly different notation to do so. Some
programmers prefer this approach because they don’t have to look at the variable name to see that
they’re dealing with an array. Instead, they can quickly scan the data type listing to see which elements
are arrays and which are standard variables.
Although it may not seem like a big deal, consider the following:
int myInt, aInt, myInt, theInt, anotherInt, anyInt; // ints
float myFloat, afloat, myFloater, theFloats[], floating,
anyFloat; // floats
char myChar, aChar, myChar, theChar, character, anyChar; //
chars
Granted, it takes only a moment to scan the list of variables to see that the Floats [ ] is an array. However,
it’s much more apparent in the following variable declaration:
int myInt, aInt, myInt, theInt, anotherInt, anyInt; // ints
float myFloat, afloat, myFloater , floating, anyFloat; // floats
float[] theFloats; // floats
char myChar, aChar, myChar, theChar, character, anyChar; // chars
By scanning the data types, you can see immediately which are arrays, thanks to the pair of brackets
immediately following the data type. Using this notation saves the time of scanning through each
variable in search of brackets· Although insignificant when you’re wide awake and dealing with a
relatively small group of variables, it’s quite significant at the end of a long day, with half a page of
variables to wade through.
Instantiating arrays
Once you’ve declared an array, chances are you’ll want to do something with it. In order to use it, you
must first instantiate an Array object. Without an Array object, you have only an empty array variable.
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In order to create an Array object, we typically use the new operator:
int myIntegers[]; // array declaration
. . .
myIntegers = new int[25]; // instantiation
While this example illustrates the fact that array declaration and instantiation are two distinct steps, as
with standard Java objects, they’re often more closely associated in practice· Usually, the array
declaration and instantiation happen at the same time:
int myIntegers[] = new int[25]; // declare and instantiate
When creating an Array object, we supply what is known as a dimension for that array. In the preceding
examples, the dimension is 25. As a result, the array has 25 elements in it. If we supplied a dimension of
2483, the array would have 2483 elements.
Auto-initialization
So, when an Array object is instantiated as shown, it contains the number of elements you specify as the
dimension. The array is effectively empty at this time, and each element is initialized to a default value.
With integral arrays, each element is initialized to zero (0). Each element in an array of booleans, on the
other hand, is automatically initialized to false. In all other cases, such as with String objects and other
compound data types (that is, any non-primitive), each element is initialized to null.
In-line initialization
In cases where you already know the elements you’d like to have in an array, you can save the time and
effort of placing each into its position by providing them at the time of declaration:
int[] myIntegers2 = {123, 354, 235, 6255, 1, 35, 42563};
In this case, you don’t have to explicitly dimension the array. We can have a good deal of work done for
us by setting the array equal to the elements surrounded with curly braces, each separated by a comma.
In the last example, the compiler sees that we want to add seven elements, and therefore does the rest of
the work automatically. The array is created and each element is added. We don’t have to dimension the
array and we don’t have to fill it ourselves (more on filling arrays in a moment).
This applies to arrays of any type; as long as you know what elements you want, you can add them in-
line at the time of declaration:
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String[] myStrings = {“Hickory”, “Dickory”, “ Dock”};
float[] myFloats = {253.35, 2.0, 644.13, 35612., 6.7};
char[] myCharacters = {‘H’, ‘e’, ‘l’, ‘l’, ‘o’};
Of course, as with any array, the data in each element in a given array must be of the same type. For
example, you can’t add a String object to an array of floating-point numbers. If you try, the compiler will
rap your knuckles.
Anonymous arrays
With JDK 1.0, you can only use the curly-braces syntax when you’re defining an array. With
JDK 1.1, however, the usage of the array initializer syntax has been extended. One of the most
important benefits of this is that you can now create an anonymous array, and using the curly
brace syntax, initialize the array when it is allocated. For example:
int[] a;
a = new int[] {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
This creates an anonymous array a, which is created and initialized when new is called to allocate the
array. When memory for a is allocated, enough space is allocated to hold the initialization items found in
the curly braces—in this example, enough space for five integer array elements. While this new feature
won’t revolutionize your Java applications, it does make the process of creating dynamic arrays just a
little bit easier.
Setting and retrieving array elements
In certain circumstances, we can fill an array in-line at the time it’s declared. Where possible, this is
helpful, since we don’t have to do it ourselves. Unfortunately, it’s not usually possible to do this. Often,
we’re not certain which elements are going to be in an array at the time it’s created. In these cases, we
must fill the array later.
To fill an array, or a portion of an array, we access a particular element in it with an index value and set
it equal to whatever we want to be stored in it. Of course, the data we’re trying to stuff into an array
element must be the same type as the array is declared to hold:
int[] myIntegers = new int[25]; // create array with 25 elements
myIntegers[1] = 2353; // set element at index 1 to 2353
In this code, we’re stuffing the int value of 2353 into index 1 of the array. Because this is an array of
integers, the assignment is legal. To attempt a string assignment, on the other hand, would prevent your
code from compiling.
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The term index, or subscript, is used to refer to a particular position in an array. If we supply
the value of 5 as an index or subscript for an array, we’re said to be accessing the array at
index 5, yet retrieving the value stored at position 6.
This is because indexing begins at zero (0)! When you supply an index/subscript value of 5, you’ll
actually receive the sixth item in the array.
As you may recall from Chapter 7, array indexing begins at zero (0). C and C++ programmers are
already familiar with this approach, although it can sometimes result in problems. If you’re not careful,
you might attempt to access an element beyond the legal range of index values.
In our example, the legal range of index values is 0 to 24. The first item in the array is set or retrieved
using:
myIntegers[0]
while the last item is available with:
myIntegers[24]
If you attempt to access an element with an index of 25, you’re in for trouble:
myIntegers[25]; // ILLEGAL - INDEX OUT OF RANGE!
Although the compiler will let this pass, the runtime system throws an ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException
exception. This is one of the particularly nice things about both arrays and strings in Java; the system
catches oversights such as this and throws an exception. Rather than slipping through to the customer’s
hands, this bug is caught the first time the line of code is executed.
At times, you may want all items in an array to be set to the same value. In this case, it’s much
easier to use a loop than to set each manually:
int highScores[] = new int[25]; /* declare array of 25
integers */
for (short i=0; i < 25; i++) {
highScores[i] = 9999; /* initialize each array element
to 9999 */
}
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This approach can be used even in cases where each element is different. As long as you can get the data
you need for each element while inside the body of the loop, you can fill an array with this technique.
For example, you might fill an array with characters typed by the user:
char keystrokes[] = new char[500]; // declare array of 500
characters
char keyChar; // variable to hold keyboard input
for (short i=0; i < 500; i++) { // load up to 500 characters
keyChar = System.in.read(); /* Get character from standard
input stream */
if (keyChar == -1) /* has user attempted to break out of
the process? */
break; // break out of loop
else
keyStrokes[i] = keyChar; // stuff keyboard input into array
}
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
To retrieve an element in an array, you do the opposite of setting an element. Rather than stuffing an
item into an element, you set a variable equal to that element:
myVariable = myIntegers[4]; // get 5th item in array
myString = myStrings[10]; // get 11th item in array
When retrieving elements in an array, it’s often helpful to subtract 1 from the value representing the item
you want. For example, if you want to retrieve the tenth item in an array, you can use either of the
following approaches:
theNum = myIntegers[9]; // explicit
theNum = myIntegers[10-1]; // using “off by one” technique
Although the latter is less efficient, since the calculation must take place before the element is accessed,
it’s often easier to understand if you haven’t dealt much with arrays. (For more details on this technique,
see Chapter 7.)
To determine the number of elements in an array, use the length variable:
int len = myArray.length; // get the length and assign to
a variable */
Keep in mind that the length used here is a variable, not a method as seen with String and StringBuffer
objects.
Array of Arrays
Although Java doesn’t support multidimensional arrays, it offers essentially the same capability by
allowing us to create an array of arrays:
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Java Bible:Strings and Arrays
int grid[][] = new int[10][10];
grid[0][0] = 1230;
grid[0][5] = 4;
grid[9][5] = 355;
System.out.println( “Grid value at 0,0 is ” + grid[0][0] ) ;
System.out.println( “Grid value at 0,5 is ” + grid[0][5] ) ;
System.out.println( “Grid value at 9,5 is ” + grid[9][5] ) ;
In the preceding snippet of code, we created two arrays of integer values, both accessible through the
grid variable. Although we created each array with ten elements, they didn’t have to be of the same
dimension:
int grid[][] = new int[15][10];
grid[14][9] = 2265;
System.out.println( “Grid value at 14,9 is ” + grid[14][9] ) ;
We can create as many arrays as necessary, each accessible through the single variable:
int grid2[][][] = new int[15][10][53];
grid2[0][0][0] = 4630;
grid2[4][5][1] = 7345;
grid2[9][5][0] = 35;
grid2[14][9][0] = 6465;
grid2[14][9][4] = 16547;
System.out.println( “Grid2 value at 0,0,0 is ” +
grid2[0][0][0]);
System.out.println( “Grid2 value at 0,5,1 is ” +
grid2[4][5][1]);
System.out.println( “Grid2 value at 9,5,0 is ” +
grid2[9][5][0]);
System.out.println( “Grid2 value at 14,9,4 is ” +
grid2[14][9][4]);
And we can even use an array of arrays in another array of arrays, to give us as many dimensions as
we’d like.
Exceptions
Thanks to arrays being objects, we’re alerted any time something illegal is done with them. Rather than
allowing such activity to slip through the cracks, Java let’s us know right away when our program is
doing something it shouldn’t.
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The two exceptions you’re most likely to encounter when dealing with arrays are
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException and ArrayStoreException.
Whenever an attempt is made to access an item with an index that is out of the legal range, whether that
index is too Iow (negative) or too high, an ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException is thrown. If, however, you
attempt to store an element in an array that’s of a type different than was declared for the array, you’ll
receive an ArrayStoreException.
Utility Classes (java.util Package)
In addition to the String, StringBuffer, and Array data storage and retrieval mechanisms provided by Java,
we have a number of additional classes to choose from, thanks to the java.util package. These are shown
in Table 12-22.
Table 12-22
Package java.util Interfaces, Classes, and Exceptions
Interfaces
Enumeration Observer
Classes
BitSet Calendar
Dictionary Hashtable
ListResourceBundle Observable
Properties PropertyResourceBundle
Random ResourceBundle
Stack StringTokenizer
Date Vector
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TimeZone
Exceptions
EmptyStackException NoSuchElementException
In this package, you’ll find classes for dealing with hash tables, stacks, vectors, and bit sets.
While each of these has a specific function, you’ll find they each provide a mechanism for
storing and retrieving data.
Hashtable
A hash table maps keys to values, values which can be any Java object. Whatever object you use as a
key, however, must implement the hashCode() and equals() methods.
In the following snippet of code, we create a hash table to track the amount of stock a store might have.
We use the names of the items in stock as keys, and give each a value:
Hashtable stockLevels = new Hashtable() ;
stockLevels.put( “Radios”, new Integer(4343) );
stockLevels.put( “Bikes”, new Integer(523) );
stockLevels.put( “Chairs”, new Integer(3563) );
stockLevels.put( “Bananas”, new Integer(646) );
// now retrieve the number of Bananas in stock:
Integer n = (Integer)stockLevels.get(“Bananas”);
if (n != null) {
System.out.println( “Yes, we have ”+ n + “ bananas.”);
}
The Hashtable class (see Tables 12-23 and 12-24) is a descendant of the abstract Dictionary class, which
allows for the association of items using keys and values. A particularly powerful feature of hash tables
is their ability to store more than one type of data. While String and StringBuffer objects can contain only
characters, and arrays can have only elements of the same type, we can mix and match the data types
stored in a hash table.
Even though we stored values of Integer objects in the preceding example, each could have been a
different data type. If, for example, we wanted to store a string as the Banana value, we might have
written the following:
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stockLevels.put(“ Bananas”, new String( “lots o’ naners”) );
However, when retrieving this element, we’d have to get it as a String object. If we attempted to extract it
as an Integer object, as we did earlier, a ClassCastException would be thrown (since a string can’t be cast
into an int). As a result, we would use something like the following to output the value of the Bananas key:
System.out.println(stockLevels.get( “Bananas”));
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Table 12-23
java.util.Hashtable Constructors
Signature Description
public Hashtable() Constructs a new, empty hash table.
Constructs a new, empty hash table with the specified initial
public Hashtable (int initial Capacity)
capacity.
Constructs a new, empty hash table with the specified initial
Hashtable(int initialCapacity float capacity and the specified toad factor. Throws
loadFactor) IllegalArgumentException if the initial capacity or load factor is less
than or equal to zero.
Table 12-24
java.util.Hashtable Methods
Method Signature Description
Clears the hash table so that it has no more
clear clear()
elements in it.
Clone clone() Creates a clone of the hash table.
public synchronized boolean contains (Object Returns true if the specified object is an element
Contains
value) of the hash table.
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public synchronized boolean containsKey Returns true if the collection contains an element
ContainsKey
(Object key) for the key.
Elements public synchronized Enumeration elements() Returns an enumeration of the elements.
Gets the object associated with the specified key
Get public synchronized Object get(Object key)
in the hash table.
Returns true if the hash table contains no
IsEmpty public boolean isEmpty()
elements.
Keys public synchronized Enumeration keys() Returns an enumeration of the hash table’s keys.
public synchronized Object put(Object key, Puts the specified element into the hash table,
Put
Object value) using the specified key.
Rehashes the content of the table into a bigger
Rehash protected void rehash()
table.
public synchronized Object remove(Object
Remove Removes the element corresponding to the key.
key)
Returns the number of elements contained in the
Size public int size()
hash table.
ToString public synchronized String toString() Converts to a rather lengthy string.
Vectors
Although arrays are nice and convenient to use, sometimes you need the ability to grow them. However,
as you know, arrays must be dimensioned to a certain size before they are used. And once set, you can’t
change that dimension.
Vectors, on the other hand (see Tables 12-25, 12-26, and 12-27), are growable arrays. Rather than being
constrained to a specific number of elements, you can expand them as needed. In the following example,
we’ll create an empty Vector and add two elements to it:
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Vector myVector = new Vector(); // create a vector
String myString = “Obla-de, obla-da”; // any ’ol String
Button myButton = new Button( “life goes on” ); // a Button
/* Add objects to our vector: */
myVector.addElement(myString);
myVector.addElement(myButton);
/* Now retrieve the button (notice the cast): */
anotherButton = (Button) myVector.lastElement();
Notice how we managed to cram a Button object and a String object into the Vector object? Anything you
put into a vector is first converted into a plain vanilla object, meaning you can put anything you’d like
into it. But in order to get something out, you have to know what to cast it to! This is seen in the last line
of the preceding code, where we retrieve the last item as a Button; because it was a Button object going in,
we need to cast it to a Button object coming out.
You can take a great deal of work off the runtime system by creating your vectors with an
initial storage capacity; if you don’t, each new element that is added forces the Vector to
expand—a significant effort on Java’s part and one to avoid if at all possible.
Table 12-25
java.util.Vector Constructors
Signature Description
public Vector() Constructs an empty vector.
Constructs an empty vector with the specified storage
public Vector(int initialCapacity)
capacity.
public Vector(int initialCapacity, int capacity Constructs an empty vector with the specified storage
Increment) capacity and the specified capacity increment.
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Table 12-26
java.util.Vector Methods
Method Signature Description
public final synchronized void addElement(Object Adds the specified object as the last
addElement
obj) element of the vector.
Returns the current capacity of the
Capacity public final int capacity()
vector.
Clones this vector. Elements are not
Clone public synchronized Object clone()
cloned.
Returns true if the specified object is a
Contains public final boolean contains (Object elem)
value of the collection.
public final synchronized void copyInto(Object Copies the elements of this vector
CopyInto
AnArray[] ) into the specified array.
public final synchronized Object elementAt(int Returns the element at the specified
ElementAt
index) index.
Returns an enumeration of the
Elements public final synchronized Enumeration elements()
elements.
public final synchronized void ensureCapacity(int Ensures that the vector has at least
Ensure Capacity
minCapacity) the specified capacity.
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Returns the first element of the
First Element public final synchronized Object firstElement()
sequence.
Searches for the specified object,
IndexOf public final int indexOf(Object elem) starting from the first position, and
returns an index to it.
Searches for the specified object,
public final synchronized int indexOf(Object elem,
IndexOf starting at the specified position, and
int index)
returns an index to it.
public final synchronized void insertElementAt Inserts the specified object as an
Insert ElementAt
(Object obj, int index) element at the specified index.
Returns true if the collection contains
IsEmpty public final boolean isEmpty()
no values.
Returns the last element of the
LastElement public final synchronized Object lastElement()
sequence.
Searches backwards for the specified
LastIndexOf public final int lastIndexOf(Object elem) object, starting from the last position,
and returns an index to it.
Searches backwards for the specified
public final synchronized int lastIndexOf(Object
LastIndexOf object, starting from the specified
elem, int index)
position, and returns an index to it.
RemoveAll public final synchronized void removeAll Elements
Removes all elements of the vector.
Elements ()
public final synchronized boolean removeElement Removes the element from the
Remove Element
(Object) vector.
public final synchronized void removeElementAt(int Deletes the element at the specified
Remove ElementAt
index) index.
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public final synchronized void setElementAt(Object Sets the element at the specified
Set ElementAt
obj, int index) index to be the specified object.
SetSize public final synchronized void setSize(int newSize) Sets the size of the vector.
Returns the number of elements in
Size public final int size()
the vector.
ToString public final synchronized String toString() Converts the vector to a string.
Trims the vector’s capacity to the
TrimToSize public final synchronized void trimToSize()
appropriate size.
Table 12-27
java.util.Vector Variables
Variable Signature Description
capacityIncrement protected int capacityIncrement The size of the increment.
ElementCount protected int elementCount The number of elements in the buffer.
ElementData protected Object elementData The buffer where elements are stored.
Stacks
A common data storage mechanism used by many programmers is the stack (see Table 12-28), which
allows you to push() objects onto it and pop() objects off when they need to be retrieved. Stacks follow a
Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) ordering, meaning the last object you push() onto the stack will be the first one
you receive when you call pop().
Table 12-28
java.util.Stack Constructor, Methods, and Variables
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Constructor Signature Description
Stack public Stack() Creates a new Stack object.
Methods Signature Description
empty public boolean empty() Returns true if the stack is empty.
Peek public Object peek() Peeks at the top of the stack.
Pop public Object pop() Pops an item off the stack.
Push public Object push (Object item) Pushes an item onto the stack.
Search public int search (Object item) Sees if an object is on the stack.
The Stack class is a subclass of Vector, meaning you don’t have to worry about how many items a Stack
object will contain. You can simply create one and begin using it without worrying about how many
items you’ll eventually push() onto it.
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StringTokenizer
At times, you’ll need to retrieve the chunks of information stored in a String object. Such chunks, or
tokens, must each be separated by a delimiter, such as a comma or a space. When you have such
elements in a string, you can retrieve them using the StringTokenizer class.
For example, suppose you’ve stored a series of words into a string, as we’ve done in earlier examples:
String myString = “There once was a mouse from Nantucket”;
Since each of the words is separated by a space, you could retrieve them as follows:
StringTokenizer tokens = new StringTokenizer(myString);
while (tokens.hasMoreTokens()) {
System.out.println(tokens.nextToken());
}
When executed, the preceding code would output each word in the string on its own line:
There
once
was
a
mouse
from
Nantucket
Since the default delimiter for StringTokenizer is a space, we didn’t have to do anything special to retrieve
these words. If we were dealing with a delimiter other than a space, we could specify that delimiter
when creating the StringTokenizer object, or when reading tokens.
Resource bundles
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New to the jav.util package in JDK 1.1 is the concept of resource bundles. You use the
ResourceBundle classes to define sets of localized resources that can be loaded dynamically
based on the location the program is running. For example, text, images, and menus can be
stored and retrieved from a resource bundle stream. While a ResourceBundle class is provided, it
is not directly used. The ListResourceBundle and PropertyResourceBundle classes are used to access
resource bundle streams. The ListResourceBundle class (see Table 12-29) is used to access
resources as a list, while the PropertyResourceBundle class (see Table 12-30) is used to access
resources through a property key. I discuss streams and storing objects on streams in more
detail in Chapter 13.
Table 12-29
java.util.ListResourceBundle
Constructor Signature Description
ListResource
ListResourceBundle() Creates a list resource bundle
Bundle
Method Signature Description
Enumerates the keys available in the resource
getKeys Enumeration getKeys()
bundle
Object handleGet Object(String Gets the object with the specified key from the
HandleGet Object
key) resource bundle
Table 12-30
java.util.PropertyResourceBundle
Constructor Signature Description
Property Resource PropertyResource Bundle(InputStream Creates a property resource bundle that
Bundle stream) reads from the specified stream
Method Signature Description
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Enumerates the keys available in the
getKeys Enumeration getKeys()
resource bundle
Gets the object with the specified key
HandleGet Object Object handleGet Object(String key)
from the resource bundle
Miscellany
In addition to the various data storage and retrieval classes we’ve seen, the java.util package
includes others that may be of use.
For example, you might consider the BitSet class if ever you require a growable storage mechanism for
bits. If you’re dealing with streams and need to include the functionality of a hash table, you’ll want to
take a look at the Properties() class, which allows you to create a hash table that can be saved and loaded
from a stream.
Finally, this package features a few classes that don’t have anything to do with saving and retrieving
your own data: Calendar, Date, Random, and TimeZone. The Calendar and TimeZone classes are new to JDK
1.1. The constructors, methods, and variables for these classes are listed in Tables 12-31 through 12-38.
Table 12-31
Java.util.Date Constructors
Signature Description
publicDate() Creates today’s date/time.
public Date(long date) Creates a date.
public Date(int year, int month, int date) Creates a date.
public Date(int year, int month, int date, int hours, int
Creates a date.
minutes)
public Date(int year, int month, int date, int hours, int
Creates a date.
minutes, int sec)
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Creates a date from a string, according to the syntax
public Date(String s)
accepted by parse().
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Table 12-32
java.util.Date Methods
Method Signature Description
public static longUTC (int year, int month, 1 2
UTC Calculates a UTC value from YMDHMS
int date, int hrs, int min, int sec)
Checks whether this date comes after the
After public boolean after (Date when)
specified date.
Checks whether this date comes before the
Before public boolean before (Date when)
specified date.
Compares this object against the specified
Equals public boolean equals (Object obj)
object.
GetDate public int getDate() Returns the day of the month.
GetDay public int getDay() Returns the day of the week.
GetHours public int getHours() Returns the hour.
GetMinutes public int getMinutes() Returns the minute.
GetMonth public int getMonth() Returns the month.
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GetSeconds public int getSeconds() Returns the second.
Returns the time in milliseconds since the
GetTime public long getTime()
epoch.
GetTimezone Returns the time zone offset in minutes for the
public int getTime zoneOffset()
Offset current locale that is appropriate for this time.
GetYear public int getYear() Returns the year after 1900.
HashCode public int hashCode() Computes a hash code.
Given a string representing a time, parses it
Parse public static long parse(String s)
and returns the time value.
SetDate public void setDate(int date) Sets the date.
SetHours public void setHours (int hours) Sets the hours.
SetMinutes public void setMinutes (int minutes) Sets the minutes.
SetMonth public void setMonth (int month) Sets the month.
SetSeconds public void setSeconds (int Seconds) Sets the seconds.
SetTime public void setTime (long time) Sets the time.
SetYear public void setYear(int year) Sets the year.
Converts a date to a string, using the Internet
ToGMTString public String toGMT String() 3
GMT conventions.
Converts a date to a string, using the locale
ToLocale String public String toLocale String()
conventions.
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Converts a date to a string, using the UNIX
ToString public String toString()
time conventions.
1
UTC: Coordinated Universal Time
2
ymdhms: Year, Month, Day, Hour, Minute, Second
3
GMT: Greenwich Mean Time
The Date class allows us to retrieve the current date and supports a number of methods for dealing with
dates and times:
Date today = new Date();
System.out.println( “The date today is: ” + today);
In the current release of Java, Date doesn’t properly represent days prior to January 1, 1970.
This is expected to be resolved in a future release of the language.
The Calendar class (see Tables 12-33, 12-34, and 12-35) is used to perform date and time arithmetic. It
also includes methods used to convert dates and times between binary representations used by the Date
class and standard units—such as minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and years—that are more
understandable to people.
Table 12-33
java.util.Calendar Constructors
Signature Description
Creates an empty Calendar object using the default time zone and
Calendar()
locale.
Calendar (TimeZone zone, Locale
Creates a calendar for a specific time zone and locale.
aLocale)
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Table 12-38
java.util.Random Methods
Methods Signature Description
Generates a pseudorandom, uniformly distributed
nextDouble() public doublenext Double()
double value between 0.0 and 1.0.
Generates a pseudorandom, uniformly distributed
nextFloat() public floatnext Float()
float value between 0.0 and 1.0.
Generates a pseudorandom, Gaussian-distributed
nextGaussian public synchronized doublenext Gaussian
double value with mean 0.0 and standard deviation
() ()
1.0.
Generates a pseudorandom, uniformly distributed
nextInt() public intnextInt()
int value.
Generates a pseudorandom, uniformly distributed
nextLong() public int next Long()
long value.
Sets the seed of the random number generator,
setSeed(long) public int setSeed (long)
using a single long seed.
The nextGaussian() method returns a Gaussian distributed double that is centered at 0.0 with a
standard deviation of 1.0, which is also known as a bell curve.
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The java.lang.Math class also defines a random-number generator that returns a double-precision
floating-point value between 0.0 and 1.0:
double random();
In both cases, the values returned aren’t considered truly random, since they tend to repeat themselves
after a period of time.
With java.util. Random, you can change the generator’s seed value as needed. By supplying the same seed,
the sequence of generated numbers will be the same.
Summary
Now you understand how to add strings, arrays, and other fundamental programming structures to your
Java applications. You’re well on your way now to creating your own complex Java programs. Key
concepts to remember from this chapter include these:
• Java strings aren’t like the ones we’re accustomed to in C and C++. In those languages, strings
are simply an array of null-terminated characters. Java strings, however, are actually objects
defined by the String class. As a result, they feature a number of methods that are used to access
their contents. With Java, strings are first-class objects that support a well-defined set of methods.
• Java provides two distinct string classes: String and StringBuffer. The String class is used to create
String objects which are immutable; their contents can’t be altered once characters have been
stored in them. StringBuffer, on the other hand, is specifically for strings that are mutable, or able
to be changed even after characters have been stored in them.
• In Java, arrays are truly first-class objects. Not only are they impossible to subclass, you won’t
even find a class definition for them. Instead, Java knows internally about arrays and how to treat
them, just as it knows how to deal with primitive data types without offering a class for each
(keep in mind that type wrappers for primitives are different from the primitives themselves;
there are type wrapper classes, but no primitive classes). Unlike String and StringBuffer objects,
which can contain only character data, arrays are capable of holding any type of data we need,
even other arrays. The only restriction is that each element in the array must be of the same type.
• The Hashtable class is a descendant of the abstract Dictionary class, which allows for the
association of items using keys and values. A particularly powerful feature of hash tables is their
ability to store more than one type of data. While String and StringBuffer objects can contain only
characters, and arrays can have only elements of the same type, we can mix and match the data
types stored in a hash table.
• Vectors are growable arrays. Rather than being constrained to a specific number of elements,
you can expand them as needed.
• A common data storage mechanism used by many programmers is the stack, which allows you
to push() objects onto it and pop() objects off when they need to be retrieved. Stacks follow a Last-
In-First-Out (LIFO) ordering, meaning the last object you push() onto the stack will be the first
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one you receive when you call pop().
• At times, you’ll need to retrieve the chunks of Information stored in a String object. Such
chunks, or tokens, must each be separated by a delimiter, such as a comma or a space. When you
have such elements in a string, you can retrieve them using the StringTokenizer class.
• New to the jav.util package in JDK 1.1 is the concept of resource bundles. You use the
ResourceBundle classes to define sets of localized resources that can be loaded dynamically based
on the location the program is running. For example, text, images, and menus can be stored and
retrieved from a resource bundle stream.
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The following example demonstrates how to create a Calendar object, specify a date and time, and
perform some simple arithmetic:
Calendar Date1 = new Calendar();
Date1.set(1998,1,1,11,5); /* Set the date to 1/1/1998
and time to 11:05 */
System.out.println( “The current time is ” +
Date1.get(Date1.HOUR) + “:” +
Date1.get(Date1.MINUTE) );
Date1.add(3, Date1.HOUR); // Add 3 hours to the time
System.out.println(“The new time is ” +
Date1.get(Date1.HOUR) + “:” +
Date1.get(Date1.MINUTE) );
The TimeZone class (see Table 12-36) is used to represent geographical time zones.
Table 12-36
java.util.TimeZone Constructor and Methods
Methods Signature Description
TimeZone TimeZone () Creates a time zone object
getAvailableIDs IDs(int Gets the available time zone IDs for
String[] getAvailable
rawOffset) the given time zone offset
getAvailableIDs String[] getAvailable IDs() Gets all of the IDs supported
getDefault TimeZone getDefault() Gets the current default time zone
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Gets the TimeZone for the specified
getTimeZone TimeZone getTimeZone (String ID)
ID
setDefault void setDefault(Time Zone zone) Sets the default time zone
clone Object clone() Clones the current TimeZone object
getID String getID() Gets the ID of the current time zone
int getOffset(int era, int year, int month, Gets the time zone offset, for
getOffset int day, int dayOfWeek, int current date, modified in case of
milliseconds) daylight savings time
Gets the unmodified offset, not
getRawOffset int getRawOffset()
modified for daylight savings time
Determines if the date is using
inDayLightTime boolean inDaylight Time(Date date)
daylight savings time
setID void setID(String ID) Sets the current time zone ID
Sets the base time zone offset to
setRawOffset void setRawOffset(int offsetMillis)
GMT (Greenwich Mean Time)
Determines if the time zone uses
useDaylightTime boolean useDaylight Time()
daylight savings time
You can use the TimeZone class to determine the current time zone by calling the getDefault method, or to
enumerate the available time zones. The Calendar class is the primary user of TimeZone objects.
The TimeZone class can be used to retrieve the current time zone and its attributes. The following
example demonstrates how to retrieve the current time zone and determine if it uses daylight savings
time:
TimeZone tz = new TimeZone();
if(tz.useDaylightTime()) {
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System.out.println(“Daylight savings time is used” );
} else {
System.out.println(“Daylight savings time is NOT” +
“used”);
};
The Random class (see Tables 12-37 and 12-38) is used to create randomly generated numbers:
Random myRand = new Random();
int aRandomint = myRand.nextInt();
long aRandomLong = myRand.nextLong();
float aRandomFloat = myRand.nextFloat();
double aRandomDouble = myRand.nextDouble();
double aRandomGaussian = myRand.nextGaussian();
In this example, we’ve created a Random object and extracted a variety of random values from it.
Table 12-37
java.util.Random Constructors
Signature Description
public Random () Creates a new random-number generator.
public Random(long seed) Creates a new random-number generator using a single long seed.
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CHAPTER 13
Input/Output: Java Streams
In This Chapter
About streams
Standard system streams (java.lang.System)
java.io streams
Filtered streams
Object serialization
More I/O
Streams can be thought of as flowing buffers of data, providing our programs with a relatively easy
mechanism for reading and writing data. You may already know of at least one way of sending data
using streams; you’ve been using the system input stream all along. As you’ll see throughout this
chapter, System.out is only a very small way in which to use streams. In this chapter, you’ll also learn
how to create and use input and output (I/O) streams. You will also learn about FilterInputStream and
FilterOutputStream, which provide an enhanced I/O mechanism for streams, and object serialization which
allows any Java object to be written to an output stream, and then recreated later by reading the object
back from the input stream.
About Streams
Streams are a conduit for sending and receiving information in Java programs. When sending a stream
of data, it is said that we are writing a stream. When receiving a stream of data, we are said to be
reading a stream.
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Whenever a stream is being written or read, it blocks all other threads. This is not a major issue,
however, if you use threads. As you’ll see in Chapter 14, you can place input and output streams in a
separate process to allow other program execution to continue while these processes are reading and
writing. If an error occurs when reading or writing a stream, an IOException is thrown. As a result, you
must surround your stream statements with a try-catch clause, in order to handle any of the potential
exceptions (for details on exceptions, see Chapter 10).
Java has not only a standard system stream, but also a more complex and complete set of streams
dedicated entirely to input/output: the java.io package. Before we get into this package, however, a look
at standard system input/output will set the stage.
Standard System Streams (java.lang. System)
The java.lang.System class defines a standard input and a standard output stream. So far, we’ve been using
output streams to output data to the display monitor in our applications.
There are three types of standard streams:
• The standard output stream (accessed through the System.out class variable); this is typically the
display, or the monitor, of the machine on which your program is running, and is normally used
to communicate textual information with the user.
• The standard input stream (accessed through the System.in class variable); this usually comes
from the keyboard, and is often used for reading character data.
• The standard error stream (accessible through the System.err class variable).
Let’s take a look at each.
System’s class constructor is private, preventing the class from being instantiated. It also cannot
be subclassed, since it has been declared as final (with all methods and variables specified as
static). Since System methods and variables are static, you simply refer to them directly, as
we’ve been doing throughout the book. For details on the private, final, and static modifiers, see
Chapter 11.
Standard output (System.out)
So far, this book has used the standard output in all of its Java applications. You haven’t, however, seen
how to use standard output in applets, since we paint and draw information upon the applet canvas rather
than sending output directly to System.out. Standard out, as you may recall, is often the display or the
monitor, and is used in applications to output information directly to the screen. With applets, we
already have a surface to draw on; with applications, however, we typically output information to the
command line. This is done by sending either a print() or println() method to the System.in variable:
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System.out.print (“Hello World”); // print
System.out.println(“Hello World”); // print line
The print() method sends information into a buffer. This buffer is not flushed until an end-of-line
character is sent via print(), or the println() method is called. As a result, all of the information is printed
on one line until an end-of-line character is encountered or the println() method is invoked. By contrast,
println() takes the information provided and prints it on a line followed by a carriage-return/line feed.
Standard input (System.in)
The second standard stream is System.in, which hasn’t been used yet in this book; however, there’s no
time like the present.
Let’s assume we wanted to read information from the keyboard. In an applet, we already know how to
do this: We would test for keyDown events in either an action() or handleEvent() method. In an application,
we don’t usually have the luxury of dealing with those types of events (unless a GUI is created for the
application; see Part IV for details). What we do have, however, is access to the standard input stream by
sending the read() method to the System.in variable:
int keyInput;
int i = 0;
while ((keyInput = System.in.read()) != -1)
i++;
System.out.println(i + “ = ” + keyInput);
} catch (IOException e) { . . . }
As you can see, this fragment of code simply reads in character input from the keyboard, incrementing
the counter each time through, outputting the character that is read to standard out, along with the
character count, and then repeating the process. This loop can only be broken when the read returns -1.
With read(), a -1 is returned only when an end-of-line character is received.
End-of-line characters are generated in different ways for UNIX and DOS/Windowsbased
machines. With UNIX, Ctrl+D (AD) must be used (holding down the Control and D keys at
the same time). in DOS/Windows environments, Ctrl+Z (^Z) is used.
Standard error (System.err)
Although you’ll use System.out most of the time, you may wish to use the standard error output stream,
rather than sending output to System.out, as we’ve done above. This is because the system output may be
redirected from the current device (typically the monitor) to another device (such as a file).
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The difficulty in using this type of stream occurs when you have an error message to display to users; it
may never get to them. After all, how would they be able to look at an error message if it’s being output
to a file instead of the screen? To ensure output goes to the display screen, you could simply send your
data to the system-error variable like this:
System.err.println(“Warning!”);
Now the data doesn’t run the risk of being “hidden” when output; it is always sent to the display.
java.io Streams
Although the system streams are very handy, they really aren’t robust enough to be of much use when
dealing with substantial I/O. For the full power of streams, we need to turn to the java.io package. As you
can see from the diagram in Figure 13-1, this package supports two streams—one input and one output
stream—from which all other streams are subclassed.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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java.io.InputStream and java.io.OutputStream are actually abstract classes. They are implemented in the
subclasses shown in Figure 13-1. However, they are the parent classes of all other streams, and as such,
they have a common element that all streams share. To better understand the types of streams that are
supported by the java.io package, we’ll need to take a closer look at the InputStream and OutputStream
classes.
InputStream
InputStream is an abstract class that defines how data is received. Where this data comes from really
doesn’t matter; what’s important is that it is accessible. In fact, the data can come from just about
anywhere. It may come from the keyboard, from a file on your local file system, or from across the
Web—the program doesn’t care. This is the strength of streams: It isn’t necessary to know where the
data is coming from or where it’s going in order to use it.
Figure 13-1: All Java streams descend from one of two parent classes in the java.io package:
InputStream or OutputStream.
InputStream methods
The InputStream object provides a number of methods which allow you to create, read, and process input
streams. Table 13-1 lists a few methods that operate on input streams, and how they might be used.
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Table 13-1
Class java.io.InputStream
Method Signature Description
read public abstract int read() throws IOException Reads a byte of data. This method blocks
if no input is available.
Returns the byte read, or -1 if the end of
the stream is reached.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has
occurred.
read public int read(byte b[]) throws IOException Reads into an array of bytes. This method
blocks until some input is available.
Returns the actual number of bytes read; is
returned when the end of the stream is
reached. Throws IOException if an I/O error
has occurred.
Parameter: b-buffer into which the data is
read.
read public int read(byte b[], int off, int len) throws Reads into an array of bytes. This method
IOException blocks until some input is available.
Parameters:
b-buffer into which the data is read
off-start offset of the data
len-maximum number of bytes read
Returns the actual number of bytes read; -
1 is returned when the end of the stream is
reached.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has
occurred.
available public int available () throws IOException Returns the number of bytes that can be
read without blocking.
Returns the number of available bytes.
skip public long skip(long n) throws IOException Skips n bytes of input.
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Parameter: n-number of bytes to be
skipped
Returns the actual number of bytes
skipped.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has
occurred.
mark public synchronized void mark(int readlimit) Marks the current position in the input
stream. A subsequent call to reset()
repositions the stream at the last marked
position so that subsequent reads can re-
read the same bytes. The stream promises
to allow readlimit bytes to be read before
the mark position is invalidated.
Parameter: readlimit-maximum limit of
bytes allowed to be read before the mark
position becomes invalid.
reset public synchronized throws IOException void reset Repositions the stream to the last marked
() position.
Throws IOException if the stream has not
been marked or if the mark has been
invalidated (see note below).
markSupported public boolean markSupported() Returns a boolean indicating whether or not
this stream type supports mark/ reset.
Returns true if this stream type supports
mark/reset; false otherwise.
close public void close() throws IOException Closes the input stream. Must be called to
release any resources associated with the
stream.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has
occurred.
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Stream marks are intended to be used in situations where you need to read ahead a little to see
what’s in the stream. Often, this is most easily done by invoking some general parser. If the
stream is of the type handled by the parser, it just chugs along happily. If the stream is not of
that type, the parser should toss an exception when it fails—which, if it happens within
readlimit bytes, allows the outer code to reset the stream and try another parser.
read()
We see three read() methods, each of which takes a different set of parameters; the most basic is the one
we’ve been using with the system input stream. This read() method simply reads one byte from the input
stream. The other two methods let you specify either an array of bytes or a portion of an array of bytes:
anyStream.read(); // reads one byte
byte byteArray = new byte[2048];
anyStream.read(byteArray[]); // reads into an array of bytes
anyStream.read(byteArray[], 25, 100); // reads into a portion of an
array
In the second example, read() tries to fill up the entire array we’ve passed to it. If it’s not successful,
meaning there were fewer characters in the stream than there were indexes in the array, -1 is returned.
However, -1 doesn’t indicate an error; it simply lets us know that the process didn’t run all the way
through. If an actual error had occurred, an IOException would have been thrown.
In the third example, we specify the location in the array to begin writing the stream, along with how
many positions in the array to actually fill. This is useful when we have an array that we want partially
filled with data. We can begin reading data at any index and continue for the remainder of the array, or
just a portion of it.
available()
The available() method enables you to find out how many bytes there are in a stream that can be read
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without blocking. Unfortunately, a number of the stream classes don’t support available(). As a result,
unless you’re certain that the stream you’re using supports available(), you can’t guarantee this method
will return a valid number. Sometimes, zero is returned; at other times, the actual number of bytes in the
stream is returned. It’s a good idea to avoid using available(), if possible, unless you’re certain of exactly
what you’re doing.
skip()
At times, you’ll want to skip over a number of bytes in a stream. This is easy enough; just invoke the skip
() method. Supply it with a numeric parameter, telling it how many bytes to skip over, and the stream
begins reading again at the position after that skip. This assumes, of course, that you are in the process
of reading a stream:
anyStream.skip(200); // skip over next 200 bytes
Although you may be tempted to provide an actual long value to the skip() method, you should
keep the range of your values to those of an int. This is because Java actually converts your
long integer into an int. In future releases, skip() may indeed use a long, but for now, assume that
it uses an int.
mark() and reset()
At times, you may want to revisit a particular position in a stream, and return to read there once again.
This is possible by marking that position in the stream using the mark() method. When you want to
return, simply call reset():
anyStream.mark(256); // mark the 256th byte
... do something ...
anyStream.reset(); // return to the 256 byte, and begin from there
As you can see in the preceding example, we’ve marked byte 256 in the stream. When we call reset() on
that stream, we begin reading at position 256. You should note, however, that if we read more than 256
characters between the time that we’ve set the mark() and called reset(), a problem occurs.
This is because the stream must keep track of the number of bytes you supply in mark(). If you read more
than that number, it can’t guarantee you can go back to the same position.
Suppose you read beyond the 256 characters; that is, you read 257 characters after setting the mark. The
memory allocated for that mark may not be available, in which case, when you call reset(), an exception
may be thrown.
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Keep this in mind whenever you use mark() and reset(). Make certain that, once you mark a stream, you
don’t read more characters than you marked, minus one. For instance, if you set a mark at 1000, read
only up to 999 more characters before calling reset().
Not all stream types support mark(). In order to test whether it can, call the markSupported() method:
anyStream.markSupported(); /* returns true if mark()
is supported */
close()
Streams support the notion of being closed; that is, when you’re done with them, you can close them
down. This is easily done by sending the close() method to a stream:
anyStream.close (); // close this stream
Although the garbage collector in Java is supposed to take care of this for you, it’s a good idea to do it
yourself. Since you can’t guarantee when the garbage collector will come around and close an unused
stream for you, you might attempt to reopen it before the garbage collector has finished with it.
By closing the stream yourself, you guarantee it to be closed. The next time you try to open it, you won’t
run into this potential problem:
try {
... work with the stream ...
} catch (Exception e) {
anyStream.close(); // close this stream
}
From the snippet just given, you can see that the best place to close a stream may be the finally clause in
a try-catch clause. The finally clause is always a good way to close a stream, because it’s the last thing
called in a try-catch clause. And, as you know, since streams may generate or throw off exceptions, you
need the try-catch clause anyway. So, why not simply close a stream in the finally clause when you’re
done using it? It’s a good, safe way to ensure that your stream is closed before going on with the rest of
your program.
In most of these examples, I haven’t bothered to use the try-catch clause. Since working with
streams can result in exceptions being thrown, you’ll need to write your stream code using
exception handlers.
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InputStreamReader
JDK 1.1 has introduced a new set of classes—Reader and Writer—which handle text-based
input/output more efficiently than the byte-stream counterparts. They are used in basically the
same manner as their byte-stream counterparts. The Reader and Writer classes automatically
provide the appropriate Unicode character conversions—making your applications and applets
more portable between locales. The InputStreamReader (see Table 13-2) class reads bytes from a
data source and converts them to their appropriate Unicode character counterparts.
Table 13-2
java.io.InputStreamReader
Constructor Example Description
InputStream public InputStreamReader (InputStream in) Creates an input stream reader that
Reader uses the default character encoding.
InputStream public InputStreamReader (InputStream in, String Creates an input stream that uses the
Reader enc) character encoding specified.
close void close() throws IOException Closes the input stream.
getEncoding String getEncoding() Returns the name of the encoding
currently used.
read int read() throws IOException Reads a single character.
read in read(char[] cbuf. int off, int len) throws Reads len number characters into
IOException buffer cbuf, starting at off.
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ready boolean ready() throws IOException() Determines whether the input stream
is ready to be read.
OutputStream
The OutputStream class is an abstract class that defines the way in which all streams are written.
OutputStream Methods
The OutputStream object provides methods to create, write, and process output streams. Every type of
stream uses the methods shown in Table 13-3. Let’s take a closer look at each.
Table 13-3
java.io.OutputStream
Methods Example Description
write public abstract void write(int b) throws Writes a byte. This method blocks until the
IOException byte is actually written.
Parameter: b-byte
Throws IOException if an I/O error has occurred.
write public void write(byte b[]) throws IOException Writes an array of bytes. This method blocks
until the bytes are actually written.
Parameter: b-data to be written.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has occurred.
write public void write(byte b[], int off, int len) throws Writes a subarray of bytes.
IOException
Parameters:
b-data to be written.
off-start offset in the data.
len-number of bytes written.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has occurred.
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flush public void flush() throws IOException Flushes the stream. This writes any buffered
output bytes.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has occurred.
close public void lose() throws IOException Closes the stream. This method must be called
to release any resources associated with the
stream.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has occurred.
write() and flush()
The three write() methods write bytes to a stream. Use the one that makes sense for your program (see the
descriptions in Table 13-3):
• write(int) writes a single byte
• write(byte[]) writes an array of bytes
• write(byte[], int, int) writes a particular section of an array of bytes
You’ll note that these are similar, at least in their parameters, to the read() methods defined in InputStream.
This is no surprise, since OutputStream can be considered the reverse of InputStream: While InputStream
allows you to read bytes in from a stream, OutputStream sends bytes to a stream. Drawing from our
previous InputStream examples, we might use the following to write a stream:
byte myByte = System.in.read(); // read a keyboard character
anOutputStream.write(myByte); // write it to a stream
anOutputStream.write(byteArray); // write array into a stream
anOutputStream.write(byteArray, 25, 100); /* write portion of
an array */
flush()
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The flush() method is used to write bytes that may be in memory to the stream. This may be necessary,
for instance, when a stream is being built up in memory and needs to be flushed out to the disk.
This can also happen when the stream you are creating is being written to the network. In this case,
while the stream may be written to memory, the flush() method will actually send it:
anOutputStream.flush(); // ensure all writing to stream is flushed
close()
After you’ve opened an OutputStream, it’s a good idea to close it. Just as with its InputStream counterpart,
don’t rely on the garbage collector to come around and close it for you. It’s best to explicitly close any
stream you’re using when you’re done:
try {
... work with the stream ...
} finally {
anOutputStream.close(); // close this stream when done
}
OutputStreamWriter
The OutputStreamWriter (see Table 13-4) class writes characters to an output stream, translating the
characters into bytes as specified by the character encoding scheme. This ensures characters are written
in the appropriate format according to the translation scheme specified.
Table 13-4
java.io.OutputStreamWriter
Example Description
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Public OutputStreamWriter (OutputStream out) Creates an output stream writer that uses the default
character encoding.
Public OutputStreamWriter (OutputStream out, Creates an output stream that used the character encoding
String enc) specified.
Methods Example Description
close void close() throws Closes the output stream.
IOException
flush void flush() throws Flushes the stream.
IOException
write void write(int b) throws Writes a single character.
IOException
write in read(char[] cbuf, int off, int Reads len number characters
len) throws IOException into buffer cbuf, starting at off.
write boolean ready () throws Determines whether the input
IOException() stream is ready to be read.
Special-purpose streams
As you know, the InputStream and OutputStream classes are the parents for all other streams in the java.io
package. They define the basic behavior each stream supports. However, there are a number of special-
purpose streams supported in java.io that allow you to cio specific stream work. Since you already know
how the InputStream and OutputStream methods are used, it’s time to take a look at each of their special-
purpose “children.” (Take a look back at Figure 13-1, where the class hierarchy is laid out.)
File input
One of the most useful things you’ll do with streams is read and write files with them. Two special
classes, FileInputStream and FileOutputStream, make this process a breeze. As you can see in Table 13-5,
there are several constructors — three constructors that allow you to create an input stream from a file.
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Table 13-5
java.io. FileInputStream Constructors
Signature Description
public FileInputStream (String name) throws Creates input file with the specified name
FileNotFoundException. (name is system-dependent).
Parameter: name - a system-dependent
filename.
Throws IOException if the file is not found.
public FiteInputStream (File fileObj) throws FileNotFoundException Creates input file from the specified file
object.
Parameter: fileObj -file to be opened for
reading.
Throws IOException if the file is not found.
public FileInputStream (FileDescriptor fdescObj) Creates input file from the specified file
descriptor object.
Parameter: fdescObj - valid file descriptor
object.
The first constructor takes a string that is the actual path name of a file. The path name that you provide
is system-dependent. You can use UNIX conventions for UNIX-based files, DOS conventions for DOS
and Windows-based files, and Macintosh conventions for Macintosh-based files; and, as Java is ported
to other platforms, these will each have their own conventions.
However, since Java automatically converts a path to accommodate whatever platform it is running on,
you can use the one most convenient for you (I prefer the UNIX convention, since it requires less typing
and As easy to read):
InputStream myUNIXFile =
newFileInputStream(“/java/aewcode/HelloWorld.java”);
InputStream myDOSFile =
newFileInputStream(“\\java\\aewcode\\HelloWorld.java”);
/* DOS slashes are escaped! (see Files and Directories sidebar) */
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InputStream myMacFile =
newFileInputStream(“:java:aewcode:HelloWorld.java”);
In addition, you can create a FileInputStream using a FileDescriptor (defined in the java.io.FileDescriptor
class). Once you’ve opened a file, it has what’s known as a descriptor associated with it. You can get the
FileDescriptor for a file you’ve just opened using the getFD() method. Once you have a FileDescriptor, you
can hang onto it and use it to reference the file at a later time:
InputStream myFile =
newFileInputStream(“/java/aewcode/HelloWorld.java”);
FileDescriptor myDesc = myFile.getFD(); // get descriptor
...
inputStream myFile2 = newFileInputStream(myDesc); // new stream
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This is particularly useful when you’re creating applications that need to access information in a file, and
you know which file you’ll be using (such as a temporary data file that your program creates). However,
there are times when you want to use files that come from a server.
This is common when using applets; in fact, this is the best way to handle files when dealing with
applets. Since applets are prevented from accessing files on the local machine, unless specified to do so
by the user, it’s best to always load applet files from the server. This is done by creating a FileInputStream
using a File object as a parameter. (A File object is created using the File class defined in java.io.File.)
When using FileInputStream, the available() method works properly. This is because files are of a
known size (that is, they’re not infinite). As a result, available() can calculate how many
characters or bytes are in a file. Keep in mind, however, that not all streams support the available
() method!
File Output
In addition to reading streams that come from files, you may want to write a stream out to a file. Table
13-6 shows the various constructors the FileOutputStream class supports. These are effectively the reverse
of FileInputStream, creating an output stream instead of an input stream. The various output methods
discussed earlier act as you would expect on the resulting stream.
Table 13-6
java.io.FileOutputStream Constructors
Signature Description
public FileOutputStream (String name) throws Creates an output file with the filename (filename
IOException is system-dependent).
Parameter: name - system-dependent filename.
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Throws IOException if the file is not found.
public FileOutputStream (File file) throws IOException Creates an output file using the File object passed to
it.
Parameter: file - file to be opened for reading.
Throws IOException if the file is not found.
public FiteOutputStream (FileDescriptor fdescObj) Creates an output file from the specified
FileDescriptor object.
Parameter: fdescObj - A valid file descriptor object.
A bug (or is it a feature?) in Java prevents us from being able to open a FileOutputStream to
append information to a file. The moment you attempt to do so, the original contents of the file
are blown away!
Listing 13-1 illustrates how to open a connection to the Web, using a URL, and retrieve the contents of
whatever the URL points to. The object (page, graphic, sound file, and so on) is pulled off the Net and
placed in a file inside the directory of your choice. Keep in mind that this is an application, not an applet,
and so is invoked from the command line:
> java GetURL stuff <http://www.pepsi.com>
In this example, the home page at http://www.pepsi.com is retrieved and placed inside the stuff
directory (located inside the same directory as the GetURL application). The program uses an
input stream to download the data, and a FileOutputStream stream to spit the contents out to a
local file.
Listing 13-1: GetURL.java—An Example of FileOutputStream in Action
/*
* GetURL takes a list of URLs and copies the contents to files
* with the same name as in the URL (minus the path); these files
* are put in the directory ’dir’
*
* Useage: java GetURL dir URL [ URL ... ]
* @author: Ronald Tschaler
*/
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import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
class GetURL {
static final int buf_size = 4000; // size of buffer for copying
public static void main (String args[]) {
int dx, tail, numb, dir_idx = 0;
boolean noisy = false;
byte buffer[] = new byte[buf_size];
String outfile;
URL url;
InputStream in;
FileOutputStream out;
/*** Get command-line options ***/
while (dir_idx < args.length && args[dir_idx].startsWith(“-”)) {
if (args[0].equals(“-noisy”)) {
noisy = true;
} else {
System.err.println(“Unknown option: ”+args[0]);
return;
}
dir_idx++;
}
/*** Check for correct number of command-line arguments ***/
if (args.length < dir_idx+2) {
System.err.println(“Usage: java GetURL [-noisy] directory URL
”+ “[URL ...]”);
System.err.println(“ copies the files specified by the”
+ “URL’s into directory”);
return;
}
/*** Get the files ***/
for (idx=dir_idx+l; idx<args.length; idx++) {
/*** Open URL ***/
try {
url = new URL(args[idx]);
} catch (MalformedURLException e) {
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System.err.println(“Error: malformed URL ”+ args[idx]);
System.err.println(e.getMessage());
continue;
}
try {
in = url.openStream();
} catch (IOException e) {
System.err.println(“Error: couldn’t access ”+ args[idx]);
System.err.println(e.getMessage());
continue;
}
/*** Extract filename and open file ***/
tail = args[idx].lastIndexOf(’\\’);
if (tail == -1) { tail = args[idx].lastIndexOf(’/’); }
outfile = args[idx].substring(tail + 1);
try {
out = new FileOutputStream(args[dir_idx] + ’/’ + outfile);
} catch (IOException e) {
System.err.println(“Error: couldn’t create ”+
args[dir_idx] +
‘/’ + outfile);
System.err.println(e.getMessage());
continue;
}
/*** Get the file ***/
if (noisy) {System.out.println(“Copying”+outfile+“...”);}
try {
while ((numb = in.read(buffer)) ???= -1)
out.write(buffer, 0, numb);
} catch (IOException e) {
System.err.println(“Error: IOException during copy”);
System. err. println(e.getMessage()); continue;
}
/*** Cleanup ***/
try {in.close();} catch (IOException e) { }
try {out.close();} catch (IOException e) { }
}
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if (noisy) {System.out.println(“Done”); }
}
}
The source code for GetURL is provided on the CD-ROM that comes with this book; save
yourself the trouble of typing it in! See Appendix B for information on how to locate files on
the CD-ROM.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Sequences
You are able to join streams using the SequenceInputStream class. Much like concatenating strings,
SequenceInputStream allows you to specify two different streams that will be used to create a third—the
result of the first two streams being joined. As you can see from Table 13-14, SequenceInputStream also
has a constructor that supports enumeration. This is useful when you have more than two streams that
you want to join.
Table 13-14
java.io.SequenceInputStream Constructors
Signature Description
public SequenceInputStream (Enumeration e) Constructs sequence input stream using the
specified list (enumeration).
Parameter: e - list.
public SequenceInputStream (InputStream sl, InputStream Constructs sequence input stream set to the two
s2) input streams passed to it.
Parameters:
s1 - input stream.
s2 - input stream.
Enumeration is an interface defined in the java.util package. It specifies a number of methods that
are used to enumerate or count through a number of values. For details on enumeration, see the
java.util package section in Sun’s application programming interface (API) documentation.
Pipes
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The java.io package supports piped streams. PipedInputStream (shown in Table 13-15) and
PipedOutputStream (shown in Table 13-16) work in tandem.
These piped streams are used specifically to pass streams back and forth between two different threads.
You’ll learn about threads in Chapter 14, but for now, it’s worth understanding that the two piped
streams work together; it’s not useful to have one without the other. To use piped input and piped
output, we simply create one of each kind of stream and reference them to each other, as follows:
PipedInputStream pipeIn = new PipedInputStream();
PipedOutputStream pipeOut = new PipedOutputStream(pipeIn);
Whenever a thread reads from the pipeIn, it is actually reading data that another thread is writing to
pipeOut. Conversely, whenever a thread is writing to pipeOut, it is actually providing the input for another
thread.
Table 13-15
java.io.pipedInputStream Constructors
Signature Description
public PipedInputStream (PipedOutputStream src) throws Creates input file using the piped output
IOException stream passed to it.
Parameter: src - the stream to connect to.
public PipedInputStream() Creates input file that isn’t initially
connected to anything, and that must be
connected to a piped output stream before
being used.
Table 13-16
java.io.PipedOutputStream Constructors
Signature Description
public PipedOutputStream (PipedInputStream snk) throws Creates output file connected to the piped
IOException input stream passed to it.
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Parameter: snk - the InputStream to connect
to.
public PipedOutputStream() Creates output file that isn’t initially
connected to anything, and that must be
connected before being used.
JDK 1.1 has introduced the classes PipedReader (see Table 13-17) and PipedWriter (see Table 13-
18), which return and use character arrays. Both the PipedReader and PipedWriter classes operate
in the same manner as their PipedInputStream and PipedOutputStream counterparts.
Table 13-17
java.io.PipedReader Constructors
Signature Description
public PipedInputStream (PipedWriter src) throws Creates input file using the piped output stream
IOException passed to it.
Parameter: src - the stream to connect to.
public PipedInputStream() Creates input file that isn’t initially connected to
anything, and that must be connected to a piped
output stream before being used.
Table 13-18
java.io.PipedWriter Constructors
Signature Description
public PipedWriter(Piped Reader snk) throws Creates output file connected to the piped input
IOException stream passed to it.
Parameter: snk - the InputStream to connect to.
public PipedWriter() Creates output file that isn’t initially connected to
anything, and that must be connected before being
used.
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Filtered Streams
The java.io package contains two abstract classes, FilterInputStream and FilterOutputStream, that provide an
enhanced I/O mechanism for streams. These classes allow streams to be chained together, providing
additional functionality to one another as they are processed. There are a number of subclasses from
these abstract filter classes, each of which we’ll take a look at.
Buffered I/O
Java supports buffered streams, which are kept in memory to allow much faster access than would
otherwise be possible. These particular streams, BufferedInputStream and BufferedOutputStream, are actually
the only ones that properly use the mark() and reset() methods.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Byte arrays
The ByteArrayInputStream class allows you to create input streams using arrays of bytes, as Table 13-10
shows.
Table 13-10
Class java.io.ByteArrayInputStream Constructors
Signature Description
public ByteArrayInputStream (byte buf[]) Creates a byte array input stream from the array
of bytes passed to it.
Parameter: buf - input buffer.
public ByteArrayInputStream (byte buf[], int offset, int Creates a byte array input stream from the array
length) of bytes passed to it.
Parameters: buf - input buffer. offset - offset into
first byte to read. length - total number of bytes to
read.
The ByteArrayOutputStream class, seen in Table 13-11, allows you to create output streams based on arrays.
Table 13-11
java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream
Signature Description
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public ByteArrayOutputStream() Creates byte-array output stream.
public ByteArrayOutput Stream(int size) Creates array output stream of the specified size.
Parameter: size - initial size.
Because arrays are of a known size, the available() method works as you would expect. However, the reset
() method returns the stream to the beginning because marks are not available (see Listing 13-2). When
you create a ByteArrayOutputStream, the buffer continues to grow as data is written to it. Once a byte array
buffer has been filled, that data can then be retrieved using the methods toByte Array() and toString(). This
is useful when you want to extract the contents of a ByteArrayOutputStream and assign them to an array, or
to a string.
The following program, Flip, creates a ByteArrayInputStream stream using an array of characters that
together form the words “HELLO WORLD!” in uppercase letters. It then extracts each character in a
loop for output; if the convert variable is true, the character is converted to lowercase before being printed.
Since the reset() method returns the stream to the very beginning, Flip alternates between uppercase and
lowercase output indefinitely (or until terminated by the user), as seen in Figure 13-2.
Figure 13-2: Flip takes advantage of ByteArrayInputStream’s reset() method to toggle between
uppercase and lowercase output
Listing 13-2: Flip.java—An Example of ByteArrayInputStream in Action
/**
* Flip.java
*
* “Flip” creates a ByteArrayInputStream stream, then extracts
* each character in a loop. If “convert” boolean is true, the
* character is converted to lowercase before being printed.
*
* Running in an infinite while loop, the stream is reset() each
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* time through to permit a fresh read of the data.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.0, 14 Feb 96
*/
import java.io.*;
import java.util.*;
class Flip {
public static void main(String args[]) throws Exception {
byte myBytes[]={‘H’,‘E’,‘L’,‘L’,‘O’,‘ ’ ‘W’ , ‘O’,‘R’ ‘L’,‘D’,
‘!’/;
ByteArrayInputStream myStream = new
ByteArrayInputStream(myBytes);
/* - PROCESS STREAM - */
int c;
boolean convert = false;
while (true) { /* enter infinite loop! User can only terminate
with key combination (ctrl-c for Windows)*/
while ((c=myStream.read())!= -1) {
if (convert)
System.out.print(Character.toLowerCase((char)c));
else
System.out.print((char)c);
}
convert = !convert; // reverse value of convert
System.out.println(“ — RESET! — ”);
myStream.reset();
}
}
}
CharArrayReader and CharArrayWriter
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JDK 1.1 has introduced the classes CharArrayReader (see Table 13-12) and CharArrayWriter (see
Table 13-13), which return and use character arrays. Both the CharArrayReader and
CharArrayWriter classes operate in the same manner as their ByteArrayInputStream and
ByteArrayOutputStream counterparts.
Table 13-12
java.io.CharArrayInputStream Constructors
Signature Description
public CharArrayInput Stream(char bur[]) Creates a character array input stream from the
array of bytes passed to it.
Parameter: buf - input buffer.
public CharArrayInput Stream(char buf[], int offset, int Creates a character array input stream from the
length) array of bytes passed to it.
Parameters:
buf - input buffer.
offset - offset into first byte to read.
length - total number of bytes to read.
Table 13-13
Java.io.CharArrayOutputStream Constructors
Signature Description
public CharArrayOutput Stream() Creates a character array output stream.
public CharArrayOutput Stream(int size) Creates a character array output stream of the specified size.
Parameter: size - initial size.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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However, since BufferedInputStream and BufferedOutputStream are subclasses of FilterInputStream and
FilterOutputStream, respectively, we can pass on their buffered functionality to other streams using a
simple stream filtering technique:
// create buffered String stream:
myString = “Obviously the question is false, since ice-cream has
no bones.”
OutputStream theStream = new BufferedOutputStream (new
StringBufferInputStream(myString));
// create buffered File stream:
OutputStream myStream = new BufferedOutputStream
(FileOutputStream(“HelloWorld.java”));
As you can see, we’ve created two different buffered streams, even though the original stream types
(StringBufferInputStream and FileOutputStream) don’t support buffering. We’ve used the filter capability of
BufferedOutputStream to create buffered versions of each.
As a result, these streams are not only faster, but use the mark() and reset() methods properly. It can be
said that we’ve run our two streams through a BufferedOutputStream filter, which passes on functionality
that they normally don’t have.
Line numbers
Line-number input streams understand and use the concept of line numbering; they remember each line
as a stream’s data is input. This is a special-purpose class that is also a subclass of FilterInputStream is
LineNumberInputStream (see Table 13-19).
Table 13-19
java.io.LineNumberInputStream Constructor
Signature Description
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public LineNumberInputStream (InputStream Constructs line-number input stream initialized using the
in) input stream passed to the constructor.
Parameter: in - input stream.
To retrieve the line number of a particular portion of the stream, use the getLineNumber() method. To read
lines from the stream, use the readLine() method, defined in java.io.DataInputStream (see the section on
“Typed I/O” later in this chapter). An example follows in Listing 13-3.
Listing 13-3: LineByLine.java—An Example of LineNumberInputStream in Action
/**
* LineByLine.java
*
* “LineByLine” opens a file as a FileInputStream stream, then
* passes it to LineNumberInputStream to gain line numbering *
functionality.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.0, 14 Feb 96
*/
import java.io.*;
class LineByLine {
public static void main (String args[]) throws
FileNotFoundException {
String fileName = “letter.txt”; // name of file to open
/* - OPEN THE STREAMS: - */
FileInputStream f = new FileInputStream(fileName);
LineNumberInputStream fileStream = new LineNumberInputStream (f);
/* - PROCESS LINE-BY-LINE: - */
try {
int c; // variable to hold each character
System.out.print(“Line 1: ”); // print 1st line # before loop
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while ((c=fileStream.read())!= -1) { /* loop until end of
line */
System.out.print((char)c); // output each character
if (c==’\n’) { // is this the last character in the line?
// if so, print the next line number:
System.out.print(“Line ” + (fileStream.getLineNumber()+l)
+ “: ”);
}
}
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println(“Can’t open stream!”);
}
}
}
LineByLine opens a text file using a FileInputStream stream. It passes this to the LineNumberLnputStream
constructor, which returns a stream capable of understanding line numbers. Each line in the text file is
output on the command line, preceded by its line number (see Figure 13-3).
Figure 13-3: FileInputStream understands line numbers, a particularly useful feature for text editing of
any kind.
LineNumberReader
JDK 1.1 has introduced a LineNumberReader (see Table 13-20) which returns character arrays.
The LineNumberReader works in the same way as its LineNumberInputStream counterparts.
Table 13-20
java.io.LineNumberReader Constructors
Signature Description
public LineNumberReader (InputStream in) Constructs line number input stream initialized using the
input stream passed to it.
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Parameter: in - input stream.
public LineNumberReader (InputStream in, int Constructs line number input stream initialized using the
size) input stream passed to it.
Parameters:
in - input stream.
size -initial size.
Pushing back
PushbackInputStream provides an interesting method called unread(), which allows us to place the last
character back where it was read, as if we had never actually read it. This is useful in cases where you
need to see what the next character in a buffer will be, but don’t necessarily want to advance the stream.
With PushbackInputStream, if the character is not what you want, you can put it back using the unread()
method.
PushbackInputStream invalidates the mark() and reset() methods of the InputStream created with it.
JDK 1.1 also provides provides a PushbackReader class which processes character strings
instead of byte arrays. PushbackReader functions in the same manner as the PushbackInputStream
class.
Typed I/O
Up until now, we’ve been dealing with streams of bytes, which are a rather ineffective way to deal with
data. While it’s true that they provide an efficient mechanism for spitting data out and reading data in,
we have no convenient way of using specific data types, such as booleans, shorts, integers, longs, floats, and
doubles.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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To help us deal with typed data streams, DataInputStream and DataOutputStream classes are available. They
are described in Tables 13-21 and 13-22.
Table 13-21
java.io.DataInputStream
Constructor Signature Description
DataInputStream public DataInputStream (InputStream Creates data input stream using the input stream
in) passed to it.
Parameter: in - input stream.
Method Signature Description
read() public read(byte[] b) Reads data into an array of bytes.
read() public read(byte[] b, int off, int len) Reads data into an array of bytes from off until
len.
readBoolean() public readBoolean() Reads a boolean.
readByte() public readByte() Reads an 8-bit byte.
readChar() public readChar() Reads a 16-bit char.
readDouble() public readDouble() Reads a 64-bit double.
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readFloat() public readFloat() Reads a 32-bit float.
readFully() public readFully ( byte[] ) Reads bytes, blocking until all are read.
readFully() public readFully (byte[] b, int off, int Reads bytes, blocking until the bytes from off to
len) len are read.
readInt() public readInt() Reads a 32-bit int.
readLine() public readLine() Reads a line that is terminated with \n, \r, \r\n, or
EOF.
readLong() public readLong() Reads a 64-bit long.
readShort() public readShort() Reads a 16-bit short.
readUTF() public readUTF() Reads a UTF format string.
readUTF() public readUTF (DataInput) Reads a UTF format string from the given input
stream.
readUnsigned Byte public readUnsigned Byte() Reads an unsigned 8-bit byte.
()
readUnsigned Short public readUnsigned Short() Reads a 16-bit short.
()
skipBytes() len) public skipBytes(int Skips bytes, blocking until all are skipped.
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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If you’re dealing with data output streams, however, you’re likely to run into an IOException. If the
DataOutputStream methods shown in Table 13-22 are ever unable to actually write the stream out, they
throw an IOException. Of course, to handle this, simply surround your data output with the try-catch
clause, just as we did with the data input streams:
try {
... work with the stream ...
} catch (IOException e) {
// we know stream couldn’t be written
} finally /
anOutputStream.close (); // close this stream
}
As you learned in the chapter covering exceptions (Chapter 10), you don’t necessarily have to
use the try-catch clause when dealing with these. You can, of course, explicitly say that the
method in which the code appears throws the error itself.
Although this gets around having to capture and deal with the error yourself, and that isn’t a very elegant
way of coping with errors. As a general rule of thumb, you should capture ali the exceptions that are
thrown, rather then pretend to throw them yourself.
You’ll also notice that the KzmFortune example shown didn’t provide a specific exception name in the
catch clause. The author of this applet chose to catch all possible exceptions at once, using catch (Exception
e), instead of providing a catch clause for each possible type of exception.
PrintStream
You may or may not be aware that you’ve been using the PtintStream class in some fashion already.
Whenever you send the print() or println() method to the System.out or System.err class variables, you are, in
fact, sending PrintStream methods. System.out and System.err are actually PrintStream variables defined in
the System class:
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public static PrintStream out;
// System class standard out variable
public static PrintStream err;
// System class standard err variable
PrintStream is the most commonly used output stream, and that’s not surprising. This class provides a
plethora of methods (see Tables 13-23 and 13-24) for outputting text, and makes doing so a pleasure.
Chances are good that you’re already familiar with print() and println(), and their ability to handle a great
number of parameters and different types; you might want to experiment with the other methods to gain
full appreciation of the PrintStream class.
Table13-23
java.io.PrintStream Constructors
Signature Description
public PrintStream(OutputStream out) Creates print stream using the output stream passed to
it.
Parameter: out - output stream.
public PrintStream(OutputStream out, boolean Creates print stream, with optional auto flushing.
autoflush)
Parameters:
out - output stream.
autoflush - a boolean; true specifies the stream
automatically flushes its output when a newline
character is printed.
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 13-22
java.io.DataOutputStream
Constructor Signature Description
DataOutputStream public DataOutput Stream(Output Stream Creates data output stream using the output
out) stream passed to it.
Parameter: out - output stream.
Method Signature Description
flush() flush() Flushes the stream.
size() size() Returns total number of bytes written.
write() write(int b) Writes a byte.
write() write(byte[] b, int off, int len) Writes a subarray of bytes.
WriteBoolean() WriteBoolean (boolean b) Writes a boolean.
writeByte() writeByte(int b) Writes an 8-bit byte.
writeBytes() writeBytes(String S) Writes String as a sequence of bytes
writeChar() writeChar(int b) Writes a 16-bit char.
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writeChars() WriteChars (String Writes String as a sequence of bytes.
writeDouble() writeDouble(double b) Writes a 64-bit double.
WriteFloat() writeFloat(float b) Writes a 32-bit float.
writeInt() writeInt(int b) Writes a 32-bit int.
writeLong() writeLong(long b Writes a 64-bit long.
writeShort() writeShort(int b) Writes a 16-bit short.
WriteUTF() WriteUTF (String S) Writes String in UTF format.
Now, rather than having to deal with streams in terms of bytes, we can use them as standard data types.
If we want to write a byte, we can write a byte; if we want to write a boolean, we can write a boolean. As
you can see from the last two tables, we can read and write the data types that we are most comfortable
with. In this way, we’re not restricted to dealing simply with bytes.
Listing 13-4, the GetFortuneString() method taken from the KzmFortune applet found on the CD-ROM that
comes with this book, shows how DataInputStream is used to read lines of text. Specifically, this method
opens an input stream using a URL that points to a text file residing either locally or on the Web. If a
valid stream is opened, a line of text is read from it for display in a scrolling ticker tape. Pay particular
attention to the try-catch clauses surrounding the stream code.
Listing 13-4: How to Use the DataInputStream Object
// GetFortuneString, a method of KzmFortune
// (by Alessandro Garbagnati)
// input: filename, the number of line to show
// output: message to show
public String GetFortuneString (String FileName, int TheNum) {
String TheLine, TheUrl, result = “NO FORTUNE”;
int cnt = 1;
TheUrl = DirectoryURL() + FileName;
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try {
URL url = new URL(TheUrl);
try {
InputStream TheFile = url.openStream();
try {
DataInputStream MyData = new DataInputStream(TheFile);
try {
while ((TheLine = MyData.readLine()) != null) {
if (TheNum == cnt) {result = TheLine;}
cnt++;
}
} catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println(“Err ReadLine” + e.toString());}
} catch (Exception e) {
System.out.println(“Err DataInputStream ”+
e.toString()); }
}catch (Exception f) {
System.out.println(“Err OpenStream” + f.toString()); }
}catch (Exception g) {
System.out.println(“URL” + g.toString()); }
return result; // return the “fortune” string
)
The entire source code for KzmFortune is provided on the CD-ROM that comes with this book.
On this disc, you’ll find a large number of applets that make use of streams, and you may wish
to supplement this chapter by looking at them.
When you’re dealing with data input streams, you must be aware that, when the end of the stream is
reached, an EOFException is thrown. This is quite helpful, since it allows you to know exactly when the
end of the stream has been reached. in order to trap and process this exception, you simply surround
your stream code with a try-catch clause:
try {
... work with the stream ...
} catch (EOFException e) {
// we now know the end of the stream has been reached
} finally {
anInputStream.close (); // close this stream
)
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Java Bible:Input/Output: Java Streams
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 13-24
java.io.PrintStream Methods
Method Signature Description
write public void write(int b) Writes the byte, blocking until it is written.
Parameter: b - byte.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has occurred. This
method overrides write in FilterOutputStream class.
write public void write(byte b[], int off, int len) Writes the subarray of bytes.
Parameters:
b - data to write.
off - offset into the data.
len - number of bytes to write.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has occurred. This
method overrides write in FilterOutputStream class.
flush public void flush() Rushes the stream, writing all buffered output bytes.
This method overrides flush in FilterOutputStream class.
close public void close() Closes the stream.
This method overrides close in FilterOutputStream class.
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check public boolean checkError() Flushes the print stream, returning true if there was an
Error error on the output stream, false otherwise. (Note:
Errors are cumulative; if the print stream encounters
an error, checkError() returns true on all successive
calls. Thus, true is returned if the print stream has ever
encountered an error on the output stream.)
print public void print(Object obj ) Prints the object passed to it.
Parameter: obj - object to print.
print public synchronized void print(String s) Prints the String passed to it.
Parameter: s - String to print.
print public synchronized void print(char s[]) Prints the array of characters passed to it.
Parameter: s - array of chars to print.
print public void print(char c Prints the character passed to it.
Parameter: c - character to print.
print public void print(int i) Prints the integer passed to it.
Parameter: i - integer to print.
print public void print(long l) Prints the long passed to it
Parameter : l - long to print.
print public void print(float f) Prints the float passed to it.
Parameter: f - float to print.
print public void print(double d) Prints the double passed to it.
Parameter: d - double to print.
print public void print (boolean b) Prints the boolean passed to it.
Parameter: b - boolean to print.
println public void println() Prints a newline.
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println public synchronized void println(Object Prints the object passed to it, followed by a newline.
obj)
Parameter: obj - object to print.
println public synchronized void println(String s) Prints the String passed to it, followed by a newline.
Parameter: s - string to print.
println public synchronized void println(char s[]) Prints the array of characters passed to it, followed by
a newline.
Parameter: s - array of characters to print.
println public synchronized void println(char c) Prints the character passed to it, followed by a
newline.
Parameter: c - character to print.
println public synchronized void println(int i) Prints the integer passed to it, followed by a newline.
Parameter: i - integer to print.
println public synchronized void println(long l) Prints the long passed to it, followed by a newline.
Parameter: l - long to print.
println public synchronized void println(float f) Prints the float passed to it, followed by a newline.
Parameter: f - float to print.
println public synchronized void println(double d) Prints the double passed to it, followed by a newline.
Parameter: d - double to print.
println public synchronized void println(boolean Prints the boolean passed to it, followed by a newline.
b)
Parameter: b - boolean to print.
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Java Bible:Input/Output: Java Streams
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Although these methods are extremely flexible, able to accept and output a wide variety of
data types, they do not accept Unicode characters, only Latin-1 characters (ISO 8859-1). If you
attempt to pass Unicode characters to PrintStream methods, be warned: The top 8 bits of these
16-bit characters are ignored!
PrintWriter
JDK 1.1 has also introduced a PrintWriter class, which operates in the same manner as the
PrintStream class. Instead of creating a byte output stream, PrintWriter produces a character
output stream. The PrintStream and PrintWriter classes use the same constructors and methods.
Object Serialization
A major new concept in the JDK 1.1 is the concept of object serialization. Object serialization
allows any Java object to be written to an output stream, and then recreated later by reading the
object back from the input stream. The cornerstone of object serialization is the ObjectInput (see
Table 13-25) and ObjectOutput (see Table 13-26) classes. You can serialize objects by simply
calling the writeObject() method, and recreate an object by calling the readObject() method.
Only objects that subclass the Serializable (or Externalizable) interface can be serialized. If a class
field is declared as transient, it is not serialized.
Table 13-25
java.io.ObjectInput
Constructor Signature Description
Object Input public ObjectInput (InputStream in) Creates an object input stream using the
input stream passed to it.
Parameter: in - input stream.
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Method Signature Description
available int available() throws IOException Returns the number of bytes that can be
read without blocking.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has
occurred.
close void close() throws IOException Closes the input stream
Throws IOException if an I/O error has
occurred.
read int read() throws IOException Reads a byte of data.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has
occurred.
read int read(byte[] b) throws IOException Reads an array of bytes in array b.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has
occurred.
read int read(byte[]b, int off, int len) throws IOException Reads a len number bytes into array b,
starting at offset off.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has
occurred.
readObject Object readObject() throws Reads and returns an object.
ClassNotFoundException
Throws ClassNotFound Exception if an I/O
error has occurred.
skip long skip(long n) throws IOException Skips n bytes of input.
Throws IOException if an I/O error has
occurred.
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Java Bible:Input/Output: Java Streams
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 13-26
java.io.ObjectOutput
Signature Description
public ObjectInput (OutputStream
Creates an object output stream using the input stream passed to it.
out)
Parameter: in - input stream
Method Signature Description
close int close() throws IOException Closes the output stream.
Throws IOException if an I/O error
has occurred.
flush void flush() throws IOException Flushes the output stream.
Throws IOException if an I/O error
has occurred.
write void write(int b) throws IOException Writes a byte of data.
Throws IOException if an I/O error
has occurred.
write void write(byte[] b) throws Writes an array of bytes.
IOException
Throws IOException if an I/O error
has occurred.
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write void write(byte[] b, int off, int len) Writes len number bytes from array
throws IOException b, starting at offset off.
Throws IOException if an I/O error
has occurred.
writeObject void writeObject (Object obj) throws Writes object obj to the output
IOException stream.
Throws IOException if an I/O error
has occurred.
More I/O
In addition to the streams we’ve covered that are supported in the java.io package, other streams in the
File and RandomAccessFile classes offer enhanced capabilities for working with data files. We’ll return to
a discussion of data files in later chapters.
For now, if you want to attain greater mastery of streams, you may want to do some research farther
afield on the Web—for example, consider investigating the StreamTokenizer class, which allows you to
break an input stream and put it into a stream of tokens. This class can be particularly helpful if you are
parsing languages (either programming languages or those we use in everyday life), and clearly bear a
close look if you require such functionality.
When dealing with streams, you must handle the potential exceptions that may be thrown in the process.
The java.io package defines several exceptions, as shown in Table 13-27. To handle these exceptions,
surround your stream-usage statements with a try-catch clause, or declare the methods that use them to
throw the particular type of exception the statements are likely to generate.
Table 13-27
java.io Package Exceptions
Exception Description
EOFException Indicates that an unexpected End Of File (EOF) was reached during input.
FileNotFoundException Indicates that a requested file couldn’t be found.
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IOException Indicates that an error had occurred reading or writing a stream.
InterruptedIOException Indicates that an interruption had occurred while reading or writing a stream.
UTFDataFormatException Indicates that a malformed UTF-8 string was read in a data input stream.
Summary
In this chapter you learned ail about Java streams as an essential aspect of input and output.
• Streams are a conduit for sending and receiving information in Java programs.
• Sending a stream of data is called writing a stream.
• Receiving a stream of data is called reading a sram.
• Streams are a versatile way to manage input, output, and object serialization.
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Java Bible:Threads
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 14
Threads
In This Chapter
Using threads in applets
Creating threaded objects
Thread attributes
Thread priority
Multithreaded programs
If you’ve spent any time looking at the source code of the applets included on the CD-ROM
accompanying this book, you may have noticed that a number of them use threads. Threads are
independent processes that can be run simultaneously.
In this chapter, you learn how threads operate and affect programs both indirectly and directly. You also
see how threads can be used to speed up your programs and prevent bottlenecks when long processes in
your code begin.
About Threads
In everyday life, we take the concept of threads for granted. For example, often the most critical task in
my day is filled with threads: When I create a cup of coffee in the morning, I perform a number of
smaller tasks in the process.
To begin, I place a pot of cold water on the stove and turn the burner on underneath it. While waiting for
the water to heat up, I take the coffee beans and cream out of the refrigerator, then pour a little cream
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into the cup and add a teaspoon of sugar to it. Because I know exactly how much cream I like in my
coffee, and all my coffee cups hold the same amount of liquid, I don’t have to wait until the coffee is
poured before I add these coffee condiments.
As the water gradually shows signs of letting off steam, I toss a fistful of beans into the grinder and give
‘em a whirl. While dumping the pulverized beans into the coffee press with my right hand, the water
usually comes to a rapid boil, so I take it off the heat with my left hand and place it onto a cold burner.
If coffee is as dear and life-saving a beverage to you as it is to me, I highly recommend
investing in a French press. These elegant devices allow the grinds and water to stand together
as long as you want, extracting caffeine and flavor, and caffeine, and more caffeine...and, well,
you get the picture...with every passing second. With the use of a special press, you push the
grinds to the bottom of the glass container. With the exception of a Neapolitan flip-drip pot,
you can’t make a better cup of coffee in your own home.
Because it’s a bad idea to pour boiling water directly onto freshly ground beans, lest the poor babies are
scalded and produce a bitter cup of Joe (and who wouldn’t be bitter after having boiling water poured
over his freshly pulverized body?), I spend the next minute or so slowly swirling the cream and sugar
with a teaspoon to blend the two into a perfect, granular-free mixture. By the time the sugar has
completely dissolved in the cream, I become impatient and figure the water temperature’s had time to
come down a few degrees.
I grab the pot of water and pour it into the press, all the while stirring the mix with the same teaspoon I
used to prepare the cream and sugar. At this point, I may have cradled a portable phone between my
cheek and neck to get a jump on the work day—and why not? They’ll never know I’m still in my boxer
shorts and furry slippers (I dread the arrival of video-phones). If I’m not on the phone by now, I’m
probably knocking back a fine assortment of vitamins to counteract the damaging effects of my caffeine
habit.
Regardless, within a few minutes I begin the pressing process, separating grounds from water. After
pushing all the solid stuff to the bottom of the glass press, I pour the steaming liquid into my cup of
waiting sugary sweet cream. Within moments, I lift the nectar to my lips, and, for the first time that day,
a smile creeps across my face and my hands stop shaking.
Perhaps this process sounds vaguely familiar to you, perhaps not. The point is, by the time I take my
first gulp of coffee, I’ve accomplished a number of tasks. Each of these has a distinct beginning, an end,
and a sequence of steps that happen in between before the task is complete and I move on to the next
one. In a number of cases, these tasks happen concurrently.
In essence, my morning coffee ritual has a number of threads of execution. As a result, the process of
creating coffee can be considered multithreaded. In fact, just about everything we do in life can be
broken down into threads. Can you chew gum and avoid the cracks in the sidewalk at the same time?
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Chalk up two threads; one for chewing, the other for avoidance behavior. Do you brush your teeth while
looking in the mirror for signs of premature aging? Chalk up two more threads, plus one more to keep
your ego in check.
As you can see, our lives can be broken down into threads. And, because they’re going on in our lives all
the time, we can be thought of as multithreaded beings.
In software, a thread is a single sequential flow of control. We’re already familiar with sequential flow
of control; it’s what happens when we execute a program. The program begins, runs through a sequence
of executions, and eventually ends. At any given time in the life of a program, there’s only one point of
execution; that is, the lines of code we write are executed sequentially, not at the same time.
Threads, also known as execution contexts or lightweight processes, are similar to the sequential
programs we’re accustomed to writing; they have a beginning, middle, and an end. During its life, a
thread executes a sequence of commands and, at any given time, there’s only one point of execution.
Does this sound like a program?
In fact, threads and programs are very similar concepts. Unlike programs, however, threads don’t exist
as discrete collections of executable commands. That is, the end user doesn’t execute a thread directly.
Instead, threads run within a program. It might help to think of them as mini programs that exist within
the lifetime of an actual program (hence the name lightweight process).
There is nothing new about the concept of a single thread. The excitement in this industry is about
multiple threads in a single program all running at the same time and performing different tasks. As you
know, having more than one thread executing at a time is known as multithreading. It’s this subject that
has become a popular topic in computer science circles, especially when discussion turns to Java.
Threads are the reason browsers, such as Hot Java and Netscape Navigator, can download a file to your
hard drive, display a Web page in one window while opening another in a new window, output one or
more Web pages to the printer, and perform a number of other processes concurrently. This is exactly
the behavior multiple concurrent threads offer: many things can happen at once (or, more accurately,
appear to happen at once). Instead of waiting for a connection to finish before going on to the next one, a
number of threads can be created, or “spawned,” each of which is responsible for handling its own
connection. Because a different thread is taking care of each of these processes, the processes appear to
happen in parallel.
In truth, these multiple processes don’t really happen at once. Unless threads are executing on
a true multiprocessing computer system (a system with more than one processor, capable of
executing commands in parallel), threads must take turns using a single CPU. However,
because this happens so fast, we often are convinced that things are happening simultaneously.
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Rather than going from start to finish in one large program, you can think of threads as divvying up your
program into little chunks, or separate tiny programs that can run concurrently. The result is a dramatic
improvement in the overall speed of your program. Without threads, the program would have to follow a
predetermined set of instructions and wait for each one to be completed before going on to the next.
This approach might not sound all that bad. After all, it’s what we’re used to. However, what if one of
the steps in a program takes a particularly long time to finish? Imagine if we had to wait every time an
image or sound file was pulled off the network before we could go on to the next step. This would be a
long process, and the larger the file, the longer the wait would be. Thankfully, Java automatically uses
threads for just such things. As a result, the rest of our program is free to execute while the files come
across the wire.
We can also add threads of our own to further increase the efficiency of our programs. Using them is
extremely easy in Java. All we have to do is create a new Thread object and tell it to start executing. Take
a look at how we can do this with our applets.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Using Threads in Applets
To use threads in applets, we need only implement the Runnable interface. The Runnable interface declares
the methods that we’ll need in order to implement threads in our program. The following code is the
class signature for a program that uses the Runnable interface:
public class AnyClass extends java.applet.Applet
implements Runnable {
...
}
Once we’ve claimed that our applet will use the Runnable interface, there are only three easy things left to
do:
• Declare a variable to hold a Thread object.
• Create a run() method, the nerve center of a thread.
• Transfer the contents of our start() method into run() and use start() to kick off the thread.
Because these basic steps take place in all applets that support threads, you can use Listing 14-1 as the
basis for future threaded applets:
Listing 14-1: A Basic Threaded Class Example
public class AnyClass extends java.applet.Applet implements
Runnable {
Thread myThread; // a variable to hold our thread
public void start() {
if (myThread == null) {
myThread = new Thread(this); // create Thread
object
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myThread,start(); // start it
}
}
public void run() {
while (myThread != null) {
.... // code that used to be in the original applet
start() method goes here...
}
}
public void stop() {
myThread.stop(); // stop it
myThread = null; // prepare for garbage collection
}
}
Note that we didn’t bother to import the Thread class (java.lang.Thread); the java.lang package is
automatically available to all our programs, so we don’t have to explicitly import it.
The start() method creates, or spawns, a new Thread object and starts it running. As you can see, this
method doesn’t do anything but begin the thread. It’s the run () method that has the bulk of the
responsibility.
The run () method contains the thread body, the sequence of code that the thread will execute. After a
thread has been created and started, the runtime system calls its run() method. The code in this method is
the entire reason the thread was created in the first place and is what the thread is responsible for
executing.
As the thread’s nerve center, run () is the method that defines the life of every thread. When run() is
complete, the thread dies (more on Thread life and death later). Often, run() contains code that takes a
long time to execute (such as downloading a large file off the network). As a result, this code executes in
parallel with other threads, thereby eliminating a potential bottleneck.
Typically, the run() method makes use of a loop control structure, as in the animation applet seen in
Listing 14-2. As you can see, we’ve created an instance variable of the Thread object called kicker. In the
start() method, we determine whether or not kicker has already been instantiated and, if it hasn’t, we
create a new one:
kicker=new Thread(this);
Essentially, the line instantiates a new Thread object with our class as the parameter (this). This argument,
our applet, becomes the thread’s target. Because a thread executes the run() method of its target, our new
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thread knows to execute the run() method of this applet.
After the new Thread object is created, it is put into motion:
myThread.start(); // start it
When a thread is sent the start() method, as above, it begins to execute by invoking the run() method of its
target. Until this point, the thread is simply instantiated and does us no good. Listing 14-2 demonstrates
how to use the start() and run() methods:
Listing 14-2: BlinkItem.java
/**
* BlinkItem.java
* Display a Blinking Neon Light by alternating between two
* images.
* @author: Mattias Flodin
*/
import java.awt.Graphics;
import java.awt. Image;
import java.lang. Math;
public class BlinkItem extends java.applet.Applet implements
Runnable {
Image imPic[]; // An array that holds the two images
int iPicIndex=O; // Keeps track of which image is displayed
Thread kicker;
public void init() {
resize(512,243);
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
update(g);
}
// Using the update method will get rid of some flickering
public void update(Graphics g) {
// Display an error message if something
// unexpected has happened to the images
if(imPic[iPicIndex]==null) {
g.drawString(“Error when loading picture”, 0, 172);
}
// Draw the current image (method won’t draw a null image)
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g.drawImage(imPic[iPicIndex],0,0, this);
}
public void start() {
if(kicker == null) { // If no thread is started yet
kicker=new Thread(this); // then create one
kicker.start(); // and start it
}
}
public void stop() {
kicker.stop();
kicker=null;
}
public void run() {
imPic=new Image[2]; // Dimension the image array
// Load the two images in our ‘animation’
imPic[0]=getImage(getCodeBase(), “images/Homepage1.gif”);
imPic[1]=getImage(getCodeBase(), “images/Homepage2.gif”);
for(;;) { // Loop forever
repaint(); // Redraw the window
iPicIndex=iPicIndex==0 ? 1 : 0; // Switch image
// The sleep method below might be interrupted and cause
an
// InterruptedException, so we’ll have to catch it.
try {
// Wait for a random amount of time
Thread.sleep((int) (Math.random()*500));
} catch (InterruptedException e){}
}
}
}
Because the run() method contains the body of a thread, we move the contents of our previous start()
method here and simply use the original start() method to create and get the thread running.
In this applet, which is a threaded and more elegant version of the BruteForce animation program
discussed in Chapter 17, run() simply loads two different images into an array and then enters an infinite
for loop. In this loop, the images are repainted one after another.
After an image is drawn, however, the thread is told to sleep a random amount of time:
Thread.sleep((int) (Math.random()*500));
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As seen in Tables 14-1, 14-2 and 14-3, a thread can be put to sleep, or suspended, for a specified amount
of time.
Table 14-1
java.lang.Thread Constructors
Signature Description
public Thread() Constructs a new thread. Threads created this way must override their run()
method to do anything. An example illustrating this method is shown in the
sidebar “Using the Thread() Constructor.”
public Thread (Running Constructs a new thread, which applies the run() method of the specified
target) target.
Parameter:
target—object whose run() method is called.
public Thread (ThreadGroup Constructs a new thread in the specified thread group that applies the run()
group, Runnable target) method of the specified target.
Parameters:
group-the thread group. target-object whose run() method is called.
public Thread (String name) Constructs a new thread with the specified name.
Parameter:
name-name of the new thread.
public Thread (ThreadGroup Constructs a new thread in the specified thread group with the specified
group, String name) name.
Parameters:
group-thread group. name-name of the new thread.
public Thread (Runnable Constructs a new thread with the specified name and applies the run() method
target, String name) of the specified target.
Parameters:
target-object whose run() method is called.
name-name of the new thread.
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public Thread (ThreadGroup Constructs a new thread in the specified thread group with the specified name
group, Runnable target, and applies the run() method of the specified target.
String name)
Parameters:
group-thread group.
target-object whose run() method is called.
name-name of the new thread.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 14-2
java.lang.Thread Methods
Method Signature Description
currentThread public static Thread Returns a reference to the currently executing
currentThread() Thread object.
yield public static void yield() Causes the currently executing Thread object to
yield. If there are other runnable threads, they will
be scheduled next.
sleep public static void sleep(long Causes the currently executing thread to sleep for
millis) throws Interrupted the specified number of milliseconds.
Exception
Parameter:
millis-length of time to sleep in milliseconds.
Throws InterruptedException if another thread has
interrupted this thread.
sleep public static void sleep(long Sleep, in milliseconds and additional nanoseconds.
millis, int nanos) throws
InterruptedException
Parameters:
millis-length of time to sleep in milliseconds.
nanos-O-999999 additional nanoseconds to sleep.
Throws InterruptedException if another thread has
interrupted this thread.
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start public synchronized void Starts this thread. This causes the run() method to
start() be called. This method returns immediately.
Throws IllegalThreadState Exception if the thread was
already started.
run public void run() The actual body of this thread. This method is
called after the thread is started. You must either
override this method by subclassing class Thread,
or you must create the thread with a runnable
target.
stop public final void stop() Stops a thread by tossing an object. By default,
this routine tosses a new instance of ThreadDeath to
the target thread. ThreadDeath is not actually a
subclass of Exception, but is a subclass of Object.
Users should not normally try to catch it unless
they must perform an extraordinary cleanup
operation. If ThreadDeath is caught, it’s important to
rethrow the object so the thread actually dies. The
top-level error handler does not print a message if
it falls through.
stop public final synchronized Stops a thread by tossing an object. Normally,
void stop(Throwable o) users should call the stop() method without any
argument. However, in some exceptional
circumstances used by the stop() method to kill a
thread, another object is tossed. ThreadDeath is not
actually a subclass of Exception, but it is a subclass
of Throwable.
Parameter:
o-object to be thrown.
interrupt public void interrupt() Sends an interrupt to a thread.
interrupted public static boolean Asks whether you have been interrupted.
interrupted()
isInterrupted public boolean isInterrupted Asks whether another thread has been interrupted.
()
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destroy public void destroy() Destroys a thread without any cleanup In other
words, this method just tosses its state; any
monitors it has locked remain locked. A last resort.
isAlive public final boolean isA1ive Returns a boolean indicating whether the thread is
() active. Having an active thread means it has been
started and has not been stopped.
suspend public final void suspend() Suspends this thread’s execution.
resume public final void resume() Resumes this thread’s execution. This method is
only valid after suspend() has been invoked.
setPriority public final void setPriority sets the thread’s priority.
(int newPriority)
Throws IllegalArgumentException if the priority is
not within the range MIN_PRIORITY,
MAX_PRIORITY.
getPriority public final int getPriority() Gets and returns the thread’s priority.
setName public final void setName Sets the thread’s name.
(String name)
Parameter:
name-new name of the thread.
getName public final String getName Gets and returns this thread’s name.
()
getThreadGroup public final Thread Group Gets and returns this thread group.
getThreadGroup()
activeCount public static int activeCount Returns the current number of active threads in
() this thread group.
enumerate public static int enumerate Copies, into the specified array, references to
(Thread tarray[]) every active thread in this thread’s group. Returns
the number of threads put into the array.
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countStack Frames public int count StackFrames Returns the number of stack frames in this thread.
() The thread must be suspended when this method is
called.
Throws IllegalThreadState Exception if the thread is
not suspended.
join public final synchronized Waits for this thread to die. A time-out in
void join(long millis) throws milliseconds can be specified. A time-out of 0
Interrupted Exception (zero) milliseconds means to wait forever.
Parameter:
millis-time to wait in milliseconds.
Throws InterruptedException if another thread has
interrupted this one.
join public final synchronized Waits for the thread to die, with more precise time.
void join(long millis, int
nanos) throws
InterruptedException
Throws
InterruptedException if
another thread has
interrupted this thread.
join public final void join() Waits forever for this thread to die.
throws InterruptedException
Throws InterruptedException if another thread has
interrupted this thread.
dumpStack public static void dumpStack A debugging procedure to print a stack trace for
() the current thread.
setDaemon public final void setDaemon Marks this thread as a daemon thread or a user
(boolean on) thread. When there are only daemon threads left
running in the system, Java exits.
Parameter:
on-determines whether the thread will be a daemon
thread.
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Throws IllegalThreadState Exception if the thread is
active.
isDaemon public final boolean Returns the daemon flag of the thread.
isDaemon()
checkAccess public void check Access() Checks whether the current thread is allowed to
modify this thread.
Throws SecurityException if the current thread is not
allowed to access this thread group.
toString public String toString() Returns a string representation of the thread,
including the thread’s name, priority, and thread
group. Overrides toString in class Object.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Creating Threaded Objects
In addition to implementing the Runnab1e interface, we can use threads by extending the Thread class. In
this way, we can create our own objects that use threads:
class AnyClass extends Thread {
...
}
As you can see, all we have to do is extend the Thread class. Because the java.lang package is
automatically available to all of our programs, we don’t have to import it explicitly. Take a look at a
class that extends Thread:
class EZThread extends Thread {
public EZThread(String str) {
super(str); // pass up to Thread constructor
}
public void run() {
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
System.out.println(i + “ ” + getName());
try {
sleep((int)(Math.random() * 500));
} catch (InterruptedException e) {}
}
System.out.println(getName() +“ HAS EXPIRED!”);
}
}
The first thing this class does is implement a constructor that takes a string parameter and passes it along
to the constructor of its superclass. The Thread class constructor that takes a string is invoked, returning a
Thread object with this name. By naming threads, we can keep track of which are currently running.
Aside from this, we’ve implemented a run () method. Whenever an EZThread object is created, its start()
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method must be invoked before it can execute. Because we don’t bother to define a start() method in this
class, the superclass start() method is actually used (that is, the Thread class start() method is invoked).
This method, in turn, invokes the EZThread run() method.
This run() method is quite simple: It executes a loop five times, outputting the loop iteration (i) on the
same line as the name of the thread. In order to test this class, we can use the following:
class EZTest {
public static void main (String args[]) {
new EZThread(“Hickory”).start();
new EZThread(“Dickory”).start();
new EZThread(“Dock”).start();
}
}
}
As you can see, this test is quite simple. We merely instantiate three new threads and start each of them.
We don’t even need to hold onto the Thread objects that are created. We create the threads, start them,
and sit back as they execute. The output is shown in Figure 14-2. You may note that it’s not sequential;
it doesn’t follow any exact order. The threads are running independently of one another-each one
executes whenever it has the chance. The order is determined on the Java thread scheduler and the
underlying system architecture. However, you’ll see in “Bringing It All Together,” later in this chapter,
how you can synchronize threads to execute in a nice, orderly fashion.
Figure 14-2: Because threads don’t run in a predetermined order, the three in this program don’t
generate output sequentially.
Clearly, creating and using threads is easy in Java. In fact, it’s recommended you use threads whenever
you have a specific sequence of events that can be executed independently of others. In this way, you
can divvy up your program into a number of threads, each executing independently, and potential
bottlenecks can be significantly reduced or eliminated entirely.
Keep in mind that each time you create a Java thread, an underlying system thread is actually created.
That is, the operating system of your computer—together with the Java runtime system—is responsible
for handling the flow of execution of each thread you create. The more threads you create, the more the
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system is taxed. If you go mad, creating threads for everything you can think of, eventually you’ll bring
the system to its knees. It’s best to think about the sequence of events you want to wrap inside a thread,
rather than assume that everything needs to be threaded.
In fact, the Java runtime system already has threads running with which yours must share a slice of the
CPU pie. For example, there’s the Java garbage collector thread. If the garbage collection mechanism
weren’t running in a thread, it would have to interrupt your program each time it tried to reclaim objects
no longer in use. However, because this system is operating in a thread, it goes about its business
without greatly affecting the performance of your program.
In addition, there’s a thread always running that is responsible for gathering user input from the
keyboard and the mouse. So there are already two threads running before you add your own to the mix.
We’re not telling you to be stingy with threads; they are fast and easy to create, and when used properly
can greatly enhance the performance of your programs. However, you must consider what operations
lend themselves to threads. We recommend that whenever you have a sequence of steps that can operate
independently from the rest of your program (such as the animation of a graphic), you place it into a
thread.
When creating threads, you may wonder, Should I implement the Runnable interface or extend
the Thread class? The answer, of course, depends on what the class you’re creating requires, if
it must extend another class, you have no choice but to implement the Runnable interface,
because your classes can only inherit from one superclass. We recommend that you use the
Runnable interface whenever you need to override only run() and no other thread methods.
Classes shouldn’t be subclassed unless you are modifying or enhancing their fundamental
behavior, so there’s no reason to subclass Thread if you need only to implement the run()
method.
Under the Covers
As you know, Java threads are implemented by the Thread class, which is part of the java.lang package.
Because java.lang is automatically included in your programs, you don’t need to import this class to add
thread support to your own programs.
This class provides you with a system-independent mechanism for dealing with threads. But under the
covers, the actual implementation of threads is dependent on whatever operating system architecture
Java is running on. As a result, your threaded programs are really taking advantage of the thread support
of the OS on which they are executed. Luckily, you’re isolated from the intricacies of individual
platforms, thanks to the Thread class.
When creating a thread, you can give it a priority. The higher its priority, the more clout it carries with
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the runtime system. The Java runtime system uses a scheduler that is responsible for running all existing
threads within all executing Java programs. This scheduler uses a fixed-priority scheduling algorithm
that, in essence, ensures that the highest-priority threads in each program get the processor—the highest-
priority thread is allowed to execute before any others.
In a case where a single program has more than one thread of the same priority waiting to execute, the
scheduler chooses them in a round-robin fashion, choosing a thread not previously executed when the
next choice must be made. Alt threads of the same priority receive equal treatment. Threads of lesser
priority are given a chance to execute after those of higher priority have been killed or have entered a
nonrunnable state (see “Not Runnable” in the next section).
Thread Attributes
To use threads efficiently and without incident, you must understand the various aspects of threads and
the Java runtime system. Specifically, you need to know about:
• Thread body: how to provide a body for a thread
• Thread state: the life-cycle of a thread
• Thread priority: how the runtime system schedules threads
• Daemon threads: what they are and how to write them
• Thread groups: all Java threads must be part of a thread group
Thread body
As you now know, thread activity takes place in the body of a thread. Specifically, the thread’s body is
implemented in its run() method. You can provide a thread body by creating a subclass of the Thread class
and then overriding its run() method, as we did with EZThread. Or, you can create a class that implements
the Runnable interface. In that case, you must instantiate a Thread object and supply it with a Runnable
object as the target:
kicker=new Thread(this);
Accordingly, we have two options when it comes to using threads. However, when writing applets, we
have no such choice, because we can only extend one class. Applets must inherit from the java.awt.Applet
class, so we must implement the Runnable interface.
If we don’t need to extend another class, we can choose to extend the Thread class. However, as a general
rule, unless we need to override more than the run() method, there’s no reason to use this approach rather
than implement the Runnable interface.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 14-3
java.lang.Thread Variables
Variable Signature Description
MIN_PRIORITY public final static int MIN_PRIORITY The minimum priority that a
thread can have. The lowest
priority is equal to 1.
NORM_PRIORITY public final static int NORM PRIORITY The default priority that is
assigned to a thread. The
default priority is 5.
MAX_PRIORITY public final static int MAX_PRIORITY The maximum priority that a
thread can have. The highest
priority is 10.
While a thread is sleeping, it is said to enter a Not Runnable state. All the other threads are free to
continue, but a sleeping thread is inactive until the amount of time specified has passed. Although this
applet specifies a random amount of time, we can also specify exactly how long a thread should sleep:
Thread.sleep(2000); // sleep 2,000 milliseconds (2 seconds)
Because threads execute extremely fast, the sleep parameter is expressed in milliseconds. To help make
sense of this parameter, just remember that 1,000 milliseconds equal one second.
You might have noticed that we didn’t send the Kicker object the sleep() method. Instead, we called the
Thread class method directly. The current thread is known, because we’re in its run() method, so we don’t
have to send it the sleep() method directly. The preceding line of code applies the sleep() method to the
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current thread, which happens to be kicker. In a more complicated program, we’d prefer to invoke the
sleep() method of the thread we want to take a nap to avoid confusion, instead of taking direct advantage
of the Thread classes’ sleep() method, as seen here. However, in this simple example, the result is the
same and fairly clear regardless of how we forced the thread to sleep. We could just as easily have called
kicker.sleep( (int) (Math.random()*500));.
Because invoking sleep() may result in an exception being thrown, as most methods that operate on
threads have the potential of doing, we must wrap a trycatch clause around this statement. You’ll see,
however, that nothing is done if an error is thrown.
What can we do? Nothing really, except perhaps break out of the loop and terminate the life of the
thread:
try {
Thread.sleep((int) (Math.random()*500));
} catch (InterruptedException e){break;}
However, we just let the loop continue. If an error occurs while sleeping, we really don’t want to
terminate the entire animation. So, perhaps it will repaint the next image a little faster than expected. But
it’s not worth terminating the entire thread simply because our sleep() request wasn’t fulfilled.
In this case, the result of a random sleep parameter is quite effective. The images used in the animation
(see Figure 14-1) seem to blink on and off, with a little stutter between each blink, just like a neon sign.
When the browser in which this applet is viewed loads another page, the applet’s stop() method is called.
It’s here that we bring the life of our thread to an abrupt end:
kicker.stop(); // kill thread
kicker=null; // mark for garbage collection
Figure 14-1: Using threads, the Blinkltem applet alternates between these two images to give the
appearance of a neon sign.
The stop() method “kills” a thread and sends it into a “dead” state. When it’s dead, we mark the thread as
null, allowing the garbage collector to reclaim the memory allocated for it.
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Don’t kill That Thread by Mistake!
As you can see from Table 14-2, you can get the currently executing process using the
following statement:
Thread. currentThread();
You might be tempted to send stop() to the currently executing thread, assuming it’s yours. Don’t do it! If
you blindly assume the current thread is yours, you might kill the main thread your applet is running
under, or perhaps even the garbage collector thread. If you want to be able to distinguish your thread
from others, use the constructor that allows you to supply a name for your thread:
kicker = new Thread(this, “BlinkThread”);
You can then use the getName() method to ensure that the thread you’re dealing with is, in fact, yours.
When the page is revisited, the applet’s own start() method kicks off another thread, and the entire
process is repeated. Alternatively, we could have suspended the thread when the applet’s stop() method
was called, and resumed it when the page was revisited (see the suspend() and resume() methods in Table
14-2).
However, in this case there is no good reason to keep the thread alive when the page itself is left. We
can’t guarantee that the webber will return, and it’s just as easy to start a new one every time the page is
visited. Threads are easy and efficient to create, so we don’t have to be stingy with them. We can create
and kill them, acting as Lord of the Threads, if you will.
Using the Thread() Constructor
The following code illustrates how to create a threaded class by implementing the Runnable interface.
Notice that the run() method is overridden, a must for all threads created in this way:
class myThread implements Runnable {
String name;
myThread() { // standard constructor
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name = null;
}
myThread(String str) { // constructor with name
name = str;
}
public void run() {
if (name == null)
System.out.println(“A new thread was created”);
else
System.out.println(“A new thread named ” +
name +“ was created”);
}
}
class testThread {
public static void main (String args[]) {
myThread t = new myThread();
if(t != null) {
System.out.println(“new myThread() succeed”);
}else {
System.out.println(“new myThread() failed”);
}
}
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Thread state
During the lifetime of a thread, there are many states it can enter. Off the top of your head, you can
probably think of at least one of these states: the Runnable state. A thread enters this state whenever it
receives the start() method.
There are three other states a thread can enter, as shown in Figure 14-3. In all, the four states are:
• New Thread
• Runnable
• Not Runnable
• Dead
Take a look at each of them in turn.
Figure 14-3: Threads may be in one of four states at any given time.
New Thread
Whenever you instantiate a Thread object, that thread enters a New Thread state:
Thread myThread = new Thread(this);
At this point, no system resources have been allocated for the thread; it is only an empty object. As a
result, the only thing you can do with it is start or stop it:
myThread, start();
myThread. stop();
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If you attempt to invoke any other method at this point, an IllegalThreadStateException is thrown. This
happens because a thread in this state has no way of dealing with methods.
Runnable
Once a Thread object receives the start() method, it enters what is known as the Runnable state. You may
think it should be called the “Running” state because, at first thought, you might assume it is executing.
However, this is not necessarily true. Even though threads seem to operate and execute at the same time,
it’s the underlying system architecture that determines this capability. Specifically, in order to execute at
the same time, or in parallel, more than one CPU must be available. Because true multiprocessing
computers are rare, your threads are more likely to wait around while each takes a crack at a single CPU.
Simply having multiple CPUs installed in a single computer does not result in a true
multiprocessing system. The system architecture (the system hardware and software) must
support the capability to execute commands in parallel. True multiprocessing machines are
currently a high-end option; they’re just beginning to be marketed for everyday desktop use.
Not Runnable
If a thread isn’t in the Runnable state, it may be in the Not Runnable state. Not Runnable is entered
when a thread is in one of four conditions:
• Suspended
• Sleeping
• Waiting on a condition variable
• Blocked by another thread
Three of these are each the result of a specific method:
• suspend()
• sleep()
• join()
The remaining condition is a result of a thread being blocked by an input/output operation (see Chapter
13).
Because each of these is a Not Runnable condition, sending messages to a thread in one of them results
in an exception being thrown. For each possible way a thread may become Not Runnable, there is a
single and distinct way that it may reenter the Runnable state. Take a close look at each of these
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conditions and how each can be reversed.
Suspended
Whenever a thread’s suspend() method is invoked, that thread effectively goes into limbo. When
suspended, the thread is not in a position to be executed; it must be awakened first by the resume()
method. This is helpful when you want to suspend a thread’s execution but don’t want to kill it.
Sleeping
As you saw earlier, we can put threads to sleep for a period of time (measured in milliseconds). Once a
thread is put to sleep, it cannot run. Even if it has a crack at a processor, a sleeping thread won’t take it.
Until the “sleep time” has expired, the thread simply won’t execute. When its time has passed, it re-
enters the Runnable state.
What if you called resume() on a sleeping thread? A nice idea, but it would do absolutely no good. When
a thread is sleeping, the resume() method is ignored altogether. It’s only useful for taking suspended
threads out of limbo.
Waiting for a condition variable
A thread can be told to wait on a conditional variable, forcing it to hang out until that condition is
satisfied. After sending a thread the join() method, you must wait indefinitely until that thread’s run()
method has finished. Sending the join() method to a thread may be dangerous, however, if you have
important things to do and are forced to wait around for a long period of time. if you refer back to Table
14-2, you’ll notice a time-out period may be supplied with two of the join() methods, in which case the
thread continues after the specified time passes, regardless of the outcome of the condition.
Whatever object is in control of the condition we’re waiting on must alert waiting threads using either
the notify() or notifyAll() methods. If a thread is waiting on something to happen, it can proceed only once
notify() or notifyAll() has been issued, or if the (optional) time-out period has passed.
Blocked
If a thread is blocked by an input/output operation, it has no choice but to wait around until the input/
output command is finished. In this case, the thread is considered Not Runnable, even though it may be
fully qualified to run otherwise.
Dead
Just like us, threads have a life cycle. Once a thread’s run() method is complete, its life is up: Sorry,
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buddy, it’s time to die!
For example, if the loop in the run() method for our BlinkItem example was to iterate only a thousand
times, the life cycle of that thread would be one thousand iterations of that loop. However, because the
loop is intentionally infinite, the life cycle of that thread is also infinite, as long as you don’t exit the
page in which it’s embedded.
As soon as the page is exited, the applet’s stop() method is called, which in turn calls the thread’s stop()
method. In this case, the thread does not die from “natural causes,” as our EZThread threads do: it’s
murdered.
The thread is killed by the stop() message being sent to it. When a thread receives this, it commits digital
hara-kiri and terminates itself.
As a general rule of thumb, you should send stop() to all threads whenever your applet’s own stop()
method is invoked. Unless you have a very good reason, whenever someone moves out of the page in
which your applet is running, you should kill all threads (or, at the very least, suspend them). It is
extremely bad style to allow threads to run in the background when your applet is not actually executing.
Actually, the stop() method sends the thread what is known as a ThreadDeath object (an actual
subclass of Object, not an exception). When a thread receives a ThreadDeath object, it realizes
that it’s time to die and kills itself. You shouldn’t try to catch the ThreadDeath object, unless
you have an extraordinary cleanup operation to perform before your thread dies. If this object
is caught, it’s a better idea to rethrow it, allowing the thread to die with some dignity.
The Thread class provides a method called isAlive(), enabling our program to determine whether a thread
has been started and not stopped, isAlive() returns true if a thread has been created and started but hasn’t
been stopped. It returns false if the thread is dead, or if it has been created but not started.
As a result, when isA1ive() returns true, you know that a thread is either in the Runnable or Not Runnable
state. Unfortunately, there is no way to know which of these two states the thread is in. Conversely, you
know that when isAlive() returns false, the thread is either dead or has not yet been started.
Thread Exceptions
The Java runtime system throws Illegal ThreadStateException whenever you attempt to invoke a method
that the thread cannot handle in its current state. For example, a sleeping thread can’t deal with the resume
() method. The thread is busy sleeping; it doesn’t know how to react to it.
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The same holds true when you try to invoke suspend() in a thread that isn’t in its Runnable state. If it’s
already suspended, sleeping, waiting on a condition variable, or blocked by I/O, a thread won’t
understand how to deal with suspend().
Whenever you call a thread method that may potentially throw an exception, you have to supply an
exception handler to catch whatever exceptions may be generated.
As you can see in the following snippet of code, you can determine whether a thread was killed cleanly,
or whether an exception occurred:
try {
... // deal with threads here...
} catch (ThreadDeath death){
// was killed... be sure to re-throw:
throw death;
} catch (IllegalThreadStateException e){
// thread was sent a method it couldn’t handle in its state
} catch (InterruptedException e){
// the thread was interrupted
}
If the thread surrounded by the try- catch clause was killed, the first exception handler captures it. In this
case, we need to rethrow the ThreadDeath object to ensure the thread is killed cleanly. However, if the
thread was sent a method it couldn’t handle in its current state, the second catch clause catches it.
Finally, if the thread is unexpectedly interrupted, the InterruptedException exception is thrown, in this case,
our last handler catches it.
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Thread priority
In Java, each thread has a priority that affects the order in which it is run. Threads of high priority run
before threads of low priority. This is essential, because there are times when threads must be separated
in this way. For example, the thread responsible for handling user input is of a higher priority than one
that crunches a data file in the background.
A thread inherits its priority from the thread that created it. Unless a new priority is assigned to
a thread, the thread keeps this priority until it dies.
You can set the priority of a thread using the setPriority() method, assigning it a value between the Thread
class constants MIN_PRIORITY and MAX_PRIORITY (refer to Table 14-1). For example, we could make
our BlinkItem thread the highest priority with the following line:
kicker.setPriority(MAX_PRIORITY); //
Because kicker is the only thread in this applet, changing its priority doesn’t make much sense. In
programs with multiple threads, however, the ability to assign priority is quite important. Certain parts
of our programs vary in how critical they are, and by setting their threads accordingly, we can ensure
they are given the attention (or lack of attention) they deserve.
Java threads are scheduled using fixed-priority scheduling. This algorithm essentially executes threads
based on their priority relative to one another, and can be summed up in a simple rule: At any given time,
the “Runnable” thread with the highest priority will be running.
Relinquishing Control with Yield()
Although threads of the same priority are given equal treatment by the Java thread scheduler, it’s
possible for a thread to hog the CPU. Consider the following code, and assume it is part of a thread body:
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int i = 0;
while (i++ < 500000) {
System.out.println(“Iteration: ”+ i);
}
You’ll see that, once the loop is entered, there’s no way other threads have a chance to run and the
current thread cannot move into the Not Runnable state. So this thread monopolizes the CPU entirely
and all 500,000 iterations happen without so much as a second of time going to other threads of equal
priority. Unless a thread of a higher priority comes along and preempts this one, the loop completes
naturally. If this is the case, you should use the yield() method to force the thread to relinquish control of
the CPU:
int i = 0;
while (i++ < 500000) {
System.out.println(“Iteration: ”+ i);
yield(); // relinquish control
}
Here, we still execute the loop, but we also give threads of the same priority a chance to execute. Keep
in mind that threads of a lower priority must still wait until all these threads enter a Not Runnable state
or die.
Whenever multiple threads are ready for execution, the Java runtime system chooses whichever has the
highest priority and executes it. When that thread stops running yields (see the “Relinquishing Control
with Yield()” sidebar), or becomes Not Runnable, the lower priority threads have an opportunity to run.
If there are two threads with the same priority waiting to be executed, the scheduler executes them in a
round-robin fashion, as described earlier.
The Java runtime system’s scheduler is preemptive. If the scheduler is running one thread, and
another thread of a higher priority comes along, the thread that is currently executed is put on
the back burner and the one with the higher priority is placed in execution, in this sense, the
highest priority thread is said to preempt the currently running thread.
The Java scheduler doesn’t preempt the currently running thread for another of the same priority,
however. And although the scheduler itself isn’t time-sliced (that is, it doesn’t give threads of the same
priority a slice of time in which to execute), the system implementation of threads underlying the Thread
class may support time-slicing.
Because you can’t be certain what systems your applets will be executed on, never write your program
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to rely on time-slicing. That is, you should use yield() to allow threads of the same priority an opportunity
to execute rather than expecting each to get a slice of the CPU pie automatically.
Daemon threads
Java supports what are known as daemon threads. A daemon thread can be considered a head honcho, or
taskmaster thread that supports other threads. The body of a daemon thread, the run() method, often uses
an infinite loop that waits for a request from an object or other threads. When such a request is made, the
daemon thread carries it out, dispatching the appropriate methods. For example, the Hot Java browser
has a daemon thread named Background Image Reader. This thread is responsible for downloading
images from the network and handing them off to objects and other threads that need them.
To set a daemon thread, invoke the setDaemon() method with a true parameter:
myThread.setDaemon(true); // myThread is now a daemon
You can find out if a thread is a daemon by using isDaemon():
myThread.isDaemon();
The isDaemon() method returns true if the thread is a daemon; otherwise, it returns false.
Thread groups
All Java threads are part of a thread group (see Tables 14-4 and 14-5), whether or not you explicitly
specify one when creating them. However, there are three constructors in the Thread class that enable you
to specify which group a thread should be part of, if you want to specify one other than the default group:
• Thread(ThreadGroup, Runnable);
• Thread(ThreadGroup, String);
• Thread(ThreadGroup, Runnable, String);
Table 14-4
Class java-lang.ThreadGroup Constructors
Signature Description
public ThreadGroup (String Creates a new thread group. Its parent is the thread group of the current
name) thread.
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Parameter:
name-name of the new thread group created.
Public ThreadGroup Creates a new thread group with a specified name in the specified thread
(ThreadGrouup parent, group
String name)
Parameters:
parent-specified parent thread group.
name-name of the new thread group being created.
Throws NullPointerException if the given thread group is equal to null.
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Table 14-5
Class java.lang.ThreadGroup Methods
Method Signature Description
activeCount public synchronized int Returns an estimate of the number of active
activeCount() threads in the thread group.
activeGroupCount public synchronized int Returns an estimate of the number of active groups
activeGroup Count() in the thread group.
checkAccess public final void Checks to see if the current thread is allowed to
checkAccess() modify this group.
Throws SecurityException if the current thread is not
allowed to access this thread group.
destroy public final synchronized Destroys a thread group. This does not stop the
void destroy() threads in the thread group.
Throws IllegalThreadState Exception if the thread
group is not empty, or if it was already destroyed.
enumerate public int enumerate (Thread Copies, into the specified array, references to
list[]) every active thread in this thread group. You can
use the activeCount() method to get an estimate of
how big the array should be.
Parameter:
list-an array of threads. Returns the number of
threads put into the array.
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enumerate public int enumerate (Thread Copies, into the specified array, references to
list[], boolean recurse) every active thread in this thread group. You can
use the activeCount() method to get an estimate of
how big the array should be.
Parameters:
list-an array list of threads. recurse-a boolean
indicating whether a thread has reappeared.
Returns the number of threads placed into the
array.
enumerate public int enumerate Copies, into the specified array, references to
(ThreadGroup list[]) every active thread in this thread group. You can
use the activeGroupCount() method to get an
estimate of how big the array should be.
Parameter:
list-an array of thread groups. Returns the number
of thread groups placed into the array.
enumerate public int enumerate Copies, into the specified array, references to
(ThreadGroup list[], boolean every active thread in this thread group. You can
recurse) use the activeGroupCount() method to get an
estimate of how big the array should be.
Parameters:
list-an array list of thread groups.
recurse—a boolean indicating whether a thread
group has reappeared
Returns the number of thread groups placed into
the array.
getMaxPriority public final int Gets the maximum priority of the group. Threads
getMaxPriority() that are part of this group cannot have a higher
priority than the maximum priority.
getName public final String getName Gets the name of this thread group.
()
getParent public final Thread Group Gets the parent of this thread group.
getParent()
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isDaemon public final boolean is Returns the daemon flag of the thread group. A
Daemon daemon thread group is automatically destroyed
when it is found empty after a thread group or
thread is removed from it.
list public synchronized void list Lists this thread group. Useful for debugging only.
()
parentOf public final boolean parentOf Checks to see whether this thread group is a parent
(ThreadGroup g) of, or is equal to, another thread group.
Parameter:
g-thread group to be checked.
Returns true if this thread group is equal to, or is
the parent of, another thread group; false otherwise.
resume public final synchronized Resumes all the threads in this thread group and
void resume() all of its subgroups.
setDaemon public final void setDaemon Changes the daemon status of this group.
(boolean daemon)
Parameter:
daemon-daemon boolean that is to be set.
setMaxPriority public final synchronized Sets the maximum priority of the group. Threads
void setMaxPriority(int pri) that are already in the group can have a higher
priority than the set maximum.
Parameter:
pri-priority of the thread group.
stop public final synchronized Stops all the threads in this thread group and all of
void stop() its subgroups.
suspend public final synchronized Suspends all the threads in this thread group and
void suspend() all of its subgroups.
toString public String toString() Returns a string representation of the thread group.
Overrides toString in class Object.
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uncaught Exception public void uncaught Called when a thread in this group exists because
Exception(Thread t, of an uncaught exception.
Throwable e)
Parameters:
t-the thread.
e-a Throwable object.
Thread groups are particularly useful, because you can start or suspend all threads within them, meaning
you don’t have to deal with each thread individually. Thread groups provide a general way of dealing
with a number of threads at once, saving you a great deal of time and effort tracking them down
individually.
The following snippet creates a thread group called generic Group. Once we’ve created the group, we then
create a few threads that are part of it:
ThreadGroup genericGroup = new ThreadGroup(“My Generic
Threads” );
Thread aThread = new Thread(genericGroup, this);
Thread aThread2 = new Thread(genericGroup, this);
Thread aThread3 = new Thread(genericGroup, this);
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You don’t necessarily have to create the group of which your threads are a part. You can use one created
by the Java runtime system, or one created by the application in which your applet is running. If you
don’t specify a particular thread group when creating a new thread, as we have in the preceding
examples, the thread becomes part of Java’s main thread group. This is sometimes referred to as the
current thread group.
With applets, the default group may not be the main group. It’s up to the browser to give the
thread a name. To find out what the name is, use the getName() method (refer to Table 14-2).
To find out what group a thread is in, use the getThreadGroup() method defined in the Thread class. This
method returns a thread group to which you can send a variety of methods that act on each member of
the group. As you may recall, Table 14-2 shows the various methods that operate on groups.
Thread groups support the notion of access privileges. If you don’t specify an access privilege
for a group, the threads in that group are allowed to query and find out information about
threads in other groups.
By default, the threads you create don’t have a specific security level assigned to them. As a result, any
thread in any group is free to inspect or modify threads in other groups. You can, however, use the
abstract SecurityManager class (java.lang.SecurityManager) to specify access restrictions for thread groups.
To specify access restrictions, you would create a subclass of the SecurityManager class and override those
methods that are utilized in thread security. Keep in mind, however, that most browsers (such as
Netscape) won’t allow you to change or alter security managers, so this procedure only applies to
applications.
Multithreaded Programs
Whenever you have multiple threads running simultaneously (or almost at the same time, as is the case
with single-CPU systems), they may need to access the same piece of data at the same time. In fact,
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unless your program is running on a true multiprocessor system that supports parallel processing, your
threads will never access a specific piece of data at exactly the same time. They will, however, be able to
access the same piece of data at roughly the same time, with perhaps only milliseconds or less between
each access.
The problem is that when threads share data, none of them can be certain that the data hasn’t been
changed by another thread before they got to it.
Think in terms of a basket full of eggs. If you’re the only person at your Easter egg decorating party, you
can be pretty sure that, when you reach into the basket, you’ll get an egg (at least until there are no more
eggs, or the cops break up your little party).
However, suppose you invite the local chapter of the Hell’s Angels over to decorate eggs with you.
Whenever you reach into the basket, you now run the risk of brushing up against a hairy forearm or two.
Worse still, you might be expecting an egg, only to find that Alphonse got the last one. In this case,
Alphonse is busy throwing his egg at Sebastian while you get hot under the pinstriped collar. And who’s
going to yell at a HeWs Angel? Not me, that’s for sure.
Aside from the likelihood of encountering hirsute appendages, the same thing can happen when a
number of threads operate on the same data. Unless their access to the data is synchronized, there’s no
way of guaranteeing that the data hasn’t been changed by another thread.
Synchronization
Up until this point, we’ve only looked at threads that operated where all the data and methods required
for execution were inside the body of the thread. We have not considered threads that access data
outside themselves.
A sticky situation can occur when multiple threads need to access the same piece of information. For
example, suppose you wrote a simple Counter class that provided methods for incrementing and returning
the counter variable. Using the class within a single thread is just fine, but what happens when multiple
threads attempt to use this class?
Because each thread has the potential for accessing these methods at exactly (or nearly) the same time,
the counter may become inconsistent. Suppose, for example, that one thread was incrementing the value
of the counter at the same time another was retrieving it. Should the returned value reflect the
incremented value? Suppose a dozen threads ali tried to update the value at the same time, and only one
attempted to retrieve it. What value should be returned in that case?
In effect, the data becomes unreliable, yet it’s almost impossible to track down precisely what’s going
on, because everything seems to be jogging along smoothly. Then, every once in a while, seemingly
inexplicably, the data gets clobbered. You might expect to retrieve a number such as 12, but find that
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only 2 is returned because of a synchronization error.
The way to avoid this distress is to use the synchronized keyword, as shown in the following snippet of
code. In this way, you can guarantee that only one thread is accessing a method at a time. Every other
thread has to wait its turn until the object is free:
synchronized void myMethod() {
// all code in here is now synchronized!
}
The synchronized keyword can be applied to any block of code, not just methods:
synchronized (anyObject) {
// the object and this block of code are synchronized
}
Although this may be tempting, locking objects—as the preceding code snippet does—can lead to
trouble, because the rest of the code around it isn’t synchronized. As a result, you’ll have more difficulty
keeping track of what is and what isn’t synchronized. For this reason, it’s best to synchronize the entire
method, rather than a smaller block of code inside it.
The synchronized keyword makes use of monitors. A monitor acts like a bouncer at the door of an
exclusive nightclub, allowing only one person in and out at any given time (not a very fun club, from the
sound of it, but a club nonetheless). Whenever an object enters a synchronized method, the bouncer, or
monitor, marks it as locked and prevents any other threads from accessing it until the current thread is
finished. Using the proper terminology, any time you apply the synchronized keyword to a method or to a
block of code, you are marking a critical section.
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Using synchronized to mark critical sections of code enables you to share data among threads without
worrying that it will be clobbered. The hit() method in class PingPong, shown in Listing 14-2 in the
“Bringing It All Together” section later in this chapter, is an example of a synchronized method.
Whenever a thread enters hit(), all others are locked out until it has finished. The others wait, blocked,
until hit() becomes unlocked. In this way, we never have to worry about synchronization errors again.
Java has a reserved keyword, called volati1e, that enables you to specify variables as being, you
guessed it, volatile. A variable that is volatile is read from memory every time it’s used and
then stored after each use. This means that each time you access a variable, it’s guaranteed not
to have come from a register and not to have been stored in a previous memory location.
Deadlock
An interesting condition occurs when two or more threads are waiting for each other to unlock a
synchronized block of code, where each thread relies on another to do the unlocking. This deadlock
situation can occur if you’re not careful in writing your synchronized methods. If the method being
called attempts to access the synchronized method that invoked it, and must wait for that method to
become free before it can become free itself, the two methods will end up waiting on each other for
eternity!
There are a few things you can do to ensure that your synchronized programs don’t end up in deadlock.
For one, try to execute locked code in as short an amount of time as possible. The longer you hold the
lock, the more likely it is that another thread will come along and require that object.
Also, be careful when you’re actually invoking synchronized methods from within another synchronized
method. Whenever a synchronized method invokes another synchronized method, there is a potential for
deadlock. The best way to avoid deadlock is to define the task each thread has clearly, and consider what
data is to be used and when. Although you may not anticipate all potential scenarios, you’ll be in better
shape than if you simply attempt to wrap a thread around everything. By ensuring that every thread in
your program has a specific purpose, you eliminate the threads that aren’t required and reduce the
chance of deadlock.
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Bringing It All Together
The following code listings bring many of the aspects you’ve just read about to life. Together, Listings
14-2, 14-3, and 14-4 illustrate a very simple example of a synchronized, threaded program that
implements wait() and notify(). The program, Ping Pong, has a very simple algorithm:
If it is my turn,
note whose turn it is next,
then PING,
and then notify anyone waiting.
otherwise,
wait to be notified.
The first class is named PingPong and consists of a single synchronized method named hit(), whose only
parameter is the name of the “player” who goes next. Any thread with a reference to an instance of class
PingPong can synchronize itself with other threads holding that same reference. To illustrate this concept,
the Player class (Listing 14-3) was written to instantiate a PingPong thread, and the Game class (Listing 14-
4) was written to create several players and run them all at once.
Because each of these is a public class, they can’t be stored in the same .java file (remember, only one
public class to a file!). As a result, each resides in its own file. When compiled and executed, the output
looks something like the following:
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
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PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
PING! (alice)
PING! (bob)
Because these threads are synchronized with each other, they run nice and orderly, each in turn and quite
unlike our EZThread example earlier where it was every thread for itself. Thanks to PingPong’s use of
synchronization, only one thread at a time can enter hit(), so each waits for the other to finish before
taking its turn. Contrast this with unsynchronized methods, where multiple threads can access the code
at the same time.
The Ping Pong program is part of the JavaWorld “Synchronizing Threads in Java” article available at
http://www.JavaWorld.com. Refer to this article (or one of the other two articles on threads) for a step-
by-step breakdown of this program and detailed information regarding Java threads.
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Listing 14-2: PingPong.java by Chuck McManis
// The “Player” class
public class PingPong {
// state variable identifying whose turn it is.
private String whoseTurn = null;
public synchronized boolean hit(String opponent) {
String x = Thread.currentThread().getName();
if (whoseTurn == null)
whoseTurn = x;
return true;
}
if (whoseTurn.compareTo(“DONE”) == 0)
return false;
if (opponent.compareTo(“DONE”) == 0)
whoseTurn = opponent;
notifyAll();
return false;
}
if (x.compareTo(whoseTurn) == 0){
System.out.println(“PING! (“+x+”)”);
whoseTurn = opponent;
notifyAll();
} else {
try {
long t1 = System.currentTimeMillis();
wait(2500);
if ((System.currentTimeMillis() - t1) > 2500)
System.out.println(“****** TIMEOUT! ”+x+
“is waiting for ”+whoseTurn+“ to play.”);
}
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} catch (InterruptedException e) { }
}
return true; // keep playing.
}
}
Listing 14-3: Player.java by Chuck McManis
// The “Player” class
public class Player implements Runnable {
PingPong myTable; // Table where they play
String myOpponent;
public Player(String opponent, PingPong table) {
myTable = table;
myOpponent = opponent;
}
public void run() {
while (myTable.hit(myOpponent))
;
}
}
Listing 14-4: Game.java by Chuck McManis
// The “Game” class
public class Game {
public static void main(String args[]) {
PingPong table = new PingPong();
Thread alice = new Thread(new Player(“bob”, table))
Thread bob = new Thread(new Player(“alice”, table));
alice.setName(“alice”);
bob.setName(“bob”);
alice.start(); // alice starts playing
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bob.start(); // bob starts playing
try {
// Wait 5 seconds
Thread.currentThread().sleep(5000);
} catch (InterruptedException e) { }
table.hit(“DONE”); // cause the players to quit their
threads.
try {
Thread.currentThread().sleep(100);
} catch (InterruptedException e) / }
}
}
Threads and Future Versions of the Java SDK
Future revisions of the Java SDK promise threading performance enhancements. These future
performance enhancements will be realized in three ways. First, Java will provide Solaris native thread
support. Native thread support will provide enhanced performance on multiprocessor-based systems.
Second, faster memory allocation and garbage collection will be provided. The local heap for threaded
processes will be cached—resulting in shorter garbage-collection times. Finally, the thread local monitor
will also be cached, enabling synchronization methods to be nearly as fast as normal methods.
Summary
A thread, also known as an execution context or lightweight process, is a single sequential flow of
control. Think of it as a way to divide your programs into chunks, each capable of executing
independent of others. When used properly, threads help eliminate bottlenecks and improve overall
programming performance. Threads are quick and easy to add to your programs, but with such power
comes the responsibility of clearly defining which tasks deserve their own threads.
• You can use threads by implementing the Runnable interface, or by extending the Thread class.
• Threads have three key aspects: body, state, and priority.
• A thread can be specified as a daemon thread, which serves other threads, and may also be
assigned to a thread group when you need to manage more than one at a time.
• The body of a thread is its run() method, which is where all the action takes place and can be
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Java Bible:Threads
thought of as the heart of a thread.
• Be careful to include in the body of a thread (its run() method) only those tasks that may operate
independently from the rest of your program.
• Be aware that multithreaded programs can deadlock your program when they use synchronized
methods; be careful when you use monitors in your methods.
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Java Bible:Weaving Applets into Web Pages
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 15
Weaving Applets into Web Pages
In This Chapter
Using applet tags and attributes
Communicating with non-Java browsers
Supplying applet parameters
Creating dualpurpose applets
Preparing for the future
In this chapter, you learn the ins and outs of wearing Java applets into World Wide Web documents or
HTML documents. Although we also explain aspects of this process in previous chapters (specifically
Chapter 7), we explore each of the pieces of the puzzle in more detail.
In particular, we explore the <APPLET> tag, which is used to embed a Java applet into a Web page. This
tag is created specifically for Java-savvy browsers. If a browser doesn’t understand the applet tag, it
simply ignores it. As you’ll see, there are a few ways to let non-Java browsers know about your applet,
or at least allow them to tell the user there’s an applet on your page.
Applet Tag Syntax
The following is the syntax of the <APPLET> tag, which is currently supported only by Java-savvy
browsers such as Netscape Navigator 2.0 (and later), lnternet Explorer 3.0 (and later), and Hot Java.
While these aren’t the only Java-savvy browsers on the market, they’re the most popular. Regardless,
any Java-savvy browser supports the <APPLET> tag, as you’ll see in the following definition (items in
square brackets ( [ ] ) are optional):
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Java Bible:Weaving Applets into Web Pages
<APPLET
[CODEBASE = base_URL] - applet code base —
CODE = classname.class - applet code file -
[ALT = alternate_Text] - alternate text -
[NAME = applet_Name] - applet name -
WIDTH = width_Value - applet width (pixels) -
HEIGHT = height_Value - applet height (pixels)-
[ALIGN = (left|right|top|texttop|middle|absmiddle|baseline|bottom|
absbottom) baseline]
[VSPACE = vert_Value] - vertical space (pixels)-
[HSPACE = horiz_Value] - horizontal space (pixels)-
[ARCHIVE = archive_list] - comma separated list of
JAR files -
[OBJECT = serialized_app] - serialized applet file -
>
[PARAM NAME=param1_Name VALUE = “param1_Value”]
[PARAM NAME=param2_Name VALUE = “param2_Value”]
[PARAM NAME=param3_Name VALUE = “param3_Value”]
[alternate HTML_CODE]
</APPLET>
As you can see from the preceding definition, there are only three portions, or attributes, that this tag
requires: CODE, HEIGHT, and WIDTH, as shown in Table 15-1. Optional attributes are shown in Table 15-
2.
Applet attributes provide information that either the browser, the Java runtime system, or your
applet itself uses to execute properly. The CODE, HEIGHT, and WIDTH, items specified in all
the HTML documents we’ve created so far are actually applet attributes.
Table 15-1
Required Applet Attributes
Attribute Description
CODE Specifies the name of the file containing the bytecode for your applet.
HEIGHT Specifies the initial height of your applet in pixels.
WIDTH Specifies the initial width of your applet in pixels.
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Table 15-2
Optional Applet Attributes
Attribute Description
ALIGN Specifies where your applet is placed on the page in respect to the text
around it. It can have one of the following nine alignments: left, right, top,
texttop, middle, absmiddle, baseline, bottom, and absbottom.
ALT Specifies alternate text to be displayed by text-only browsers.
ARCHIVE Specifies one or more archives (for example, JAR files) that will be
preloaded, Classes are loaded using an instance of the AppletClassLoader with
the CODEBASE specified.
CODEBASE Specifies the base URL for your applet. The applet itself must be located
relative to this URL If CODEBASE isn’t specified, the URL of the HTML
document in which the applet is embedded is used.
HSPACE Specifies the horizontal space surrounding your applet. The value you
specify for HSPACE is used only when the ALIGN attribute is set to left or
right.
NAME Specifies the symbolic name of your applet, allowing other applets
embedded in the same page to locate your applet by name.
OBJECT Specifies the name of a class that contains a serialized version of an Applet.
When a serialized applet is loaded its init( ) method is not invoked, but its start
( ) method will. An applet must have either the OBJECT or CODE attribute
specified.
VSPACE Specifies the vertical space surrounding your applet. The value you specify
for VSPACE is used only when the ALIGN attribute is set to top or bottom.
CODEBASE attribute
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Aside from CODE or OBJECT, HEIGHT, and WIDTH, no other attributes are required for the <APPLET>
tag. As you know, providing only these three parameters specifies that the applet (the class file) will be
located in the same directory as the HTML file in which it is embedded. However, you can use the
CODEBASE attribute to specify a location other than this default.
With CODEBASE, we can supply either an absolute URL (one that specifies a complete address) or a
relative URL, which specifies an address relative to the current document’s location. For example, if we
wanted an applet embedded in a page to be loaded from a directory named stuff residing in the directory
of the page itself, we would provide the following relative URL to CODEBASE:
<APPLET CODEBASE = “stuff”
CODE = “MyApplet.class”
WIDTH = 200
HEIGHT = 200>
</APPLET>
Or we can go down a few levels:
<APPLET CODEBASE = “stuff/games/strategy”
CODE = “MyApplet.class”
WIDTH = 200
HEIGHT = 200>
</APPLET>
Although you aren’t required to enter attribute names (CODEBASE, CODE, WIDTH, HEIGHT, and
the others) as all uppercase letters, it’s a good idea. Supplying attribute names as all uppercase
makes your HTML code easier to read.
We could also supply an absolute URL and have our applet loaded from anywhere on the Web:
<APPLET CODEBASE =
“<http://www.mantiscorp.com/jstuff/games/strategy>”
CODE = “MyApplet.class”
WIDTH = 200
HEIGHT = 200>
</APPLET>
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Java Bible:Weaving Applets into Web Pages
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Keep in mind, however, that an applet can only access files from the same Web server on which it’s
located. As a result, if you provide an absolute URL for CODEBASE, that applet will only be able to
access files off the server on which it resides. For example, in the preceding applet tag, once the applet is
loaded, it can only grab files off the server the www.mantiscorp.com host resides on.
This is due to one of the security measures protecting applets: They are not allowed to reach
out and grab code and resources from just anywhere. JDK 1.2 includes security checks, using a
permission/policy-based mechanism, that allow applets to load files from anywhere on the
Web.
JDK 1.2 Security
In JDK 1.2, when code is loaded, it is assigned “permissions” based on the security policy currently in
effect. Each permission specifies a permitted access to a particular resource (such as “read” and “write”
access to a specified file or directory, “connect” access to a given host and port, and so on). The policy,
specifying which permissions are available for code from various signers/locations, can be initialized
from an external configurable policy file. Unless a permission is explicitly granted to code, it cannot
access the resource that is guarded by that permission. These new security features enable fine-grain,
highly configurable, flexible, and extensible access control. Such access control now can not only be
specified for applets but also for all Java code, including applications, beans, and servlets. For more
detailed information on the new JDK 1.2 security model, consult Sun’s Java Web site at http://java.sun.
com/products/jdk/1.2/docs/guide/security/spec/ security-specTOC.doc.html.
Typically, your applet will require the use of support files (such as sound or image files). Your applet
can be written in one of the following three ways to affect how these support files load:
• It can access files using a URL, allowing the file to be located anywhere on the server (as long
as it’s on the same server as the applet).
• It can access files stored relative to the applet itself.
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• It can access files stored relative to the HTML document in which it is embedded.
The most convenient techniques are the last two—loading files relative to the applet or the Web page in
which it is embedded. However, in order to load a file relative to the applet or Web page, you must first
find out the URL of the applet or page. Luckily, the java.applet.Applet class provides two methods for
doing this.
For details on loading files using a URL, see Chapter 7. In that chapter we create the
FlexibleMediaHello applet, which loads a sound file and an image file using URLs supplied in
applet parameters.
To find out the base URL of your applet, use the getCodeBase( ) method:
URL myImageURL = getCodeBase(); // get the URL of applet
Image img = getImage(my ImageURL, “images/world.gif”); // load
image file
This example shows how you can use the getCodeBase( ) method to load an image relative to the applet
itself. The applet’s own URL is retrieved and used in a call to getImage(), which accepts a URL as its first
parameter. When executed, get Image( ) looks for the world.gif file in the images directory, located in the
same directory as the applet itself.
We can also find the URL for the Web page (HTML document) the applet is embedded in:
URL myImageURL = getDocumentBase();
Image img = getImage(myImageURL, “images/world.gif”);
In this example we load an image relative to the document, not the applet. As you can guess, this method
is necessary when you need to retrieve files that are relative to the Web page and not the applet.
Often, applets and the Web pages they are referenced in reside in the same directory. In this case, it
doesn’t matter which method you use: the URLs are the same! However, if the applet and Web page are
in different directories, you have to use the appropriate method to locate your support files.
You don’t have to store the URL in a variable before passing it as a parameter to one of these
methods, as we do here. Instead, you can combine both lines of code as follows:
getImage(getCodeBase(),“images/world.gif”);
or
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Java Bible:Weaving Applets into Web Pages
getImage(getDocumentBase(),“images/world.gif”);
In fact, unless you have a reason to hang onto the URL, this is the preferred way of doing it!
NAME attribute
Names are used to uniquely identify more than one applet on a page. This is particularly helpful when
you want your applets to communicate with one another. Using the NAME attribute, you can give your
applet a unique name:
<APPLET CODEBASE = “stuff/games/strategy”
CODE = “MyApplet.class”
NAME = “A Very Special Applet”
WIDTH = 200
HEIGHT = 200>
</APPLET>
Suppose, for example, that you had two applets on a page, and assigned the names TaskMaster and Grunt
to them. In the TaskMaster applet, you can have a bit of code that “talks” to Grunt:
// get a reference to Grunt:
Applet theGrunt = getAppletContext().getApplet(“Grunt”);
// invoke Grunt’s method
( (gruntClassName) theGrunt).aMethod(param1, param2, ...);
In the preceding two lines of code, we do something quite powerful. First, we use the getApplet( ) method
to retrieve a reference to the Grunt applet. We do this by way of the getAppletContext() method, which
returns a “context” to the applet’s environment context.
Since an applet’s context is the browser, we effectively say, “Look in the browser for an applet named
Grunt, and give me a reference to it.” Once we have a reference to Grunt (poor little devil), we can invoke
any of the methods in it, as if it were just another object in the TaskMaster program. Ail we do is cast out
the Grunt reference into its appropriate class, and we are golden.
The JavaWorld magazine articles provided on the CD-ROM with this book show several ways
you can use interapplet communications to get your applets talking to one another. For details,
refer to the JavaWorld article entitled “Tin Cans and String: Four Methods of Inter-Applet
Communication.”
WIDTH and HEIGHT attributes
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You know, of course, about the HEIGHT and WIDTH attributes; we deal with them from the beginning,
with our fi st applet, and all along the way—they’re required attributes no applet can live without. They
specify the width and the height of the applet when first executed. However, the applet itself can, and
often does, resize itself using the resize() method.
Unfortunately, you can never be sure whether resize () will work properly. It’s completely up to the
browser to respond to (or ignore) calls to resize(). In fact, the first Java-savvy version of Netscape
Navigator (version 2.0) ignored all such calls, meaning your applets couldn’t resize themselves once
loaded in this browser, while Applet Viewer responds to this method as you’d expect. As a result, you
shouldn’t rely on this method always working. Instead, insist that the user set the appropriate values in
the HEIGHT and WIDTH attributes.
Alignment
Since applets are integral portions of Web pages, the ALIGN <APPLET> tag definition allows us to align
our applets in nine different ways:
ALIGN=left
ALIGN=right
ALIGN=top
ALIGN=texttop
ALIGN=middle
ALIGN=absmiddle
ALIGN=baseline
ALIGN=bottom
ALIGN=absbottom
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Java Bible:Weaving Applets into Web Pages
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
When aligning applets to the left or right, the text following the applet is arranged accordingly. When
the applet is on the left, the text appears to the right. Conversely, if your applet is aligned to the right, the
text appears to the left, as shown in Figure 15-1.
Figure 15-1: The ALIGN attribute determines where your applet will be placed in the browser window,
and affects the flow of text following the <APPLET> tag.
You should note that all subsequent text continues to flow in this manner, so you must supply a break at
the point you want the text to start flowing normally again. The break tag <BR> accepts a CLEAR
attribute, which allows you to specify how the remaining text will flow. CLEAR can be left, right, or all.
To set the text back to a normal flow, set CLEAR to all.
<BR CLEAR=ALL>
The remaining align values specify how the applet is aligned in relation to the text. Examples of each are
shown in Figure 15-2.
Figure 15-2: Several ALIGN attributes are available to help you position an applet in relation to a line
of text.
Vertical and horizontal space
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You can gain even more control over your applet’s position relative to the text around it by using the
VSPACE and HSPACE attributes. VSPACE specifies how much space will appear in a vertical
relation—that is, above or below—to your applet. HSPACE specifies the amount of horizontal space
(from left to right) that will appear. Figure 15-3 shows how vertical and horizontal spacing affects the
visual impact of your applet in relation to the text.
Figure 15-3: HSPACE and VSPACE allow you to specify the horizontal and vertical space around
your applet.
ARCHIVE attribute
In Chapter 11 we discuss how to create JAR (Java Archive) files. You can use JAR files to
compress and store a number of class files so they are downloaded all at once. The ARCHIVE
tag can be used to specify a comma-separated list of JAR files that will be pre-loaded by your
Web browser. Any time a file or class is required, the Web browser will first search the
archive file before attempting to download it over the network. The ARCHIVE tag is used as
follows:
<APPLET CODE=“AnyClass.class”
ARCHIVE=“AnyJar1.jar,AnyJar2.jar”>
</APPLET>
Whenever any file or class is required by the AnyClass applet, the AnyJar1.jar and AnyJar2.jar files are
searched first. Creating and managing JAR files is explained in detail in Chapter 11.
Communicating with Non-Java Browsers
In cases where a non-Java browser loads a Web page that contains an applet, we have an opportunity to
display a message indicating that this particular page contains an applet. To do this, we provide standard
HTML between the beginning and closing applet tags:
<APPLET CODE=“ AnyClass.class” WIDTH=90 HEIGHT=50 ALIGN=top>
This page requires a Java-savvy browser!
</APPLET>
As you can see, we supply a text message that says “This page requires a Java-savvy browser!”
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Whenever a non-Java browser comes to this page, it won’t be able to launch the applet, but it will be
able to display this text message to the user. In this way, users are made aware that they can come back
later with a Java browser and have some particular effect take place.
Any standard HTML can be used in this area. You are not limited to text alone; in fact, you can supply
graphics tags, as well. You can also supply hyperlinks for graphics and pieces of text, so that when a
user visits the page with a non-Java browser, it may look like a fully functional Web page and, in fact,
act like one:
<APPLET CODE=“AnyClass.class” WIDTH=90 HEIGHT=50 ALIGN=top>
This page requires a Java-savvy browser!
<A HREF=“http://www.javasoft.com”>GET ONE!</A>
</APPLET>
However, when someone visits with a Java-powered browser, the applet portion kicks in, and they’ll be
off and running under Java steam. In this case, the “alternate HTML,” as it’s called, is ignored, meaning
only users of non-Java browsers will see it.
It’s always good style to attempt to provide both sides of the coin; that is, if it’s possible that your applet
can be rendered using standard HTML code (as in the case of graphics and text), you should do it. In this
way, both non-Java and Java-powered browsers benefit from your site.
Applet Parameters
As you know, we can supply our applet with parameters from within the applet tag. This is simple
enough, using the PARAM attribute. Each PARAM attribute has a name and a value associated with it:
<PARAM NAME:hello VALUE=“How are you?”>
The name tells us which parameter we’re talking about, hello in this case, while the value specifies the
value for that parameter (“How are you?”). Whenever we retrieve a parameter from within our applet,
it’s received in the form of a string. To retrieve a parameter, we simply use the get Parameter() method:
String helloString = getParameter (“hello”);
If we attempt to retrieve a parameter that is not included in an HTML file, this method returns null. As a
result, we need to test to ensure that we are receiving valid parameters. When we receive an invalid
parameter, we can use a default:
if (helloString == null) {
helloString = “Hello World”;
}
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There are a number of things for which you can use the parameter tag. You may want to specify the
color for which graphics or text are drawn. Or you may want to specify an image or sound file
associated with the applet. It’s up to you how to use parameters. They’re provided so you can gain
greater flexibility without having to hard-code such things into your applets.
Be careful, however, when specifying parameter tags in your HTML code. If you don’t enclose the
VALUE you supply in quotes, or type an extra quote by mistake (such as VALUE = “Hello” ”), the browser
will likely pass garbage instead of what you want! In fact, some browsers may even crash, since they
expect a single value to appear between a set of quotes (VALUE = “Hello”, for example). For more
information on applet parameters, see Chapter 7.
Typically, parameters are retrieved in your applet’s init() method. You’re free to get them when
you like, of course, although the conventional way of retrieving parameters is similar to how
you initialize variables: right off the bat!
You may have noticed that a number of the applets on the CD-ROM provided with this book allow you
to specify a list or array of parameters associated with a single PARAM name. This is particularly useful
when you don’t want to take up a lot of space and assign each of these potential variables to a specific
PARAM name. The easiest way of doing this is to separate each element on the name line with the
traditional pipe separator:
<PARAM NAME=sounds
VALUE=“1.au|2.au|3.au|4.au|5.au|6.au|7.au|8.au|9.au|O.au”>
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
The preceding example, taken from the Animator applet supplied on the CD-ROM, shows one long string
associated with a single-parameter name (sounds). However, this string contains many different
parameters, each separated by the pipe character (|). To extract and process these parameters, Listing 15-
1 is used. The parseSounds method takes a parameter string containing a list of sound files, and stores
them in a hash table for easy retrieval.
Listing 15-1: parseSounds Store a Parameter String in a Hash Table
Hashtable parseSounds(String attr, Vector images)
throws MalformedURLException {
Hashtable result = new Hashtable();
int imageNum = 0; // the counter index
int numImages = images.size(); // max sounds to get
for (int i = 0; i < attr.length(); ) { // begin loop
if (imageNum >= numImages) break; // too many!?
int next = attr.indexOf(’|’, i); // pipe?
if (next == -1) next = attr.length(); // done?
String sound = attr.substring(i, next);
if (sound. length() != 0) {
result.put(new Integer(imageNum),
new URL(soundSource, sound));
} i = next + 1;
imageNum++;
}
return result;
}
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This method, parseSounds(), breaks apart the sound string, passed into it by the attr parameter placing each
sound file in a HashTable object. Since each sound is played in sync with the individual frames of an
animation sequence, an additional Vector object parameter is used to establish the maximum number of
sounds to read in. While this may be a bit complex, depending on your needs, an alternative approach
might have been to use a StringTokenizer object.
For more details on the HashTable, Vector, and StringTokenizer classes, see Chapter 12.
Going Gold
Whenever you decide to actually embed an applet inside an HTML file, you’re working under the
assumption that the applet is ready to be used. If it’s not, you can do a number of things to ensure it’s
prepared for prime time.
Of course, you need to test your applets internally before releasing them to the general public, since you
can’t always guarantee they’ll work the way you want in widespread distribution. However, even before
entering the test phase, you can do the following things to prepare your applets for mass consumption:
• You can remove debugging output.
• You can stop the applet from running any of its threads when it’s no longer onscreen.
In Proper Context
The getAppletContext() method, defined in java.applet.Applet, allows us to obtain a reference to the
environment our applets are running in, which is usually the browser or Applet Viewer. Once you have
an applet’s context, there are a handful of methods declared in the java.applet.AppletContext interface
(Table 15-3) that you can use with it.
Two of the methods you may find particularly interesting are showStatus() and showDocument(). The
former allows us to send messages to the browser’s status area, while the latter makes is possible to open
URLs, as if the applet itself were at the controls:
getAppletContext().showStatus(“I’m working...please wait!”);
You can keep the Web user informed of what’s going on in your applet by sending messages to the
browser’s status area:
getAppletContext(). showDocument(“<http://www.anywhere.org>”);
By sending the message showDocument (), along with a valid URL, the browser can make a connection to
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that address, as if the user of the browser had entered it manually. This example opens the page in the
existing frame, although another showDocument() method is available which allows you to control which
frame the page is displayed in. While applets are restricted from accessing files from anywhere on the
Web but the server they come from, this does not apply to showDocument ( )! Feel free to pass any URL
you’d like to this method; it can handle any URL you can enter manually into the browser, regardless of
where it may point.
Table 15-3
java.applet.AppletContext Interface
Method Signature Description
getApplet public abstract Applet getApplet Gets an applet by name. Returns null if the applet
(String name) doesn’t exist.
GetApplets public abstract Enumeration Enumerates the applets in this context. Only
getApplets () applets that are accessible are returned. This list
always includes the applet itself.
GetAudioClip public abstract Audio Clip get Gets an audio clip. This usually involves
AudioClip (URL url) downloading it over the Internet. However, the
environment may decide to cache sounds. This
method takes an array of URLs, each of which is
tried until the sound is found.
GetImage public abstract get Image(URL url) Gets an image. This usually involves downloading
Image it over the Internet. However, the environment
may decide to cache images. This method takes an
array of URLs, each of which is tried until the
image is found.
ShowDocument public abstract void Shows a new document. This may be ignored by
showDocument (URL url) the applet context.
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ShowDocument public abstract void Show a new document in a target window or
showDocument (URL url, String frame. This may be ignored by the applet context.
target) This method accepts the following target strings:
self—show in current frame.
parent—show in parent frame.
top —show in topmost frame.
blank—show in new unnamed top-level window.
“other” —show in new top-level window named
“other”.
showStatus public abstract void show Status Shows a status string, usually located at the
(String status) bottom of the browser window.
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Java Bible:Weaving Applets into Web Pages
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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In addition, you may wish to supply the Web user with information from inside your applet. You can do
this in one of two ways. You can either throw information directly onto the applet itself, such as
initializing, please wait, or you can use the status portion of the browser to send a message:
getAppletContext().showStatus(“initializing, please wait”);
Although you can’t guarantee that the status method will be implemented in every browser, it’s an
elegant way of communicating with the user.
Either of these two ways of communication work, and are useful for supplying a variety of information.
You may wish to inform the user of each step when something is happening in your applet, such as
when you’re loading a large file or preparing to do a time-consuming process. Or you may wish to alert
users that something has gone wrong, as in the case of an exception that is too serious to ignore.
Since you can’t guarantee that users will see or understand what you throw into a text string, it may be
possible to pop up a dialog box or window that forces them to respond. This, however, assumes that
whatever has occurred in your program requires dramatic and drastic user interaction. If you can get
away with it, don’t display a dialog box or a window at all; simply provide a way for the user to know
what’s going on (such as placing text on the applet itself) and you’ll be all set. Only in the most extreme
cases do you really want to force the user to interact with your program in such a manner.
The <APPLET> tag can be surrounded by other HTML tags, such as “center”. These are treated
just like any other standard HTML tags, allowing you to use the applet tag as you would any
other HTML tag.
Dual-Purpose Applets
As you may have realized, it’s possible to include applet and application functionality in one body of
code. This is easy enough; simply include both a main() method and an init() method in the same
program. The trick is in the main() method. First you’ll need to create a frame in the main() method, for
which all subsequent AWT graphics methods called from the application will be used, and then an
instance of the class itself. Using this instance, you can invoke its init() and start() methods, kicking off
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the applet as you normally would.
Of course, applications don’t accept parameters through an HTML file as an applet does. And so, you’d
have to pass all parameters in on the command line, just as you would standard command-line
arguments, then process them as you would in the applet. For example, suppose you wanted to create a
dual-purpose class called DuneBuggy. You’d write the applet as normal, and then add the following main
( ) method:
public static void main (String args[]) {
// process params passed on command line before doing
// anything else (see Chapter 10 for details)
// then, create the frame:
Frame theFrame = new Frame (“Running as an application!”);
theFrame.resize(500,500); // and resize as needed
// next, create an instance of DuneBuggy class:
DuneBuggy theApplet = new DuneBuggy();
// now, add the applet to the frame and show it.
// Use add() method defined in java.awt.Container.
// which adds a component to a container;
theFrame.add(“Center”, theApplet); // add it theFrame show(); //
and show it
// finally, kick start the applet instance!
theApplet.init(); // invoke init()
theApplet.start(); // invoke start()
}
That’s all there is to it. Just include a souped-up main( ) method along with the standard applet methods,
and you have a dual-purpose piece of code. This is helpful when you have a program that you want to
function as both an applet and an application and don’t want to write or create separate versions of each.
It creates a dual-purpose program for you.
There is one fatal flaw to dual-purpose programs: applications aren’t executed inside a
browser, so all calls to getAppletContext( ) return null. The result is a crash whenever you try to
invoke a method that deals with the applet context, such as the following:
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Hello!”); // will crash!
getAppletContext().showDocument(“<http://www.anywhere.org>”);
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// will crash!
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Preparing for the Future
Before placing your applet on the Web, it’s a good idea to override the getAppletInfo() and getParameterInfo
() methods. While getAppletInfo() is used to provide your applet with a version and author string,
getParameterInfo() ensures parameters used are well documented.
Taking advantage of getAppletInfo() is simple. You need only override the method and return a string.
Although this method is intended to provide your applet with a way to identify itself, its author, and the
copyright, you’re free to supply whatever you’d like:
public String getAppletInfo() {
return “MyCoolApplet version 1.1, by J. Schmo. ” +
“Copyright 1998, all rights reserved!”;
}
While you may be tempted to go nuts here, it’s a good idea to at least include your name and the name
and version of your applet. If you don’t care about the copyright to your work, you don’t have to bother
including a copyright notice as shown above. While this method doesn’t serve any practical purpose at
the moment, it will likely be put to use by browsers and Web page development software in the future.
By including your applet’s vital statistics today, you’ll be well prepared for tomorrow.
The other “planning for the future” method you’ll want to override is getParameterInfo(). This method
provides a mechanism for your applet to formally document what parameters it can accept, and what is
likely to be used in search engines and graphical applet configuration tools of the future (see Chapter 8,
“Surfing The Web for Java Source Code” for details). However, unlike getAppletInfo(), this method is a
bit more complex:
public String[][] getParameterInfo() { }
The getParameterInfo() method returns an array of strings describing the parameters that are understood by
your applet. The array consists of groups of three strings, which must fall in specific order: the
parameter name, the parameter’s type, and a description of the parameter. Take, for example, the
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following snippet of code:
public String[][] getParameterInfo() {
String[][] info = {
{“imagesource”, “URL”, “a directory”},
{“startup”, “URL”, “displayed at startup”},
{“background”, “URL”, “displayed as background”},
{“startimage”, “int” “start index”},
{“endimage”, “int”, “end index”},
{“namepattern”, “URL”, “used to generate indexed names”},
{“pause”, “int”, “milliseconds”},
{“pauses”, “ints”, “milliseconds”},
{“repeat”, “boolean”, “repeat or not”},
{“positions”, “coordinates”, “path”},
{“soundsource”, “URL”, “audio directory”},
{“soundtrack”, “URL”, “background music”},
{“sounds”, “URLs”, “audio samples”},
};
return info;
}
This example, taken from Sun’s own Animator applet, lists each of the parameters the applet accepts,
using the format “name, type, description.” Of course, just as with getApplet Info(), you’re free to supply
any information you’d like. However, in the interest of future compatibility with browsers and special
tools that might make use of this information, it’s best to use these methods as they were intended.
Summary
With this chapter you have added the ability to include applets into your Web pages using the <APPLET>
tag. You should remember the following key attributes of the <APPLET> tag:
• With CODEBASE, you can supply either an absolute URL (one that specifies a complete
address) or a relative URL, which specifies an address relative to the current document’s
location.
• Names are used to uniquely identify more than one applet on a page. This is particularly
helpful when you want your applets to communicate with one another. Using the NAME attribute,
you can give your applet a unique name.
• The WIDTH and HEIGHT attributes specify the width and the height of the applet when first
executed. However, the applet itself can, and often does, resize itself using the resize() method.
• Since applets are integral portions of Web pages, the ALIGN <APPLET> tag definition allows us
to align our applets in nine different ways: left, right, top, texttop, middle, absmiddle, baseline, bottom,
and absbottom.
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• You can gain even more control over your applet’s position relative to the text around it by
using the VSPACE and HSPACE attributes. VSPACE specifies how much space will appear in a
vertical relation—that is, above or below-to your applet. HSPACE specifies the amount of
horizontal space (from left to right) that will appear.
• The ARCHIVE tag can be used to specify a comma-separated list of JAR files that will be pre-
loaded by your Web browser. Any time a file or class is required, the Web browser will first
search the archive file before attempting to download it over the network.
• As you may have realized, it’s possible to include applet and application functionality in one
body of code. This is easy enough; simply include both a main () method and an init() method in
the same program. The trick is in the main() method. First you’ll need to create a frame in the main
() method, for which all subsequent AWT graphics methods called from the application will be
used, and then an instance of the class itself. Using this instance, you can invoke its init() and start
() methods, kicking off the applet as you normally would.
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Java Bible:Abstract Windowing Toolkit Overview
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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PART IV
Abstract Windowing Toolkit
In This Part
Chapter 16:
Abstract Windowing Toolkit Overview
Chapter 17:
Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images
Chapter 18:
Widgets
Chapter 19:
More Widgets and Containers
Chapter 20:
Windows
Chapter 21:
Laying Out Components
Chapter 22:
Bringing It All Together with java’ 1.1
Chapter 23:
Introducing java Foundation Classes (JFC)
Chapter 24:
Getting in the Swing of Things
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Chapter 25:
Bringing, It Ail Together with Java 1.2
You’re probably itching to learn how to develop even more complex Java applications. If you are, then
the Abstract Windowing Toolkit is still your key to developing fullfeatured user interfaces for your Java
applications. Although the AWT is being replaced by the Java Foundation Classes (JFC) in Java 1.2,
understanding the AWT will help you support older Java applications and give you a solid foundation
for understanding the JFC.
This part shows you how to add graphics, fonts, windows, and user interface controls — such as buttons,
list boxes, combo boxes, menus, and sliders — to your own Java applications. Each AWT object
described also includes a complete reference for you to use when you develop your own applications.
The best way to learn how to use the Java user interface classes is to use them to develop an actual
application. This part wraps up with the step-by-step development of the JavaDraw application — a
basic graphic-drawing application. You’ll learn how to use the AWT classes to design and implement
your application.
Finally, to get you ready to move to the latest and greatest Java Development Kit—version 1.2—this
part introduces the powerful newcomers to JDK 1.2: the Java Foundation Classes (JFC), and the new
user interface classes JFC includes nicknamed Swing. A detailed review of each interface component in
the Swing classes demonstrates why these classes are poised to replace the Abstract Windowing Toolkit
for Java-based user interface development.
CHAPTER 16
Abstract Windowing Toolkit Overview
In This Chapter
Using the Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT) to develop user interfaces far your Java applications
Attaining an overview of the AWT classes
Event handling and the AWT
Creating graphics using the AWT
Pulling together the components of the AWT to create an application user interface
Until the I’ve created have lacked true now, programs a graphical user interface (GUI). However, to
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create really compelling and useful software programs with Java, you’re likely to need to implement
one. After all, what good is a program without buttons, scroll bars, text fields, menus, check boxes,
windows, and other GUI goodies?
To be fair, you can do quite a bit without a GUI (as DOS and UNIX programmers are quick to point
out). However, whether you’re creating Web applets or standalone applications, chances are good that
you’ll need a GUI component at some point, even if it’s only a simple button.
This chapter introduces you to Java’s GUI classes, known formally as the Abstract Windowing Toolkit
(AWT). The AWT is quite large and complex, as you soon see. As a result, rye broken the discussion of
it into several chapters. In this chapter you learn about the AWT in a general sense: how it’s organized,
what it can do, and the basic concepts you need to understand to use it. In the chapters that follow, we
put the pedal to the metal and make good use of the things you learn here.
Abstract Windowing Toolkit
The Java AWT is actually a generic user interface (UI) toolkit, a collection of classes that lets you create
independent user interfaces. Just as Java programs are platform independent, capable of running on any
computer that has the Java runtime system installed, so too are the user interfaces created with the AWT.
You’ll note that I didn’t use the term graphical user interface to describe the AWT. This is because most
people associate only a specific set of elements with a GUI, namely those things that a program uses to
present windows and their contents (such as scroll bars, menus, and buttons).
Although the term Windowing Toolkit might lead you to believe that’s all the AWT does, it really goes
above and beyond the typical GUI to encompass all aspects of a user interface—not just GUI elements.
An image that you draw on the screen, for example, is considered part of the UI. Whatever users see
and, many believe, whatever they hear is part and parcel of a user interface.
The AWT actually includes methods that enable your applets to access and play audio clips.
Because I’ve used these in earlier chapters, I’ll stay focused on the portions of the java.awt
package that provide a visual user interface.
A UI that you create using the AWT looks and acts appropriately for any platform on which it runs.
With Java, you don’t have to worry about writing code for a specific platform. And thanks to the AWT,
you don’t have to bother learning specific UI routines, either.
The AWT doesn’t attempt to support every UI feature of every platform. Its aim is more modest: to
provide the minimum necessary to develop a complete interface that is functional and consistent across
all platforms. Even so, the AWT encompasses dozens of classes. Windows, dialog boxes, menus,
buttons, scroll bars, text fields, check boxes, and drawing and painting canvases are but a few of the UI
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components the AWT offers. In addition, it provides an event mechanism that allows your UI to respond
to user input, such as mouse clicks and key presses.
The AWT is designed to be extensible, allowing developers to subclass existing AWT classes
and create their own, special-purpose GUI elements (animated 3D scroll bars, anyone?).
Thanks to platform independence, the result is a brand-spanking new GUI widget that looks
smashing on every user’s computer.
This assumes, of course, that whatever special-purpose GUI element you create is, in fact, smashing. If it
is dull and lifeless, it will look dull and lifeless on all platforms. But with Java, at least you have to write
dull, lifeless GUI widgets only once, rather than having to write a special version for each platform on
which your dull, lifeless program runs.
Fundamental organization
The AWT is quite complex and so large that it is organized into a main package (java.awt) and four
supporting packages (java.awt.event, java.awt.image, java.awt.datatransfer, and java.awt.peer). Although you’ll
probably never use classes in the java.awt.peer package, the other packages contain a host of classes you’ll
want to dig right into. These classes are described in the following sections.
Typically, peer objects are used only by those porting Java to a new platform, because they act
as the glue between the AWT classes you use and the underlying operating system. Thanks to
peers, AWT elements (windows, dialog boxes, buttons, menus, scroll bars, and so on) look and
act as the underlying operating system dictates; actually, the underlying system creates and
handles the AWT elements. Although you won’t use them directly, peers ensure that your GUI
appears exactly as the user would expect, regardless of what platform your program is
executed on. Your applications will look slightly different on varying platforms because they
will take on the look and feel of the platform on which they are running.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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java.awt
The main java.awt package contains most of the classes and interfaces for creating graphical user
interfaces, in this package, all the classes for creating windows, menus, buttons, check boxes, and other
essential GUI elements are found. See Tables 16-1 and 162 for a listing of the interfaces and classes
defined in java.awt.
Table 16-1
Package java.awt Interfaces
Interfaces Description
Adjustable Interface for objects that have an adjustable numeric value.
ItemSelectable Interface for objects that contain selectable items
LayoutManager Interface for objects that know how to lay out containers.
LayoutManager2 Interface for constraint-based layout managers.
MenuContainer The superclass of all menu-related containers.
Print Graphics Ancestor of classes that define a graphics context for a printed page.
Shape Interface for objects that represent geometric shapes.
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Table 16-2
Package java.awt classes
Classes Description
AWTEvent Granddaddy of all AWT event classes.
AWT Event Multicaster Defines a multicasting event dispatcher.
BorderLayout An NSEW-style (North, South, East, West, and Center) border bag layout.
Button A class that produces a labeled button component.
Canvas A canvas component. This is a generic component that needs to be
subclassed to produce some functionality.
Card layout A layout manager that contains several “cards:” Only one card is visible at
a time, allowing you to flip through them.
Checkbox A Checkbox object is a graphical user interface element that has a boolean
state.
CheckboxGroup This class is used to create a multiple-exclusion scope for a set of check
box buttons.
CheckboxMenuItem This class produces a check box that represents a choice in a menu.
Choice The Choice class is a pop-up menu of choices. The current choice is
displayed as the title of the menu.
Color A class to encapsulate RGB and HSB (hue saturation) colors.
Component A generic Abstract Windowing Toolkit component.
Container A generic Abstract Windowing Toolkit container-object component that
can contain other components.
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Cursor Encapsulates a bitmap that represents a mouse cursor.
Dialog A class that produces a dialog box (a window that takes input from the
user).
Dimension A class to encapsulate a width and height dimension.
Event A platform-independent class that encapsulates events from the graphical
user interface.
Event Queue A platform-independent class that queues events from the underlying
system and from trusted applications.
FileDialog Displays a file selection dialog.
FlowLayout This is used to lay out buttons in a panel.
Font A class that produces font objects.
FontMetrics A fontmetrics object.
Frame A frame is a top-level windows with a title
Graphics Graphics is the abstract base class for all graphic contexts for various
devices.
GridBag Constraints GridBagConstraints is used to specify constraints for components laid out
using GridBagLayout class,
GridBagLayout A flexible layout manager for positioning components.
GridLayout A layout manager for a container that lays out grids.
Image The Image class is an abstract class. The image must be obtained in a
platform-specific way.
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Insets The insets of a container. This class is used to lay out containers.
Label A component that displays a single line of read-only text.
List A scrolling list of text items.
MediaTracker A utility class to track the status of a number of media objects.
Menu A menu that is a component of a menu bar.
Menu Bar A class that encapsulates a platform’s concept of a menu bar bound to a
frame.
MenuComponent The superclass of all menu-related components.
MenuItem A string item that represents a choice in a menu.
MenuShortcut Defines the class of keyboard accelerators for menu items.
Panel A panel Container class. This produces a generic container.
Point An x,y coordinate.
Polygon A polygon consists of a list of x and y coordinates.
PopupMenu A menu that can dynamically pop up at a specified location in a component.
PrintJob Provides printing support for applications.
Rectangle A rectangle defined by x, y, width, and height.
Scrollbar A scroll bar component.
ScrollPane A container that provides scrolling support for its client.
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TextArea A multiline area that displays text.
SystemColor Provides symbolic names for the colors of UI features, such as buttons,
captions, control highlights and shadows, and so on.
TextComponent A component that allows the editing of some text.
Text Field A component that allows the editing of a single line of text.
Toolkit An AWT toolkit. It is used to bind the AWT classes to a particular native
toolkit implementation.
Window A window is a top-level window with no borders and no menu bar. It can
be used to implement a popup menu.
The basic java.awt class hierarch is shown in Figure 16-1.
Figure 16-1: The java.awt class hierarchy is comprised of a large number of classes that together form
the AWT.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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As you can see, the java.awt package contains a number of classes that together form the AWT. There are
three aspects to the class hierarchy:
• Primitive graphics
• Fonts
• Standard GUI elements
Let’s take a closer look at each aspect.
The word windowing in Abstract Windowing Toolkit might lead you to believe that the AWT
is only used to create and manage window objects. In truth, it’s used to create window and
dialog objects, along with anything you might associate with them (buttons, menus, scroll bars,
and the like), and whatever you see going on inside windows and dialog boxes (text output,
text output in a specific font, drawing of vector graphics, painting of bitmap graphics,
animation of both vector and bitmap graphics, and anything else the user sees).
Primitive graphics
The main java.awt package includes Graphics, a class that defines a primitive set of drawing methods that
enable you to draw and fill lines, rectangles, ovals, polygons, and arcs. These can be drawn and filled by
using a preset range of colors or by using ones you define yourself (see Figure 16-2). In addition, the java.
awt package provides methods for clearing, clipping,and copying the drawing area, giving you the ability
to manipulate images and graphics after they are placed on the screen.
Figure 16-2: The java.awt. Graphics class allows you to create and draw primitive graphics.
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The AWT contains an abstract class called Image and a subpackage of classes (java.awt.image), both for
dealing with bitmap images. Initially, you won’t work with these classes directly, because the Graphics
class implements all the methods you’ll need to use bitmap images.
In addition to using the image methods provided in the Graphics class, you can always create a subclass
of Image for your own purposes. The Image class contains abstract methods that you must implement for
a specific platform. For example, you might create a subclass of Image in order to create a class that
allows you to use .BMP (BitMaP) format images.
At times, the only way to tell if I’m talking about the Image class (java.awt.Image) or the image
package (java.awt.image) is by the capitalization of the word Image for a class. Class names
begin, by convention, with a capital letter. Packages, however, are typically all lowercase
Currently, the AWT supports .GIF and .JPEG image formats. You can easily retrieve and draw graphics
of both formats, either directly from the local hard drive or over the network, just as you did with the
MediaHelloWorld applet.
Fonts
Many graphics systems treat fonts as actual graphics, and the AWT is no different. After all, fonts are
the graphical representation of characters. If characters, strings, numbers, and letters were never
displayed on the screen, there would be no need for fonts. However, as soon as you output these things
to the screen, they become graphics.
With the Font class (java.awt.Font), you can output text using any typeface you want; for example, Times
Roman, Courier, Helvetica, and Zapf Dingbats. You can also choose from styles such as regular, bold,
italic, and underlined, and point sizes such as 8pt, 12pt, 36pt, and 72pt. Figure 16-3 shows an example of
text output in a number of faces, styles, and point sizes.
Figure 16-3: The java.awt. Font class enables you to draw text on the screen in a variety of faces
(fonts), sizes, and styles.
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Although you can tell Java to use any font you like, he warned that not all users have the same
fonts on their computer as you do. Although you may be able to see a specific font when the
applet is running on your computer, others may see a substitute that doesn’t look anything like
what you want! Play it safe, and be conservative in your font choices (see the next section,
“Standard GUI elements”).
Standard GUI elements
When most people think of the AWT, they think of it in terms of a graphical user interface toolkit.
Indeed, the AWT is often considered a GUI toolkit simply because of the name. After all, what do you
think of when you hear the word windowing? You think of ali the widgets that usually come along for
the ride: menus, scroll bars, buttons, text fields, check boxes, and Bill Gates.
Be honest—you can’t possibly hear the word windowing without thinking of Bill Gates. I
won’t venture to guess exactly what runs through your at mind that moment, and l’m not about
to share the contents of mine (at least not here...drop me a line), but don’t lie to yourself. I’ll be
spending the next quarter-century shaking the residue of Bill’s $200,000,000 Windows 95
promotional campaign out of my subconscious. Heck, I’ll be lucky if, by the year’s end, I can
get myself to stop breaking into a spontaneous Rolling Stones “Start Me Up” lip-synch and
shimmy every time I hear windows. And by that time, I’11 almost certainly be facing a
Windows 98 campaign!
All such widgets, including windows and dialog boxes themselves, descend from the Component class
(see Figure 16-4). To keep our terminology clear and simple, I refer to anything that falls under the
Container class (panels, applets, windows, dialog boxes, file dialogs, and frames) as containers. You can
put other components and containers in them.
Figure 16-4: The majority of AWT classes you’ll use are direct descendants of the java.awt.
Component class.
As for the buttons, scroll bars, text fields, and other user interface elements, I’ll refer to them all as
widgets. If the term widgets gets under your skin, feel free to substitute your favorite term every time I
say it (might I suggest doohickey, dealybobber, or perhaps thingamajig?).
It’s not that I mean to belittle these essential creatures, but l think element is a bit too stuffy and serious
to use when referring to buttons, scroll bars, and their ilk. And I don’t want to refer to them as
components because I use that term when talking about anything that falls under the Component class.
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Some folks might like the term control, which most of these things are, but I prefer to group them all
under a more general term, since some of them (labels and canvases, specifically) don’t actually control
anything. More importantly, I just can’t let go of the word widget when it comes to classifying these
things. Whenever I see one, the words widget... Widget... WIDGET!! insidiously enter my mind, refusing
to go away. Sadly, I’m compelled to pass this compulsion on to you.
When referring to both containers and widgets, I’ll use the term component. With this, we have a simple
and effective jargon for AWT elements:
• Containers: Panels, applets, windows, dialogs, file dialogs, and frames.
• Widgets: Buttons, scroll bars, text fields, and other user interface elements; need I say more?
• Components: Encompassing every descendant of the Component class.
As you’ll soon see, using the AWT to build a UI is quite easy, You just create a container, if you even
need one (more on that later), and slap on widgets to your heart’s desire. Of course, they’ll do you no
good whatsoever, but they sure look cool.
What’s this? Worthless widgets? Delinquent doohickeys? Trivial thingamajigs? Yes, indeed. They may
look pretty, but don’t be deceived: It’s all fluff. Clicking them will get you nowhere—until, of course,
you respond to the events they generate.
Notice how I refer to interacting with the user, not webber (even though webber is nearly as
gratifying to say as widget)? This is because you can use the AWT to develop both
applications and applets. Although the bulk of this chapter and the next are geared towards
developing applets, you can apply what you read to developing Java applications as well.
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Handling Events
Events are what enable your program to interact with a user. (See the “About Events” sidebar.)
Whenever a user interacts with an element of your program’s user interface through the keyboard, the
mouse, a button, or a menu item, the element generates an event. To react to an event, it’s necessary to
create some code that executes whenever the event occurs—this is called trapping the event. By
trapping events, your program can respond to the user’s input in a meaningful way.
About Events
An event refers to any unpredictable change of state in a program’s environment. Two kinds of events
occur in a typical environment: physical events and simulated events. A physical event corresponds to a
change of state in the system’s physical environment, such as a user’s mouse movement. A simulated
event corresponds to a change of state in a simulated environment, such as a graphical user interface. For
example, window systems, such as Windows 95 and Motif, generate a simulated event whenever a user
interacts with a visual control, such as a push button or a menu item.
Semantic events are an important subclass of simulated events. A semantic event conveys a specific
meaning to the application program and is often defined independently of a particular type of widget For
example, in the Java environment, several different types of widgets, including buttons, menu items, and
check boxes, can generate a type of semantic event known as an action event. An action event means
“Perform the action associated with this component.”
Every system provides a standard mechanism for detecting’ queuing, and responding to events This
mechanism, known as an event model, typically divides event-handling duties between the operating
system and the application. The operating system handles event detection and queuing, because these
tasks are generic. The application program handles the task of responding to events in specific ways, as
dictated by the application.
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Java provides two system-independent mechanisms, or models for handling events, known as the
hierarchical model and the delegation model. The hierarchical model, so-called because it assigns event-
handling duties to a program’s widgetcontainer hierarchy, came first and is considered obsolete.
However, at this point only standalone Java interpreters support its replacement, the delegation model,
which lets a program delegate event-handling chores to any properly qualified object. If you want to
create an applet, you must use the hierarchical model, at least until browsers that support the delegation
model become available. Because you may have occasion to use either model, you will learn how to use
both in this chapter.
From a practical perspective, the main difference between the two models lies in how a program traps
events, in the hierarchical model, a program traps events by overriding certain default methods defined
by the AWT’s Component class. For example, if you want to trap a button click, you override the button’s
action() method or the action () method of its container. With the delegation model, on the other hand, you
trap events by registering event handlers, called listeners, with the components in which the events
occur. For example, if you want to trap a button click, you register an action listener with the button. In
either case, you need to have a basic understanding of how the model operates in order to use the model
successfully. So let’s explore each model in turn.
The hierarchical model
The hierarchical model is an object-oriented model: It treats events as objects and as if they occur in
objects, specifically UI components, such as button or panels. From your perspective as a Java
developer, the most important feature of the hierarchical model is that it provides a means for you to trap
and respond to events as they occur in your program’s UI. The way you do this is by overriding default
AWT event-handling methods, replacing them with your own. Which methods you override depends on
the type of events you want to trap and where they occur in your program’s UI. To know which methods
to override, you need to know the basics of the hierarchical model event-handling mechanism.
The mechanism works as follows. Whenever an event occurs, the Java interpreter calls the handle Event()
method of the UI component in which the event occurs, passing it an instance of the java.awt.Event class.
The method processes the event, using information about the event provided by the fields of the Event
object, which includes the event’s type (ID), the object in which it occurred (target), the time it occurred,
and other data specific to that type of event, such as the position of the mouse in the case of mouse
events (see Table 16-3).
Table 16-3
java.awt. Event Instance Variables
Variable Description
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int ID The ID of the event (refer to Table 16-2).
Object target The “target” of an event (CheckBox, Button, Scrollbar, Textfield objects, and so
on). Use the instanceof keyword to find the target.
long when Time-stamp (when the event was generated).
int x int y The coordinates (x,y) where the event occurred,
int key Key that was pressed (keyboard events).
Object arg Arbitrary argument associated with an event (such as the name of the
button selected).
int modifiers State of the modifier keys when an event was generated.
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Date: 05/01/98
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The Event class simplifies the job of handleEvent () by defining constants for every type of event
recognized by the hierarchical model (see Table 16-4).
Table 16-4
Component-Generated
Component Event ID Description
Button ACTION_EVENT The user clicked the button.
Check Box ACTION_EVENT The user clicked the check box.
Choice ACTION_EVENT The user selected an item.
Component GOT_FOCUS The user got input focus
Component KEY_ACTION The user pressed a function key,
Component KEY_ACTION_RELEASE The user released a function key.
Component KEY_PRESS The user pressed a key.
Component KEY_RELEASE The user released a key.
Component LOST_FOCUS The user lost input focus.
Component MOUSE_ENTER The mouse entered the component.
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Component MOUSE_EXIT The mouse exited the component,
Component MOUSE_DOWN The user pressed a mouse button.
Component MOUSE_UP The user released a mouse button.
Component MOUSE_MOVE The user moved the mouse.
Component MOUSE_DRAG The user dragged the mouse,
list ACTION_EVENT The user double-clicked a list item.
list LIST_SELECT The user selected a list item.
list LIST_DESELECT The user deselected a list item.
Menu Item ACTION_EVENT The user selected a menu item,
Scroll Bar SCROLL_LINE_UP The user requested scroll line up.
Scroll Bar SCROLL_LINE_DOWN The user requested scroll line down.
Scroll Bar SCROll_PAGE_UP The user requested scroll page up.
Scroll Bar SCROll_PAGE_DOWN The user requested scroll page down.
Scroll Bar SCROLL_ABSOLUTE The user requested an absolute change.
Text Field ACTION_EVENT The user pressed Enter.
Window WINDOW_DESTROY The window was destroyed.
Window WINDOW_ICONIFY The window was iconified,
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Window WINDOW_DEICONIFY The window was deiconified,
Window WINDOW_MOVED The window was moved,
The AWT supports the hierarchical model by defining a default handleEvent () method in the Component
class, the ancestral class for all AWT UI components. Every AWT widget either inherits or overrides
this default method. Aha! Finally, we’ve discovered the secret to handling events in the hierarchical
method. Just override the handleEvent() method of components in which events of interest occur.
Actually, the situation is a bit more complicated than that.
For one thing, the AWT’s default handleEvent () method acts as an event-handling switch, diverting
certain common types of events, specifically keyboard, mouse, and action events, to more specific event-
handling methods. For these types of events, it makes more sense to override the more specific default
methods (see Table 16-5). Moreover, if the event is not an action or mouse event, or the more specific
method does not handle the event, the default handleEvent () method kicks the event upstairs to the
handleEvent() method of its containing object, where the whole process is repeated on a higher level in
your UI’s hierarchy (hence the name hierarchical model). What this means is that it is possible for you to
handle all events at a high level in the hierarchy. In fact, in the case of applets, you can handle all events
at the highest level, namely the applet itself. That’s because unless your applet spawns secondary
windows—it is the top-level container in its UI hierarchy.
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Table 16-5
Default Event-Handling Methods
Event ID Method Description
ACTION_EVENT action(Event, Object) User selected a menu item, a
button or check box, or the
contents of a choice, text, or list
control.
KEY_PRESS keyDown(Event, int) Key-press keyboard event.
KEY_RELEASE keyUp(Event, int) Key-release keyboard event.
KEY_ACTION keyDown(Event, int, int) Key action (press+release)
keyboard event, generated
when Function keys are
pressed.
KEY_ACTION_RELEASE keyUp(Event, int) Key action (press + release)
keyboard event.
MOUSE_DOWN mouseDown(Event, int, int) Mouse-down event.
MOUSE_UP mouseUp(Event, int, int) Mouse-up event.
MOUSE_MOVE mouseMove(Event, int, int) Mouse-move event.
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MOUSE_ENTER mouseEnter(Event, int, int) Mouse-enter event.
MOUSE_EXIT mouseExit(Event, int, int) Mouse-exit event.
MOUSE_DRAG mouseDrag(Event, int, int) Mouse-drag event.
When developers use the hierarchical model, they generally elect to handle events at the highest possible
level in the UI hierarchy, specifically at the applet level in the case of applets. Here’s the reason why. To
trap events at a lower level in the hierarchy, you must override the default event-handling methods of the
lower-level components. This, in turn, entails creating a new class derived from the appropriate AWT
component class, for example, the Button class. If you elect to handle events at a low level, you end up
having to create a bunch of new classes, often for no reason other than to customize event handling. In
contrast, if you handle events at a higher level, you cut down significantly on the number of new classes
you need to create. In the case of applets, you need to create only one new class, namely a derivative of
the AWT’s Applet class. This is hardly a burden, because as you’ve seen, developing an applet entails
subclassing Applet anyway.
Now let’s take a look at handling a common type of event.
Handling action events
The AWT provides a set of widgets that lets a user control various aspects of a Java program. This set
includes the widgets defined by the AWT’s Button, CheckBox, Choice, List, MenuItem, and TextField classes.
The following chapters explore these widgets in detail. For the moment, it’s enough for you to know that
when a user interacts with any of them—for example, when a user clicks a button or double-clicks a list
item—the widget posts an ACTION_EVENT event. You can trap and handle the event by overriding the
action () method of the target widget or its container.
As Table 16-5 reveals, when an action event occurs, the handleEvent() method of the relevant component
passes two parameters to the action () method: an Event instance and an Object parameter:
public boolean action(Event evt, Object what) {
...
}
The Event instance provides all the information you really need to identify an event. However, as a
convenience, handleEvent () passes additional information in the Object parameter that simplifies
identifying the event’s target, such as the target’s label in the case of buttons and menu items. The
Object parameter is particularly useful when you assign action-handling chores to an Applet action ()
method. In this case, the action () method typically must identify the target of an action event to respond
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appropriately. The Object parameter makes this easy in the case of buttons and menu items. Simply
query the Object parameter to find out the button or menu item’s label:
public boolean action(Event evt. Object what) t
if (evt.target instanceof Button) {// is this a Button event?
String buttonName = (String)what; // retrieve name of
button
... // process based on which button it is
return true; // terminate event; keep from going up
hierarchy
}
if (evt.target instanceof Choice) {// is this a Choice menu
event?
// next, get rid of the selected Choice menu item:
int item : Integer.getInteger((String)what)).intValue
(); ... // process based on which item it is return true;
}
return false;
}
Notice that the preceding example returns true when it handles an event. Returning true prevents
handleEvent() from passing the event on up the UI hierarchy.
Handling non-action events
AWT widgets produce other types of events besides action events. If the events are any of the types
specified in Table 16-5, you can process them by overriding the corresponding default handier. If you
want to trap events for which there is no specific handler—for example, scroll bar or window
events—you’ll have to override the target widget’s (or its container’s) handle Event() method.
As you have already seen, whenever an event occurs, the Java runtime environment invokes the
handleEvent() method of the component in which it occurs, passing it an Event instance. Because the
default handleEvent() method automatically passes the event up the widget hierarchy, you can override
this method at any convenient point in the hierarchy. The first thing your customized method should do
is test the ID field of the Event instance to determine the type of event being processed. If the event is of
interest, go ahead and process it. Otherwise, invoke the AWT’s default handleEvent() method:
public boolean handleEvent(Event e)
if (e.id — Event.WINDOW_DESTROY) {
// Do window exit cleanup.
return true; // indicate event was handled
}
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return super.handleEvent(e);
}
Note that a common mistake is to forget to invoke the default AWT handleEvent() method for events not
handled by a custom handleEvent() method. This can short-circuit the handling of other events. For
example, suppose that your program includes a custom action () method as well as a custom handleEvent()
method. If the custom handleEvent() method does not invoke the default handleEvent () method, your
custom action() method is not invoked either. As a result, your program ignores all action events, which
is probably not what you want to happen.
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The delegation model
Like the hierarchical model, the delegation model is object-oriented: events are objects and occur in
objects (widgets, for example). Some significant differences show up, however. For one, unlike the
hierarchical model, which defines only one event class, the delegation model defines an entire hierarchy
of events (see Table 16-6) derived from a common ancestor, the AWTEvent class. AWTEvent class defines
the general characteristics of events. The specific classes extend this common definition to include the
characteristics of specific types of events, such as mouse events, action events, and so on. Representing
events by a class hierarchy instead of a single class is not only more object-oriented, it also makes it
possible for developers to extend the event hierarchy (by defining new subclasses of AWTEvent).
The delegation model differs from the hierarchical model in another important way. The hierarchical
model predetermines which object handles events. By contrast, the delegation model lets a program
delegate event handling to any object it chooses as long as that object implements an interface of type
EventListener. An object that implements the EventListener interface, which is defined in the java.util
package, is called a listener. The jave.awt.event package defines specific listener interfaces for all the
event classes defined by the AWT (see Table 16-5). Each listener interface declares methods for
handling a particular class of events. Any object that implements a listener interface can be a listener for
the corresponding class of events.
A program delegates event handling to a listener by registering the listener at runtime with a component.
A program can register as many listeners with a component as it likes, including multiple listeners for a
particular class of events. A program can also remove listeners at any time. Each AWT component
provides methods for registering listeners for each of the classes of events that can occur in it. By
convention, these methods are named addEVENTListener(), where EVENT is the name of the class of event
handled by the listener; for example, addActionListener(). Each component also provides methods for
removing listeners. By convention, these methods are named removeEVENTListener (), where EVENT is the
corresponding event class; for example, removeActionListener().
Whenever an event occurs in a component, the component dispatches the event to all the listeners
registered for that class of event. If more than one listener is registered for a particular class of events,
the component calls the listeners, although not necessarily in the order in which the program registered
them. The program dispatches an event by calling a method specifically defined for that event in the
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corresponding interface. For example, the MouseListener interface defines mouseClicked(), mouseEntered(),
mouseExited(), mousePressed(), and mouseReleased() methods for mouse clicked, entered, exited, pressed, and
released events, respectively. Whenever one of the events occurs in a component, the component calls
the corresponding method of any previously registered mouse listeners. For example, if the event is a
mouse click, the component calls the mouseClicked() method.
Note that the delegation model does not guarantee that a component will dispatch events to listeners in a
particular order. Moreover, when passing an event to multiple listeners, a component makes a fresh copy
of the event for each listener. Thus, one listener cannot communicate with another by altering an event’s
instance variables. The moral is, if you want to set up a chain of event listeners, register only the root of
the chain with the component, and make each handler responsible for invoking the next handler in the
chain.
Table 16-6
Delegation Model Event Hierarchy
Class Listener Description
Action Event Action Listener Generated when a user selects a menu item,
button, or check box; selects a choice or list
element; or presses Enter in a text field.
AdjustmentEvent AdjusttmentListener Generated when the size of an adjustable object,
such as a scroll bar, changes.
Component Event Component Listener Generated when the layout of a component
changes (for internal use only).
ContainerEvent ContainerListener Generated when a container object changes.
FocusEvent FocusListener Generated when a widget gains or loses keyboard
input focus.
InputEvent n/a For internal use.
ItemEvent ItemListener Produced when the user selects a check box, or a
list or choice item.
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KeyEvent KeyListener Produced by a key down or up event.
MouseEvent MouseListener, Produced by a mouse event.
MouseMotionListener
PaintEvent n/a For internal use.
Text Event TextListener Generated when the contents of a text widget
changes.
WindowEvent WindowListener Generated when a window opens or closes or
changes its state in some other way.
Creating listeners
Because event handling depends on the application, the delegation model does not define event listeners
for you. This is a task you have to perform yourself. The way you define a listener for a specific class of
events is by creating a class that implements the corresponding interface. For example, to handle a
button click, create a class that implements the methods declared by the ActionListener interface, and then
register it with the button:
public class MyApplet extends Applet
// Define “Do” button handler.
class DoButtonListener implements ActionListener
public void actionPerformed(Event e) {
// Perform “Do” button action.
}
)
class MyApplet extends Applet {
// Construct applet.
public MyApplet (
// Create “Do” button and register listener.
Button doButton = new Button(“Do”);
// Register button listener.
doButton.addActionListener(new DoButtonListener());
// Add button to layout.
add( “Center” doButton);
}
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Dedicated versus non-dedicated listeners
The delegation model gives you a great deal of flexibility in implementing listener interfaces. At one
extreme, you can define non-dedicated event listeners for each event type and each event source in your
program (as in the preceding example). At the other extreme, you can define dedicated event listeners
that handle multiple event types for multiple source objects as well as performing other functions. For
example, in the preceding example I could have defined MyApplet as a listener for all action events that
occur within it, effectively mimicking the hierarchical event model.
Although you are free to design listeners In any way you want, the dedicated listener approach makes
sense in most applications. For one thing, dedicated listeners isolate event handling to small, easily
identifiable chunks of code, making it easier to understand and modify your program. Also, dedicated
listeners eliminate the need to identify the source of an event, greatly simplifying your code. But, you
protest, using dedicated event handlers will mean a proliferation of classes—at least one class for every
action widget in my applet or application-and this will make my program tedious to create and to read.
In fact, it seems at first sight rather silly to clutter up a program with a lot of one-shot classes, each of
which will never spawn more than one instance. The latest version of Java, however, introduces two
facilities that greatly mitigate this objection: event adapters and anonymous classes.
Event adapters
The java.awt.event package defines a set of adapter classes specifically intended to simplify creation of
dedicated listeners. Each mouse adapter class implements an interface for a corresponding listener
interface. For example, the MouseAdapter class implements each of the methods declared by the
MouseListener interface. Close inspection reveals that event adapter methods do nothing, so what’s the big
deal? The point is that when you derive a dedicated listener from an adapter class, you only have to
implement the methods for the specific events that you want to handle. In contrast, if you derive your
listener class from a listener interface, you have to implement all the methods declared by the interface,
regardless of whether you are interested in all the events they handle.
Event adapters can greatly simplify listener creation. For example, suppose you want to create a listener
to handle mouse down and mouse up events on a Canvas instance. Deriving your listener from the
MouseAdapter class requires you to define only two methods, versus five methods if you derive your
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listener from the MouseListener interface.
Anonymous classes
An anonymous class is a class that has no name and only one instance. Version 1.1 of the Java
Developers Kit extends the syntax of the new expression to let you define and instantiate an anonymous
class in the same expression. The syntax consists of the new keyword, followed by the constructor of the
parent class, followed by the class body of the anonymous class:
Object obj = new Object() {
public String toString() {
return “I am an instance of a class with no name”;
}
}
Anonymous classes are instances of inner classes, a new type of class defined by JDK 1.1. Unlike outer
classes, which can appear only at the package level, inner classes can appear anywhere an expression
can appear—even in the argument list of a function call. Anonymous inner classes allow you to code
very tersely. In particular, they let you define, instantiate, and pass an object to a function in a single
statement. This greatly facilitates creating dedicated event handlers, as the following example
demonstrates:
public class MyApplet extends Applet
// Construct applet.
public MyApplet {
// Create “Do” button and register listener.
Button doButton = new Button(“Do”);
// Define, instantiate and register button listener.
doButton.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(Event e) {
// Perform “Do” button action.
}
}):
// Add button to layout.
add( “Center”, doButton);
}
}
Note that in this example, the anonymous listener appears to derive from an interface (ActionListener). In
fact, Java derives the anonymous class from the Object class with the specified listener interface. The
anonymous class body implements the specified listener interface.
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Coordinate System
In all graphics systems, including Java, a coordinate system allows programmers to explicitly place
items on the screen for users to see.
The x,y coordinates
As with most graphics systems, Java’s coordinate system begins in the upper-left corner, at the x,y
coordinate of 0,0. The x axis runs from left to right, and the y axis runs from top to bottom. This
coordinate system is shown in Figure 16-5.
Figure 16-5: Java’s graphics coordinate system, showing the horizontal x axis and the vertical y axis.
When you are drawing and painting in an applet, however, the coordinate system isn’t what you might
expect. The browser window has its own coordinate system, which your applet can’t draw to. Your
applet’s coordinate system begins wherever the applet is placed on the screen, and you’re allowed to
draw only inside it (or create a window and draw inside that; more on windows in the next chapter).
When you draw or paint in an applet, you’re doing so in the coordinate system relative to that applet, not
in the one relative to the browser (see Figure 16-6).
Figure 16-6: Your applet coordinate system is different from that of the browser in which it is executed
Integer values
Keeping the Java coordinate system in mind, you can precisely place graphic elements directly on your
applet using either two or four integer values:
• X: The x coordinate
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• Y: The y coordinate
• width: Width of the item (optional in many methods)
• height: Width of the item (optional in many methods)
For example, when you painted a .GIF image on the screen (in Chapter 16), you supplied only the x and
y coordinates to specify where on the applet to place the upper-left corner of that image. The width and
height parameters for the image were automatically calculated for you.
Suppose, for example, that you wanted to draw an image on the screen with x and y coordinates of 25
and 16, respectively:
drawImage (myImage, 25, 18, this); // drawImage at 25, 18
When the image was drawn to the screen, you’d see the upper-left corner of the image appear at exactly
25, 18. The rest of the Image would be drawn to the right and down, taking up as many pixels on the
screen as the image measured in width and height. In this example, assume that the image is 45 pixels
wide and 20 pixels high. When drawn on the screen, you’d see something similar to Figure 16-7.
Figure 16-7: Images drawn on the screen are positioned precisely at the x and y coordinates supplied.
Another drawImage () method exists that takes both x and y and width and height parameters.
(This method is described in the next chapter.) If the image isn’t exactly the same width and
height as the specifications you supply, it is scaled to fit. Using this method, you can stretch or
shrink images at will.
Many other methods also take width and height parameters. Such is the case with drawOval (), which
draws an oval of the size you choose:
drawOval(5, 5, 100, 150);// draw at 5,5 (100 pixels wide. 150 high)
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Java Bible:Abstract Windowing Toolkit Overview
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Bounding box
Text, images, and graphics are contained in what is known as a bounding box. The upper-left corner of
the bounding box is placed at the exact x,y coordinates you provide. This is important to realize, because
you may rip your hair out trying to figure out why the image you positioned on the screen is appearing
several pixels off the mark.
Images don’t have to begin at the upper-left corner of their bounding box. For example, when you use
graphics software to create .GIF and .JPEG images, you can control the size of the bounding box (often
called a canvas in graphics programs, but not to be confused with the canvas component in Java). You
might assume that the image begins at the upper-left corner, but it may not, as shown in Figure 16-8. If it
doesn’t, you may have a problem positioning it precisely where you want.
Figure 16-8: An image doesn’t necessarily begin in the upper-left corner of its bounding box.
To see just how big the bounding box for an image is, open the image in a graphics package. If there is
excessive space around the image, just crop it.
Dimension class
Because we use width and height parameters so often, the AWT provides a Dimension class that we can
use to hold such values:
Dimension mySize = new anyAWTObject.size(); // place object’s
size in mySize variable
int width = mySize.width; // width instance variable in
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Dimension object
int height = mySize.height; // height instance variable in
Dimension object
This can be particularly helpful if you need to know the size of your applet. Simply call size() or this.size()
in the init() method of your applet, and place the results in a Dimension object method. You can then
retrieve the size of your applet through the Dimension object’s width and height instance variables as
needed later on.
Putting It All Together
As you may have noticed in Figure 16-4, an applet is actually a subclass of Panel, which is itself a
subclass of Container. And Container, of course, is a descendant of Component. As a result of this
inheritance tree, every applet already knows a great deal about handling user interaction, and also
supports drawing and painting directly on it.
In fact, you’ve been taking advantage of this all along. You didn’t have to create a container in which to
draw your images, because applets inherit indirectly from the Container class. You just began slapping
your text and image right on the applet, without bothering with such details.
However, as you get deeper into the AWT in the next chapter, you need to know how everything fits
together. In particular, you need to see how the graphics coordinate system and the event-handling
mechanism are affected as you create a real UI for your programs.
Without much effort, you can begin adding widgets to your applets. With a little more effort, you can
handle the events that the applets generate when the user interacts with them. Again, because your
applets are already containers, you can start slapping on the various UI elements you want without
concerning yourself with the details.
Eventually, however, this may become impractical. In many cases, you’ll want to create a nice, clean
way to group the various widgets your program supports. You may also want a user to be able to resize
the applet without screwing up the placement of your various graphics and widgets.
Containers are things that we can draw to, paint on, and add widgets to. Windows, dialog
boxes, and even your applets are descendants of the Container class.
Containers
To deal with both the grouping and resizing issue, you can create a container for each distinct group of
UI elements. Suppose, for example, that you are developing a painting applet that supports a number of
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brushes and palettes. You might create two new windows and make them much like floating palettes in
today’s most popular graphics programs (see Figure 16-9).
Figure 16-9: You can create a window container to group controls. Each container (such as these
windows) has its own coordinate system.
You may also choose to instant]ate a Panel object (which you learn about in more detail in Chapter 19)
for each container and add them both to the applet. If you did this, you would be nesting containers. In
either case, each container has its own coordinate system. As a result, you need to be aware of the
containers your program uses, and take care to draw and paint according to their respective coordinate
systems.
For example, an x,y coordinate of 250,300 might be valid for your applet, but completely out of the
range of the other containers. However, because you can declare a paint () method for each container you
create, you don’t have to worry about managing the drawing and painting for every container through a
single method.
Layout managers
Whenever you add a widget to a container, it gets placed on the screen according to placement rules
imposed by whatever layout manager is associated with that container. As you learn in the next chapter,
you don’t place widgets on the screen using explicit x,y coordinates. Instead, you simply create them and
add them using an add () method. Where they actually appear is based entirely on the layout manager
being used by that container.
At first this may seem strange, but in reality it’s quite necessary. Because all Java programs are
supposed to be platform independent, allowing widgets to be placed at explicit screen locations would
create a real problem. The coordinate system for your computer and for the computers of other potential
users around the world aren’t going to be the same. What looks just beautiful on your screen might be a
jumbled mess on another.
And what if the user resizes the container? If you want your program to respond to resize directives, as
real applications do, you’d have to rearrange your widgets accordingly. Because you would need to
know details about the system on which the container has been resized to do a decent job, the whole idea
becomes an utter nightmare to implement.
Rather than making you deal with such details, Java provides a layout mechanism that you can rely on
instead. Your widgets are drawn in the order that you add them, according to the layout manager
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associated with the container to which they are added. When the container is resized, the layout manager
rearranges and redraws each widget you’ve added to it, so you don’t have to. As you learn in the next
chapter, you can choose from a number of different layout managers, each of which lays out widgets
differently.
Summary
The Java AWT is actually a generic user interface (LID toolkit, a collection of classes that lets you
create platform-independent user interfaces. Just as Java programs are platform independent, capable of
running on any computer that has the Java runtime system installed, so too are the user interfaces created
with the AWT.
• Whenever a user interacts with an element of your program’s user interface, such as the
keyboard, mouse, a button, or a menu item, the element generates an event. To react to an event,
you must create some code that executes whenever the event occurs — this is called trapping the
event.
• Even though I’ve discussed a good deal of the AWT, I really didn’t do much in the way of
actually programming. This should tip you off to how large the AWT is, since I’ve covered a
considerable amount of material without getting into the nuts and bolts of it.
• As with most graphics systems, Java’s coordinate system begins in the upperleft corner, at the x,
y coordinate of 0,0. The x axis runs from left to right, and the y axis runs from top to bottom.
• You have learned about the fundamental organization of the AWT and how it encompasses
graphics, text, fonts, color, bitmap images, and GUI components, This gives you a better
understanding of how each part of the AWT works and how you can make use of it in your own
programs.
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 17
Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images
In This Chapter
Using the Graphics class to draw lines, rectangles, ovals,polygons, and arcs
Using the Fonts class to place text on the screen
Jazzing up your Java applications with the Color class
Adding pretty pictures to your Java applications with the Image class
Putting information from your Java applications on paper with the Printing class
In the previous chapter, we learned the fundamentals of the Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT). Now
that we have an understanding of how it’s organized and what it provides, it’s time to put that
knowledge to good use.
In this chapter we’ll learn how to use the AWT to add graphics primitives, fonts, colors, and bitmap
images to our programs.Along the way, we’ll update our FlexibleHelloWorld applet to take advantage of
color, and use a few new methods to position the image so that the cursor no longer obscures a portion
of it when drawn.
We’ll also take a look at graphics and animation techniques.We’ll cover what I call “brute force”
animation, and discuss a few of the ways to build a more elegant solution.
Finally, we’ll show you how to print what you see on the screen.After all, what’s the point of a snazzy-
looking interface if you can’t have the satisfaction of viewing it on good old-fashioned paper?
Graphics (java.awt. Graphics)
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Java provides a set of graphics primitives that allow you to draw lines, rectangles, ovals, polygons, arcs,
and even text directly on the screen. You can draw these primitives either outline (that is, without a fill)
or with a fill, and in any color you desire.
As you may recall, drawing on the screen requires that you first have a Graphics object. We saw this in
our previous HelloWorld applets. In these applets we used the paint() method to drawstrings and images on
the screen. The paint() method is provided,as its sole parameter, such a Graphics object. Using that object,
we invoked graphics-based methods that did the work of placing text and bitmap images on the screen:
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString(“Hello World!”,50,100); // text
g.drawImage(myImage, horizontal, vertical, this); // image
super.paint(g); // pass Graphics object up to the
// superclass paint() method
}
Graphics operations, such as the drawString() and drawImage() methods shown previously, are always
performed on a Graphics object. However, as you know, we don’t have to actually create a new Graphics
object just to draw on our applet. We simply override the paint() method, as we’ve been doing all along,
and use the Graphics object that comes with it.
In many of the code snippets sprinkled throughout this chapter,I don’t bother to wrap a paint()
method around graphics methods.This is to save you from seeing paint() over and over again,
because I reckon you’re pretty comfortable with it by now.However, I will always use a
Graphics object:
g.drawString(“Hello”, 10, 10);
// invoke g’s drawstring method
If you assume that the g variable is a valid Graphics object,we’ll get along just fine.
Of course, before you can send methods to a Graphics object, you have to import the Graphics class:
import java.awt. Graphics;
In truth, you don’t have to explicitly import a class (or package) before you can use it. You can
always include the fully qualified name of the class directly in the body of your code.For
details, see Chapter 11.
Once imported, the Graphics class is available for use, and can provide our programs with the capabilities
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we’ll talk about in this chapter (see Table 17-1).
Table 17-1
java.awt.Graphics Constructor and Methods
Constructor Signature Description
Graphics protected Graphics() Constructs a new Graphics object.
Method Signature Description
Clears the specified rectangle by filling it
public abstract void clearRect(int x, int y, int
clearRect with the current background color of the
width, int height)
current drawing surface.
public abstract void clipRect(int x, int y, int width,
ClipRect Clips to a rectangle.
int height)
public abstract void copyArea(int x, int y, int
CopyArea Copies an area of the screen.
width, int height, int dx, int dy)
Creates a new Graphics object that is a
Create public abstract Graphics create()
copy of the original Graphics object.
Creates a new Graphics object with the
public Graphics create(int x, int y, int width, int
Create specified parameters,based on the original
height)
Graphics object.
Dispose public abstract void dispose() Disposes of this graphics context.
public void draw3Drect(int x, int y, int width, int
draw3DRect Draws a highlighted 3D rectangle.
height, boolean raised)
public abstract void drawArc(int x, int y, int width, Draws an arc bounded by the specified
DrawArc
int height, int startAngle, int arcAngle) rectangle from startAngle to endAngle.
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public void drawBytes(byte drawData [], int offset, Draws the specified bytes using the
DrawBytes
int length, int x, int y) current font and color.
public void drawChars(char data[], int offset, int Draws the specified characters using the
DrawChars
length, int x, int y) current font and color.
public abstract boolean drawImage(Image img, int Draws the specified image at the specified
DrawImage
x, int y, Image Observer observer) coordinate (x,y).
public abstract boolean drawImage(Image img, int
x,int y, int width, int height, Image Observer
Draws the specified image inside the
drawImage
observer) specified rectangle.
Draws the specified image at the specified
public abstract boolean drawImage(Image img, int
DrawImage coordinate (x,y), with the given solid
x, int y, Color bgcolor, ImageObserver observer)
background color.
public abstract boolean drawImage(Image img, int Draws the specified image inside the
DrawImage x, int y, int width, int height, Color bgcolor, specified rectangle, with the given solid
ImageObserver observer) background color.
public abstract void drawLine(int x1, int y1, int x2, Draws a line between the coordinates (x1,
DrawLine
int y2) y1) and (x2,y2).
public abstract void drawOval(int x, int y, int Draws an oval inside the specified
DrawOval
width, int height) rectangle using the current color.
public abstract void drawPolygon(int xPoints [],int Draws a polygon defined by an array of x
DrawPolygon
yPoints[], int nPoints) points and y points.
Draws a polygon defined by the specified
DrawPolygon public void drawPolygon(Polygon p)
polygon.
public void drawRect(int x, int y, int width, int Draws the outline of the specified
DrawRect
height) rectangle using the current color.
public abstract void drawRoundRect(int x, int y, int Draws an outlined rounded corner
DrawRoundRect
width, int height, int arcWidth,int arcHeight) rectangle using the current color.
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public abstract void draw String(String str, int x, Draws the specified string using the
DrawString
int y) current font and color
public void fill3Drect(int x, int y, int width, int Paints a highlighted 3D rectangle using
fill3Drect
height, boolean raised) the current color.
public abstract void fillArc(int x, int y, int width,
FillArc Fills an arc using the current color.
int height, int startAngle, int arcAngle)
public abstract void fillOval (int x, int y, int width, Fills an oval inside the specified rectangle
FillOval
int height) using the current color.
public abstract void fillPolygon(int xPoints [], int
FillPolygon Fills a polygon with the current color.
yPoints[], int nPoints)
Fills the specified polygon with the
Fill Polygon public void fillPolygon(Polygon p)
current color.
public abstract void fillRect(int x, int y, int width, Fills the specified rectangle with the
FillRect
int height) current color.
public abstract void fillRoundRect(int x, int y, int Draws a rounded rectangle filled in with
FillRoundRect
width, int height, int arcWidth,int arcHeight) the current color.
Disposes of this graphics context once it is
Finalize public void finalize()
no longer referenced.
Returns the current clipping area as a
GetClip public abstract Shape getClip()
Shape object.
Returns the bounding rectangle of the
GetClipBounds public abstract Rectangle getClip Bounds()
current clipping area.
getClipRect public abstract Rectangle getClipRect() Deprecated-use getClipBounds instead.
GetColor Public abstract Color getColor() Gets the current color.
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GetFont public abstract Font getFont() Gets the current font.
GetFontMetrics public FontMetrics getFontMetrics() Get the font metrics for the current font.
GetFontMetrics public abstract FontMetrics getFontMetrics(Font f) Get the font metrics for the specified font.
public abstract void setClip(int x, int y, int width,
SetClip Sets a rectangular clip area.
int height)
SetClip public abstract void setClip(Shape clip) Sets an arbitrarily shaped clip area.
Sets the current color to the specified
SetColor public abstract void setColor(Color c)
color.
Sets the font for all subsequent text-
SetFont public abstract void setFont(Font font)
drawing operations.
Sets the paint mode to overwrite the
SetPaintMode public abstract void setPaintMode()
destination with the current color.
Sets the paint mode to alternate between
SetXORMode public abstract void setXORMode(Color cl) the current color and the new specified
color.
Returns a String object representing this
ToString public String toString()
graphic’s value.
Translates the specified parameters into
Translate public abstract void translate(int x, int y)
the origin of the graphics context.
For detailed descriptions of parameters and return types for each method, see Sun’s API documentation,
available at http://java.sun.com/.
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Lines
Perhaps the simplest method in the Graphics class is the one that creates a straight line, so let’s begin our
exploration by using one. The drawLine() method takes four parameters, which specify the top, left, right,
and bottom values that make up the coordinates for that line, thereby setting its position, width,and
length:
g.drawLine(20,20,150,150); // a line at an angle
g.drawLine(200,10,200,300); // a vertical line
g.drawLine(0,200,120,200); // a horizontal line
If this example were executed, the lines in Figure 17-1 would be produced.
Figure 17-1 Examples of lines using the drawLine() method.
Rectangles
Java provides three different types of rectangles, each of which may be filled or left empty when drawn
on the screen. To draw anyone of these we must supply, at a minimum, four arguments: the two
coordinates of the upper-left corner, and the rectangle’s width and height. For the most basic of
rectangles, that’s all we need:
g.drawRect(15,20,150,150); // draw a plain rectangle
g.fillRect(15,185,150,150); // fill a plain rectangle
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The first line of code draws a plain rectangle, beginning at the x,y position of 15,20. As it turns out, this
rectangle is actually a perfect square, since it’s as wide (150) as it is high(150).
The second line of code fills a plain rectangle of the same size as the first, but appears below the first
one, since the vertical value of 185 is supplied. As you can see from Figure 17-2,there’s nothing
particularly special about these rectangles; they look exactly as you’d expect them to look.
Figure 17-2 A plain and a filled rectangle, created withdrawRect() and fillRect().
Java also provides for rectangles with rounded corners, rather than the sharp, crisp corners of the
rectangles we have just created. The methods that make this possible, drawRoundRect() and fillRoundRect(),
accept two additional parameters that basic rectangles do not:
• arcWidth—horizontal diameter of the arc at the four corners (integer value)
• arcHeight—vertical diameter of the arc at the four corners (integer value)
These parameters determine just how sharp or rounded the corners of rounded rectangles are. The first
determines how sharp the angle is on the horizontal, and the second determines how sharp the angle is
on the vertical. Following is an example of drawing a rounded rectangle, as well as an example of how
to fill one.The last two parameters in each method call control the arc width and height:
g.drawRoundRect(20,20,130,150,50,10)
g.fillRoundRect(20,185,150,150,30,30)
The larger the last two parameters become, the more rounded the rectangle. Increasingly large numbers
begin to make a rectangle look more like a circle, until eventually it looks exactly like one.
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It is preferable to draw a circle using the oval methods,described in the next section. However,
to draw a circle using the rounded rectangle methods, simply provide the height and the width
of the rectangle for these two additional parameters:
g.drawRoundRect(20,185,150,150,150,150); // draws a circle
3D (beveled) rectangles
In addition to the plain and rounded rectangles we’ve just seen,the Graphics class provides methods for
creating three-dimensional rectangles. No, these aren’t three dimensional in the sense that you may be
thinking; they’re simply beveled rectangles that look raised or pressed in, depending on one of the
parameters you supply.
To create a 3D rectangle (or beveled rectangle, to be more precise) you merely supply the method
draw3DRect() with the same parameters you would a standard rectangle, with one additional boolean
value:
g.draw3DRect(10,10,100,100, false); // draw 3D rect, not raised
g.draw3DRect(150,10,100,100, true); // draw 3D rect, raised
If you provide a boolean value of true, the rectangle is raised,and it looks beveled. If you provide false,
the rectangle is depressed (sigh) and looks as if it’s been pressed in. You can draw and fill 3D rectangles
in the same way as for the other two types of rectangles provided by Java:
g.fill3DRect(10,150,100,100, true); // fill 3D rect, raised
g.fill3DRect(150,150,100.100, false); // fill 3D rect, not raised
Figure 17-3 shows several 3D rectangles, both plain and filled.
Figure 17-3: Java supports 3D rectangles, both plain and filled.
Ovals
Ovals are just as easy to use as the plain rectangle we learned about. In fact, when you draw an oval, you
actually define a rectangle in which the oval will appear. You can draw in outline or filled ovals:
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g.drawOval(10,10,50,100); // draw an oval
g.fillOval(150,10,130,20); // fill an oval
g.drawOval(150,50,40,20); // draw an oval
g.drawOval(100,50,40,10); // draw an oval
g.drawOval(200,50,40,90); // draw an oval
g.drawOval(10,150,100,100); // draw circle (same height width)
g.fillOval(150,150,30,30); // fill circle (same height width)
Figure 17-4 shows several ovals, the result of running the preceding code. As you can see, ovals can be a
variety of shapes.They can look long and elliptical, or as round as a circle. In fact, in order to create a
circle you should use the oval methods, by creating an oval that is exactly as wide as it is high. You can
see this in the last two lines of code.
Figure 17-4: An example of ovals, which you can use to create circles.
Polygons
In addition to basic lines, rectangles, and ovals, you can also create polygons. These are much more
complex than the simple graphics we have been discussing thus far. Polygons(affectionately known as
“polys” to many programmers) can have any number of sides, each of which is specified as a pair of x,y
coordinates. In fact, you can think of a polygon as a digital game of connect-the-dots.
Simply supply all the dots as x,y coordinates. When drawn, a line travels from dot-to-dot, connecting
them in the order they were provided. You can optionally fill a polygon, as you can other graphics
primitives. Figure 17-5 shows a plain and a filled polygon.
Figure 17-5: Polygons can have any number of sides, and are created by “connecting the dots:” You
specify these as a series of x,y points.
To create a polygon we use either the drawPolygon() or fillPolygon() method. When invoking these
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methods, we can either provide an array of x and y coordinates to specify the dots to be connected, or we
can supply a Polygon object. Let’s first take a look at how to create a polygon and then we will fill it and
draw with it.
To create a polygon we simply instantiate a Polygon object:
Polygon myPoly = new Polygon(); // create new, empty poly
This creates an empty polygon, which we can then fill with x,y coordinates (dots, or points) using the
addPoint() method:
myPoly.addPoint(40,40);
myPoly.addPoint(55,38):
myPoly.addPoint(65,55);
myPoly.addPoint(80,30);
myPoly.addPoint(80,75);
myPoly.addPoint(40,40);
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Here we’ve added a number of points to our Polygon object. When we’re done, we can give this polygon
to the drawPolygon() or fillPolygon() methods:
g.drawPolygon(myPoly); // draw it
g.drawPolygon(myPoly); // fill it
Although this may be the easiest way to deal with polygons, it’snot the only way. We could instantiate a
Polygon object and supply an array of x coordinates, an array of y coordinates, and an integer number that
specifies the total number of coordinates we’ll be using. Instead of creating a Polygon object and then
adding a point at a time, this allows us to create a polygon with all its points right off the bat:
int xCoords[] = {40,55,65.80,80,40}; // create x values
int yCoords[] = {40,38,55,30,75,40}; // create y values
Polygon myPoly =
new Polygon(xCoords,yCoords,xCoords.getLength());
// create poly from arrays
We can now pass this new polygon to the fillPolygon() or drawpolygon() method.
However, we don’t necessarily have to create a Polygon object first. By supplying an array of x and y
coordinates, in addition to the total number of points to connect, we can draw or fill the polygon directly:
g.drawPolygon(xCoords,yCoords,xCoords.getLength());
// draw polygon
g.fillPolygon(xCoords,yCoords,xCoords.getLength());
// fill polygon
Rather than instantiate a Polygon object, we can directly provide all the essential information to these
draw Polygon() and fillPolygon() methods. This is useful if we want to draw or fill a polygon on the fly, but
have no need to hang onto the object for later reference.
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You can supply any number of points for your polygon. They can be incredibly complex or
simple, depending on how you like them.
You can also have polygons that are “open,” meaning the last point does not connect to the first point.
Since we’ve specified the last x,y coordinate in these examples to be the same as the first x,y coordinate,
the result is a “closed” polygon. However,if the first and last set of x,y coordinates are not the same,an
“open” polygon is created.
Arcs
Finally, we come to the primitive graphic that may, at first,seem the most difficult to understand: the arc.
The first four coordinates of the arc are nothing new. They define the rectangle we used for the oval
graphics described moments ago. Again, we provide an upper-left coordinate, and the height and width.
The last two coordinates, however, can be quite confusing if you’ve never dealt with arcs before:
• x—the standard x coordinate
• y—the standard y coordinate
• width—the width of the arc’s bounding box (rectangle)
• height—the height of the arc’s bounding box (rectangle)
• startAngle—the angle to begin drawing the arc
• arcAngle—the angle of the arc (relative to startAngle)
The first of these two new parameters, startAngle, is the beginning angle of the arc. This value can run
from 0 to 360.Contrary to intuition, these angles increase counterclockwise.Zero is at three o’clock,
while 90 degrees is at twelve, 180 is at nine o’clock, and 270 is at six o’clock. It may help to draw this
clock on a piece of paper. The value that you choose for the start angle determines, of course, where that
arc’s going to start. To get a better feel for the degrees you can choose for your start angle, see Figure 17-
6.
It’s the last parameter, arcAngle, however, that determines where the arc ends, by indicating how far the
arc is going to travel.
Figure 17-6: The arc startAngle parameter specifies an angle between 0 and 360 degrees. Such values
begin at three o’clock(0), and run counterclockwise for the full 360 degrees.
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Don’t be confused by this ending argument. The arcAngle argument is not actually a specific angle, in the
way that startangle is. It’s a magnitude—simply a value that tells you how far,in degrees, the arc is going
to continue in your rectangle (here,a perfect square). For instance, if you wanted an arc that begins at
twelve o’clock (90) and runs to three o’clock (–90), you would specify the following:
g.drawArc(10,10,100,100,90,-90); // run clockwise
Since positive arcAngle values result in an arc sweeping counter-clockwise, we used a negative value (-
90) to effectively say “run clockwise for 90 degrees.”
However, if we wanted an arc that began at twelve o’clock and ran to nine o’clock, we would use the
following:
g.drawArc(10,150.100,100,90,90); // run counter-clockwise
As you can see, values that are positive take an arc counter-clockwise and values that are negative take
them clockwise. The following snippet of code produces the arcs in Figure 17-7. Arcs, just like their
rectangular, polygonal, and oval brethren, can be filled or left empty:
Figure 17-7: You can think of arcs as lines drawn around an invisible circle inscribed in an invisible
rectangle.
g.drawArc(10,10,100,100,90,-90);
g.fillArc(150,10,100,100,90,-90):
g.drawArc(10.150.100.100,90,180);
g.fillArc(150,150.100.100,90,180);
Fonts (java.awt. Fonts)
In addition to the graphics primitives we’ve just explored, the Graphics class allows us to place text on
the screen. We saw this earlier using the drawString() method. In this section, we learn how to specify and
draw text in a variety of font faces, styles,and sizes. We also use the drawChars() method to place
individual characters on the screen, in a way that’s similar to drawing strings.
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Creating and using fonts
In order to use fonts, we must first create a Font object. This is simple enough. All we have to do is
provide a font name (String), a font style (int), and a font point size (int):
Font myFont = new Font(“Serif”, Font.BOLD, 72);
Here we’ve created a Font object using a serif font face, bold style (via Font. BOLD, which accesses the
BOLD static integer variable of the Font class) and 72 point size. I chose “Serif”since every system is
likely to have at least one serif font. If you specify “Serif,” Java will substitute the system’s default serif
face, usually Times Roman. If you choose a specific font face that isn’t installed on a particular
machine, Java will substitute a default font (Courier, for example).
Serif fonts have feet at the base line. The font in this book is a serif font. Typically, most
people find serif fonts easier to read—that’s why you see them in most books. Sans serif fonts
eliminate the feet (sans is a French word that means without).The Arial and Helvetica
typefaces are prime examples of sans serif fonts. With monospace fonts, every character is the
same width. The Courier typeface is a good example of a monospace font.
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Generic Typefaces in JDK 1.0.2
JDK 1.0.2 does not support the notion of a generic typeface.However, you can use the names Times
Roman, Courier, and Helvetica to produce the same effect. For example, if you specify Times Roman as
the typeface name, a JDK 1.0.2 interpreter supplies a Times Roman font if it’s available on the current
system; otherwise, it supplies the closest matching serif face.Similarly, if a Courier or Helvetica font is
not available, the interpreter provides the closest matching monospaced and sans serif font, respectively.
Even though you can choose any font face you want, I recommend that you use only a narrow
set—those likely to be available on the systems on which your applets will be running. If you stick to the
following, you’ll be in good shape:
• Serif—default serif font, typically Times Roman
• Monospaced—default monospaced font, typically Courier
• SansSerif—default sans serif font, typically Helvetica
You can use the getFontList() method defined in java.awt.Toolkit to find out which fonts are
installed on your machine at the time of execution. This method is used in FontTest, shown in
the next chapter.
As you can see from the preceding example, you create fonts using three arguments, a string, and two
integers. The Font() constructor, methods, and variables are listed in Table 17-2.
Table 17-2
Class java.awt. Font
Constructor Signature Description
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Creates a new font with the specified name, style,
Font Font(String name, int style, int size)
and point size.
Method Signature Description
decode public static Font decode(String str) Gets the specified font using the name passed in.
Gets the platform-specific family name of the font.
getFamily public string getFamily()
Use getName to get the logical name of the font
getName public string getName() Gets the logical name of the font.
getStyle public int getStyle() Gets the style of the font.
getSize public int getSize() Gets the point size of the font.
IsPlain public boolean isPlain() Returns true if the font is plain.
IsBold public boolean isBold() Returns true if the font is bold.
isItalic public boolean isItalic() Returns true if the font is italic.
Gets a font from the system properties list.
getFont public static Font getFont(String nm)
Parameter: nm—the property name.
Gets the specified font from the system properties
list.
public static Font getFont(String nm,
getFont Parameters:
Font, font)
nm — the property name.
font—a default font to return if property nm is not
defined.
Returns a hash code for this font. Overrides hashCode
hashCode public int hashCode()
() in class Object.
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Compares this object to the specified object.
Parameter: obj—the object with which to compare.
equals public boolean equals(Object obj)
Returns true if the objects are the same; false
otherwise. Overrides equals () in class Object.
Converts this object to a string representation.
toString public string toString()
Overrides toString() in class Object.
Variables Signature Description
The plain style constant. This can be combined with
PLAIN public final static int PLAIN
the other style constants for mixed styles.
The bold style constant. This can be combined with
BOLD public final static int BOLD
the other style constants for mixed styles.
The italicized style constant. This can be combined
ITALIC public final static int ITALIC
with the other style constants for mixed styles.
Name protected String name The logical name of this font.
The style of the font. This is the sum of the
Style protected int style
constants PLAIN, BOLD, or ITALIC.
Size protected int size The point size of this font.
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
When creating a Font object, the string parameter specifies a specific or generic family name, such as
Serif, SansSerif, or Monospaced. This is also known as the font face; it’s the visual appearance of the font,
which is consistent and recognizable regardless of what style or point size is used.
Both the style and point size are specified as int values. You can determine the style of a font by using
variables that the Font class provides, such as BOLD, ITALIC, and PLAIN. In fact,you can combine these
styles as follows:
Font myFont = Font(“SansSerif”, Font.BOLD+Font.ITALIC, 32);
// bold and italic
The point size, however, is simply a plain int that you provide as an integer literal. The point size can be
so small that you might not see the font when it is drawn on a screen, or it maybe so large that it won’t
fit on the screen at all.
Once you’ve created a Font object, you have to tell the Graphics object to use it for all subsequent text
drawing:
g.setFont(myFont); // set the Font
Now, any calls to drawString() or drawChars() will be done using the face, style, and point size specified in
my Font. The following snippet of code uses several different font styles,sizes, and font families to
produce what you see in Figure 17-8.Note that we can either create a Font object, and then set it,or
simply provide these parameters directly in setFont():
Figure 17-8: Fonts allow you to draw text in a variety of faces,styles, and sizes.
Font f = new Font(“Serif”, Font. PLAIN, 72); // create a Font
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g.setFont(f); // set the Font
g.drawString(“Serif Plain, 72pt.”,5,60); // draw string using
Font
// create and set all in one step:
g.setFont(new Font(“Serif”.Font.BOLD, 72));
g.drawString(“Serif Bold, 72pt.”, 5,120);
g.setFont(new Font(“Serif”, Font.ITALIC, 72));
g.drawString(“Serif Italic, 72pt.”, 5,180);
g.setFont(new Font(“Serif”Font.BOLD+Font.ITALIC, 72));
g.drawString(“Serif Bold Italic,72pt.”, 5,240);
g.setFont(new Font(“Serif”, Font. PLAIN, 18));
g.drawString(“Serif Plain, 18pt.”, 5,270);
g.setFont(new Font(“Monospaced”, Font.PLAIN,18));
g.drawString(“Monospaced Plain,18pt.”, 5,300);
g.setFont(new Font(“Monospaced”, Font.BOLD,18));
g.drawString(“Monospaced Bold, 18pt.”, 300, 300);
g.setFont(new Font(“Monospaced”, Font.ITALIC,18));
g.drawString(“Monospaced Italic, 18pt.”, 5,325);
g.setFont(new Font(“Monospaced”,Font.BOLD+Font. ITALIC,18));
g.drawString(“Monospaced Bold Italic, 18pt.”, 300, 325);
g.setFont(new Font(“SansSerif”, Font. PLAIN,32);
g.drawString(“SansSerif Plain. 32pt.”, 5,400);
g.setFont(new Font(“SanSerif”, Font.BOLD,32));
g.drawString(“SansSerif Bold,32pt.”, 340, 400);
g.setFont(new Font(“SansSerif”,Font.ITALIC,32));
g.drawString(“SansSerif Italic, 32pt.”, 5,440)
g.setFont(new Font(“SansSerif”, Font.BOLD+Font.ITALIC,32));
g.drawString(“SansSerif Bold Italic, 32pt,”, 340, 440);
Here, just as with the previous example, we’ve used drawString( ) to place text on the screen. However,
there is another method which may be of use, depending on your particular implementation:
public void drawChars(char data[], int offset, int length, int x.int
y);
The drawChars( ) method can be extremely helpful when you need to draw characters stored in an array.
You can see this in Listing 17-1, which draws each character in the array one at a time, each in a
different color (more on color later). In fact,this program is an example of text animation, and of using
threads as well (hence the “inherits Runnable” portion of the class declaration).
We’ll discuss each of these in time, but for now, take a look at the paint( ) method. It sets a random color,
then chooses a random x,y value (within a range) for the subsequent call to drawChars ( ).
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Listing 17-1: WildWords.java-Animating Text with drawChars()
/**
* WildWords.java
* @author: Scott Clark
*/
import java.awt. Graphics;
import java.awt. Font;
import java.awt. FontMetrics;
import java.awt. Event;
import java.awt. Color;
public class WildWords extends java.applet.Applet implements Runnable
{
// parameters
String text = “Java”; // string to be displayed
int delay = 100; // # of milliseconds between updates
int delta= 5; // “wildness” factor: max pixel offset
boolean clear =false; // background cleared on update?
String fontName =“Serif”;
int fontSize = 36;
boolean fontBold = true;
boolean fontItalic= false;
// implementation
char chars[]; // individual chars in ‘text’
int positions[]; //base horizontal position
FontMetrics fm;
Thread thread = null;
int newWidth, newHeight;
public void init() {
String param;
param = getParameter(“text”);
if (param != null) { text = param; }
param = getParameter(“delay”);
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if (param != null) { delay =Integer,parseInt(param); }
param = getParameter(“delta”);
if(param != null) delta = Integer.parseInt(param); }
param =getParameter(“clear”);
if (param != null) clear =param.equals(“true”); }
param = getParameter(“fontName”);
if(param != null) fontName = param; }
param =getParameter(“fontSize”);
if (param != null) fontSize =Integer.parseInt(param); }
param = getParameter(“fontBold”);
if(param != null) fontBold = param.equals(“true”); }
param =getParameter(“fontItalic”);
if (param != null} { fontItalic = param.equals(“true”); }
int fontStyle = (fontBold ? Font.BOLD :O)+(fontItalic ?
Font. ITALIC : 0);
SetFont(new Font(fontName, fontStyle, fontSize));
fm =getFontMetrics(getFont());
chars = new char[text.length()];
text.getChars(O, text.length(), chars, 0);
positions = newint[text.length()];
for (int i = O; i < text.length(); i++) {
positions[i] = fm.charsWidth(chars, ???, i);
}
newWidth = delta * 2 + fm.stringWidth(text);
newHeight = delta * 2 + getFont().getSize();
// Note: resize() works in AppletViewer. but has no effect in
Netscape 4.0 */
resize(newWidth, newHeight}{
}
public void start() {
if (thread == null) {
thread = new Thread(this);
thread.start();
}
}
public void stop()
thread = null;
}
public void run() {
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while (thread != null) {
try {Thread.sleep(delay);} catch (InterruptedException e) {}
repaint();
}
}
As you now know, drawChars( ) takes as arguments an array of characters:
• An offset, or index, into that array (specifying which element int to begin the array)
• A length parameter (specifying how many array elements, or characters, should be drawn)
• The x and y for the coordinates with drawString( )
In the example shown in Listing 17-1, only one array element, or character, is drawn at a time. This is
because the length parameter supplied here, 1, only allows for a single element to be accessed. Figure 17-
9 shows the results of this program.
Figure 17-9: The drawChars() method allows you to draw characters stored in an array.
FontMetrics
As you can see in Table 17-2, Java provides a number of methods that allow you to find out about the
current font. At times,however, you may find you need more specific typographical information, such as
the exact height and width of each character, how much leading there is between lines, font ascent and
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descent, and other information not available using the methods in the Font class.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
If this is the case, you can use methods in the FontMetrics class. To use these, simply provide a Font object
to the FontMetrics( ) constructor. This results in a FontMetrics object,to which you can send any of the
methods shown in Table 17-3.
Table 17-3
Class java-awt.FontMetrics
Constructor Signature Description
Creates a new FontMetrics object with the
FontMetrics protected FontMetrics (Font font)
specified font.
Method Signature Description
getFont public Font getFont() Gets the font.
Gets the standard leading, or line spacing, for
the font. This is the logical amount of space
to be reserved between the descent of one
GetLeading public int getLeading()
line of text and the ascent of the next line.
The height metric is calculated to include this
extra space.
Gets the font ascent. The font ascent is the
GetAscent public int getAscent() distance from the baseline to the top of the
characters.
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Gets the font descent. The font descent is the
GetDescent public int getDescent() distance from the baseline to the bottom of
the characters.
Gets the total height of this font. This is the
distance between the baseline of adjacent
GetHeight public int getHeight()
lines of text. It is the sum of: leading+ ascent
+ descent.
Gets the maximum ascent of all characters in
GetMax Ascent public int getMaxAscent() this font. No character will extend further
above the baseline than this metric.
Gets the maximum descent of all characters.
GetMax Descent public int getMaxDescent() No character will descend further below the
baseline than this metric.
GetMax Decent public int getMaxDecent() For backward compatibility only.
Gets the maximum advance width of any
GetMax
public int getMaxAdvance() character in this font.Returns -l if the
Advance
maximum advance is not known.
Returns the width of the specified character
in this font.
CharWidth public int charWidth(int ch)
Parameter:
ch—specified font.
Returns the width of the specified character
in this font.
charWidth public int charWidth(char ch)
Parameter:
ch—specified font.
Returns the width of the specified string in
this font.
stringWidth public int stringWidth (String str)
Parameter:
str—string to be checked.
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Returns the width of the specified character
array in this font.
public int charsWidth(char data[], int off, int
charsWidth Parameters:
len)
data—data to be checked.
off—start offset of data.
len—maximum number of bytes checked.
Returns the width of the specified array of
bytes in this font.
public int bytesWidth(byte data[], int off int
bytesWidth Parameters:
len)
data—data to be checked.
off—start offset of data.
len—maximum number of bytes checked.
Gets the widths of the first 256 characters in
getWidths public int[] getWidths()
the font.
Returns the string representation of this
ToString public String toString() FontMetric’s values. Overrides toString() in
class Object.
Variable Signature Description
font protected Font font The actual font.
We can also reference these methods directly, without having to create a FontMetrics object. In the
following snippet, we get the width of “Hello,” as it would be drawn in the current font:
int len = g.getFontMetrics().stringWidth(“Hello”);
Color (java.awt. Color)
When you took a look at Listing 17-1, you may have noticed an interesting line of code in the paint()
method:
g.setColor(new Color((float)Math.random(), (float)Math.random(),
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(float)Math.random()));
This line creates a new random Color object and passes it to the Graphics object using setColor(). This
method sets the current Graphics object to whatever color is specified through the three Color parameters
it accepts; it happens to be randomly generated in this example. All subsequent drawing is done in this
color,meaning that primitive graphics and text will appear in it.
The Java color model is a 24-bit RGB (red, green, blue) model,so its Color objects can contain 24 bits’
worth of color information (that weighs in at approximately 16 million different colors) specified as red,
green, and blue components.
To use a color, we simply create a new Color object and supply values of red, green, and blue. Together,
these values determine the final color:
Color myColor = new Color (255,0,0); // create red color
Color myColor = new Color (0,255,0); // create green color
Color myColor = new Color (0,0,255); // create blue color
Color myColor = new Color (255,255,255); // create black color
Color myColor = new Color (0,0,0); // create white color
Color myColor = new Color (100,100,100); // create gray color
From these examples, you can see that the range of integer values is from 0 to 255. We can use any
combination of these values to create a color.
As Table 17-4 illustrates, Java provides a number of preset colors that we can use, without having to
specify their values. As a matter of fact, we don’t even have to create a new Color object if we use one of
these; we simply write the following:
g.setColor(Color.red); // set color to red
g.setColor(Color.green); // set colon to green
g.setColor(Color.blue); // set color to blue
The example in Listing 17-1, however, specifies random red,green, and blue values. And it uses floating-
point values rather than the integers we’ve been using so far. This particular Color() constructor accepts
float values, while another Color() constructor allows all red, green, and blue values to be specified in a
single int. We can use any of the three to create colors.
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Regardless of how a color is mixed, we use the same methods on the resulting Color object. We can
query the object to find out its red component, its green component, and its blue component. We can
also use a number of methods to derive variations of a color. The methods brighter() and darker(), for
example, return brighter and darker versions of the current color.
Table 17-4
Class java.awt.Color
Constructor Signature Description
Color public Color(int r, int g, int b) Creates a color with the specified red, green, and blue
values in the range 0 to 255. The actual color used in
rendering depends on finding the best match, given
the color space available fora given output device.
Parameters:
r-red component
g-green component
b-blue component
Color public Color(int rgb) Creates a color with the specified combined RGB
value, consisting of the red component in bits 16-23,
the green component in bits 8—15, and the blue
component in bits 0-7. The actual color used in
rendering depends on finding the best match, given
the color space available for a given output device.
Parameter:
rgb—combined RGB components.
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Color public Color(float r, float g, float b) Creates a color with the specified red, green, and blue
values in the range 0.0-1.0. The actual color used in
rendering depends on finding the best match, given
the color space available fora given output device.
Parameter:
r—red component
g—green component
b—blue component
Method Signature Description
getRed public int getRed() Gets the red component.
GetGreen public int getGreen() Gets the green component.
GetBlue public int getBlue() Gets the blue component.
GetRGB public int getRGB() Gets the RGB value representing the color in the
default RGB ColorModel. (Bits 24-31 are Oxff, 16-
23 are red, 8-15 are green,and 0-7 are blue.)
Brighter public Color brighter() Returns a brighter version of this color.
Darker public Color darker() Returns a darker version of this color.
HashCode public int hashCode( ) Computes the hash code. Overrides hashCode() in class
Object.
Equals public boolean equals(Object obj) Compares this object against the specified object.
Parameter:
Obj—the object with which to compare. Returns true
if the objects are the same; false otherwise.
Overrides equals() in class Object.
ToString public String toString() Returns the string representation of this color’s
values. Overrides toString() in class Object.
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Decode public static Color decode(String nm) Returns the specified color.
throws NumberFormat Exception
Parameter:
nm—representation of the color as a 24-bit integer.
getColor public static Color getColor (String nm) Gets the specified color property.
Parameter:
nm—name of the color property.
getColor public static Color getColor (String nm, Gets the specified color property of the specified
Color v) color.
Parameters:
nm—name of the color property.
v—specified color.
Returns the new color.
GetColor public static Color getColor (String nm, Gets the specified color property of the color value.
int v)
Parameters:
nm—name of the color property.
v—the color value.
Returns the new color.
HSBtoRGB public static int HSBtoRGB (float hue, Returns the RGB value, defined by the default RGB
float saturation, float brightness) ColorModel, of the color corresponding to the given
HSB (hue, saturation,brightness) color components.
Parameters:
hue—hue component
saturation—saturation of the color
brightness-brightness of the color
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RGBtoHSB public static float []RGBtoHSB(int r, int Returns the HSB values corresponding to the color
g, int b, float hsbvals[]) defined by the red, green, and blue components.
Parameters:
r—red component
g-green component
b—blue component
hsbvals-array used to return the three HSB values, or
null(returns the array used to store the results [hue,
saturation,brightness]).
getHSBColor public static Color getHSBColor (float A static color factory for generating a Color object
h, float s, float b) from HSB values.
Parameters:
h— hue component.
s—saturation of the color.
b—brightness of the color.
Returns the Color object for the corresponding RGB
color.
white public final static color white The color white.
LightGray public final static color lightGray The color light gray.
Gray public final static color gray The color gray.
DarkGray public final static color darkGray The color dark gray.
Black public final static color black The color black.
Red public final static color red The color red.
Pink public final static color pink The color pink.
Orange public final static color orange The color orange.
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Yellow public final static color yellow The color yellow.
Green public final static color green The color green.
Magenta public final static color magenta The color magenta.
Cyan public final static color cyan The color cyan.
Blue public final static col or blue The color blue.
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Although it’s possible to create millions of colors, most webbers don’t have that many at their
disposal. If you use colors in your Web page that are out of the range of many users’ display
capabilities, they will be mapped or dithered to the closest possible match. In some cases, the
results will be quite ugly.
To ensure the best possible results over a wide range of displays, it’s recommended that you work with
256 colors or less. And, whenever possible, use the standard colors specified by the Color class variables,
rather than defining your own. The Color class provides a number of static variables which define typical
colors. The static data elements use common color names such as Color. red, Color. green, Color. blue, and so
on.
Foreground and background colors
In addition to setting the drawing color for both text and graphics, you can set foreground and
background colors in Java.To do this, two methods are defined in java.awt.Component:
setForeground(Color c); // set foreground color
setBackground(Color c); // set background color
While these might seem straightforward enough, it’s worth taking a closer look at each.
setBackground()
Normally, the background color of your applet is the same as the browser window in which it’s running
(usually gray). However,with setBackground(), you can specify any color you like. This method takes as
its sole argument a Color object.
Whenever your applet calls repaint(), the background color comes into play. The repaint() method actually
calls an update() method that clears the screen. This “clearing” is performed by a call to clearRect() which,
in essence, fills a rectangle with the current background color.
Whenever you change the background color, all subsequent calls to clearRect() result in your color being
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used. As a result,whenever your applet is updated, or whenever you call repaint(),the background color
you set is used instead of the default.
setForeground()
This method also takes one parameter, a Color object. It changes the foreground color so that everything
on the screen is immediately redrawn in it. This can be particularly helpful when you have a number of
items on the screen that you wish to be redrawn in a new color. Rather than redrawing each item
individually, you can reset the foreground color and let it do the work for you.
Before you change the color in which you are drawing, or change the foreground or
background color, you may wish to get the current color first and stash it away in a Color object
for later use. To do this, use the getForeground() and getBackground() methods. Both return a Color
object, which you can later feed to setForeground() or setBackground() if you want to return these
colors to their original state.
Images (java.awt. image and java.awt.Image)
By now, you’re aware that we can use bitmap images to draw on the screen. Unlike the graphics
primitives that we draw from hand,as shown previously, bitmap images come prerendered and ready to
slap on the screen. We did this, in fact, with our MediaHelloWorld application. Alter loading a GIF image
into an Image variable, we were able to draw it on the screen using the drawImage() method. At this point,
however, it’s worth getting a little more sophisticated in our image use.
Those users who run Java on systems that can’t distinguish between uppercase and lowercase
letters may run into difficulty installing Java documentation, because java.awt.Image and java.awt.
image are seen as the same file. In this situation,documentation (HTML) files having these
names wouldn’t be able to reside in the same directory: One or the other would have to be
renamed.
If you do run into problems, keep in mind that classes, by convention, begin with an uppercase letter
while packages are generally all lowercase. Thus, you would know just by the name that java.awt.image is
a package while java.awt.Image is a class,even if your computer system can’t tell the difference.
Here, we learn how to use the getHeight() and getWidth() methods defined in java.awt.Image. These methods
allow us to find out the dimensions of a bitmap graphic. This is particularly useful when we want to
resize images or if we want to know how large they are for proper display on the screen.
For example, in our FlexibleMediaHello applet, we can use getHeight() and getWidth() to calculate the size of
the image.Without this information, we can’t properly place the image on the screen with regard to the
mouse cursor. Until now, we’ve simply drawn it at the coordinates of the mouse. As a result, the mouse
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cursor (an arrow) appears directly on top of our image,obscuring a portion of it.
Using getHeight() and getWidth(), however, we can draw the image to the upper left-hand side of the
cursor. In this way, the cursor is always at the lower right-hand corner of our image. If done properly,
the cursor will never obscure our image again (see Figure 17-10).
Figure 17-10: Thanks to getHeight() and getWidth(), this image is no longer obscured by the cursor.
Listing 17-2 contains a slightly refined version of our FlexibleMediaHello applet. Rather than drawing the
image directly on top of the cursor, which causes unnecessary flickering and the image to be partially
obscured, this version of the applet uses getHeight() and getWidth() to calculate the size of the image and
position it on the upper left-hand side of the cursor when drawn. In addition, the text is displayed in a
randomly selected color each time the paint() method is invoked.
Listing 17-2: FlexibleHelloWorld.java—a Slightly Refined version
/**
* FlexibleMediaHello.java
*
* Now draws “Hello World!” in a random color, and adjusts drawing
* of the image to accommodate the cursor.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.2, 29 May 97
*/
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event;
import java.net.URL;
import java.net.MalformedURLException;
public class FlexibleMediaHello extends HelloWorldApplet {
String helloString;
Image myImage;
AudioClip myAudio;
int horizontal, vertical;
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int imageW, imageH; // image’s width and height
boolean SoundOn = true;
public void init() {
/* GET THE APPLET PARAMETERS: */
helloString = getParameter (“hello”);
String imageString = getParameter (“image”);
String audioString= getParameter (“sound”);
/* GET FILES USING PARAMETERS: */
if (imageString==null) {
myImage=getImage(getCodeBase(), “images/world.gif”);
}
else {
URL imageURL=null;
try {
imageURL = new URL(imageString);
}catch (MalformedURLException e) ; }
myImage=getImage(imageURL);
}
if (audioString==null) {
myAudio=getAudioClip(getCodeBase( “audio/hello.au”);
}
else {
URL audioURL=null;
try {
audioURL= new URL(audioString);
}catch (MalformedURLException e) { }
myAudio=getAudioClip(audioURL);
}
/* REGISTER MOUSE LISTENERS */
addMouseListener(new MouseAdapter()
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent event) {
if (SoundOn) {
myAudio.loop();
SoundOn = false;
}
else {
myAudio.stop();
SoundOn = true;
}
}
});
addMouseMotionListener(new MouseMotionAdapter() {
public void mouseMoved(MouseEvent event) {
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horizontal=event.getX();
vertical=event.getY();
repaint();
}
});
}
if (helloString==null) {
super.paint(g);
}
else {
g.drawString(helloString,50,100);
}
}
public void start() {
myAudio.loop();
}
public void stop() {
myAudio.stop();
}
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Looking at our refined FlexibleMediaHello code, the paint() method in particular, you can see that getHeight
() and getWidth() both receive the this object. Actually, these methods require an ImageObserver object:
int getHeight(ImageObserver observer);
int getWidth(ImageObserver observer);
An image observer is an object that watches, or observes, an image. It’s the ImageObserver that knows
when an image has been completely downloaded from the network. In our case, it tells us how high and
wide our image is.
We don’t have to instantiate an ImageObserver object, however,since the applet understands how to
perform ImageObserver tasks.We simply pass the reference to our applet—this—to getHeight() and getWidth
(), and let it take care of giving us the information.
If the image has been fully loaded, these methods return valid information. However, if the image is still
downloading off the network, or is not currently available, these methods return a negative 1 (-1). If this
is the case, we’ll have to wait around a little longer until the image is loaded. Waiting around proves not
to be a problem, however, since we’re constantly looping through the paint() method. Eventually, these
methods will return the true dimensions of our image.
The FlexibleMediaHello implementation shown in Listing 17-2 uses the delegation event model
and thus runs only on JDK1.1/1.2-compatible browsers. See the electronic version of Java
Bible on the CD-ROM (Chap 17 folder) for a JDK 1.0.2-compatible version of the
FlexibleMediaHello applet.
Animation
One of the most interesting things we can do with images and graphics is to animate them. The easiest
way is to draw a series of images in the same place, with each one slightly different from the previous.
This is much like a cartoon flipbook. We start with a series of images, or frames, and draw each in the
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same place. When we run through them, displaying each in turn, the result appears to be an animation.
In Java, there are two methods for doing this:
• When animating bitmap images, we use two, three, or more slightly different images, drawn to
the screen in sequence.
• When animating graphics primitives, we slightly change the values used to create the image
(for example, the height and width parameters) for each sequential image, working them into a
loop, and then draw the results on the screen.
In both cases, we must clear the screen after each frame is drawn, and then redraw the next one in its
place. You can accomplish the “clearing” process by calling repaint(), or by using the clearRect() method:
clearRect(int, int, int, int);
This method, described earlier, “clears” the specified rectangle by filling it with the current background
color. However, when you call the repaint() method, clearRect () is automatically called immediately
before paint() is executed. In this case, youdon’t have to call clearRect() directly; repaint() does it for you.
There are three techniques for dealing with bitmap images used in an animation:
• You can load each into a variable and manually specify the drawing order.
• You can load them into an array of Image objects and then run through the array, drawing each
in turn.
• You can use the MediaTracker class, discussed in detail in Chapter 29 (and also in JavaWorld’s
“Javamation” article, which provides more control over how you can access the individual
elements in your animation).
This snippet of code shows the manual approach to loading images:
public void init() {
Image myImage1, myImage2, myImage3; // image variables
myImage1= getImage(getDocumentBase(), “images/anImage.gif”);
myImage2 =getImage(getDocumentBase(),
“images/anotherImage.gif”);
myImage3 = getImage(getDocumentBase(),
“images/xyz Image.gif”);
}
This is rather inflexible, however, since you have to refer to each image variable by name in order to
draw it. Also, you have to keep track of which one you are in to properly advance to the next one.
Finally, you have to check whether the image you’ve just drawn is the last in the sequence, and then
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“wrap around”to the first one and begin again. As a result, loading and animating images manually isn’t
the most elegant approach.
Listing 17-3 illustrates the array-based animation technique.Here, we load two images into an array and
then draw each on the screen. By calling repaint(), the paint() method is continually invoked. Without
having to do anything more, our drawing surface is wiped clean (by an intermediate call repaint() makes
to clearRect()), before paint() is actually called.
Listing 17-3: BruteForce.java—It’s Not Pretty, but It Gets the Job Done
/**
* BruteForce.java
*
* A fast, “brutish” approach to animating bitmap images.
* A BAD example of animation, since threads aren’t supported and
* nothing is done to reduce the nicker caused by repaint().
* Additionally, we have paint() essentially calling itself; it’s
* an attention hog. not giving time to any other tasks.
*
* This serves only as an example of how to load images into an
* array and run through them. It’s definitely not the recommended
* way to animate images. For details on how to refine this code,
* see Chapter 14, “Threads,” Chapter 29, “Multimedia,” and the
* “Javamation: Creating animation in Java applets” JavaWorld
* article (provided on CD-ROM).
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.1, 14 Feb 96
*/
import java.awt.*;
public class BruteForce extends java.applet.Applet{
Image myImages[] = new Image[2]; // array for holding 2 images
int index=O; // Keep track of which image is displayed
public void init() {
resize(500,300);
// Load the two images into array:
myImages[O]:getImage(getCodeBase(), “images/image1.gif”);
myImages[1]:getImage(getCodeBase(), “images/image2.gif”);
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
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g.drawImage(myImages[index], O, O, this);
index=index==O ? 1 :O; // Switch image index
repaint(); // force paint() again;works, but VERY BAD STYLE!
}
}
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
This is what I call a brute-force animation; it’s terriblyprimitive (if it were a person, you’d see lots of
hair on its back and knuckles dragging on the ground). In fact, you never really want to animate using
this technique, since it monopolizes the system by calling repaint() every time through the paint() method.
As a result, nothing else gets a chance to execute.
Although it’s not a good idea to use this approach when animating graphics, it’s a clear illustration of the
technique of using an array to hold your images. We simply load two images into the array and draw one
after the other on the screen. Since the drawing surface is being cleared each time throughout the
process, the animation flickers a lot. In addition, there’s noway to pause between the frames; we barrel
ahead without giving the eyes a moment to focus.
There are a number of techniques we can use to remedy these problems. First, we can pause for a
moment or two between each frame, allowing the user’s eyes to get adjusted to the current frame before
going on to the next. In this way, our animation appears smoother than with the brute force approach.
In order to pause between each frame, you need to use threads.These are discussed in Chapter 14. They
not only provide a way to add pauses to your animations, but they don’t monopolize the processor (as
this program clearly does!).
However, without reading either of these chapters or referring to the CD-ROM, you can create simple
animations by following the principles described here.
Although BruteForce loads only two images, you could load as many as you like. A clean and easy way of
doing that is to have a directory of images to load, each having the same name,but with a number that
indicates their position in the array.
Figure 17-11 shows the images used in the NotSoBrutish animation program provided on CD-ROM (see
Appendix B). We load them up and draw one after the other at the same position on the screen. Take a
look at NotSoBrutish: you’ll see how we can add thread support and override the paint() method to make a
more elegant animation.
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Figure 17-11: Images that are slightly different result in ananimation when played rapidly in sequence.
For example, if I had a directory with ten images, I’d name them something like: myImageO.gif, myImage1.
gif, myImage2.gif, myImage3.gif, myImage4.gif, and so on. Since array indexing begins at 0, the last image
would be named myImage9.gif. When such a naming convention is used, we can use an efficient loop to
load each into an array, rather than having to refer to them by name:
int count = 10; // number of images to load (10, in this example)
String dir = “images/”; // the name of the directory to load from
String name = “myImage”; // first part of name
String extension = “.gif”; // extension of every image to load
// Load images into an array:
Image imgs[] = new Image[count]; // create the array
for (int i = 0; i < count; i++) {
imgs[i] = getImage(getDocumentBase(), dir + name + i +
extension);
}
Since the reference to each image is automatically taken care of in the previous example, we sit back and
let the loop do the work for us. This is particularly helpful when these variables are supplied as
<APPLET> parameters, because it gives the people adding your applet to their pages a great deal of
flexibility inspecifying the number, names, and format of the images to animate.
Now, when you want to animate the images, you simply run through a loop and increment the index in
each iteration:
if (i==count) {i=O;}
// “wrap around” to first element when at end
g.drawImage(imgs[i++], 0, 0, this); // draw image in i position
Although we’ve been discussing animations of images and graphics that are drawn to the same location
on the screen, we can also move items across the screen. To do this, simply change the x and y
coordinates when drawing each image in the sequence. Adding a value to x moves the image to the right,
while subtracting a value moves it to the left. Likewise, adding a positive value toy moves it down,
while subtracting a value moves it up:
g.drawImage(imgs[i++], x, y, this); // draw image at x,y
x = x+ 5; // next time, draw 5 pixels over
y = y + 2; // and 2 pixels down
The values you add or subtract from the x and y coordinates will vary from animation to animation.
You’ll have to monkey around with these until you get the desired effect.
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Scaling images
In addition to the drawImage() method we’ve been using so far,there are a few others to choose from:
drawImage(Image, int, int, int, int, ImageObserver);
drawImage(Image, int, int, Color, ImageObserver);
drawImage(Image, int, int, int, int, Color, ImageObserver);
The first drawImage() method shown earlier takes both a height and a width argument:
drawImage(Image img, int x, int y, int width, int height,
ImageObserver observer);
If the image size is not that of the height and the width passed to drawImage(), it is scaled accordingly.
Using this method, we can stretch the images out or compress them into ever smaller spaces, making for
interesting visual effects (see Figure 17-12).
Figure 17-12: Would you like to stretch or compress images?
Two new methods have been added to the AWT Graphics class to provide a complete scaling, flipping,
cropping image-rendering facility. The new methods are:
drawImage(Image img,
int dx1, int dy1, int dx2, int dy2,
int sx1, int sy1, int sx2,int sy2,
ImageObserver observer)
drawImage(Image img,
int dx1, int dy1, int dx2, int dy2,
int sx1, int sy1, int sx2, int sy2,
Color bgcolor, ImageObserver observer)
The original drawImage() methods may create a totally new representation of the image for the screen by
rereading the raw image data. In contrast, these new methods always use the pixels from the unscaled
version of the image to draw to the screen.Also, the coordinate specification has been changed in these
new methods. Two coordinates are used to define the bounding rectangle. Because negative widths and
heights carry existing meanings in the rest of the Java APIs, the new methods use the new coordinate-
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pair specification to allow explicit control over which dimensions get flipped.
This sample code shows the use of the new API to perform image cropping:
// Draw a background image
g.drawImage(bgimg, 0, 0, this);
// Draw the upper left 200x200 portion of another image
// at20,20
g.drawImage(img,
20, 20, 220, 220,
0, 0, 200, 200, this);
Following is sample code showing the use of the new API to perform image flipping:
// Draw the center 200x200 portion of a 400x400 image
// at location 20, 20, flipped horizontally.
g.drawImage(img,
20, 20, 220, 220,
200, 100, 100. 200, this);
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Printing (java.awt.PrintJob)
So far we’ve concerned ourselves with displaying graphics and images on a computer screen. Though
the Web promises to do away with the need for paper (or so we’re told), many unenlight enedusers
continue to demand a printed hard copy of what they see on the screen. Unfortunately, the good folks at
JavaSoft have decreed that applets shall not print, at least not until they figure out some way of keeping
a devilish applet from sneaking into your office network through the Web and spewing out pages from
networked printers ’til they drop. On the other hand, if you’re creating a Java application, you can easily
add a printing capability using the AWT’s PrintJob class (see Table 17-5).
Table 17-5
Class java.awt.PrintJob
Constructor Signature Description
Default constructor. Note that the
Toolkit for a particular platform
PrintJob public PrintJob()
creates print jobs at the behest of
application programs.
Method Signature Description
Gets a Graphics object that draws to
the next page. The page is sent to
the printer when the graphics object
get Graphics public abstract Graphics getGraphics()
is disposed. This graphics object
implements the Print Graphics
interface.
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Returns the dimensions of the
page in pixels.
GetPage public abstract Dimension getPageDimension Note: This method returns an
Dimension () incorrect value on Windows 95
and perhaps on other platforms, as
well.
Returns the resolution of the page
in pixels per inch. This doesn’t
have to correspond to the physical
resolution of the printer.
GetPage
public abstract int getPageResolution()
Resolution Note: This method returns the
actual physical resolution (dots per
inch) of the printer on Windows
95 and perhaps on other platforms,
as well.
Returns true if the last page will be
LastPage First public abstract boolean lastPageFirst()
printed first.
Ends the print job and does any
End public abstract void end()
necessary cleanup.
Ends this print job once it is no
Finalize public void finalize()
longer referenced.
There are two important things to keep in mind about PrintJob. First, you cannot create an instance of
PrintJob because it is an abstract class. Instead, when you need to print, you actually request what’s
known as a printjob from the Toolkit for the platform on which your application is running, using the
Toolkit’s getPrintJob() method. This method constructs and returns a platform-specific PrintJob class that
you can then use to print your data. This seemingly roundabout way of doing things shields you from
having to deal with the peculiarities of printing on a particular platform.
The java.awt.Toolkit class is used to bind the platform-independent java.awt classes with their java.
awt.Peerclass counterparts. Many of the methods in the java.awt.Toolkit classes should not be
called directly because they interact directly with the platform operating system.
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The other important point to keep in mind is that the aim of PrintJob is to make printing a hard copy as
easy as drawing on the screen. Indeed, PrintJob assumes that you want to print exactly what is on the
screen. If that is the case, PrintJob makes the job easy because it lets you use the same Java code that you
use to display output on the screen for the printer,effectively redirecting output from the screen device to
a printer (nifty, huh?). On the other hand, if you want to print a document that doesn’t fit entirely inside
a window on the computer screen (a long document, such as word processor file,a large drawing, or
some other large and complex body of material that doesn’t fit into the dimensions of a computer
screen), you have to work a bit harder to get the job done with PrintJob.
Keeping this in mind, let’s drill clown into the specifics of printing with PrintJob. The first step is to get a
PrintJob instance for the platform on which your application is running,which you do by invoking the
getPrintJob() method of the Toolkit for the current platform. The getPrintJob() method is defined as follows:
PrintJob getPrintJob(Frame frame,
String jobtitle,
Properties props)
The getPrintJob() method returns a PrintJob object that is the result of initiating a print operation on the
toolkit platform.It returns null if the user canceled the print job.
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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You can accomplish this by either invoking the getDefaultToolkit() static method of the Toolkit class or by
calling the getToolkit() method of your application’s frame window, as shown here:
Toolkit tk = frame.getDefaultToolkit();
PrintJob pj = tk.getPrintJob(frame, “My Print Job”, null);
You pass your application’s frame and a print job title to the getPrintJob() method. The method then
displays a dialog box that allows a user to select a printer and various print job options(see Figure 17-
13). If the user selects the OK button in the dialog, the getPrintJob() method returns a PrintJob instance.
Otherwise, the method returns null.
As of this writing, the getPrintJob method accepts, but ignores,a java.util. Properties object as a
third argument, which is why null is passed in this example. In the future, perhaps by the time
you read this, the java.util. Properties argument will let you get and set print job options
programmatically. Who knows? By then, PrintJob may have even more remarkable powers as
well. Remember PrintJob is a work in progress.
Caption 17-13: PrintJob allows Java applications to print just as native programs do.
Once you have obtained a PrintJob instance, as we’ve done before,the next step is to call the PrintJob
instance’s getGraphics() method:
public abstract Graphics getGraphics()
This method returns a Graphics object that represents the page currently in the printer’s feed station. This
Graphics object is essentially identical to a display Graphics object. It has the same drawing methods and
uses the same coordinate system. In fact, a printer Graphics instance views the printed page as just
another widget. For example, a printer Graphics object measures distances in terms of screen pixels and
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locates the origin at the upper-left corner of the drawing area (the page). Sound familiar?It should, and
for good reason: This is exactly the same way a display Graphics object deals with measurements and
coordinates!
Such similarities make using printer Graphics objects relatively painless once you’ve got the hang of
display graphics in general. However, an important difference exists between a printer Graphics object
and a display Graphics object:whatever you draw to a display Graphics object appears on the screen
immediately, while drawing to a print Graphics object doesn’t immediately result in output appearing on a
printed page.Instead, Java saves the drawing in memory until either you or Java’s garbage collector calls
the Graphics object’s dispose() method, at which point, Java sends your drawing to the printer as a series of
printer commands.
While this may seem odd at first, it makes sense if you think about it for a while. After all, there’s no
sense in physically running a page through the printer until the output that should appear on that page
has been completely received. And, as long as you’re working with a printer Graphics object, it won’t be
disposed of by the automatic garbage collector (nor would you want to dispose of it yourself at this
point). However, once you’re done working with the object, Java realizes that it’s available for garbage
collection, and sweeps it away. But not,of course, before it has sent the output information it contains to
the printer!
Because printer and display Graphics objects are essentially interchangeable, you can pass an instance of
either to your application’s paint() methods. The paint() methods draw equally well with either. The only
difference is that the results of painting with a Graphics object appear on the printer(when you or Java’s
garbage collector calls the dispose() method of the Graphics object) rather than on the screen.
To help put this all in perspective, let’s take a look at a bit of printing code. The PrintJava application in
Listing 17-4 illustrates just how easy it is, thanks to PrintJob, to reproduce on paper what you see on the
screen. This application displays and prints the word Java in blue letters,and it centers the word in a two
inch yellow square. The code for this program uses the PrintCanvas’s paint() method for both displaying
and printing the vibrant “Java” square, illustrating how you can use one body of code to send output to
both screen and printer devices.
Listing 17-4: Printjava.java
/**
* PrintJava.java
* Displays and prints a yellow square containing
* the word “Java” in blue letters.
* @author: Paul Kinnucan
* @version: 1.0
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*/
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*.
import java.util.*;
import jshapes.*;
public class PrintJava extends Frame {
PrintCanvas canvas;
publicPrintJava() {
super(“PrintJava”);
// Exit when user clicks the frame’s close button.
this.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {
System.exit(0);
}
});
canvas = new PrintCanvas();
add(“Center”, canvas);
pack();
}
public void run() {
// Display the print dialog.
PrintJob pj =
getToolkit().getPrintJob(this, “Print Java”, null);
// Null indicates user canceled print job.
if (pj != null) {
// Get the graphics context for the current
// page and “paint”the page.
Graphics gc = pj.getGraphics();
canvas.paint(gc);
// Deleting the graphics context causes the
// page to be printed.
gc.dispose();
pj.end();
}
}
public static void main(String argv[]) {
PrintJava app = newPrintJava();
app.show();
app.run();
}
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class PrintCanvas extends Canvas {
// Set size of canvas to 2x2 inches.
public Dimension getPreferredSize() {
int res =getScreenResolution();
return new Dimension(2*res, 2*res);
}
public int getScreenResolution() {
Frame parent = (Frame)getParent();
return parent.getToolkit().getScreenResolution();
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
// Draw a yellow rectangle the size of
// the canvas.
Rectangle r = getBounds();
g.setColor(Color.yellow);
g.fillRect(0, 0, r.width, r.height);
// Draw “Java” in blue letters centered on
// the canvas.
g.setColor(Color.blue);
Font f = new Font(“Serif”, Font.PLAIN, 72);
g.setFont(f);
FontMetrics fm = g.getFontMetrics();
String str = “Java”;
int fw = fm.stringWidth(str);
int fh = (f.getSize()*getScreenResolution())/72;
int x = (r.width- fw)/2;
int y = r.height - fh;
g.drawString(str, x, y);
}
}
Need to handle longer more complex print jobs? See the nextsection, “Printing pages.#148;
Printing Components
The AWT provides some specialized printing methods that simplify making hard copies of your
application’s screens. For example,to print a hard copy of a simple component, such as a button,simply
invoke the component’s print() method, passing it the printer Graphics object obtained from PrintJob:
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public void print(Graphics g)
The print() method passes the Graphics object to the component’s paint() method, thereby reproducing the
component’s screen appearance on the printer. A corresponding function, printAll(),lets you reproduce
dialog boxes and other complex objects that have subcomponents:
public void printAll(Graphics g)
The printAll() function invokes the paint() methods of the component and all its subcomponents, adjusting
the coordinate system of the Graphics object as necessary to assure that the subcomponents appear on the
printed page in the same position relative to each other that they appear on the screen.
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Java Bible:Graphics, Fonts, Color, and Images, and Printing
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Printing pages
What happens if you want to print a long text file, a large drawing, or another object that does not fit on
a single printedpage? You can do this with PrintJob by dividing up your text or graphics into page-size
chunks, printing each sequentially by repeatedly creating (via calls to a PrintJob instance’s getGraphics()
method as shown earlier) and disposing of printer Graphics objects, one for each page.
The tricky part of this task is assuring that the height and width of each printer Graphics object is set to
the height and width of the printable area of a physical page measured in screen pixels, while taking
into account the fact that most printers cannot print close to the edges of a piece of paper. Most printers
are incapable of placing ink or toner any closer than.25 inches from each edge. Thus, the printable area
is usually smaller than the nominal page size by a small factor, typically.25 inches.
It’s important to remember that PrintJob deals with coordinates and measurements in terms of
screen pixels, since the printedpage is treated as nothing more than a screen component by
Java.As a result, you must be careful to calculate the size of printable areas using screen
pixels. If you don’t, your output will almost certainly take on an abstract quality—output
won’t appear where you expect it!
To compute the printable area in pixels, first get the current display’s resolution in pixels-per-inch (ppi)
by calling the getScreenResolution() method of the platform’s Toolkit object.You can obtain the Toolkit
object by calling the static getDefaultToolkit() method of the AWT’s Toolkit class or by calling the getToolkit
() method of your application’s Frame object as you did earlier when working with Printjob:
Toolkit tk = frame.getToolkit();
int res = tk.getScreenResolution();
Once you have obtained the screen resolution, as we’ve already done, multiply the printable area’s
dimension (measured in inches) by the resolution to obtain the area’s dimensions(measured in pixels).
Finally, each time you obtain a Graphics object for printing the next chunk of data (remember, you have
to chop up large amounts of output into page-sized chunks of data), set the page Graphics object’s clip
area to the dimensions of the printer’s printable area before drawing to it:
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int w = res * 8; // assume a .25 inch border
int h = res * 10.5;
g.setClip(0, 0, w, h); // g = page Graphics object
You may have noticed that the first two lines of code in this example accommodate the fact that most
printers can’t print on the far edges of a page. As a result the printable area is the nominal area minus a
border of .25 inches. The clipping methods are discussed in Chapter 16.
While this is all well and good for the printer in my office, the harsh reality is that printable areas differ
among different types of printers. What#146;s .25 inches on my printer may be .125 inches on yours,
or .5 inches on a printer clown the hall! As a result, what we really need is a way to determine the
printable area at run time (or, at least, it would be useful to know the type of the printer selected by the
user, which would allow us to build a little data file in advance that contains the precise printable areas
for the most popular printers out there).Unfortunately, Java does not yet provide a way of determining
the characteristics or even the identity of the printer selected by the user. The bottom line? If you need to
print accurately on a variety of printers, you must either wait until JavaSoft gets around to implementing
the printer property querying feature of the PrintJob class or else implement such a facility yourself
through native methods. Personally, I plan to wait patiently.
Summary
In this chapter we learned how to display and print graphics,images, and text, using the AWT.
• With the Graphics class Java provides a set of graphics primitives that allow you to draw lines,
rectangles, ovals,polygons, arcs, and even text directly on the screen. You can draw these
primitives either outline (that is, without a fill)or with a fill, and in any color you desire.
• The Graphics class allows us to place text on the screen.
• In order to use fonts, we must first create a Font object.Java provides a number of methods that
allow you to find out about the current font.
• Java can display GIF and JPEG type images using the Image class.
• You can use the java.awt.PrintJob class to put information from your Java applications onto
paper.
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Java Bible:Widgets
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 18
Widgets
In This Chapter
Adding graphical user interface (GUI) Components to your Java applications
Using buttons, check boxes, choice menus, and scrolling list objects in your java applications
In the last chapter you explored the graphical side of the Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT): graphics
primitives, fonts, colors, and images. Although you can create impressive looking applets and jazz up
your applications, you still haven’t created a true graphical user interface (GUI). The next five chapters
cover the Components that make up Java’s GUI classes.
In these chapters you learn how to use the AWT to create a GUI for your own programs. You’ll explore
containers (panels, applets, windows, and other objects capable of containing Components and other
containers), widgets (a term I’ve adopted to cover buttons, pop-up menus, scroll bars, labels, choice
menus, and all their widgety friends), and the layout managers responsible for how our widgets are
arranged in a Container class.
In this chapter you begin with a look at the Component class, the parent of all other GUI classes. Then
you go on to learn about buttons, check boxes, choice menus, and scrolling lists.
GUI Components (java.awt.Component)
As you learned in the previous chapter, the Java graphics environment is based on the Component class.
Any time you put something on the screen, you’re dealing (either directly or indirectly) with a
Component. Applets, as you know, are actually descendants of the Component class, which is why you’re
able to draw directly on an applet without having to do anything special.
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AWT Components communicate with the underlying operating system’s windowing
environment using peers, which actually implement the platform-specific behavior of
Components. Although peers are a vital part of Java, allowing the AWT to present an interface
consistent with the platform on which it is executing, you won’t deal with them directly, unless
you’re porting Java to a new platform.
The Component class contains a large number of methods, as you can see in Table 18-1.
Table 18-1
java.awt.Component Methods
Method Signature Description
getName public String getName() Gets the name of the Component.
SetName public void setName (String Sets the name of the Component to the specified string.
name)
Parameter: name — the name of the Component.
getParent public Container getParent() Gets parent of Component.
GetPeer public ComponentPeer Gets peer of Component. Note: getPeer() is deprecated. As
getPeer() of JDK version 1.1, programs should not directly
manipulate peers.
GeTreeLock public final Object Gets the locking object for AWT Component—tree and
geTreeLock() layout operations.
GeToolkit public Toolkit geToolkit() Gets the Toolkit of the Component. The Toolkit creates the
peer for this Component.
Note: The Frame that contains a Component controls
which Toolkit is used. If the Component has not yet been
added to a Frame (or is later moved to a different Frame),
the Toolkit it uses may change.
isValid public boolean isValid() Checks whether Component is valid. Components are
invalidated when first shown on-screen.
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isVisible public boolean isVisible() Checks whether Component is visible. Components are
initially visible (with the exception of top-level
Components such as Frame).
isShowing public boolean isShowing() Checks whether Component is visible and showing
onscreen. The Component must be visible and in a
container that is both visible and showing.
isEnabled public boolean is Enabled() Checks whether Component is enabled, Components are
initially enabled.
setEnabled public void setEnabled Enables a Component.
(boolean b)
enable public synchronized void Enables a Component.
enable()
Note: enable() is deprecated. Replaced by setEnabled
(boolean) in JDK version 1.1.
enable public void enable (boolean Conditionally enables Component.
cond)
Parameter:
cond-enables Component when true; disables otherwise.
disable public synchronized void Disables Component.
disable()
Note: disabte() is deprecated. Replaced by setEnabled
(boolean) in JDK version 1.1.
setVisible public void set Visible Shows or hides the Component depending on the boolean
(boolean b) flag b.
Parameter: b-if true, shows the Component; otherwise,
hides the Component.
show public synchronized void Shows Component.
show()
Note: show () is deprecated. Replaced by setVisible
(boolean) inJDK version 1.1.
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show public void show (boolean Conditionally shows the Component.
cond)
Parameter: cond-if true, shows Component; otherwise
hides it. Note: show() is deprecated. Replaced by
setVisible(boolean) in JDK version 1.1.
hide public synchronized void Hides Component.
hide()
Note: hide() is deprecated. Replaced by setVisible(boolean)
in JDK version 1.1.
getForeground public Color getForeground Gets foreground color (or that of its parent if the
() Component has no foreground color).
setForeground public synchronized void Sets foreground color.
setForeground (Color c)
Parameter: c-color.
getBackground public Color getBackground Gets background color (or that of its parent if the
() Component has no background color).
setBackground public synchronized void Sets background color.
setBackground (Color c)
Parameter: c-color.
getFont public Font getFont() Gets font of the Component (or that of its parent if the
Component has no font).
setFont public synchronized void Sets font of Component.
setFont(Font f)
Parameter: f-font.
getLocale public Locale getLocate() Gets the locale of the Component (or that of its parent if
the Component has no locale). Throws Illegal
ComponentStateException if the Component does not have
its own locale and has not yet been added to a
containment hierarchy such that the locale can be
determined from the containing parent.
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setLocale public void setLocate(Locale Sets the locale of the Component.
l)
Parameter: l-the locale.
getColorModel public synchronized Gets color model used to display Component on the
ColorModel qetColor Model output device.
()
getLocation public Point getLocation() Returns the current location of this Component. The
location is in the parent’s coordinate space.
getLocationOn Screen public Point getLocationOn Returns the current location of this Component in the
Screen() screen’s coordinate space.
location public Point location() Returns the Component’s location. Note: location () is
deprecated. Replaced by getLocation() in JDK version
1.1.
setLocation public void SetLocation(Iht Moves the Component to a new location. The x and y
X. int y) coordinates are in the parent’s coordinate space.
Parameters:
x-the x coordinate.
y-the y coordinate.
move public void move (int x, int Moves the Component to a new location. Note: move() is
y) deprecated. Replaced by setLocation(int, int) in JDK
version 1.1.
setLocation public void set Location Moves the Component to a new location. The point p is
(Point p) given in the parent’s coordinate space.
Parameter:
p-the new location for the coordinate.
getSize public Dimension getSize() Returns the current size of this Component.
size public Dimension size() Returns the size of the Component. Note: size() is
deprecated. Replaced by getSize() in JDK version 1.1.
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setSize public void setSize (int Resizes the Component to the specified width and height.
width, int height)
Parameters:
width-the width of the Component. height-the height of the
Component.
resize public void resize (int width, Resizes the Component. Note: resize () is deprecated.
int height) Replaced by setSize(int, int) in JDK version 1.1.
setSize public void setSize Resizes the Component to the specified dimension.
(Dimension d)
Parameter:
d-the Component dimension.
resize public void resize Resizes the Component.
(Dimension d)
Note: resize() is deprecated. Replaced by setSize
(Dimension) in JDK version 1.1.
getBounds public Rectangle getBounds Returns the current bounds of this Component.
()
Bounds public Rectangle bounds() Returns the bounds of the Component.
Note: bounds() is deprecated. Replaced by getBounds() in
JDK version 1.1.
setBounds public void set Bounds(int x, Reshapes Component to specified bounding box.
int y, int width, int height)
Parameters:
x-the x coordinate.
y-the y coordinate.
width-width of Component.
height-height of Component.
reshape public synchronized void Reshapes Component. Note: reshape() is deprecated. As of
reshape(int x, iht y, int JDKversion 1.1, replaced by setBounds(int, int, int, int).
width, int height)
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setBounds public void set Bounds Reshapes the Component to the specified bounding box.
(Rectangler)
Parameter: r—the new bounding rectangle for the
Component.
getPreferred Size public Dimension Returns the preferred size of this Component.
getPreferredSize()
preferredSize public Dimension Note: preferredSize() is deprecated. Replaced by
preferredSize() getPreferredSize() in JDK version 1.1.
getMinimum Size public Dimension Returns the minimum size of this Component.
getMinimumSize()
minimumSize public Dimension Returns the minimum size of this Component.
minimumSize()
Note: minimumSize() is deprecated.
Replaced by getMinimumSize() in JDK version 1.1.
getMaximum Size public Dimension Returns the maximum size of this Component.
getMaximumSize()
getAlignmentX public float getAlignmentX Returns the alignment along the x axis. Specifies how
() the Component would like to be aligned relative to other
Components. The value should be a number between 0
and 1, where 0 represents alignment along the origin, 1
is aligned farthest away from the origin, 0.5 is centered,
and so on.
getAlignmentY public float getAlignmentY Returns the alignment along the y axis. Specifies how
() the Component would like to be aligned relative to other
Components. The value should be a number between 0
and 1, where 0 represents alignment along the origin, 1
is aligned farthest away from the origin, 0.5 is centered,
and so on.
doLayout public void doLayout() Lays out the Component. Usually called when the
Component (specifically, its container) is validated.
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layout public void layout() Lays out the Component.
Note: layout() is deprecated, Replaced by doLayout() in
JDK version 1.1.
validate public void validate() Ensures that a Component has a valid layout. Intended to
operate primarily on Container instances.
invalidate public void invalidate() Invalidates the Component. The Component and all parents
above it are marked as needing to be laid out. Can be
called often, so it needs to execute quickly.
getGraphics public Graphics getGraphics Gets graphics context for Component. Returns null if
() Component is currently not on the screen.
getFont Metrics public FontMetrics Gets font metrics for Component.
getFontMetrics(Font font)
Parameter: font-font.
setCursor public synchronized void Sets the cursor image to that of a predefined cursor.
setCursor (Cursor cursor)
Parameter: cursorType-one of the cursor constants
defined in the next entry.
getCursor public Cursor getCursor() Gets the cursorset on this Component.
paint public void paint (Graphics Paints the Component; the clip rectangle in the Graphics
g) parameter is set to the area to be painted. Called when
the Component’s contents should be painted, as when the
Component is first shown or needs repair.
Parameter: g-the specified graphics context (window).
update public void update (Graphics Updates Component. The update() method is called in
g) response to repaint(). You can assume that the
background is not cleared.
Parameter: g-the specified graphics context (window).
paintAll public void paint All Paints Component and its subcomponents.
(Graphics g)
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Parameter: g-the specified graphics context (window).
repaint public void repaint () Repaints Components (results in a call to update() as soon
as possible).
repaint public void repaint (long t) Repaints Component, resulting in a call to update within t
milliseconds.
Parameter: t-maximum time in milliseconds before
update.
repaint public void repaint (int x, int Repaints part of the Component, resulting in a call to
y, int width, int height) update() as soon as possible).
Parameters:
x-the x Coordinate.
y-the y coordinate.
width-the width.
height-the height.
repaint public void repaint (long t, Repaints part of the Component. This results in a call to
int x, int y, int width, int update within t milliseconds.
height)
Parameters:
t-maximum time in milliseconds before update.
x-the x coordinate.
y-the y coordinate.
width-the width.
height-the height.
print public void print (Graphics prints the Components. The default implementation of
g) this method calls paint.
Parameter: g-the specified graphics context (window).
printAll public void print All Prints Component and its subcomponents.
(Graphics g)
Parameter: g: The specified graphics context (window).
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imageUpdate public boolean imageUpdate Repaints Component when image has changed. Returns
(Image img, int y, int w, int true if the image has changed; false if it has not.
h)
createtmage public Image create Image Creates image from the specified image producer.
(ImageProducer producer)
Parameter: producer-image producer.
createImage public Image create Image Creates off-screen drawable image for double buffering.
(int width, int height)
Paramaeters:
width-the width.
height-the height.
prepareImage public boolean prepareImage Prepares image for rendering on this Component
(Image image, (downloads image data asynchronously, in separate
ImageObserver observer) thread; generates appropriate screen representation of
the image).
Parameters:
image-the image to prepare screen representation for.
observer-the ImageObserver object to be notified as image
is being prepared (returns true if image is already fully
prepared; false if it is not).
prepareImage public boolean prepareImage Prepares an image to render on this Component at
(Image image, int width, int specified width and height. Downloads image data
height, Image Observer
asynchronously, in a separate thread, and generates an
observer)
appropriately scaled screen representation of the image.
Parameters:
image-the image to prepare screen representation for.
width-the width of desired screen representation. height-
the height of desired screen representation. observer-the
ImageObserver object to be notified as image is being
prepared (returns true if the image is already fully
prepared; false if it is not).
checkimage public int check Image Returns status of construction for the screen
(Image image, representation of the specified image. Does not force
ImageObserver observer) the image to begin loading; use prepareImage() method to
force loading.
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Parameters:
image-the image to check. observer-the ImageObserver
object to be notified as image is being prepared (returns
the boolean OR of ImageObserver flags for currently
available data).
checkImage public int check Image Returns status of construction of a scaled screen
(Image image, int width, int representation of a specified image. Does not force the
height, Image Observer
image to begin loading; use prepare Image() method to
observer)
force loading.
Parameters:
image-the image to check.
width-the width of the scaled version to check.
height-the height of the scaled version to check.
observer-the ImageObserver object to be notified as image
is being prepared (returns the boolean OR if the
ImageObserver flags for currently available data).
contains public boolean contains(int Checks whether an x,y location is “inside” Component.
x, int y) By default, x and y are “inside” if they fall within the
bounding box of the Component.
Parameters:
x-the x coordinate.
y-the y coordinate.
inside public boolean inside(int x, By default, x and y are “inside” if they fall within the
int y) bounding box of the Component.
Note: inside() is deprecated. Replaced by contains (int, int)
in JDK version 1.1.
contains public boolean contains Checks whether this Component “contains” a specified
(Point p) point, x and y in the specified point are defined relative
to the coordinate system of this Component.
Parameter: p-the point.
getComponentAt public Component Returns Component or subcomponent containing the x,y
getComponentAt(int x, int y) location.
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Parameters:
x-the x coordinate.
y-the y coordinate.
locate public Component locate(int Returns Component or subcomponent containing
x, int y) location.
Note: locate() is deprecated. Replaced by getComponentAt
(int, int) in JDK version 1.1.
getComponent At public Component Returns the Component or subcomponent that contains
getComponentAt(Point P) the specified point.
Parameter: p-the point.
detiverEvent public void deliver Event Dispatches an event.
(Event e)
Note: deliverEvent() is deprecated. Replaced by
dispatchEvent in JDK version 1.1; use dispatchEvent
instead.
dispatchEvent public final void Dispatches an event to this Component or one of its
dispatchEvent(AWT Event subcomponents.
e)
Parameter: e-the event.
postEvent public boolean postEvent Note: postEvent() is deprecated. As of JDK version 1.1,
(Event e) replaced by dispatchEvent(AWTEvent).
addComponent public synchronized void Adds the specified Component Listener to receive
Listener addComponent Listener Component events from this Component.
(Component Listener 1)
Parameter: 1-the Component listener.
remove Component public synchronized void Removes the specified listener so it no longer receives
Listener removeComponent Listener Component events from this Component.
(Component Listener 1)
Parameter: 1-the Component Listener.
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addFocus Listener public synchronized void Adds the specified FocusListener to receive focus events
addFocus Listener(Focus from this Component.
Listener 1)
Parameter: 1: The FocusListener.
removeFocus Listener public synchronized void Removes the specified FocusListener so it no longer
removeFocus Listener(Focus receives focus events from this Component.
Listener 1)
Parameter: 1: The FocusListener.
addKeyListener public synchronized void Adds the specified key listener to receive key events
addKeyListener KeyListener from this Component.
1)
Parameter: 1: The KeyListener.
removeKey Listener public synchronized void Removes the specified key listener so it no longer
removeKey Listener receives key events from this Component.
(KeyListener 1)
Parameter: 1: The KeyListener.
addMouse Listener public synchronized void Removes the specified MouseListener so it no longer
addMouse Listener Mouse receives mouse events from this Component.
Listener 1)
Parameter: 1: The MouseListener.
removeMouse Listener public synchronized void Adds the specified MouseMotionListener to receive mouse
removeMouse Listener motion events from this Component.
(Mouse Listener 1)
Parameter: 1: The MouseMotionListener.
addMouseMotion public synchronized void Adds the specified MouseMotionListener to receive mouse
Listener addMouseMotion Listener motion events from this Component.
(MouseMotion Listener 1)
Parameter: 1: The MouseMotionListener.
removeMouse public synchronized void Removes the specified MouseMotionListener so it no
MotionListener removeMouse longer receives mouse motion events from this
MotionListener
Component.
(MouseMotionListener 1)
Parameter: 1: The MouseMotion Listener.
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enableEvents protected final void Enables the events defined by the specified event mask
enableEvents(long parameter to be delivered to this Component. Event types
eventsToEnable) are automatically enabled when a listener for that type
is added to the Component. This method need be invoked
only by those subclasses of a Component that need
specified event types delivered to processEvent regardless
of whether a listener is registered.
Parameter: eventsToEnable: The event mask defining the
event types.
disableEvents protected final void Disables the events defined by the specified event mask
disableEvents(long parameter from being delivered to this Component.
eventsToDisable)
Parameter: eventsToDisable: The event mask defining the
event types.
processEvent protected void processEvent Processes events occurring on this Component. By
(AWT Event e) default, calls the appropriate processXXXEvent method
for the class of event. Not called unless an event type is
enabled for this Component, which happens when (a) a
listener object is registered for that event type, or (b) the
event type is enabled via enableEvents().
Note: Classes that override this method should call super.
processEvent() to ensure that default event processing
continues normally.
Parameter: e: The event.
Component protected void Processes Component events occurring on this Component
Eventprocess processComponent Event by dispatching them to any registered ComponentListener
(ComponentEvent e) objects. Not called unless Component events are enabled
for this Component, which happens when (a) a
ComponentListener object is registered via
addComponentListner() or (b) Component events are
enabled via enableEvents().
Note: Classes that override this method should call super
processComponentEvent() to ensure that default event
processing continues normally.
Parameter: e: The Component event.
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Eventprocess Focus protected void Processes FocusEvents occurring on this Component by
processFocusEvent dispatching them to any registered FocusListener objects.
(FocusEvent e) Not called unless focus events are enabled for this
Component, which happens when (a) a FocusListener
object is registered via addFocusListener() or (b)
FocusEvents are enabled via enableEvents().
Note: Classes that override this method should call
super.processFocusEvent() to ensure that default event
processing continues normally.
Parameter: e: The FocusEvent.
processKey Event protected void Processes key events occurring on this Component by
processKeyEvent(Key Event dispatching them to any registered KeyListener objects.
e) Not called unRess key events are enabled for this
Component, which happens when (a) a KeyListener object
is registered via addKeyListener() or (b) Key events are
enabled via enableEvents().
Note: Classes that override this method should call super.
processKey Event() to ensure that default event processing
continues normally.
Parameter: e: The key event.
processMouse Event protected void Processes MouseMotionEvents occurring on this
processMouseEvent Component by dispatching them to any registered
(MouseEvent e) MouseListener objects. Not called unless mouse events
are enabled for this Component, which happens when (a)
a MouseListener object is registered via addMouseListener()
or (b) Mouse events are enabled via enableEvents().
Note: Classes that override this method should call
super. processMouse Event() to ensure that default event
processing continues normally.
Parameter: e: The mouse event.
Processes MouseMotionEvents occurring on this
Component by dispatching them to any registered
MouseMotionListener objects. Not called unless mouse
motion events are enabled for this Component, which
happens when (a) a MouseMotion Listener object is
registered via addMouseMotionListener() or (b) Mouse
Motion events are enabled via enableEvents().
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Note: Classes that override this method should call super.
processMouse MotionEvent() to ensure that default event
processing continues normally.
Parameter: e-the MouseMotion Event.
handleEvent public boolean handleEvent Note: handleEvent() is deprecated. Replaced by
(Event evt) (AWTEvent) in JDK version 1.1.
mouseDown public boolean mouse Down Note: mouseDown() is deprecated. Replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseEvent (MouseEvent) in JDK version 1.1.
mouseDrag public boolean mouse Drag Note: mouseDrag() is deprecated. Replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseMotion Event (MouseEvent) in JDK version
1.1.
mouseUp public boolean mouse Up Note: mouseUp() is deprecated. Replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseEvent(Mouse Event) in JDK version 1.1.
mouseMove public boolean mouse Move Note: mouseMove() is deprecated. Replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseMotion Event(MouseEvent) in JDK version
1.1.
mouseEnter public boolean mouse Enter Note: mouseEnter() is deprecated. Replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseEvent (MouseEvent) in JDK version 1.1.
mouseExit public boolean mouse Exit Note: mouseExit() is deprecated. Replaced by
(Event evt, int x, int y) processMouseEvent(Mouse Event) in JDK version 1.1.
keyDown public boolean key Down Note: keyDown() is deprecated. Replaced by
(Event evt, int key) processKeyEvent (KeyEvent) in JDK version 1.1.
keyUp public boolean key Up(Event Note: keyUp() is deprecated. Replaced by processKeyEvent
evt, int key) (KeyEvent) in JDK version 1.1.
action public boolean action(Event Note: action() is deprecated. Replaced by registering this
evt, Object what) Component as ActionListener on the Component that fires
action events in JDK version 1.1.
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addNotify public void addNotify() Notifies a Component that it has been added to a
container, and that if a peer is required, it should be
created. This method should be called by Container.add()
and not by user code directly.
removeNotify public synchronized void Notifies Component to destroy peer.
removeNotify()
gotFocus public boolean got Focus Note: gotFocus() is deprecated. Replaced by
(Event evt, Object what) processFocusEvent (Focus Event) in JDK version 1.1.
lostFocus public boolean lost Focus Note: lostFocus() is deprecated. Replaced by
(Event evt.Object what) processFocusEvent (FocusEvent) in JDK version 1.1.
isFocus Traversable public boolean Returns a determination of whether this Component can
isFocusTraversable() be traversed by using Tab or Shift-Tab keyboard focus
traversal, if this method returns false, this Component
may still use requestFocus() to request the keyboard
focus, but will not be assigned a focus automatically
during Tab traversal.
requestFocus public void request Focus() Requests the input focus. A Focus Gained event will be
delivered if this request succeeds. The Component must
be visible on the screen for this request to be granted.
transferFocus public void transferFocus() Transfers the focus to the next Component.
nextFocus public void nextFocus() Note: nextFocus() is deprecated. Replaced by transferFocus
() in JDK version 1.1.
add public synchronized void add Adds the specified pop-up menu to the Component.
(PopupMenu popup)
Parameter: popup-the popup menu to be added to the
Component.
remove public synchronized void Removes the specified pop-up menu from the
remove(Menu Component Component.
popup)
Parameter: popup-the pop-up menu to be removed.
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paramString protected String paramString Returns parameter string of Component.
()
toString public String toString() Returns a string that represents the Component’s values.
Overrides toString in the Object class.
list public void list() Prints listing to a print stream.
list public void list (PrintStream Prints listing to the specified print stream.
out)
Parameter: out-stream name.
list public void list (PrintStream Prints out list, beginning at specified indention, to
out, int indent) specified print stream.
Parameters:
out-stream name.
indent-start of list.
list public void list (PrintWriter Prints a listing to the specified print writer.
out)
list public void list (PrintWriter Prints out a list, starting at the specified indention, to
out, int indent) the specified print writer.
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Java Bible:Widgets
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
You may have noticed that a number of the methods in the Component class are specified as
being synchronized. Synchronized methods may only be accessed by one thread at a time,
preventing others from potentially changing the state or behavior of the method out from under
the current thread. For details on synchronized methods and threads, see Chapter 14.
To draw an image, write some text, or place a UI element on the screen, you must use a container (java.
awt.Container). Containers are those things that can “contain” Components. Components, you’ll recall, are
those things that fall under the Component class: buttons, check boxes, scroll bars, labels, choice menus,
and so forth. Even containers can fall under this class, implying that they may be nested or placed inside
one another. And, in fact, this is often the case.
Because Applet is a subclass of Panel, which is a subclass of Container, which is itself a subclass of
Component, all applets inherently (no pun intended) know how to add and display Components. You
simply create the Component and add it to your applet. Nothing special; simply create and add.
In the next two chapters you take a look at how to create your own panels and windows, but right now I
discuss what I’ve been calling widgets. You’ll see how to add widgets (buttons, check boxes, scroll bars,
labels, choice menus, text areas, and text fields) to your applets. I begin with buttons.
Buttons
Chances are, I don’t have to explain buttons to you (or most other widgets, for that matter). Buttons are
simple widgets that initiate actions when you click them. You see buttons in use all the time. In fact, all
modern personal computer operating systems use them.
The button widget, along with all its companions, is seen in Figure 18-1. To create a button, you simply
instantiate a Button object, give it a name, and add it:
Button myButton = new Button(“Click Me”);
add(myButton);
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Figure 18-1: Java supports all the standard widgets (GUI Components) found on modern computer
operating systems.
In fact, you don’t even need to assign the button to a variable:
buttonPanel.add(new Button(“Click Me”));
You’ll note that I didn’t supply x,y coordinates for the button, as I’ve been doing all along with images
and graphics primitives. This is because widgets, as with all Components, are placed on the screen
according to a layout manager; explicit coordinates are not used. You learn about layout managers later
on (in Chapter 23, to be precise). For now, all you need to know is that you instantiate a Button object
and add it to the screen. Tables 18-2 and 18-3 show the various constructors and methods associated
with buttons.
Java Layout Managers
Java supports five layout managers:
• FlowLayout
• GridLayout
• GridBagLayout
• BorderLayout
• CardLayout
FlowLayout supports three types of alignments: left, right, or center. FlowLayout doesn’t provide much
control over where Components are placed on the screen. You simply add them, and they are placed on
the panel from left to right in the order added. When a Component reaches the right side of the screen, it
is wrapped around to the next row, where the process continues.
There are many instances in which you need more control over where the Components are placed. In
these situations, you might use GridLayout. The order in which you lay down Components with GridLayout
is very important. The first Component is placed in the first element of the grid, going from left to right.
Each element you add to a grid layout takes up one position of the grid, much like adding only one
number per cell in a spreadsheet. GridLayout is constraining in that you can place only one Component
inside each cell in the grid.
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If you want a Component to occupy one or more cells, you should use GridBagLayout. Although
considerably more complicated to use than other layout managers, GridBagLayout has definite advantages
when it comes to controlling your Components’ placement on the screen. GridBagConstraints specifies
how the Component is positioned over one or more cells, known as the display area. To use the
GridBagLayout, you must customize one or more of a Component’s GridBagConstraints. You do this by
setting the instance variables of a GridBagConstraints object.
BorderLayout arranges Components along the border of the container, as opposed to placing Components
on the inside, as FlowLayout, GridLayout, and GridBagLayout do.
Finally, unlike the other layout managers, CardLayout allows only one Component to be viewed at a time.
You can specify which Component to display, so you have control over how and when Components are
visible.
Table 18-2
java.awt.Button Constructors
Signature Description/Parameter(s)
public Button() Constructs button with no label.
public Button (String label) Constructs button with a given string label. Parameter: label: The button
label.
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Java Bible:Widgets
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Table 18-3
java.awt.Button Methods
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void Creates peer of the button.
Note: AddNotify() overrides addNotify in class
Component.
getLabel public String getLabel() Gets the label of a button.
SetLabel public void setLabel (String Sets the button’s label. Parameter: label-the label.
label)
setAction Command public void Sets the command name of the action event fired by
setActionCommand (String this button. By default this will be set to the label
command) of the button.
GetAction Command public Returns the command name of the action event
StringgetActionCommand() fired by this button.
AddAction Listener public void Adds the specified ActionListener to receive action
addActionListener events from this button.
(ActionListener 1)
Parameter: 1-the action listener.
removeAction Listener public void removeAction Removes the specified ActionListener so it no longer
Listener(ActionListener l) receives action events from this button.
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Parameter: l-the action listener.
processEvent protected void process Event Processes events on this button. If the event is an
(AWTEvent e) ActionEvent, it invokes the processActionEvent
method; otherwise, it invokes its superclass’s
processEvent.
Parameter: e-the event.
processAction Event protected void process Processes action events occurring on this button
ActionEvent(ActionEvent e) by dispatching them to any registered ActionListener
objects. Not called unless action events are
enabled for this Component, which happens when
(a) an ActionListener object is registered via
addActionListener() or (b) Action events are enabled
via enableEvents().
Parameter: e-the action event.
paramString protected String paramString Returns button’s parameter string. Overrides
() paramString in class Component.
Check Boxes
Java supports two types of check boxes, exclusive and non-exclusive:
• In exclusive check boxes, only one item can be selected at a time. If you choose another item,
the current check box is deselected and your new selection is highlighted.
• In non-exclusive check boxes, any number of items in the group can be selected.
The following pieces of code give examples of both types of check boxes. The first is non-exclusive and
is derived from the Checkbox class (see Tables 18-4 and 18-5). The second is an exclusive check box,
instantiated from the CheckboxGroup class (see Table 18-6):
/* — Create a single check box: — */
add(new Checkbox(“This is a check box”));
/* — Create a CheckboxGroup: — */
Checkbox hickory;
Checkbox dickory;
Checkbox dock;
String hickoryLabel = “Hickory”;
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String dickoryLabel = “Dickory”;
String dockLabel = “Dock”;
// create the group
CheckboxGroup myGroup = new CheckboxGroup();
// add each to the current panel
add(hickory=new Checkbox(hickoryLabel.myGroup.true)); // “on”
// the following two will be “off”
add(dickory=new Checkbox(dickoryLabel,myGroup,false));
add(dock=new Checkbox(dockLabel,myGroup,false));
Don’t let the word box in CheckboxGroup deceive you! Depending on the underlying system on which
your program is executed (Sun Solaris, MS Windows, Apple Macintosh, and so on) the check boxes will
actually appear as circles or diamonds. In non-Java lingo, they’re often called radio buttons.
Table 18-4
java.awt.Checkbox Constructors
Signature Description
public Checkbox() Constructs check box with no label or check box group, and is
initialized to false.
public Checkbox (String label) Constructs check box with a label but no check box group, and is
initialized to false.
Parameter: label-the label.
public Checkbox (String label, Constructs check box with a label. The check box starts in the specified
boolean state) state and is not part of any check box group.
Parameters:
label-the label.
State-the initial state of this check box.
public Checkbox (String label, Constructs a check box with a label, check box group, and specified
CheckboxGroup group, boolean initial value, if CheckboxGroup is not null, check box becomes a check
state) box button ( meaning only one check box in the group may be set at a
time).
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Parameters:
label-the label.
Group-the check box group this check box is part of.
State-the initial state of check box.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 18-5
java.awt.Checkbox Methods
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void Creates peer of the check box. Overrides addNotify
addNotify() in class Component.
getLabel public String getLabel() Gets button label.
setLabel public void setLabel (String Sets the button with specified label. Parameter:
label) label-the label.
getState public boolean getState() Returns check box state.
setState public void setState (boolean Sets check box to the specified state.
state) Parameter: state: The boolean state.
getSelected Objects public Object[] Returns an array (length 1) containing the check
getSelectedObjects() box label or null if the check box is not selected.
getCheckbox Group public CheckboxGroup Returns check box group.
getCheckboxGroup()
setCheckbox Group public void Sets check box group to the specified group.
setCheckboxGroup
(CheckboxGroup g)
parameter: g-the chech box group
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addItem Listener public void addItem Listener Adds the specified item listener to receive item
(ItemListener l) events from this check box.
Parameter: l_ the item listener.
removeItem Listener public void remove Removes the specified item listener so that it no
ItemListener(Item Listener longer receives item events from this check box.
1)
Parameter: 1-the item listener.
processEvent protected void processEvent Processes events on this check box, if the event is
(AWT Event e) an ItemEvent, it invokes the processItemEvent
method; otherwise, it calls its superclass’s
processEvent.
Parameter: e-the event.
processItem Event protected void Processes item events occurring on this check box
processItemEvent by dispatching them to any registered ItemListener
(ItemEvent e) objects. Not called unless item events are enabled
for this Component, as when (a) an ItemListener
object is registered via addItemListener() or (b) Item
events are enabled via enabteEvents().
Parameter: e-the item event.
paramString protected String paramString Returns parameter string of check box. Overrides
() paramString in class Component.
Table 18-6
java.awt.Checkboc Group Constructor and Methods
Constructor Signature Description
CheckboxGroup public CheckboxGroup() Creates check box group.
Method Signature Description
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getSelected Checkbox public Checkbox Gets the current choice.
getSelectedCheckbox()
GetCurrent public Checkbox deprecated. Note: getCurrent() is Replaced by
getCurrent() getSelectedCheckbox () in JDK version 1.1.
SetSelected Checkbox public synchronized void Sets the current choice to the specified check box.
setSelectedCheck box If the check box belongs to a different group,
(Checkbox box) returns no result.
Parameter:
box-the current check box choice.
setCurrent public synchronized void Note: setCurrent() is deprecated. Replaced by
setCurrent (Checkbox box) setSelectedCheckbox (Checkbox) in JDK version 1.1.
ToString public String toString() Returns this check box group’s values. Overrides
toString in class Object.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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As you can see in Figure 18-2, check boxes provide an on/off state that is well suited to toggling
program options off and on.
Figure 18-2: The check box widget has two states: true (checked) and false (not-checked).
Choice Menus
Choice menus (see Table 18-7) are really pop-up menus; they enable you to build a list of choices that
pop up on the screen as a menu.
Table 18-7
java.awt.Choice Constructor and Methods
Constructor Signature Description
Choice public Choice() Constructs new choice.
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void Creates choice’s peer. Overrides addNotify in class
addNotify() Component.
GetItem Count public int getItem Count() Returns the number of items in this choice.
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CountItems public int countItems() Note: countItems() is deprecated. Replaced by getItemCount
() in JDK version 1.1.
GetItem public String getItem(int Returns String at specified index in choice.
index)
Parameter: index-the index.
add public synchronized void add Adds an item to this choice.
(String item)
Parameter: item-the item to be added.
addItem public synchronized void Identical to the add method; adds an item to choice list.
addItem(String item) Throws Null PointerException if item’s value is null.
Parameter: item-the item to add.
Insert public synchronized void Inserts the item into this choice at the specified
insert(String item, int index) position.
Parameters:
item-the item to be inserted.
index-the position at which the item should be inserted.
remove public synchronized void Removes the first occurrence of item from the choice
remove (String item) menu.
Parameter: item-the item to remove from the choice
menu.
remove public synchronized void Removes an item from the choice menu.
remove(int position)
RemoveAll public synchronized void Removes all items from the choice menu.
removeAll()
GetSelected Item public String getSelectedItem Returns a string representing the current selection.
()
GetSelected Objects public synchronized Object[] Returns an array (length 1) containing the currently
getSelectedObjects() selected item. If this choice has no items, returns null.
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GetSelected Index public int getSelectedIndex() Returns index of currently selected item.
Select public synchronized void Selects item having the specified position. Throws
setect(int pos) IllegalArgumentException if choice item position is
invalid.
Parameter: pos-the item position.
Select public void select (String str) Selects item with specified String.
Parameter: str-the specified String.
addItem Listener public void addItemListener Adds the specified ItemListener to receive item events
(ItemListener 1) from this check box.
Parameter: 1-the item listener.
removeItem Listener public void Removes the specified item listener so that it no longer
removeItemListener receives item events from this check box.
(ItemListener 1)
Parameter: 1_ the item listener.
processEvent protected void processEvent Processes events on this check box. If the event is an
(AWTEvent e) ItemEvent, it invokes the process ItemEvent method;
otherwise, it calls its superclass’s processEvent.
Parameter: e-the event.
processItem Event protected void Processes item events occurring on this check box by
processItemEvent dispatching them to any registered ItemListener objects.
(ItemEvent e)
Note: Not called unless item events are enabled for this
Component, as when (a) an ItemListener object is
registered via addItemListener() or (b) item events are
enabled via enableEvents().
Parameter: e-the item event.
paramString protected String paramString Returns the parameter string of this choice. Overrides
() paramString in class Component.
Unlike the menus that are used in windows, choice menus can appear anywhere on your screen, as
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shown in Figure 18-3. The following code is for creating choice menus:
Choice theChoice = new Choice(); // create it
// add a few items:
theChoice.addItem(“This is a Choice item...”);
theChoice.addItem(“This is another Choice item!”);
theChoice.addItem(“Yet another Choice item”);
theChoice.addItem(“And, yes, a fourth Choice item”);
add(theChoice); // finally, add the choice menu
Figure 18-3: You can place choice menus, typically called pop-up menus, anywhere in your applet.
As you can see, you first create a Choice object and then add the various items you want to appear in that
menu list. When you’re finished adding items, add the choice menu itself.
With choice menus, you’re allowed to select only one item; multiple selections aren’t permitted.
Sometimes, however, you may want the functionality of a choice menu yet require multiple selections.
In such a case, you would use a scrolling list.
You don’t necessarily have to add all the items to a choice menu before you add it to the container. You
can create the menu, add it to the container, and then add individual items later, as you wish.
You may also decide to change items in the choice menu after you’ve created it. Do this when you’re
not certain what the contents of your choice menu will be, or whether they will change over time.
Choice menus under JDK 1.1 are a little different from their JDK 1.0.2 friends—in 1.0.2,
choice menu items cannot be removed! Indeed, if you want to remove an item from a choice
menu in JDK 1.0.2, you actually have to create a brand new menu, and then copy the items
you want from the old menu into the new one. Clearly this is a royal pain, so JDK 1.1 makes
removing choice items as easy as adding them.
Scrolling Lists
Scrolling lists are particularly helpful when you need the basic functionality of a choice menu but must
also select more than one item. Not surprisingly, scrolling lists have scroll bars, which let you create
long lists of items without consuming the amount of screen real estate that you might with a scroll pane.
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(Scroll panes are discussed in the next chapter.)
To create a scrolling list, you simply create a List object and then add items to it. When you’re done, you
add the list:
// create list with 5 rows and multiple selections:
List theList = new List(5, true);
theList.addItem(“This is a list item...”);
theList.addItem(“How much”);
theList.addItem(“would you expect”);
theList.addItem(“to pay for a”);
theList.addItem(“list like this?”);
theList.addItem(“$150?”);
theList.addItem(“$100?”);
add(theList);
As you can see in Table 18-8, two constructors are available for scrolling lists. The first simply creates
the List object; the second requires both an integer and a boolean parameter. In the second constructor,
which I used earlier, the int parameter defines how many visible lines will be in the list; the boolean
parameter specifies if multiple selections are supported. If the boolean argument is true, the list can
accept multiple selections. If it is false, the list will act like a choice menu, allowing only one selection
at a time. Table 18-9 shows the List methods.
Table 18-8
java.awt.List Constructors
Signature Description
public List() Creates scrolling list with no visible lines or multiple
selections.
public List(int rows, boolean MultipleSelections) Creates scrolling list with the specified number of
visible lines (boolean parameter specifies whether
multiple selections are permitted).
Parameters:
rows-number of items to show.
MultipleSelections-multiple selections are allowed when
true, but prohibited othenwise.
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Table 18-9
java.awt.List Methods
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void Creates peer for the list. Overrides addNotify in class
addNotify() Component.
RemoveNotify public synchronized void Removes peer for list. Overrides removeNotify in class
removeNotify() Component.
GetItemCount public int getItemCount() Returns the number of items in the list.
countItems public int countItems() Note: countItems() is deprecated. Replaced by getItemCount() in
JDK version 1.1.
getItem public String getItem(int Gets item at specified index.
index)
Parameter: index-position of item.
getItems public synchronized String[] Returns the items in the list.
getItems()
add public void add(String item) Adds the specified item to the end of scrolling list.
Parameter: item-the item to be added.
addItem public synchronized void Adds item to the end of the list.
addItem(String item)
Parameter: item-the item to be added.
replaceItem public synchronized void Replaces item at the index with the value you pass in.
replaceItem (String
newValue, int index)
Parameters:
newValue-the new value.
index-position of item to replace.
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removeAll public synchronized void Removes all items from the list.
removeAll()
clear pubtic synchronized void Note: clear() is deprecated, As of JDK version 1.1, replaced
clear() by removeAll().
remove public synchronized void Removes the first occurrence of item from the list. Throws
remove(String item) Illegal ArgumentException if the item doesn’t exist in the list.
Parameter: item-the item to remove from the list.
remove public synchronized void Removes item from the list.
remove(int position)
delItem public synchronized void Deletes item from the list.
delItem(int position)
delItems public synchronized void Note: del Items() is deprecated. As of JDK version 1.1, not for
delItems(int start, int end) future public use. This method is expected to be retained
only as a package private method.
getSelected public synchronized int Retrieves the currently selected item on the list (returns -1 if
Index getSelected Index() no item is selected).
getSelected public synchronized int[] Returns indexes of currently selected items on the list.
Indexes getSelected Indexes()
getSelected Item public synchronized String Returns currently selected item on the list (returns null if no
getSetected Item() item is selected).
getSelected public synchronized String[] Returns selected items on list.
Items getSelectedItems()
getSelected public Object[] getSel Returns the selected items on the list in an array of objects.
Objects ectedObjects ( )
select public synchronized void Selects item at specified index.
select(int index)
Parameter: index-position of item to select.
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deselect public synchronized void Deselects item at specified index.
deselect(int index)
Parameter: index-position of item to deselect.
isIndex Selected public boolean Returns true if the item at the specified index has been
isIndexSetected(int index) selected; false otherwise.
Parameter: index-the position of item to be checked.
isSelected public synchronize( boolean Note: isSelected() is deprecated. As of JDK version 1.1,
isSelected (int index) replaced by isIndexSelected(int).
getRows public int getRows() Returns number of visible lines in list.
isMultiple Mode public boolean Returns true if this list allows multiple selections.
isMultipleMode()
allows Multiple public boolean Note: allowsMultiple Selections() is deprecated. As of JDK
Selections allowsMultiple Selections() version 1.1, replaced by isMultipleMode().
setMultiple public synchronized void Sets whether this list should allow multiple selections or not.
Mode setMultipleMode (boolean
b)
Parameter: b-the boolean to allow multiple selections.
setMultiple public void set Note: setMultipteSelections() is deprecated. Replaced by
Selections MultipleSelections (boolean setMultiple Mode(boolean) in JDK version 1.1.
v)
getVisible Index public int get VisibleIndex() Gets index of item last made visible by the makeVisible()
method.
makeVisible public void make Visible(int Forces item at specified index to become visible.
index)
Parameter: index-position of item.
getPreferred public Dimension Returns the preferred dimensions needed for the list with the
Size getPreferredSize (int rows) specified amount of rows.
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preferredSize public Dimension Note: preferredSize() is deprecated. Replaced by getPreferredSize
preferredSize(int rows) (int) in JDK version 1.1.
getPreferred public Dimension Returns the preferred dimensions needed for the list.
Size getPreferredSize()
preferredSize public Dimension Note: preferredSize() is deprecated. As of JDK version 1.1,
preferredSize() replaced by getPreferredSize().
getMinimum public Dimension Returns the minimum dimensions needed for the amount of
Size getMinimumSize(int rows rows in the list.
Parameter: rows-minimum quantity of rows in the list.
minimumSize public Dimension Note: minimumSize() is deprecated. Replaced by
minimumSize(int rows) getMinimumSize(int) in JDK version 1.1.
getMinimum public Dimension Returns the preferred size with the specified number of rows
Size getMinimumSize() if the row size is greater than zero.
minimumSize public Dimension Note: minimumSize() is deprecated. Replaced by
minimumSize() getMinimumSize() in JDK version 1.1.
addItem public void addItem Listener Adds the specified item listener to receive item events from
Listener (Item Listener 1) this list box.
Parameter: 1-the ItemListener.
removeItem public void remove Removes the specified ItemListener so that it no longer
Listener ItemListener(Item Listener receives item events from this check box.
1)
Parameter: 1-the item listener.
addAction public void add Adds the specified ActionListener to receive action events
Listener ActionListener from this button.
(ActionListener 1)
Parameter: 1-the ActionListener.
removeAction public void remove Removes the specified Action Listener so it no longer receives
Listener ActionListener Action Events from this button.
(ActionListener 1)
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Parameter: 1-the ActionListener.
processEvent protected void processEvent Processes events on this check box. If the event is an
(AWT Event e) ItemEvent, it invokes the processItemEvent method. If the event
is an ActionEvent, it invokes the processActionEvent method;
otherwise, it invokes the superclass’s process Event.
Parameter: e—the event.
processItem protected void Processes item events occurring on this check box by
Event processItemEvent dispatching them to any registered ItemListener objects. Note:
(ItemEvent e) Not called unless item events are enabled for this Component,
as when (a) an ItemListener object is registered via
addItemListener() or (b) Item events are enabled via enableEvents
().
Parameter: e-the item event.
process protected void Processes action events occurring on this button by
ActionEvent processActionEvent dispatching them to any registered objects. Note: Not called
ActionListener (ActionEvent
unless action events are enabled for this Component, as when
e)
(a) an ActionListener object is registered via addAction Listener()
or
(b) Action events are enabled via enableEvents().
Parameter: e-the action event.
paramString protected String paramString Returns list’s parameter string. Overrides paramString in class
() Component.
One of the nicest attributes of scrolling lists is that you don’t have to deal with the interaction of the
scroll bar. When users click your scroll bar, the scroll list acts appropriately, scrolling the text up and
down as the users expect it to.
Summary
Although I covered quite a bit in this chapter, there’s still a considerable amount lurking under the AWT
covers. In the next chapter I turn to scroll bars, labels, text, canvases, containers, and panels—all things
you’re likely to use in your applets and applications. I strongly recommend that you explore these
classes at your own leisure and walk through the source code samples provided on the CD-ROM
accompanying this book.
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The AWT can be overwhelming at first, but stick with it. If you approach it a little at a time and come
back as needed, then before long you’re hooking up full-blown user interfaces for your own Java
programs. After you get over the initial learning curve of dealing with Components, it all makes infinite
sense. You may find yourself whipping up powerful and attractive programs on the weekends, since so
much of the UI is taken care of for you when you use the AWT.
• The Java graphics environment is based on the Component class. Any time you put something
on the screen, you’re dealing (either directly or indirectly) with a Component.
• The AWT supports using buttons, check boxes, choice menus, and scrolling list objects in your
Java applications.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 19
More Widgets and Containers
In This Chapter
Adding scroll bars to your java applications
Using text labels in your user interfaces
Allowing text entry with text components
Painting your user interfaces using canvases
Collecting your user interfaces in Java containers
Remodeling your java applications using panels
In this chapter, you continue to look at components that make up Java’s graphical user interface (GUI).
I’ll run through scroll bars, labels, text, canvases, containers, and panels—all things you’re likely to use
in your applets and applications.
Although many older Java applications completely rely on the AWT for user interface
components, JDK 1.2 is geared to using the JFC/Swing classes, which are discussed in more
detail in Chapters 23, 24, and 25.
Scroll Bars
Scroll bars by themselves are particularly helpful as generic controls, and they come in handy when you
need to provide the user with a sliding widget that has some control over an aspect of your program:
add(new Scrollbar(Scrollbar.HORIZONTAL, 25, 3,
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1, 100));
As you can tell from Tables 19-1 through 19-3, the previous line of code creates and adds a scroll bar in
the horizontal orientation. I’ve set the initial value (see later in this section) to 25 and specified a visible
area of 3. The minimum value is set to 1, and the maximum value is 100.
Table 19-1
java.awt.Scrollbar Constructors
Signature Description
public Scrollbar() Constructs a new vertical scroll bar.
public Scrollbar(int orientation) Constructs a new scroll bar with the specified orientation. Throws
IllegalArgumentException when an illegal scroll bar orientation is given.
Parameters:
orientation–either Scrollbar.HORIZONTAL or Scrollbar.VERTICAL.
public Scrollbar(int orientation, int Constructs a new scroll bar with the specified orientation, value, page
value, int visible, int minimum, int size, minimum value, and maximum value.
maximum)
Parameters:
orientation—either Scrollbar.HORIZONTAL or Scrollbar.VERTICAL.
value—the scrollbar’s value.
visible-the size of the visible portion of the scrollable area; the scroll bar
uses this value when paging up or down a page at a time.
minimum—the minimum value of the scroll bar.
maximum—the maximum value of the scroll bar.
Table 19-2
java.awt.Scrollbar Methods
Method Signature Description
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addNotify public synchronized void Creates the scroll bar’s peer. The peer allows you
addNotify() to modify the appearance of the scroll bar without
changing any of its functionality. Overrides
addNotify in class Component.
GetOrientation public int getOrientation() Returns the orientation for this scroll bar.
setOrientation public synchronized void Sets the orientation for this scroll bar.
setOrientation (int
orientation)
Parameter: orientation — either Scrollbar.
HORIZONTAL or Scrollbar.VERTICAL to set the
orientation (HORIZONTAL or VERTICAL) of
this scroll bar.
getValue public int getValue() Returns the current value of this scroll bar.
SetValue public void setValue(int Sets the value of this scroll bar to the specified
value) value.
Parameter: value—the new value of this scroll bar.
If this value is below the current minimum or
above the current maximum, it becomes the new
value.
GetMinimum public int getMinimum() Returns the minimum value of this scroll bar.
setMinimum public synchronized void Sets the minimum value for this scroll bar.
setMinimum(int
newMinimum)
Parameter: minimum—the minimum value of the
scroll bar.
getMaximum public int getMaximum() Returns the maximum value of this scroll bar.
setMaximum public synchronized void Sets the maximum value for this scroll bar.
setMaximum(int
newMaximum)
Parameter: maximum—the maximum value of the
scroll bar
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getVisible Amount public int getVisibleAmount Returns the visible amount of this scroll bar.
()
GetVisible public int getVisible() Note: get Visible ( ) is deprecated. As of JDK
version 1.1, replaced by getVisible Amount ().
SetVisible Amount public synchronized void Sets the visible amount of this scroll bar, which is
setVisible Amount(int the range of values represented by the width of the
newAmount) scroll bar’s bubble.
Parameter: Visible—the amount visible per page.
setUnit Increment public synchronized void Sets the unit increment for this scroll bar. This is
setUnit Increment(int v) the value that will be added (subtracted) when the
user hits the unit down (up) gadgets.
SetLine Increment public void setLine Note: setLineIncrement() is deprecated. As of JDK
Increment(int l) version 1.1, replaced by setUnitIncrement (int).
getUnitIncrement public int getUnitIncrement Gets the unit increment for this scroll bar.
()
GetLine Increment public int getLine Increment Note: getLineIncrement( ) is deprecated. As of JDK
() version 1.1, replaced by getUnitIncrement ().
SetBlock Increment public synchronized void Sets the block increment for this scroll bar. This is
setBlock Increment(int v) the value that will be added (subtracted) when the
user hits the block down (up) gadgets.
SetPage Increment public void setPage Note: setPageIncrement( ) is deprecated. As of JDK
Increment(int l) version 1.1, replaced by setBlockIncrement().
GetBlock Increment public int getBlock Increment Gets the block increment for this scroll bar.
()
GetPage Increment public int getPage Increment Note: getPageIncrement( ) is deprecated. As of JDK
() version 1.1, replaced by getBlockIncrement ().
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SetValues public void set Values(int Sets the values for this scroll bar and enforces the
value, int visible, int following constraints:
minimum, int
• The maximum must be greater maximum) than the
minimum.
• The value must be greater than or equal to the
minimum and less than or equal to the maximum
minus the visible amount.
• The visible amount must be greater than 1 and
less than or equal to the difference between the
maximum and minimum values.
(Values that do not meet these criteria are quietly
coerced to the appropriate boundary value.)
Parameters:
value—position in the current window visible-
amount visible per page minimum—minimum value
of the scroll bar maximum—maximum value of the
scroll bar.
removeAdjustment Listener public synchronized void Removes the specified adjustment listener so that
remove Adjustment Listener it no longer receives adjustment events from this
(AdjustmentListener 1) scroll bar.
processEvent protected void processEvent Processes events on this scroll bar. If the event is
(AWT Event e) an Adjustment Event, it invokes the process
AdjustmentEvent method, else it invokes its
superclass’s processEvent.
Parameter: e—the event.
process AdjustmentEvent protected void Note: This method will not be called unless
processAdjustment Event adjustment events are enabled for this component,
(Adjustment Event e) which happens when one of the following occurs:
(a) An AdjustmentListener object is registered via
addAdjustment Listener().
(b) Adjustment events are enabled via enableEvents
().
ParamString protected String paramString Returns the string parameters for this scroll bar.
() Overrides paramString in class Component.
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Date: 05/01/98
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Table 19-3
java.awt. Scrollbar VariableS
Variable Signature Description
HORIZONTAL public final static int The horizontal scroll bar variable.
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL public final static int The vertical scroll bar variable.
VERTICAL
Actually, the component methods shown in Tables 19-1 through 19-3 are applicable to any container,
including windows and dialog boxes, as you’ll see in the next two chapters.
Scroll bars enable you to select a value between a maximum and a minimum, both of which you can
define. After you’ve created a scroll bar with a minimum/maximum, you can change what is known as
the value of the scroll bar in three ways:
• Using the up arrow (or the left arrow, if the scroll bar is horizontally positioned)
• Using the down arrow (or the right arrow, if the scroll bar is horizontally positioned)
• Using the thumb (or areas on either side of the thumb)
You can see these three alternatives in Figure 19-1.
Figure 19-1: You can change the value of a scroll bar by clicking the up (maximum) and down
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(minimum) arrows, the thumb, or the areas on either side of the thumb.
The thumb Is a visual indication of the current value of the scroll bar. If it is at the maximum position,
the scroll bar’s value is the maximum allowed. If it is at the minimum position, the value of the scroll
bar is at the minimum. By looking at the thumb, you can tell approximately what value is associated
with the scroll bar.
You can grab the thumb with your mouse and move it in either direction. You can even click directly
inside the contents of the scroll bar and jump the thumb in that direction by several values (the default
values for clicking here are ten).
When you need to get the value of a scroll bar, use the getValue( ) method. Also, you can set the value
needed by using the set Value( ) method.
Unlike the widgets discussed in Chapter 18, scroll bars do not generate an action event. If you want to
intercept a scroll bar event, you must register an Adjustment Listener, using the scroll bar’s
addAdjustmetListener ( ) method (or override the handle Event ( ) method, it you are programming for JDK
1.0.2 browsers). For details on Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT) events, see Chapter 16.
Labels
Labels are the most simple of widgets. They don’t generate an action and they don’t have what you
might consider a true user interface (UI). You use labels to place specific pieces of text on the screen,
similar to how you draw a string. As you learn later, however, the advantage of labels over drawString ( )
or drawChars ( ) is that they can automatically reposition themselves on the screen according to a layout
manager, whenever the container they are in is resized.
You can read more about layouts in Chapter 21. For now, think of labels as being a nice, easy way to
identify areas on the screen and other widgets in your programs. To better position them, you can choose
between one of three possible alignments (Label class variables): LEFT, CENTER, or RIGHT.
add(new Label(“You’re lookin’ at a Label”, Label.LEFT));
add(new Label(“You’re lookin’ at a Label”, Label.CENTER));
add(new Label(“You’re lookin’ at a Label”, Label.RIGHT));
The tables that follow provide details of class java. awt. Label. Table 19-4 shows the various signatures
of the Label constructor; Tables 19-5 and 19-6 show (respectively) the methods and variables associated
with labels.
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Table 19-4
Class java.awt.Label Constructors
Signature Description
public Label () Constructs an empty label.
public Label(String label) Constructs a new label with the specified string of text.
Parameter: label-the text that makes up the label.
public Label(String label, int Constructs a new label with the specified string of text and the specified
alignment) alignment.
Parameters:
label—the string that makes up the label.
alignment—the alignment value.
Table 19-5
java.awtLabel Methods
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void Creates the peer for this label. The peer allows us
addNotify() to modify the appearance of the label without
changing its functionality. Overrides addNotify in
class Component.
GetAlignment public int getAlignment() Gets the current alignment of this label.
SetAlignment public void set Alignment Sets the label’s alignment to that specified.
(int alignment)
Parameter: aligment—the alignment value.
Throws Illegal ArgumentException if an improper
alignment is given.
GetText public String getText() Gets the text of this label
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SetText public void setText (String Sets the label’s text to that specified.
label)
Parameter: label—the text to that makes up the
label.
paramString protected String paramString Returns the parameter string of this lable.
() Overrides paramString in class Component.
Table 19-6
Class java.awt.Label Variables
variable Signature Description
LEFT public final static int LEFT The left alignment
CENTER public final static int The center alignment.
CENTER
RIGHT public final static int RIGHT The right alignment
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Text Components
The AWT implements a TextComponent class (see Tables 19-7) from which two subclasses are derived:
TextField (see Tables 19-8 and 19-9)and TextArea (see Tables 19-10 and 19-11). Let’s take a look at each
of these classes.
Table 19-7
java.awt.TextComponent
Constructor Signature Description
TextComponent public class Text Component A text component allows the editing of some text.
extends Component This class can’t be instantiated by itself (hence, no
constructors are listed here), yet it provides
methods common to this type of component.
Method Signature Description
removeNotify public void remove Notify() Removes the text component’s peer. The peer
allows us to modify the appearance of the text
component without changing its functionality.
Overrides remove Notify in class Component.
SetText public synchronized void Sets the text of this text component to the
setText(String t) specified text.
Parameter: t—the new text to be set.
getText public synchronized String Returns the text contained in this text component.
getText()
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GetSelectedText public synchronized String Returns the selected text contained in this text
getSelected Text() component is editable.
IsEditable public boolean isEditable() Returns the boolean indicating whether this text
component is editable.
SetEditable public synchronized void Sets the specified boolean to indicate whether this
setEditable (boolean t) text component should be editable.
Parameter: t—the boolean to be set.
getSelectionStart public synchronized void int Returns the selected text’s start position.
getSelection Start()
SetSelectionStart public synchronized void Sets the selection start of the specified position.
setSelection Start(int The new starting point is constrained to be before
selection Start) or at the current selection end.
Parameter: selectionStart-the start position of the
text.
getSelectionEnd public synchronized int Returns the selected text’s end position.
getSelectionEnd()
SetSelectionEnd public synchronized void Set the selection end to the specified position. The
select(int setSelectionEnd) new end point is constrained to be at or after the
current selection start.
Parameter: selectionEnd—the end position of the
text.
select public synchronized void Selects the text found between the specified start
select(int sel Start, int and end locations.
selEnd)
Parameters:
sel Start—the start position of the text.
sel End—the end position of the text.
selectAll public synchronized void Selects all the text in the text component.
select void selectAll()
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SetCaretPosition public void setCaret Position Sets the position of the text insertion caret for the
(int position) TextComponent.
Parameters:
position—the position. Throws Illegal Argument
Exception if position is less than 0.
GetCaretPosition public int getCaret Position() Returns the position—the position of the text
insertion caret for the TextComponent.
AddTextListener public synchronized void Adds the specified text event listener to receive
addTextListener text events from this text component.
(TextListener 1)
Parameters: 1—the TextEvent listener.
removeTextListener public void remove Removes the specified text event listener so that it
TextListener (Text Listener no longer receives text events from this text
1) component.
Parameter: 1—the TextEvent listener.
processEvent protected void processEvent Processes events on this text component. If the
(AWT Event e) event is a TextEvent, it invokes the processTextEvent
method; otherwise, it invokes its superclass’s
processEvent.
Parameter: e—the event.
processTextEvent protected void Processes text events occurring on this text
processTextEvent component by dispatching them to any registered
(TextEvent e) Text Listener objects.
Note: This method will not be called unless text
events are enabled for this component; as when
one of the following occurs:
(a) A TextListener object is registered via addText
Listener() or
(b) Text events are enabled via enableEvents().
Parameter: e—the text event.
paramString protected String paramString Returns the string of parameters for this text
() component. Overrides paramString in class
Component.
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Table 19-8
java.awt.TextField Constructors
Signature Description
public TextField() Constructs a new text field.
public TextField(int cols) Constructs a new text field initialized with the specified columns.
Parameter: cols—the number of columns.
public TextField(int cols) Constructs a new text field initialized with the specified text.
parameter: text—the text to be displayed.
public TextField(String text, int Constructs a new text field initialized with the specified text and
cols) columns.
Parameters:
text—the text to be displayed
cols—the number of columns.
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Table 19-9
java.awt.TextField Methods
Method Signature Description
addNotify public void addNotify() Creates the text field’s peer. The peer allows you
to modify the appearance of the text field without
changing its functionality. Overrides addNotify in
class Component.
GetEchoChar public char getEcho Char() Returning the character to be used for echoing.
SetEchoChar public void setEcho Char Sets the echo character for this text field. This is
(char c) useful for fields in which the user input shouldn’t
be echoed to the screen, as in the case of a text
field that represents a password.
Parameter: c—the echo character for this text field.
setEcho Character public void setEcho character Note: setEchoCharacter() is deprecated. As of JDK
(char c) version 1.1, replaced by setEchoChar(char).
EchoCharIsSet public boolean echoCharIsSet Returns true if this text field has a character set for
() echoing.
GetColumns public int getColumns() Returns the number of columns in this text field.
SetColumns public void set Columns(int Sets the number of columns in this text field.
columns)
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Parameter: columns—the number of columns.
Throws IllegalArgumentException if columns is less
than 0.
GetPreferred Size public Dimension Returns the preferred size dimensions needed for
getPreferredSize (int cols) this text field with the specified amount of
columns.
Parameter: cols—the number of columns in this
text field.
preferredSize public Dimension Note: preferredSize()is deprecated. As of JDK
preferredSize(int cols) version 1.1, replaced by getPreferredSize (int).
getPreferredSize public Dimension Returns the preferred size dimensions needed for
getPreferredSize() this text field. Overrides getPreferredSize in class
Component.
Preferred Size public Dimension Note: preferredSize( ) is deprecated. As of JDK
preferredSize() version 1.1, replaced by getPreferredSize ().
GetMinimumSize public Dimension Returns the minimum size dimensions needed for
getMinimumSize(int cols) this text field with the specified amount of
columns.
Parameter: cols—the number of columns in this
text field.
minimumSize public Dimension Note: minimumSize() is deprecated. As of JDK
minimumSize(int cols) version 1.1, replaced by getMinimumSize (int).
getMinimumSize public Dimension Returns the minimum size dimensions neeeded for
getMinimumSize() this text field. Overrides getMinimumSize in class
Component.
MinimumSize public Dimension Note: minimumSize( ) is deprecated. As of JDK
minimumSize() version 1.1, replaced by getMinimumSize ().
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AddActionListener public synchronized void Adds the specified action listener to receive action
addAction Listener(Action listener to receive action events from this text
Listener 1) field.
Parameter: 1-the action listener.
removeAction Listener public void Removes the specified action listener so that it no
removeActionListener longer receives action events from this button.
(ActionListener 1)
Parameter: 1—the action listener
processEvent protected void processEvent Processes events on this text field. If the event is
(AWTEvent e) an ActionEvent, it invokes the processActionEvent
method; otherwise, it invokes its superclass’s
processEvent.
Parameter: e—the event.
processActionEvent protected void processEvent Processes action events occurring on this text field
(AWTEvent e) by dispatching them to any registered ActionListener
objects.
Note: The method will not be called unless action
events are enabled for this component; as when
one of the following occurs:
(a) An ActionListener object is registered via
addActionListener() or
(b) Action events are enabled via enableEvents().
Parameter: e-the action event.
paramString protected String paramString Returns the string of parameters for this text field.
()
Table 19-10
java.awt Constructors
Signature Description
public TextArea() constructs a new text area.
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public TextArea() (String text) Constructs a new text area with the specified text displayed.
Parameter: text—text to be displayed.
public TextArea (String text, int Constructs a new text area with the specified text and number of rows
rows, int cols) and columns.
Parameters:
rows—number of rows
cols—number of columns.
public TextArea (String text, int Constructs a new area with the specified text and numbers of rows and
rows, int cols) columns.
Parameters:
text — text to be displayed.
rows—number of rows.
cols—number of columns.
public TextArea (String text, int Constructs a new text area with the specified text and number of rows,
rows, int columns, int scrollbars) columns, and scroll bar visibility.
Parameter:
text— text to be displayed.
rows—number of rows.
cols—number of columns.
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Date: 05/01/98
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Table 19-11
java.awt.TextArea Methods
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void Creates the text area’s peer. The peer allows us to
addNotify() modify the appearance of the text area without
changing any of its functionality. Overrides
addNotify in class component.
Insert public synchronized void Inserts the specified text at the specified position.
insert(String str, int pos)
Parameters:
str—the text to insert.
pos—the position at which to insert.
insertText public void insertText Note: insertText() is deprecated. As of JDK version
(string str, int pos) 1.1, replaced by insert(String, int).
append public synchronized void Appends the given text to the end.
append(String str)
Parameter: str—the next to insert.
appendText public synchronized void Note: appendText() is deprecated. As of JDK
appendText(String str) version 1.1., replaced by append(String).
Replace Range public synchronized void Replaces text from the indicated start to end
replaceRange(String str, int position with the new text specified.
start, int end)
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Parameters:
str—the text to use as the replacement.
start—the start position.
end—the end position.
replaceText public void replaceText Note: replaceText() is deprecated. As of JDK
(string str, int start, int end) version 1.1, replaced by replaceRange(String, int, int).
getRows public int getRows() Returns the number of rows in the text area.
SetRows public void setRows(int Sets the number of rows for this text area.
rows)
Parameter:
rows—the number of rows.
Throws IllegalArgumentException if rows than 0.
GetColumns public int getColumns() Returns the number of columns in the text area.
SetColumns public int setColumns(int Sets the number of columns in the text area.
columns)
Parameter: columns—the number of columns.
Throws IllegalArgumentException n if columns is less
than 0
Get Scrollbar Visibility public int getScrollbar Returns the enumerated value describing which
Visibility() scroll bars the text area has.
Get Preferred Size public Dimension get Returns the specified row and column dimensions
PreferredSize(int rows, int of the text area.
columns)
Parameters:
rows—the preferred rows amount. columns—the
preferred columns amount.
preferred Size public Dimension Note: preferredSize() is deprecated. As of JDK
preferredSize(int rows, int version 1.1, replaced by getPreferredSize(int, int).
cols)
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get Preferred Size public Dimension Returns the preferred size dimensions of the text
getPreferredSize() area.
PreferredSize public Dimension Note: preferredSize() is deprecated. As of JDK
preferredSize() version 1.1, replaced by getPreferredSize().
GetMinimum Size public Dimension Returns the specified minimum size dimensions of
getMinimumSize(int rows, the text area.
nt columns)
Parameters:
rows—the minimum row size.
columns—the minimum column size.
minimumSize public Dimension Note: minimumSize() is deprecated. As of JDK
minimumSize(int rows, int version 1.1, replaced by getMinimumSize(int, int).
cols)
getMinimum Size public Dimension Returns the minimum size dimensions of the text
getMinimumSize() area.
MinimumSize public Dimension Note: minimumSize() is deprecated. As of JDK
minimumSize() version 1.1, replaced by getMinimumSize().
Param String protected String paramstring Returns the string of parameters for this text area.
() Overrides paramString in class TextComponent.
TextField
At times, you’ll need to create an area in which the user can enter a relatively small piece of information,
such as a social security number, a name, or an address. When you need a single line of text entry, you
use the TextField( ) method:
TextField ssnField = new TextField(“Enter SSN”, 11);
add(ssnField);
In this example, I’ve created a TextField object 11 characters wide. The words Enter SSN actually appear
inside the text field. If I didn’t want this text to appear inside, I could always use a label (see “Labels”
earlier in this chapter).
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Text fields support the notion of echo characters, which echo a specific character to the screen during
input, instead of the ones that are actually typed. This is particularly helpful for allowing the user to
enter sensitive information, such as passwords, without worrying whether someone is looking over his
or her shoulder:
ssnField.setEchoCharacter(’x’);
I wouldn’t recommend using echo characters when processing credit card numbers. These
numbers are so long that users will invariably mistype them if they aren’t able to see what
they’re entering. Echo characters are best used for small pieces of text that the user isn’t either
likely to forget or have difficulty entering without the benefit of seeing each character appear
after it is typed.
TextArea
Text fields are strictly limited. They allow you to create only small pieces of text, are restricted to one
line, and don’t support scroll bars.
Clearly, you may well need to go beyond these basic capabilities. You may need to display or allow the
user to edit large portions of text, such as a mailing address, a resume, or even a novel. In these cases, a
much larger area is required. You may even need scroll bars to allow the user to scroll up, down, left, or
right.
Text areas enable you to do these things. They create large portions of text on th screen, which the user
may or may not be able to edit. In fact, if you apply the isEditable( ) method, both TextField and TextArea
allow you to specify whether the user should be able to change what is inside of them. Because TextField
and TextArea inherit from the TextComponent class, the methods listed in Table 19-3 apply to both:
TextField myTextField = new TextField(“You’re lookin’ at a
TextField”, 5, 20); // 5 columns by 20 rows
add(myTextField);
You can, of course, supply an actual String object when creating a text field. This enables you to keep
your program neat, clean, and more readable:
String theString = “You can use any length string you want...”;
TextField myTextArea = new TextField(theString, 5, 20);
add(myTextArea);
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Canvases
Although each of the widgets I’ve discussed so far are obviously UI elements (perhaps with the
exception of labels, which don’t support user interaction), Java supplies an additional type of UI item,
known as a canvas. The Canvas constructor and methods are shown in Table 19-12.
Table 19-12
java.awt.Canvas
Constructor Signature Description
Canvas public Canvas() creates a custom canvas.
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void Creates the peer of the canvas. This peer enables
addNotify you to change the UI of the canvas without
changing its functionality. Overrides addNotify in
class Component.
Paint public void paint (Graphics Paints the canvas in the default background color.
g) Overrides paint in class Component.
Parameter: g—the specified graphics context.
Overrides paint in class Component.
Think of canvases as drawing or painting surfaces. They don’t have special user-interaction traits, as do
the widgets you’ve taken a look at so far. Nor do they provide a GUI-like purpose, as you might expect.
You don’t click them to initiate an action, scroll from left to right to view their contents, or choose items
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from a list.
So far, you haven’t had to use a canvas because the applet itself has provided this functionality for you.
In most cases, you simply draw on the applet what you want.
However, you eventually may want to reserve a certain area for such things. To do so, you can create a
custom canvas by overriding or subclassing the Canvas class. This is particularly useful when you have a
paint program or a game, or simply wish to have a specific type of canvas on which to paint and draw, as
in
Listing 19-1. Creating a Pie-Chart Canvas
/**
*
* PieChartCanvas Class - Draws a 3D pie chart
*
* @version 1.03 27-Jun-1995
* @author Ciaran Treanor
*
*/
class PieChartCanvas extends Canvas {
final double aspectFudge = 2.5;
int radius,
depth,
called = 1,
numSlices = O;
float total = O, value[] = new float[10];
Color color[] = new Color[10];
Graphics offGraphics;
Image gfxBuff;
public PieChartCanvas(int radius, int depth) {
this.value = value;
this.color = color;
this.radius = radius;
this.depth = depth;
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
int startAngle;
float angle;
Dimension d = size();
if(gfxBuff == null) {
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gfxBuff = createImage(d.width, d.height);
offGraphics = gfxBuff.getGraphics();
offGraphics.setColor(getBackground());
offGraphics.fillRect(O. O, d.width, d.height);
}
// This is less than optimal, but we don’t have a floodfill.
// Draw depth-1 ovals in a darker color
for(int x = depth; x >= 1; x-) {
startAngle = 45;
for(int i = O; i < numSlices; i++) {
offGraphics.setColor(color[i].darker());
angle = Math.round(360 * (value[i] / total));
offGraphics.fillArc(O, x, radius,
(int)(radius / aspectFudge),
startAngle, (int)angle);
startAngle += angle;
}
}
// Now draw the final (top) oval in the undarkened color
startAngle = -45;
for(int i = O; i < numSlices; i++) {
offGraphics.setColor(color[i]);
angle = Math.round(360 * (value[i] / total));
offGraphics.fillArc(O, O, radius, (int)(radius /
aspectFudge), startAngle, (int)angle);
startAngle += angle;
}
g.drawImage(gfxBuff, O, O, null);
}
public void addSlice(float value, Color color) {
this.value[numSlices] = value;
this.color[numSlices++] = color;
total += value;
}
public Dimension getPreferredSize()
return getMinimumSize();
}
public Dimension getMinimumSize() {
return new Dimension(radius, (int)((radius / aspectFudge)
+depth));
}
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The code in Listing 19-1, taken from the PieChart applet example on the CD-ROM provided with this
book, creates a PieChartCanvas class by extending the standard Canvas class. The result is a drawing
surface that has all the properties the author wanted. Rather than simply creating the pie chart directly on
the applet screen, the programmer decided to create a special canvas in which to display all pie charts.
You can do the same yourself, especially in cases where you need better control over a drawing surface.
To create a canvas, simply instantiate a new Canvas object and add it as you would any other UI item:
PieChartCanvas c = new PieChartCanvas(radius, depth);
Containers (java.awt. Container)
As you learned in our discussion in Chapter 16, containers (see Table 19-13) enable you to place
components inside them. They are, in fact, a direct subclass of the Component class. There are two main
types of containers that you’ll be dealing with: Panel, of which Applet is a subclass, and Window, of which
Dialog and Frame are subclasses.
Table 19-13
java.awt
Class Signature Description
Container public class Container Extends the Component class. A generic Abstract
Windowing Toolkit(AWT) container object is a
component that can contain other AWT
components.
Method Signature Description
getComponentCount public int Returns the number of components in this panel.
getComponentCount()
CountComponents public int count Components Note: countComponents( ) is deprecated. As of JDK
() version 1.1, replaced by getComponent Count().
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GetComponent public synchronized Gets the nth component in this container
getComponent(int n)
Parameter: n—number of the component to get.
Throws ArrayIndexOutOfBoundException if the nth
value does not exit.
GetComponents public synchronized Gets all the components in this container.
Component[] getComponents
()
GetInsets public Insets getInsets() Returns the insects of the container. The insects
indicate the size of the border of the container. A
frame, for example, will have a top inset that
corresponds to the height of the frame’s title bar.
Insets public Insets insets() Note: insets() is deprecated. As of JDK version 1.1,
replaced by getInsets().
Add public Component add Adds the specified component to this container.
(Component comp)
Parameter: comp—component to be added.
add public synchronized Adds the specified component to this container.
Component add(String The component is also added to the layout
name, Component comp) manager of this container, using the name
specified
Parameters:
name—component name
comp—component to be added.
add public synchronized Adds the specified component to this container at
Component add (Component the given position.
comp, int pos)
Parameters:
comp—component to be added.
pos—position at which to insert the component
(—1 means insert at the end).
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add public void add(Component Adds the specified component to this container at
comp, Object constraints) the specified index. Also notifies the layout
manager to add the component to the container’s
layout using the specified constraints object.
Parameters:
comp—the component to be added.
constraints—an object expressing layout constraints
for this component.
add public void add(Component Adds the specified component to this container
comp, Object constraints, int with the specified constraints at the specified
index) index. Also notifies the layout manager to add the
component to this container’s layout using the
specified constraints object.
Parameters:
Comp: The component to be added.
constraints: An object expressing layout constraints
for this.
index: The position in the container’s list at which
to insert the component. A value of -1 means
insert at the end.
raddImpl protected void add Impl Adds the specified component to this container at
(Component comp, Object the specified index. Also notifies the layout
constraints, int index) manager to add the component to this container’s
layout using the specified constraints object.
This is the method to override if you want to track
every add request to a container. An over-riding
method should usually include a call to super.
addImpl (comp, constraints, index).
Parameters:
comp—the component to be added.
constraints—an object expressing layout constraints
for this component.
index—the position in the container’s list at which
to insert the component. A value of — 1 means
insert at the end.
Remove public void remove(int Removes the component at the specified index
index) from this container.
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Parameters:
index—the index of the component to be removed.
remove public synchronized void Removes the specified component from this
remove(component comp) container.
Parameters:
comp—component to be removed.
removeAll public synchronized void Removes all the components from this container.
removeAll()
GetLayout pulic LayoutManager Gets the layout manager for this container.
getLayout()
SetLayout public void setLayout Sets the layout manager for this container.
(Layout Manager mgr)
Parameter: mgr — specified layout manager.
Overrides doLayout in class Component.
Note: Most programs should not call this method
directly, but should invoke validate instead.
Layout public synchronized void Note: layout() is deprecated. As of JDK version 1.1,
layout() replaced by doLaout().
Overrides layout() in class Component.
Invalidate public void invalidate() Invalidates the container. The container and all
parents above it are marked as needing to be laid
out. This method can be called often, so it needs to
execute quickly.
Overrides invalidate() in class Component.
validate public synchronized void Validates this container and all the components
validate() container within it.
Overrides validate() in class Component.
ValidateTree protected void validateTree() Recursively descends the container tree and
recomputes the layout for any subtrees marked as
needing it (those marked as invalid).
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synchronization should be provided by the method
that calls validate.
getPreferredSize public Dimension Returns the preferred size of this container.
getPreferredSize()
Overrides getPreferredSize( ) in class Component.
preferredSize public synchronized Note: preferredSize() is deprecated. As of JDK
Dimension preferred Size() version 1.1, replaced by getPreferredSize()
Overrides preferredSize() in class Component.
GetMinimumSize public Dimension Returns the minimum size of this container.
getMinimumSize()
Overrides getMinimumSize ( ) in class Component.
minimumSize public synchronized Note: minimumSize() is deprecated. As of JDK
Dimension minimum Size() version 1.1, replaced by getMinimumSize()
Overrides minimumSize() in class Component.
GetMaximumSize public Dimension Returns the maximum size of this container.
getMaximumSize()
Overrides getMaximumSize( ) in class Component.
getAlignmentX public float getAlignment() Returns the alignment along the x axis. This
specifies how the component would like to be
aligned relative to other component would like to
be aligned relative to other components.
The value should be a number between 0 and 1,
where 0 represents alignment along the origin, 1 is
aligned the farthest away from the origin, 0.5 is
centered, and so on.
Overrides getAlignmentX() in class Component.
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getAlignmentY public float getAlignmentY Returns the alignment along the y axis. This
() specifies how the component would like to be
aligned relative to other components. The value
should be a number between 0 and 1, where 0
represents alignment along the origin, 1 is aligned
the furthest away from the origin, 0.5 is centered,
and so on.
Overrides getAlignmentY() in class Component.
paint public void paint (Graphics Paints the container. This forwards the paint call to
g) any lightweight components that are children of
this container.
If this method is reimplemented, super.paint(g)
should be called so that lightweight components
are properly rendered.
If a child component is entirely clipped by the
current clipping setting in g, paint( ) will not be
forwarded to that child. Overrides paint( ) in class
Compon
Parameter: g—the specified graphics window.
Overrides paint( ) in class Component.
print public void print (Graphics Prints the container. This forwards the print to any
g) lightweight components that are children of this
container. If this method is reimplemented, super.
print(g) should be called so that lightweight
components are properly rendered. If a child
component is entirely clipped by the current
clipping setting in g,print() will not be forwarded to
that child. Overrides print() in class Component.
Parameter: g—the specified graphics window.
Overrides print() in class Component.
paintComponents public void paint Paints the components in this container.
Components(Graphics g)
Parameter: g—the specified graphics window.
printComponents public void print Components Prints the components in this container.
(Graphics g)
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Parameter: g—the specified graphics window.
addContainer Listener public synchronized void Adds the specified container listener to receive
addContainer Listener container events from this container.
(Container Listener 1)
Parameter: 1— the container listener.
removeContainerListener public void remove Removes the specified container listener so that it
ContainerListener no longer receives container events from this
(ContainerListener 1) container.
Parameter: 1—the container listerner.
processEvent protected void processEvent Processes events on this container. If the event is a
(AWT Event e) ContainerEvent, it invokes the processEvent().
Overrides processEvent() in class Component.
Parameter: e—the event.
processContainer Event protected void Processes container events occurring on this
processContainer Event container by dispatching them to any registered
(ContainerEvent e) ContainerListener objects.
Note: This method will not be called unless
container events are enabled for this component;
this happens when one of the following Occurs:
(a) A ContainerListener object is registered via
addContainerListener()
(b) Container events are enabled via enableEvents( )
Parameter: e—the container event.
deliverEvent public void deliverEvent Note: deliverEvent() is deprecated.
(Event e)
As of JDK version 1.1, replaced by dispatchEvent
(AWTEvent e).
Overrides deliverEvent() in class Component.
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GetComponentAt public Component Locates the component that contains the x,y
getComponentAt(int x, int y) position. The topmost child component is returned
in the case where there is overlap in the
components. This is determined by finding the
component closest to the index 0 that claims to
contain the given point via Component.contains()
Returns null if the component does not contain the
position. If there is no child component at the
requested point, and the point is within the bounds
of the container, the container itself is returned;
otherwise, the top-most child is returned.
Overrides getComponentAt() in class Component.
Parameters:
x—the x coordinate.
y—the y coordinate.
locate public Component locate(int Note: locate( ) is deprecated. As of JDK version
x, int y) 1.1, replaced by getComponentAt(int, int).
Overrides locate( ) in class Component.
GetComponentAt public Component Locates the component that contains the specified
getComponentAt (Point p) point.
Returns null if the component does not contain the
point; returns the component otherwise.
Overrides getComponentAt() in class Component.
Parameter: p—the point.
addNotify public void addnotify() Notifies the container to create a peer. It will also
notify the components contained in this container.
This method should be called by Container.add() and
not by user code directly.
Overrides addNotify() in class Component.
RemoveNotify public void removeNotify() Notifies the container to remove its peer. It will
also notify the components contained in this
container. This method should be called by
Container. remove and not by user code directly.
Overrides removeNotify() in class Component.
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IsAncestorOf public boolean isAncestorOf Checks whether the component is contained in the
(Component c) component hierarchy of this container.
parameter: c—the component.
paramString protected String paramString Returns the parameter string of this container.
()
Overrides paramString( ) in class Component.
List public void list (Printstream Prints a list of container objects, starting at the
out, int indent) specified indention, to the specified out-stream.
Overrides list() in class Component.
Parameters: out—stream name.indent—start of the
list.
list public void list (PrintWriter Prints a list, starting at the specified indention, to
out, int indent) the specified print writer.
Overrides list( ) in class Component.
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Java Bible:More Widgets and Containers
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Layout Managers Are Relevant Here
By default, containers have what’s known as a layout manager associated with them. Layout managers
allow your applications and applets to lay out components on the screen in a way that is appropriate for
each platform on which they are running. I discuss layout managers in Chapter 21; they are relevant here
because you’re likely to encounter them as parameters.
Panels
Panel (see Table 19-14) is a subclass of the Container class. And, as you know, Applet is a subclass of
Panel. As a result, your applets are, technically speaking, special-purpose panels.
Table 19-14
java.awt.Panel
Constructor Example Description
Panel public Panel() Creates a new panel. The default layout for all
panels is FlowLayout.
Panel public Panel(Layout Creates a new panel with the specified layout
Manager layout) manager.
Parameter: layout-the layout manager for this
panel.
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Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void Creates the panel’s peer. The peer allows you to
addNotify() modify the appearance of the panel without
changing its functionality.
Overrides addNotify() in class Container.
Whatever you want to do with panels and containers, you can do directly inside your applet. This is the
reason you’re able to draw directly on your applets. You don’t have to worry about creating a special
canvas or container. To create a panel, you simply instantiate a Panel object and add it, just as you do
with individual components:
Panel anyPanel = new Panel();
add.anyPanel; // add it to the current container (such as an
applet)
There is, however, a difference in this procedure: Instead of creating a specific interface widget, you are
creating and adding an area that can contain within itself a number of user-interface components. You
could create a panel, for example, on the upper left-hand side of your applet that had a specific grouping
of buttons, scroll bars, and other widgets. Then you could create an additional panel, place it in the lower
left-hand corner, and have whatever widgets you like associated there.
In addition, you can nest panels inside each other. In fact, when you create a panel inside an applet, this
is exactly what you’re doing, as seen in the previous code example: You created a new panel and added
it to the applet, which is, of course, a panel itself.
Grouping components
Panels are used to group components; most often, they are used to group widgets. As you may be able to
tell from Figure 19-2, this program uses three panels:
Figure 19-2: Panels are useful for grouping components.
• The top panel contains controls that let you decide the type of curve you want to create. In
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addition to check boxes, there’s a scroll bar to customize how fine or how rough the curve will
be.
• Directly beneath the top panel is a drawing area in which the curve will be drawn. This is itself
contained in a panel.
• Immediately below the drawing area is yet another panel, which contains a Clear button (to
clear out the residue of the previous drawing) and a group of check boxes that enable you to
choose whether you’re adding new points to the curve, removing points you’ve placed up there
already, or simply moving points around.
Using panels allowed the developer to neatly separate and group the various components that this
particular applet uses.
Coordinates
Each panel has its own coordinate system. As you now know, the basic coordinate system starts with the
upper left-hand corner being 0,0 and extends to the right (x axis) and to the bottom (y axis) in positive
values. When you create a new panel, it has an identical coordinate system: The upper left-hand
coordinates are 0,0, and they extend along x and y axes (width and height).
As a result, coordinate systems become nested. For example, while the applet may have a coordinate
system of (0,0,200,400), the top panel in this example has its own coordinate system, perhaps of
(0,0,200,100). The bottom panel might be (0,0,200,100) as well, because both are the same size. And the
middle panel might be something like (0,0,200,200).
When you position text and graphics inside a panel, use x and y coordinates relative to the
coordinate system of that panel. The scroll bar in Figure 19-2 is not positioned according to the
coordinate system of the applet (0,0,200,400), but it is positioned in accordance with the
coordinate system of the panel it is in (0,0,200,100).
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Java Bible:More Widgets and Containers
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Listing 19-2 contains code used to create panels. As you can see by referring back to Table 19-8, only
one method and a constructor are defined in java.awt.Panel. However, because Panel is a subclass of
Container, it inherits all the methods seen in Table 21-1 are also available to Panel objects.
Listing 19-2: The Code That Creates Panels
/*
* WidgetsInWindow.java
*
* A sample applet/application combo to show how to create
* a frame and add widgets to it.
* The frame supports menus, the last three of which are
* functional and create dialogs.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.1, 8 Jul 97
*/
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class WidgetsInWindow extends java.applet.Applet {
public void init() {
resize(250,250);
WidgetsFrame window = new WidgetsFrame();
window.applet=true; /* set flag to tell we’re running as
an applet, not an application */
window.setTitle(“ “Widgets Galore, running in an Applet””);
window.pack();
window.show();
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
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WidgetsFrame window = new WidgetsFrame();
window,applet=false; /* set flag to tell we’re running as
an application */
window.setTitle(“ “Widgets Galore”” );
window.pack();
window.show();
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString(““ Here come the widgets...””,50,100);
}
}
class WidgetsFrame extends Frame {
boolean applet= true;
final String GET_FILE = ““Get a file...””;
final String SAVE_FILE : ““Save a file...””;
final String BASIC_WINDOW = ““Create a basic window...””;
public static void main(String args[]) {
WidgetsFrame window = new WidgetsFrame();
window.applet= false; /* set a flag to tell we’re
running as an application,
not as an applet */
window.setTitle( ““ Widgets galore, running as an application”” );
window.pack();
window.show();
}
public WidgetsFrame() {
Panel centerPanel = new Panel(); // main panel
Panel buttonPanel = new Panel(); // panel for buttons
Panel widgetPanel = new Panel(); // for other widgets
/* —- Begin by creating a menubar and menu for this
frame —- */
MenuBar theMenuBar = new MenuBar(); /* create a new menubar
object */
Menu theMenu = new Menu( ““ A Real Menu”” ); /* and create a menu
to put it in */
theMenu.add(new MenuItem( ““ This is a menu item...””));/*add a
few items... */
theMenu.add(new CheckboxMenuItem( ““ This is another menu
item!”” ));
theMenu.add(new CheckboxMenuItem( ““ Yet another menu item”” ));
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(““And, yes, a fourth menu item”” ));
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(““ ””)); // create a menu separator
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MenuItem mi = new MenuItem(GET_FILE);
/* Add action handler for this menu item. *
mi.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
FileDialog dlog = new FileDialog(WidgetsFrame.this,
““Get A File...””,FileDialog. LOAD);
dlog,show();
}
});
theMenu.add(mi);
mi = new MenuItem(SAVE_FILE);
theMenu.add(mi);
mi.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
FileDialog dlog = new FileDialog(WidgetsFrame.this,
““Save A File...””, FileDialog. SAVE);
dlog.show();
});
mi = new MenuItem(BASIC_WINDOW);
mi.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
Window myWindow = new Window(new Frame()); /* myWindow is
initially invisible */
myWindow.setSize(200, 350); // make window 200 by 350
myWindow.setLocation(50,50); /* then move it to desired
location ???*/
myWindow.show(); // and finally show it
}
});
theMenu.add(mi);
theMenuBar.add(theMenu);
setMenuBar(theMenuBar); /* and finally add the menubar to
the menu */
Menu submenu = new Menu(““Here’s a submenu””); /* create
another menu */
subMenu.add(new MenuItem(““Hello]””)); // add an item...
theMenu.add(subMenu); // and add the submenu to the menu
/* —- Add buttons to the buttonPanel — */
buttonPanel add(new Button( ““Buttons R Us””));
buttonPanel add(new Button(““Eeny””));
buttonPanel add(new Button( ““ Meeny””));
buttonPanel add(new Button( ““ Miney ”” ));
buttonPanel add(new Button(““Mo! ”” ));
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buttonPanel add(new Button( ““This is a really, really, WIDE
button””));
/* —- Add widgets to the widgetPanel —- */
// first add a choice menu:
Choice theChoice = new Choice(); // create it
theChoice.addItem( ““ This is a Choice item...””); /* add an item
or six */
theChoice.addItem( ““This is another choice item!”” );
theChoice.addItem( ““ Yet another choice item”” );
theChoice.addItem(“ “ And, yes, a fourth choice item”” );
theChoice,addItem(““_”” ); //can’t create a menu separator!
theChoice.addItem(“ “The above isn’t a separator!”” );
widgetPanel.add(theChoice); // and add it to the widgetPanel.
// then Create a new list and add it:
List theList = new List(5, true); /* five rows, multiple
selections allowed */
theList.addItem( ““ This is a list item...””):
theList.addItem( ““ How much”” );
theList.addItem( ““ would you expect”” );
theList.addItem( ““ to pay for a”” );
theList.addItem( ““ list like this?””);
theList.addItem( ““ $1507?”” );
theList.addItem( ““ $100?”” ); /* notice that seven items (two
more than specified) are added,
forcing scroll bars to appear
when drawn */
widgetPanel.add( ““ West”” theList);
// next, add a check box and text field...
widgetPanel.add(new Checkbox( ““ Check box”” ));
widgetPanel.add(new TextField( ““ TextField”” ));
/* —- Add Canvas, Label and TextArea to centerPanel —- */
centerPanel.setLayout(new GridLayout(1,2)); /* GridLayout
(2 rows, 2
columns) */
//Put a canvas in the left column.
centerPanel.add(new WidgetCanvas()); // see WidgetCanvas class
Panel p = new Panel(); /* this panel is nested inside
centerPanel */
p.setLayout(new BorderLayout());
p.add( ““ North”” , new Label(““You’re lookin’ at a Label”” ,
Label.CENTER));
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p.add(““ Center”” , new TextArea( ““ You’re lookin’ at a
TextArea””, 5, 20));
centerPanel.add(p);
/* — Now set the layout manager for this frame — */
setLayout(new BorderLayout()); /* change the layout to
BorderLayout */
add( ““ North”” , buttonPanel); // place buttonPanel at top
add(““ South”” , widgetPanel); // place widgetPanel at bottom
add(““ Center”” , centerPanel); // and the centerPanel in the
center
addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter()
public void Iconified(WindowEvent e) {// should we just hide?
setVisible(false);
}
public void windowDeiconified(WindowEvent e) {
setVisible(true);
}
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {// or die?
System.exit(O);
if (applet)
dispose();
else
System.exit(O);
}
});
}
}
class WidgetCanvas extends Canvas
public void paint(Graphics g) {
int canW : getSize().width; // get width of canvas
int canH = getSize().height; // get height of canvas
g.setColor(Color.lightGray); // set the color to lightGray
g.draw3DRect(O, O, canW -1, canH-1, true); /* frame canvas with
rectangle */
g.setColor(Color.black); // set the color to black
/* draw string centered in canvas width: ???*/
g.drawString(““Widget Canvas””, (canW -
g.getFontMetrics().stringWidth(““Widget Canvas”” ))/2, 15);
// POLYGONS:
g.setColor(Color.red); // set the color to red
int xCoords[] = 140, 55, 65, 80, 80, 40}; // create x values
int yCoords[] = {40, 38, 55, 30, 75, 40}; // create y values
// create the polygon:
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Polygon thePoly = new Polygon(xCoords,yCoords.xCoords.length);
g.drawPolygon(thePoly); // then draw it
/* however, we can always feed the arrays directly to
drawPolygon() without creating a polygon object using
g.drawPolygon(xCoords,yCoords,xCoords.length); */
// This polygon will be blue, offset, and filled:
g.setColor(Color.blue); // set the color to blue
int xOffset = 50; // the x offset
int yOffset = 40; // the y offset
int xlen = xCoords.length;
for (int i=O;i<xlen;i++) { // offset the contents of each array
xCoords[i] += xOffset; // offset
yCoords[i] += yOffset; // offset
}
g.fillPolygon(xCoords,yCoords,xCoords.length); // now, fill
}
public Dimension getMinimumSize()
return new Dimension(250,250);
}
public Dimension getPreferredSize()
return getMinimumSize();
}
}
}
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Java Bible:More Widgets and Containers
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Creating Panels with JDK 1.0.2
Creating panels with JDK 1.0.2 is almost exactly the same as creating them with JDK 1.1/1.2. The only
difference lies in how you handle events. In JDK 1.1, The delegation event model governs handling of
events that occur inside Panels. In JDK 1.0.2, Java’s original hierarchical event model rules. The
difference between the two event models is significant, and is one of the most major difference between
JDK 1.0 and JDK 1.0 and JDK 1.1/1.2. Specifically, when an event occurs when running in a JDK 1.0x
applet or application , the hierarchical event model is use: If the event takes place within a component
inside a panel, that component has first crack at handling the event. If the component chooses not to
handle the event, it passes it to its containing panel. The panel can process the event or pass it to its
container, which might be another panel, and so on, until the event reaches the application or applet’s
top-level container. In the case of an applet, of course, the applet itself is the top-level container, so the
applet itself is the event handler of last resort.
With this hierarchical model, you are free to choose at what point in your UI hierarchy to handle events,
including those that occur inside panels. For example, you can let your panel handle events that occur
inside it, or you can handle them at the applet level. All you need to do is override the appropriate event-
handling methods of the container that you want to handle the events, as discussed in Chapter 16.
For example, Listing 19-3 contains a JDK 1.0.2-compatible version of the WidgetsInWindow code (shown
in Listing 19-2), that is functionally the same as its JDK 1.1/1.2 counterpart: It creates panels. In this
version, however, you’re dealing with the hierarchial event model instead of the delegation event model.
As such, I have chosen to let this applet/application combination program handle menu events that occur
inside the applet/application’s frame window.
Listing 19-3: JDK 1.0.2-Compatible Code for Creating Panels
WidgetsInWindow-1.O2.java
/*
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* WidgetsInWindow-l.02.java
*
* A sample applet/application combo to show how to create
* a frame and add widgets to it,
* The frame supports menus, the last three of which are
* functional and create dialogs.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.0, 14 Jan 98
*/
import java.awt.*;
public class WidgetsInWindow extends java.applet.Applet {
public void init() { resize(250,250);
WidgetsFrame window = new WidgetsFrame();
window.applet=true; /* set flag to tell we’re running as
an applet, not an application */
window.setTitle(“Widgets Galore, running in an Applet”);
window.pack();
window.show();
}
public static void main(String[] args)
WidgetsFrame window = new WidgetsFrame();
window.applet=false; /* set flag to tell we’re running as
an application */
window.setTitle(“Widgets Galore”);
window.pack();
window.show();
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawString(“Here come the widgets... ”,50,100);
}
}
class WidgetsFrame extends Frame {
boolean applet= true;
final String GET_FILE = ““Get a file...””;
final String SAVE_FILE = “Save a file...”.
final String BASIC WINDOW : “Create a basic window...”;
public static void main(String args[]) {
WidgetsFrame window = new WidgetsFrame();
window.applet: false; /* set a flag to tell we’re
running as an application,
not as an applet */
window.setTitle(“Widgets galore, running as an application”);
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window.pack();
window.show();
}
public WidgetsFrame() {
Panel centerPanel = new Panel(); // main panel
Panel buttonPanel = new Panel(); // panel for buttons
Panel widgetPanel = new Panel(); // for other widgets
/* —- Begin by creating a menubar and menu for this
frame —- */
MenuBar theMenuBar = new MenuBar(); // create a new menubar
object
Menu theMenu = new Menu(“A Real Menu”); /* and create a menu to
put it in */
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(“This is a menu item...”));/* add a few
items */
theMenu.add(new CheckboxMenuItem
(“This is another menu item!”));
theMenu.add(new CheckboxMenuItem(“Yet another menu item”));
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(“And, yes, a fourth menu item”));
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(“_”)); // create a menu separator
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(GET_FILE));
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(SAVE_FILE));
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(BASIC_WINDOW));
theMenuBar.add(theMenu);
setMenuBar(theMenuBar);
// and finally add the menubar to the menu
Menu submenu = new Menu(“Here’s a submenu”); /* create another
menu */
subMenu.add(new MenuItem(“Hello!”)); // add an item...
theMenu.add(subMenu); // and add the submenu to the menu
/* —- Add buttons to the buttonPanel —- */
buttonPanel add(new Button(“Buttons R Us”));
buttonPanel add(new Button(“Eeny”));
buttonPanel add(new Button(“Meeny”));
buttonPanel add(new Button(“Miney”));
buttonPanel add(new Button(“Mo!”));
buttonPanel add(new Button(“This is a really, really, WIDE
button”));
/* —- Add widgets to the widgetPanel —- */
// first add a choice menu:
Choice theChoice = new Choice(); // create it
theChoice.addItem(“This is a Choice item...”); /* add an item
or six */
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theChoice.addItem(“This is another choice item!”);
theChoice.addItem(“Yet another choice item”);
theChoice.addItem(“And, yes, a fourth choice item”);
theChoice.addItem(“_”); //can’t create a menu separator!
theChoice.addItem(“The above isn’t a separator!”);
widgetPanel.add(theChoice); // and add it to the widgetPanel.
// then Create a new list and add it:
List theList = new List(5, true); /* five rows, multiple
selections allowed */
theList addItem(“This is a list item...”);
theList addItem(“How much”);
theList addItem(“would you expect”);
theList addItem(“to pay for a”);
theList addItem(“list like this?”);
theList addItem(“$150?”);
theList addItem(“$100?”); /* notice that seven items (two
more than specified) are added,
forcing scroll bars to appear
when drawn */
widgetPanel.add(“West” theList);
// next, add a check box and text field...
widgetPanel.add(new Checkbox(“Check box”));
widgetPanel.add(new TextField(“TextField”));
/* —- Add Canvas, Label and TextArea to centerPanel —- */
centerPanel.setLayout(new GridLayout(1,2));
/* GridLayout (2 rows, 2 columns) */
//Put a canvas in the left column.
centerPanel.add(new WidgetCanvas()); // see WidgetCanvas class
Panel p = new Panel();
// this panel is nested inside centerPanel
p.setLayout(new BorderLayout());
p.add(“North”, new Label(“You’re lookin’ at a Label”,
Label.CENTER));
p.add(“Center”, new TextArea(“You’re lookin’ at a TextArea”,
5, 20));
centerPanel.add(p);
/* — Now set the layout manager for this frame — */
setLayout(new BorderLayout() ; /* change the layout to
BorderLayout */
add(“North”, buttonPanel); // place buttonPanel at top
add(“South” widgetPanel); // place widgetPanel at bottom
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add(“Center”, centerPanel); // and the centerPanel in the center
}
public boolean handleEvent(Event e) {
if ((e.id == Event.ACTION_EVENT) && (e.target instanceof
MenuItem)) {
String label = (String)e.arg;
if (label.equals(GET_FILE)) {
FileDialog dlog = new FileDialog(this, “Get A File...”,
FileDialog. LOAD);
dlog.show();
} else if (label.equals(SAVE_FILE)) {
FileDialog dlog = new FileDialog(this, “Save A File...”.
FileDialog.SAVE);
dlog.show();
} else if (label.equals(BASIC_WINDOW)) {
Window myWindow = new Window(new Frame());/* myWindow is
initially invisible */
myWindow.resize(200, 350); // make window 200 by 350
myWindow.move(50,50); // then move it to desired location
myWindow.show(): // and finally show it
}
return true;
}
if (e.id == Event.WINDOW_ICONIFY) { // should we just hide?
hide();
return true;
}
if (e.id == Event.WINDOW_DESTROY) { // or is it time to die?
if (applet) {
dispose();
return true;
} else {
System.exit(O);
}
} return super.handleEvent(e); }
}
}
class WidgetCanvas extends Canvas /
public void paint(Graphics g) {
int canW = size().width; // get width of canvas
int canH : size().height; // get height of canvas
g.setColor(Color.lightGray); // set the color to lightGray
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g.draw3DRect(O, O, canW -1, canH-1, true); /* frame canvas with
rectangle */
g.setColor(Color.black); // set the color to black
/* draw string centered in canvas width: */
g.drawString(“Widget Canvas”, (canW -
g.getFontMetrics().stringWidth(“Widget Canvas”))/2, 15);
// POLYGONS:
g.setColor(Color.red); // set the color to red
int xCoords[] = {40, 55, 65, 80, 80, 40}; // create x values
int yCoords[] = {40, 38, 55, 30, 75, 40}; // create y values
// create the polygon:
Polygon thePoly = new Polygon(xCoords,yCoords,xCoords.length);
g.drawPolygon(thePoly); // then draw it
/* however, we can always feed the arrays directly to
drawPolygon() without creating a polygon object
using g’drawPolygon(xCoords’yCoords’xCoords’length); */
// This polygon will be blue, offset, and filled:
g.setColor(Color.blue); // set the color to blue
int xOffset = 50; // the x offset
int yOffset = 40; // the y offset
int xlen = xCoords.length;
for (int i:O;i<xlen; i++) // offset the contents of each array
xCoords[i] += xOffset; // offset
yCoords[i] += yOffset; // offset
}
g.fillPolygon(xCoords,yCoords,xCoords.length); // now, fill
}
public Dimension minimumSize() {
return new Dimension(250,250);
}
public Dimension preferredSize() {
return minimumSize();
}
}
For example, to change the size of a panel (or to set the size initially), you use the resize( ) method. If you
want to place the panel at a specific place on the screen, you move it to the desired location using the
move( ) method. Because all the UI elements I’m discussing are descendants of Component, they all
understand and respond to these methods.
Summary
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Java Bible:More Widgets and Containers
This chapter examined the components that make up Java’s graphical user interface because these
features are commonly found in Java applets and applications. How you use these components depends
on which version of the JDK you use.
• Java enables you to use scroll bars, labels, text components, canvases, containers, and panels as
features of your application’s user interface.
• Older Java applications may rely on the AWT for user interface components; JDK 1.2 uses the
JFC and Swing classes instead.
• Labels have a small but appropriate role in a Java user interface.
• AWT components enable you to listen for events.
• JDK versions 1.0.2, 1.1, and 1.2 have significantly different approaches to event handling.
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Java Bible:Windows
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 20
Windows
In This Chapter
Using Window objects in your Java applications
Creating frames to control the layout of your Java application
Adding frame menu bars and menus to provide applications options
Getting the lead out with menu shortcuts
Listen to and trapping menu events
Talking to the user through Dialog objects
This chapter continues the discussion of the graphical user interface (GUI) components available in
Java’s Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT). Having come this far in the book, you’ve dealt with most of
the widgets you’re likely to encounter or need; therefore this chapter is devoted to explaining how to
work with windows.
Windows
All windows are Window objects. The Window class is a subclass of Container, and is in the same position
in the class hierarchy as Panel. However, this class has a very specific purpose: to create those Window
objects. For applets, this has a special connotation, since windows exist “outside” them altogether.
Until now, everything we’ve been doing with respect to applets has been happening inside the applet.
Even the panels we discussed in the last chapter are created inside the applet context (browser). At
times, however, we need to create a full-blown window or dialog box; perhaps in order to create the
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Java Bible:Windows
equivalent of a floating palette, with widgets on a window instead of inside the applet.
Or maybe we’d like to give users access to files on the local machine, as seen in Figure 20-1. In this
case, we’d use the FileDialog class to present this special-purpose window.
Figure 20-1: The FileDialog class allows us to easily create file-access dialog boxes.
Table 20-1 lists the constructors and methods that apply to windows. Note that they also apply to dialogs
(see Table 20-6 later in this chapter).
Table 20-1
java.awt.Window Constructor and Methods
Constructor Signature Description
Window public Window (Frame parent) Constructs a new window initialized to an
invisible state, It behaves as a modal dialog box in
that it will block input to other windows when
shown.
Parameter: parent-the owner of the dialog box
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void addNotify() Creates the window’s peer. The peer allows us to
modify the appearance of the window without
changing its functionality. Overrides add Notify() in
class Container.
pack public synchronized void pack() Packs the components of the window.
show public synchronized void show() Shows the window. This will bring the window to
the front if it is already visible. Overrides show() in
class Component.
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dispose public synchronized void dispose() Disposes of the window. This method must be
called to release the resources used for the
window.
toFront public void toFront() Places this window at the top of the stacking order
and shows it in front of any other windows.
toBack public void toBack() Places this window at the bottom of the stacking
order and makes the corresponding adjustment to
other visible windows.
getToolkit public Toolkit getToolkit() Returns the toolkit of this frame. Overrides
getToolkit() in class Component.
getWarning public final String getWarningString() Gets the warning string for this window. This
String string will be displayed somewhere in the visible
area of windows that are not secure.
getLocale public Locale getLocale() Gets the locale for the window, if it has been set.
If no locale has been set, then the default locale is
returned. Overrides getLocale() in class Component.
addWindow public synchronized void addWindow Adds the specified window listener to receive
Listener Listener(Window Listener 1) window events from this window.
Parameter: 1-the window listener.
removeWindow public synchronized void Removes the specified window listener so that it
Listener removeWindow Listener(Window no longer receives window events from this
Listener 1) window.
Parameter: 1-the window listener
processEvent protected void processEvent(AWT Event Processes events on this window. If the event is a
e) WindowEvent, it invokes the processWindowEvent()
method, else it invokes its superclass’s process Event
(). Overrides processEvent() in class Container.
Parameter: e-the event.
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process protected void processWindowEvent Processes window events occurring on this
WindowEvent (WindowEvent e) window by dispatching them to any registered
WindowListener objects.
Note: This method will not be called unless
window events are enabled for this component;
this happens when one of the following occurs: a)
A Window Listener object is registered via add
WindowListener() b) Window events are enabled via
enableEvents().
Parameter: e-the window event
get Focus Owner public Component getFocusOwner() Returns the child component of this window that
has focus if and only if this window is active.
Returns the component with focus, or null if no
children have focus assigned to them.
postEvent public boolean postEvent(Event e) Note: postEvent() is deprecated. As of JDK version
1.1, replaced by dispatchEvent(AWTEvent). Overrides
postEvent() in class Component.
isShowing public boolean is Showing Checks whether this window is showing on-
screen. Overrides isShowing() in class Component.
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Java Bible:Windows
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Just as with panels, you can use any of the container methods with windows. For example, once you
create a window or dialog box, you can move it anywhere on the screen using setLocation(), or change its
dimensions using setsSize().
Because windows initially are created invisibly, you can’t see them until the show() method is invoked.
In the next fragment of code, we create a new window, supplying to the constructor a newly created
Frame object. The frame, discussed in detail below, is a required parameter for the Window() constructor.
However, we can create one on the fly without bothering to keep a reference to it.
Window myWindow — new Window(new Frame()): // myWindows is
invisible
myWindow.show(); // but now it’s visible
When you first create a window, you’ll need to make it visible (as shown in this sample code), before
the user can interact with it. However, it’s a good idea to resize the window to whatever dimensions you
want, and to move it to the position you want on the screen first. If you do these things after making the
window (or any other container, for that matter) visible, it can result in an unattractive flashing:
Window myWindow = new Window(new Frame()); // myWindow is
invisible
myWindow.setSize(200, 350); // make window 200 by 350
myWindow.setLocation(50.50);
myWindow.show();
In addition, once the window is visible, you can make it invisible as necessary. To do this, simply send it
the setVisible(false) method. This is helpful when you need to get a window off the screen, but want it to
reappear later in the same position.
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You may have realized that setSize() and setLocation() are defined in java.awt.Component, but not
in the Window or Container classes. Because you can move and resize all components and their
subclasses in the same way, there is no need for a special method for each. You’ll see that
quite a few methods defined in Component are useful for windows as well (see Table 20-1
earlier in this chapter).
Frames
The basic window is created without a menu bar, and doesn’t even support menus. As a result, it’s most
useful for popping up a set of controls that can’t fit inside your applet—a floating control panel, for
example. You can draw and paint in a window, just as you would in an applet, so you may choose to use
one as a surface for just such things. You won’t be able to use menus with standard windows (although
choice menus are fine; they don’t require a menu bar).
Frames, on the other hand, allow you to implement a menu bar with menus, resulting in windows that
look and act as you would expect (see Table 20-2).
Table 20-2
java.awt.Frame Constructor, Methods, and Variables
Constructor Signature Description
Frame public Frame() Constructs a new frame that is initially invisible.
Frame public Frame (String title) Constructs a new, initially invisible, frame with
the title specified.
Parameter: title-title specified.
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized addNotify() Creates the frame’s peer. The peer allows void
addNotify() us to change the look of the frame
without changing its functionality. Overrides
addNotify() in class Window.
getTitle public String getTitle() Gets the title of the frame.
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setTitle public void setTitle (String title) Sets the title for this frame to the specified title.
Parameter: title-specified title.
getIconImage public Image getIconImage() Returns the icon image for this frame.
setIconImage public void setIcon Image(Image image) Sets the image to display when this frame is
iconized. Note that not all platforms support the
concept of iconizing a window.
Parameter: image-icon image to be displayed.
getMenuBar public MenuBar getMenuBar() Gets the menu bar for this frame.
setMenuBar public synchronized void setMenuBar Sets the menu bar for this frame to the specified
(MenuBar mb) menu bar.
Parameter: mb-menu bar being set
isResizable public boolean isResizable() Returns true if the user can resize the frame.
setResizable public synchronized void setResizable Sets the resizable flag.
(boolean resizable)
Parameter: resizable-true if resizable; false otherwise.
remove public synchronized void remove(Menu Removes the specified menu bar from this frame.
Component m)
dispose public synchronized void dispose() Disposes of the frame. This method must be called
to release the resources that are used for the frame.
Overrides dispose in class Window.
isResizable public boolean isResizable() Returns true if the user can resize the frame.
setResizable public void setResizable (boolean Sets the resizable flag.
resizable)
Parameter: resizable-true if resizable; false otherwise.
setCursor public void setCursor(int cursorType) Sets the cursor image to a predefined cursor.
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Parameter: cursorType-one of the cursor constants
defined below.
getCursorType public int getCursorType() Note: getCursorType() is deprecated. As of JDK
version 1.1, replaced by Component, getCursor().
paramString protected String paramString() Returns the parameter string of this frame.
Overrides paramString() in class Container.
Variable Signature
DEFAULT_CURSOR public final static int DEFAULT_CURSOR
CROSSHAIR_CURSOR public final static int CROSSHAIR_CURSOR
TEXT_CURSOR public final static int TEXT CURSOR
WAIT_CURSOR public final static int WAIT_CURSOR
SW_RESIZE_CURSOR public final static int SW_RESIZE_CURSOR
SE_RESIZE_CURSOR public final static int SE_RESIZE_CURSOR
NW_RESIZE_CURSOR public final static int NW_RESIZE_CURSOR
NE_RESIZE_CURSOR public final static int NE_RESIZE_CURSOR
N_RESIZE_CURSOR public final static int N_RESIZE_CURSOR
S_RESIZE_CURSOR public final static int S_RESIZE_CURSOR
W_RESIZE_CURSOR public final static int W_RESIZE CURSOR
E_RESIZE_CURSOR public final static int E_RESIZE_CURSOR
HAND_CURSOR public final static int HAND CURSOR
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MOVE_CURSOR public final static int MOVE_CURSOR
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Java Bible:Windows
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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When you create frames from within an applet, however, the words Warning: Applet Window are always
displayed at the bottom to alert the webber that an applet created this window.
This is something you can neither change nor avoid, since it’s a security measure designed to prevent
applets from impersonating applications that are run locally.
As you can see by looking at the constructors in Table 20-2, you can supply a name for a frame. A string
you supply to the Frame() constructor is taken to be the title of the window that will be constructed from
it. In this way, our Java windows can have names that appear in the title area just as their fully functional
native brethren do.
To create a frame, we first extend the Frame class:
class WidgetsFrame extends Frame {
...
}
In this new class, we provide a constructor to create and add the various components (widgets, panels,
and so on) that the objects instantiated from this frame will have. We also handle the events that this
frame needs to deal with by registering the appropriate listeners with it. Once that’s done, you can
instantiate a new object based on it:
WidgetsFrame window = new WidgetsFrame();
Of course, we don’t have to create a new Frame subclass just to see a window with a menu bar. We could
just as easily instantiate a Frame object:
Frame window = new Frame();
However, the real power of using both frames and windows comes when we define our own subclasses
that encapsulate the state and behavior we require. If we do that, then whenever we need to use those
frames or windows later, we simply instantiate new ones.
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The Window() constructor accepts, as its sole parameter, a frame. To create a window, simply create a
new frame—with or without a title—and feed that object to the Window() constructor. You don’t have to
go through the process of creating a Frame subclass just to use a standard window:
Window myWindow = new Window(new Frame());// myWindow is
invisible
Table 20-1 earlier in this chapter shows a number of methods and variables associated with windows,
frames, and dialogs. You can, for instance, retrieve the title of a window, frame, or dialog box using the
getTitle() method. You can also retrieve or change the current menu bar. Additionally, you can set the
cursor to one of the cursor types shown. This is useful, for instance, when you need to change the
appearance of the cursor when it moves into a particular area on the screen (such as over text or in a
drawing area).
Frame menu bars and menus
Chances are, if you create a frame, you’ll also want to create a menu bar (see Table 20-3) that has menus
in it (see Table 20-4).
Table 20-3
java.awt.MenuBar Constructor and Methods
Constructor Signature Description
MenuBar public MenuBar() Creates a new menu bar.
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void addNotify Creates the menu bar’s peer. The peer allows us to
() change the appearance of the menu bar without
changing any of its functionality.
removeNotify public void remove Notify() Removes the menu bar’s peer. Overrides removeNotify()
in class MenuComponent.
getHelpMenu public Menu get HelpMenu() Gets the Help menu on the menu bar.
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setHelpMenu public synchronized void Sets the Help menu to the specified menu on the menu
setHelpMenu (Menu m) bar.
Parameter: m-menu to be set.
add public synchronzed Menu and Adds the specified menu to the menu bar.
(Menu m)
Parameter: m-menu to be added to the menu bar.
remove public synchronized void remove Removes the menu located at the specified index from
(int index) the menu bar.
Parameter: index-position of the menu to be removed.
remove public’ synchronized void remove Removes the specified menu from the menu bar.
(Menu Component m)
Parameter: m-menu to be removed.
getMenuCount public int getMenu Count() Counts the number of menus on the menu bar.
countMenus public int count Menus() Note: countMenus() is deprecated. As of JDK version 1.1,
replaced by getMenuCount().
getMenu public Menu getMenu (int i) Gets the specified menu.
Parameter: i-menu to be returned.
shortcuts public synchronized Enumeration Gets an enumeration of all menu shortcuts this menu
Shortcuts() bar manages.
getShortcut public MenuItem get Returns the menu item associated with a menu shortcut,
ShortcutMenuItem (MenuShortcut or null if none has been specified.
s)
Parameter: s-menu shortcut to search for.
delete Shortcut public void delete Shortcut Deletes the specified menu shortcut.
(MenuShortcut s)
Parameter: s-menu shortcut to delete.
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Table 20-4
java.awt.Menu Constructor and Methods
Constructor Signature Description
Menu public Menu() Constructs a new menu with an empty label. This menu
can not be torn off.
Menu public Menu(String label) Constructs a new menu with the specified label, This
menu can’t be torn off; it will still appear on-screen
after the mouse button has been released.
Parameter: label-label to be added to this menu.
Menu public Menu(String label, boolean Constructs a new menu with the specified label. If
tearOff) tearOff is true, the menu can be torn off; it will still
appear on-screen after the mouse button has been
released.
Note: Tear-off functionality may not be supported by
all AWT implementations. If a particular
implementation doesn’t support tearoffs, this value will
be silently ignored.
Parameters:
label-label to be added to this menu.
tearOff- boolean indicating whether or not the menu can
be torn off.
Method Signature Description
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addNotify public synchronized void addNotify Creates the menu’s peer. The peer allows us to modify
() the appearance of the menu without changing its
functionality. Overrides addNotify() in class MenuItem.
removeNotify public synchronized void Removes the menu’s peer. Overrides removeNotify() in
removeNotify() class MenuComponent.
isTearOff public boolean isTearOff() Returns true if this is a tear-off menu.
getItemCount public int getItem Count() Returns the number of elements in this menu.
countItems public int count Items() Note: countItems() is deprecated. As of JDK version 1.1,
replaced by getItemCount().
getItem public MenuItem getItem(int Returns the item located at the specified index of this
index) menu.
Parameter: index-position of the item to be returned.
add public synchronized MenuItem add Adds the specified item to this menu.
(menuItem mi)
Parameter: mi-item to be added
add public void add (String label) Adds an item with the specified label to this menu.
Parameter: label-text on the item.
insert pubic synchronized void insert Inserts the menu item to this menu at the specified
(MenuItem menuitem, int index) position.
Parameters.
menuitem-menu item to be inserted
index-the position at which the menu item should be
inserted.
Throws IllegalArgument Exception if index is less than 0.
insert public void insert (String label, int Inserts an item with the specified label to this menu at
index) the specified position.
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Parameters:
label-text on the item.
index-position at which the menu item should be
inserted.
addSeparator public void addSeparator() Adds a separator line, or a hyphen, to the menu at the
current position.
Insert Separator public void insert Separator (int Inserts a separator at the specified position.
index)
Parameter: index position at which the menu separator
should be inserted.
Throws IllegalArgument Exception if index is less than 0.
remove public synchronized void remove Deletes the item from this menu at the specified index.
(int index)
Parameter: index-position of the item to be removed.
remove public synchronized void remove Deletes the specified item from this menu.
(Menu Component item)
Parameter: item-item to be removed from the menu.
removeAll public synchronized void Deletes all items from this menu.
removeAll()
paramString public String paramString() Returns the String parameter of the menu. Overrides
paramString() class MenuItem.
Creating a menu bar that has menus in it is easy enough:
MenuBar theMenuBar = new MenuBar();
// create a new MenuBar object
Menu theMenu = new Menu(“A Real Menu”); // create a menu
// add items...
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(“Menu item one”));
theMenu.add(new CheckboxMenuItem(“Menu item two”));
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(“-”)); // create a menu separator
theMenu.add(new MenuItem(“Yet another menu item”));
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theMenu.add(new MenuItem(“And, yes, another”));
theMenuBar.add(theMenu); // add menu to the menu bar
setMenuBar(theMenuBar);
// and finally add the menu bar to the frame
Here we’ve created a new menu bar and added several items to it. Once complete, we added the menu
bar to the current frame. If we wanted to add it to a specific frame, we would have supplied it as the
target of setMenuBar():
anyFrame.setMenuBar(theMenuBar); // add to specific frame
Keep in mind that this is not the type of menu we discussed earlier. This is a window-style menu, while
the choice menu is a pop-up menu. Although they are altogether different types of menus, the process of
creating and adding them to a frame is very similar. We simply create a new Menu object and add
whatever items we’d like to it. When we’re done, the menu bar that the menu is attached to is set for the
window. Of course, we can add more than one menu to a menu bar.
Since Menu is actually a subclass of the MenuItem class (see Table 20-5), you can retrieve the name of a
particular menu item with getLabel(), and change it with setLabel()
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You can also disable menu items so the user cannot select them, using disable() Table 20-6 describes the
methods provided by the CheckboxMenuItem.
Table 20-6
java.awt.CheckboxMenultem Constructor and Methods
Constructor Signature Description
Checkbox public Checkbox MenuItem() Creates a check box menu item with an empty label,
MenuItem initially set to off (false state).
Checkbox public Checkbox MenuItem(String Creates the check box item with the specified label.
MenuItem label)
Parameter: label-the button label.
Checkbox public Checkbox MenuItem(String Creates a check box menu item with the specified label
MenuItem label, boolean state) and state.
Parameters:
label-the button label.
state-the initial state of the menu item; true indicates on,
and false indicates off.
Method Signature Description
addNotify public synchronized void addNotify Creates the peer of the check box item. This peer allows
() us to change the look of the check box item without
changing its functionality. Overrides addNotify() in class
MenuItem.
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getState public boolean getState() Returns the state of this menu item. This method is only
valid for a check box.
setState public void setState (boolean t) Sets the state of this menu item if it is a check box.
Parameter: t-the specified state of the check box.
get Selected public synchronized Object[] Returns an array (length 1) containing the check box
Objects getSelected Objects() menu item label or null if the check box is not selected.
addItem Listener public synchronized void Adds the specified item listener to receive item events
addItemListener (ItemListener 1) from this check box menu item.
Parameter: 1-the item listener.
removeItem public synchronized void Removes the specified item listener so it no longer
Listener removeItem Listener(ItemListener receives item events from this check box menu item.
1)
Parameter: 1-the item listener.
processEvent protected void processEvent Processes events on this check box menu item. If the
(AWTEvent e) event is an ItemEvent, it invokes the handleItemEvent()
method. Overrides processEvent in class MenuItem
Note: Check box menu items currently only support
action and item events.
Parameter: e-the event.
processItem protected void processItemEvent Processes item events occurring on this check box
Event (ItemEvent e) menu item by dispatching them to any registered Item
Listener objects.
Note: This method will not be called unless item events
are enabled for this check box menu item; this happens
when one of the following occurs: a) An ItemListener
object is registered via addItemListener() b) Item events
are enabled via enableEvents().
Parameter: e-the item event.
paramString public String param String() Returns the parameter string of this button. Overrides
paramString() in class MenuItem
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At times, you might need to add submenus to an existing menu. Simply create a new menu, which will
be the submenu, and add it to whichever menu you wish:
Menu submenu = new Menu(“Here’s a submenu”); // create another menu
subMenu.add(new MenuItem(“Hello!”)); // add an item...
anyMenu.add(subMenu); // add to a menu, creating a submenu
This snippet of code creates a new menu and adds it as a submenu to the anyMenu menu. Of course,
anyMenu is just a variable name for a nonexistent menu; you’d use a real menu variable instead.
A special type of menu item, CheckboxMenuItem, allows you to toggle items on a menu. When a
CheckboxMenuItem is selected, it displays a check mark next to it to indicate it is on. In tact, the
second menu item we created in the above example code is a CheckboxMenuItem.
As with traditional menus, you may want to add a separator to your Java menus from time to time. A
separator is a thin, horizontal line that breaks up and groups items on a menu. To add a separator, you
can use the addSeparator() method, creating a new menu item with an “-” argument:
add(new MenuItem(“-”)); // add a separator
Menu shortcuts
If you want to make your application really slick, assign a shortcut key to each of your menu items. That
way, your users can select a menu item simply by pressing the Ctrl key and the corresponding shortcut
key. To assign a shortcut key to a menu item, create an appropriate instance of MenuShortcut and register
it with the menu item in question:
Menu m = new Menu(“File”); // Create File menu
MenuItem mi = new MenuItem(“New”,
new MenuShortcut(‘n’))’
m.add(mi)- // add File > New item to File menu
The AWT adds the shortcut for each menu item to the item’s label so that a user can easily determine the
shortcut for any item. Table 20-7 describes the methods provided by the MenuShortcut object, which
allows you to define keyboard shortcuts to access menu items.
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Table 20-5
java.awt. Menultem Constructor and Methods
Constructor Signature Description
MenuItem public MenuItem() Constructs a new menu item with an empty label and
no keyboard shortcut.
MenuItem public MenuItem(String label) Constructs a new menu item with the specified label
and no keyboard shortcut.
Parameter: label-label for this menu item.
Note: The hyphen (-) is reserved to mean a separator
between menu items.
MenuItem public MenuItem(String label, Creates a menu item with an associated keyboard
MenuShortcut s) shortcut.
Parameter:
label-label for this menu item. Note: The hyphen (-) is
reserved to mean a separator between menu items. s-
menu shortcut associated with this menu item.
Method Signature Description
addNotfy public synchronized void addNotify Creates the menu item’s peer. The peer allows us to
() modify the appearance of the menu item without
changing its functionality,
getLabel public String getLabel() Gets the label for this menu Item.
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setLabel public void setLabel (String label) Sets the label to be the one specified.
Parameter: label- label for this menu item.
isEnabled public boolean isEnabled() Checks whether the menu item is enabled.
Set Enabled public synchronized void Sets whether or not this menu item can be chosen.
setEnabled (boolean b)
Parameter: b-if true, enables this menu item; otherwise,
disables it.
enable public void enable() Note: enable() is deprecated. As of JDK version 1.1,
replaced by setEnabled(boolean).
enable public void enable (boolean cond) Note: enable (boolean) is deprecated. As of JDK version
1.1, replaced by setEnabled (boolean).
disable public void disable() Note: disable() is deprecated. As of JDK version 1.1,
replaced by setEnabled(boolean).
Get Shortcut public MenuShortcut getShortcut() Returns the menu shortcut associated with this menu
item, or null if none has been specified.
set Shortcut public void setShort cut Sest this menu item’s menu shortcut. If a menu
(MenuShortcut s) shortcut is already associated with this menu item, it
will be replaced.
Parameter: s-menu shortcut to associate with this menu
item
delete Shortcut public void delete Shortcut() Deletes any menu shortcut associated with this menu
item.
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enable Events protected final void enableEvents Enables the events defined by the specified event
(long eventsToEnable) mask parameter to be delivered to this menu item.
Event types are automatically enabled when a listener
for that type is added to the menu item; therefore, this
method only needs to be invoked by subclasses of a
menu item that want to have the specified event types
delivered to processEvent() regardless of whether a
listener is registered.
Parameter: eventsToEnable-event mask defining the
event types.
disable Events protected final void disableEvents Disables the events defined by the specified event
(long events To Enable) mask parameter from being delivered to this menu
item.
Parameter: eventsToDisable-event mask defining the
event types.
setAction public void setAction Command Sets the command name of the action event fired by
Command (String command) this menu item. By default, this will be set to the label
of the menu item.
getAction public String get ActionCommand Returns the command name of the action event fired
Command () by this menu item.
addActionListener public synchronized void Adds the specified action listener to receive action
addActionListner (ActionListner events from this menu item.
1)
Parameter: 1-the action listener.
remove Action public synchronized void Removes the specified action listener so it no longer
Listener removeAction Listener receives action events from this menu item.
(ActionListener 1)
Parameter: 1-the action listener.
process Event protected void process Event Processes events on this menu item. If the event is an
(AWTEvent e) ActionEvent, invokes the handleActionEvent() method.
Overrides-processEvent in class MenuComponent.
Note: Menu items currently support only action
events.
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Parameter: e-the event.
process Action protected void process ActionEvent Processes action events occurring on this menu item
Event (ActionEvent e) by dispatching them to any registered ActionListener
objects.
Note: This method will not be called unless action
events are enabled for this component; this happens
when one of the following occurs: a) An ActionListener
object is registered via addActionListener() b) Action
events are enabled via enableEvents().
Parameter: e-the action event.
param Strin public String param String() Returns the string parameter of the menu item.
Overrides ParamString() in class MenuComponent.
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Table 20-7
java.awt.MenuShortcut Constructor and Methods
Constructor Signature Description
MenuShort cut public MenuShortcut (int key) Constructs a new menu shortcut for the specified key.
Parameter:
key -the raw keycode for this menu shortcut, as would
be returned in the keyCode field of a KeyEvent if this key
were pressed.
MenuShort cut public MenuShortcut (int key, Constructs a new menu shortcut for the specified key.
boolean useShiftModifier)
Parameters:
key -the raw keycode for this menu shortcut, as would
be returned in the keyCode field of a KeyEvent if this key
were pressed.
useShiftModifier-indicates whether this menu shortcut is
invoked with the Shift key down.
Method Signature Description
getKey public int getKey() Returns the raw keycode of this menu shortcut.
usesShift public boolean uses ShiftModifier Returns whether this menu shortcut must be invoked
Modifier () using the Shift key.
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equals public boolean equals Returns whether this menu shortcut is the same as
(MenuShortcut s) another: Equality is defined to mean that both menu
shortcuts use the same key and both either use or don’t
use the Shift key.
Parameter: s-menu shortcut to compare with this one.
toString public String toString() Returns an internationalized description of the menu
shortcut. Overrides toString in class Object.
paramString protected String paramString() Returns an internationalized description of the menu
item parameter string.
Menu events
A menu is simply window dressing unless your application responds when a user selects an item. The
way to make your application responsive is to register appropriate action listeners with the menu items.
That way, the AWT will know how to invoke the appropriate code when a user selects a particular item:
Menu m = new Menu(“File”); // Create File menu
MenuItem mi = new Menultem(“New”); // Create File -> New menu
item.
mi.addActionListener(new Action Listener() { // register listener
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
// Add code to create document here.
// The AWF will invoke this code when the user
// selects the File > New menu item.
}
});
m.add(mi); // add File > New item to File menu
Menu Events in JDK 1.0.2
Menus in JDK 1.0.2, as with other interface widgets created with this version of Java, invoke the action()
method when selected. Each menu item creates its own specific event, meaning you can find out exactly
which item in which menu was selected by simply overriding the action() method in your program. Inside
the overridden action() method, you can then test the target of the event to find out if it’s an instance of
MenuItem, and, if it is, use the Object argument (arg) to find out the name of the selected menu item:
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if (e.target instanceof MenuItem) {
String label = (String)arg; // get menu’s label/name
if (label.equals(“XYZ”)) { // is it equal to “XYZ”?
// process appropriately
}
}
You can also override the handleEvent() method, test to see if the event that comes through that
mechanism is, in fact, a menu item, and then act accordingly:
public boolean handleEvent(Event e) {
if ((e.id == Event_ACTION EVENT) && (e.target instanceof
MenuItem)) {
String label = (String)e.arg;
if (label.equals(“XYZ”)) { // is it equal to “XYZ”?
// process appropriately
}
}
return true;
}
Dialogs
In addition to the windows and frames we’ve just discussed, a special subclass of Window known as the
dialog exists; many users know these special windows as dialog boxes. Dialogs allow you to present
users with a window that they must respond to. For instance, suppose you want to require a password at
some point in your applet or application: you could pop up a dialog box and insist the user either
supplies the information or cancels the operation. To do this, you don’t need a menu bar with menus or
even a window title; you just have to toss up a dialog box and request the information.
Table 20-8 lists the constructors and methods that apply to dialogs.
Table 20-8
java.awt.Dialog Constructor and Methods
Constructor Signature Description
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Dialog public Dialog(Frame parent) Constructs an initially invisible dialog box with an
empty title.
Parameter: parent-owner of the dialog box.
Dialog public Dialog(Frame parent, Constructs an initially invisible dialog. A modal dialog
boolean modal) grabs all the input from the user.
Parameters:
parent-owner of the dialog modal-if true, the dialog blocks
input to other windows when shown.
Dialog public Dialog(Frame parent, String Constructs an initially invisible dialog with a title.
title)
Parameters:
parent-owner of the dialog. title-title of the dialog.
Dialog public Dialog (Frame parent String Constructs an initially invisible dialog with a title. A
title. boolean modal) modal dialog grabs all the input from the user
Parameters:
parent-owner of the dialog.
title-title of the dialog.
modal-if true, the dialog blocks input to other windows
when shown.
addNotify public synchronized void addNotify Creates the dialog’s peer. The peer allows us to change
() the appearance of the dialog box without changing its
functionality. Overrides addNotify() in class Window.
isModal public boolean isModal() Returns true if the dialog is modal. A modal dialog
grabs all the input from the user.
setModal public void set Modal(boolean b) Specifies whether this dialog is modal. A modal dialog
grabs all the input to the parent frame from the user.
getTitle public String getTitle() Gets the title of the dialog.
setTitle public synchronized void setTitle Sets the title of the dialog box.
(String title)
Parameter: title-new title being given to the dialog box.
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show public void show() Shows the dialog box. This will bring the dialog box to
the front if the dialog is already visible. If the dialog is
modal, this call will block input to the parent window
until the dialog box is taken down by calling hide or
dispose. It is permissible to show modal dialogs from
the event dispatching thread because the toolkit will
ensure that another dispatching thread will run while
the one that invoked show is blocked. Overrides show()
in class Window.
isResizable public boolean isResizable() Returns true if the user can resize the dialog box.
setResizable public synchronized void Sets the resizable flag.
setResizable (boolean resizable)
Parameter: resizable-true if resizable; false otherwise.
paramString protected String paramString() Returns the parameter string of this dialog. Overrides
paramString() in class Container.
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In addition to the generic dialog box that is created with the dialog method, there is a special-purpose
FileDialog class—a descendant of Dialog—that allows you to create dialogs to open or save files. Such
dialogs supply the basic type of file interaction users expect on their platforms. Keep in mind, however,
that applets must be configured for local file access to use file dialogs:
FileDialog loaddlg = new FileDialog(this, “Get A File...”,
FileDialog.LOAD);
loaddig.show();
/* Create a SAVE file dialog */
FileDialog savedlg = new FileDialog(this, “Save A File...”,
FileDialog.SAVE);
savedlg.show();
Window Events
Windows, frames, and dialogs support a small fleet of window events. These events let you know when
something significant is happening to the window as a whole, for example, that it is being iconified or
destroyed. You can intercept these events by registering a WindowListener with the window.
Frame f = new MyAppFrame(“My App”);
f.addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e)
System.exit(O);
}});
Note that in this example, we created an anonymous descendant of the WindowAdapter class to avoid
having to implement all the methods defined by the WindowListener interface (see Table 20-9).
Table 20-9
java.awt.event.WindowListener Methods
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Method Signature Description
WindowOpened public abstract void Invoked when a window has been opened.
windowOpened(Window Event e)
widow Closing public abstract void Invoked when a window is in the process of being
windowClosing (WindowEvent e) closed. The close operation can be overridden at this
point.
windowClosed public abstract void windowClosed Invoked when a window has been closed.
(Window Event e )
windowIconified public abstract void Invoked when a window is iconified.
windowIconified(Window Event
e)
windowDei public abstract void Invoked when a window is deiconified.
conified windowDeiconifed (WindowEvent
e)
window public abstract void Invoked when a window is activated.
Activated windowActivated (WindowEvent
e)
window public abstract void Invoked when a window is deactivated.
Deactivated windowDeactivated
(WindowEvent e)
Window Events in JDK 1.0.2
You can handle window events in JDK 1.0.2 by overriding a window’s handleEvent() method:
public boolean handleEvent(Event e) {
if (e.id == Event.WINDOW DESTROY) {
System.exit(0);
}
}
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The AWT Event class defines the types of window-related events that can occur in JDK 1.0.2 windows
(see Table 20-10).
Table 20-10
Variables as JDK 1.0.2 Windows Event Types
Variable Signature Description
WINDOW_DESTROY public final static int The “destroy window” event.
WINDOW_EXPOSE public final static int The “expose window” event.
WINDOW_ICONIFY public final static int The “iconify window” event.
WINDOW_DEICONIFY public final static int The“deiconify window”event.
WINDOW_MOVED public final static int The “move window” event.
Summary
All windows are Window objects. The Window class is a subclass of Container, and is in the same position
in the class hierarchy as Panel. However, this class has a very specific purpose: to create Window objects.
• The basic window is created without a menu bar, and doesn’t even support menus. As a result,
it’s most useful for popping up a set of controls that can’t fit inside your applet—a floating
control panel, for example. You can draw and paint in a window, just as you would in an applet,
so you may choose to use one as a surface for just such things. However, you won’t be able to
use menus with standard windows (although choice menus are fine, since they don’t require a
menu bar).
• A menu is simply window dressing unless your application responds when a user selects an
item. The way to make your application responsive is to register appropriate action listeners with
the menu items. That way, the AWT will know how to invoke the appropriate code when a user
selects a particular item.
• In addition to windows and frames, a special subclass of window known as the dialog exists.
Dialogs allow you to present users with a window that they must respond to.
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Java Bible:Laying Out Components
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 21
Laying Out Components
In This Chapter
Using layouts to position applications controls
A review of the layout managers supported by Java
Drawing and updating components
In this chapter, we look at how to lay out all the wonderful widgets and components we’ve been
considering in the last three chapters. These include buttons, check boxes, choice menus, scrolling lists,
scroll bars, labels, text, canvases, containers, panels, windows, frames, menu bars, and dialogs. Even if
you haven’t used it much, you’ll soon see just how powerful and flexible Java’s Abstract Windowing
Toolkit (AWT) really is when it comes to cross-platform interface development.
Types of Layouts
As you learned in Chapter 19, the way in which you position components on the screen depends upon
the layout manager the panel has installed. For example, the default layout manager for your applet is
FlowLayout (java.awt.Flow-Layout). In fact, this is the default layout for the Panel class, which applet inherits
from.
Default: FlowLayout
With FlowLayout, you add components one after another, row by row. There are several alignments that
you can use with FlowLayout. You can specify that components begin to the left of the layout, or have
them begin at the center, which is the default. As you begin to lay them down using FlowLayout, they
appear in order one after another with a default gap of five pixels between them. If a component reaches
the far right side of the panel, it will wrap around and begin on the next line.
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You can control the layout mechanism by providing it with an actual argument that specifies the
alignment. Each time the window is resized, all the components reorder themselves appropriately.
For example, if we resize the window that contains our curve applet (see Figure 21-1), all the
components reposition themselves according to the layout manager used in each panel. The applet itself
has a default panel layout, and each of the specific panels we created have their own layouts. When the
applet is resized, the layout manager ensures that its basic look doesn’t change.
Figure 21-1: Thanks to layout managers, you can easily position components on the screen. Even when
we resize a container (such as this applet), the components inside automatically reposition themselves.
Layout Managers
Java supports five layout managers:
• FlowLayout
• GridLayout
• GridBagLayout
• BorderLayout
• CardLayout
As Tables 21-1 through 21-5 illustrate, each layout manager positions components in a specific way and
accepts a different number of parameters in the constructor.
Table 21-1
Java Layout Managers: FlowLayout constructors
Signature Description
public FlowLayout () Constructs a new flow layout with centered alignment and a
default 5-unit horizontal and vertical gap.
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public FlowLayout(int align) Constructs a new flow layout with the specified alignment
and a default 5-unit horizontal and vertical gap.
Parameter: align-alignment value.
public Flow Layout ( int align, int hgap, int Constructs a new flow layout with the specified alignment
vgap ) and gap values.
Parameters:
align-alignment value.
hgap-horizontal gap.
vgap-vertical gap.
Table 21-2
Java Layout Managers: GridLayout Constructors
Signature Description
public GridLayout() Creates a grid layout with a default of one column per
component, in a single row.
public GridLayout(int rows, int cols) Creates a grid layout with the specified rows and columns.
Parameters:
rows-rows.
cols-columns.
public GridLayout(int rows, int cols,int hgap, Creates a grid layout with the specified rows, columns,
int vgap) horizontal gap, and vertical gap.
Parameters:
rows-rows; zero means “any number.”
cols-columns; zero means “any number.”
(Note: Only rows or cols can be zero, not both.)
Hgap-horizontal gap.
vgap-vertical gap.
Throws Illegal Argument Exception if the rows and columns are
invalid.
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Table 21-3
Java Layout Managers: GridLayout Constructor
Signature Description
public GridLayout() Creates a gridbag layout
Table 21-4
Java Layout Managers: BorderLayout Constructors
Signature Description
public BorderLayout() Constructs a new border layout with no gaps between
components.
public BorderLayout(int hgap, int vgap) Constructs a border layout with the specified gaps.
Parameters:
hgap-horizontal gap.
vgap-vertical gap.
Table 21-5
Java Layout Managers: CardLayout Constructors
Signature Description
public CardLayout() Creates a new card layout with gaps of size zero.
public CardLayout(int hgap, int vgap) Creates a card layout with the specified gaps.
Parameters:
hgap-horizontal gap.
vgap-vertical gap.
To change the layout for a panel, simply create a new layout object of the desired type and use the
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setLayout method:
setLayout(new GridLayout(2,2));
// GridLayout with 2 rows, 2 columns
Let’s take a detailed look at each of the layout managers.
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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FlowLayout
FlowLayout (see Table 21-6) supports three types of alignments: left, right, or center. The default
alignment is center, as the buttons in Figure 21-2 illustrate.
Figure 21-2: FlowLayout has center alignment as its default panel layout.
Table 21-6
java.awt.FlowLayout Methods and variables
Method Signature Description
getAlignment public int getAlignment() Returns the alignment value for this layout, LEFT,
CENTER, or RIGHT.
setAlignment public void setAlignment(int align) Sets the alignment value for this layout.
Parameter:
align-the alignment value, one of LEFT, CENTER,
or RIGHT.
getHgap public int getHgap() Returns the horizontal gap between components.
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setHgap public void setHgap(int hgap) Sets the horizontal gap between components.
Parameter:
hgap-horizontal gap.
getVgap public int getVgap() Returns the vertical gap between components
setVgap public void setVgap(int vgap) Sets the vertical gap between components.
Parameter:
vgap-vertical gap.
addLayout Component public void addLayoutComponent Adds the specified component to the layout. Not
(String name, Component comp) used by this class.
Parameters:
name-name of the component.
comp-component to be added.
removeLayout public void removeLayout Removes the specified component from the layout.
Component Component(Component comp) Not used by this class.
Parameter:
comp-component to remove.
preferred LayoutSize public Dimension Returns the preferred dimensions for this layout,
preferredLayoutSize (Container given the components in the specified target
target) container.
Parameter:
target-container that needs to be laid out.
minimum LayoutSize public Dimension Returns the minimum dimensions needed to lay
minimumLayoutSize (Container out the components contained in the specified
target) target container.
Parameter:
target-component that needs to be laid out.
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layout Container public void layoutContainer Lays out the container. This method actually
(Container target) reshapes the components in the target to satisfy the
constraints of the FlowLayout object.
Parameter:
target-specified component being laid out
toString public String toString() Returns the string representation of this flow
layout’s values.
Overrides toString() in class Object.
Variable Signature Description
LEFT public final static int LEFT The left-alignment variable.
CENTER public final static int CENTER The center-alignment variable.
RIGHT public final static int RIGHT The right-alignment variable.
As you remember from Table 21-1, FlowLayout has three constructors:
• The constructor with no parameters creates a flow layout with a centered alignment.
• The constructor having one integer as a parameter creates a flow layout of whatever alignment
is specified.
• The constructor with three parameters creates a flow layout with the specified alignment, in
addition to a gap value supplied by the remaining two parameters.
The gap value is the horizontal and vertical space between the components in a panel. The default is five
pixels. If you want a larger amount of space between components, you can simply change the gap
values.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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GridLayout
FlowLayout doesn’t provide much control over where components are placed on the screen. You simply
add them, and they are placed on the panel from left to right in the order added. When a component
reaches the right side of the screen, it is wrapped around to the next row, where the process continues.
However, there are many cases where you need more control over where the components are placed. In
this case, you might use Grid layout (see Table 21-7).
Table 21-7
java.awt.GridLayout Methods
Method Signature Description
getRows public int getRows() Returns the number of rows in this layout.
setRows public void setRows (int rows) Sets the number of rows in this layout.
Parameter:
rows-number of rows in this layout.
getColumns public int getColumns() Returns the number of columns in this layout.
setColumns public void setColumns(int cols) Sets the number of columns in this layout.
Parameter:
cols-number of columns in this layout.
getHgap public int getHgap() Returns the horizontal gap between components.
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setHgap public void setHgap (int hgap) Sets the horizontal gap between components.
Parameter:
hgap-horizontal gap.
getVgap public int getVgap() Returns the vertical gap between components.
setVgap public void setVgap (int vgap) Sets the vertical gap between components.
Parameter:
vgap-vertical gap.
addLayout Component public void add LayoutComponent Adds the specified component with the specified
(String name, Component comp) name to the layout.
Parameters:
name-name of the component.
comp-component to be laid out.
removeLayout public void remove Removes the specified component from the layout.
Component LayoutComponent (Component
comp)
Parameter:
comp-component to be removed.
preferred LayoutSize public Dimension Returns the preferred dimensions for this layout,
preferredLayoutSize (Container given the components in the specified panel.
parent)
Parameter:
parent-component that needs to be laid out.
minimum LayoutSize public Dimension Returns the minimum dimensions needed to lay
minimumLayoutSize (Container out the components contained in the specified
parent) panel.
Parameter:
parent-component that needs to be laid out.
layout Container public void layout Container Lays out the container in the specified panel.
(Container parent)
Parameter:
parent-specified component being laid out.
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toString public String toString() Returns the string representation of this grid
layout’s values.
Overrides toString() in class Object.
GridLayout organizes the panel in a way that is very similar to a spreadsheet-by rows and columns.
The second GridLayout constructor (see Table 21-2) requires two integers (the first constructor doesn’t
take any arguments). It specifies the number of rows and the number of columns for your layout. If you
want to specify a different horizontal and vertical gap, you can supply those in the third type of
constructor.
The order in which you lay down components with Grid Layout is very important. The first component is
placed in the first element of the grid, going from left to right. Each element you add to a grid layout
takes up one position of the grid, very much like adding only one number per cell in a spreadsheet. This
is shown in Figure 21-3.
Figure 21-3: GridLayout is arranged in rows and columns, much like a spreadsheet.
When you’ve reached the right-hand side of the panel, the next grid item wraps underneath the first one,
much like FlowLayout would with a left alignment. However, GridLayout lets you specify exactly how
many rows and columns to use, so it is much more precise.
Listing 21-1 illustrates the basic use of GridLayout. Here, in the init () method, a GridLayout object is
created and set for our applet. Once this new layout is set, a number of buttons are created and added to
the applet. Since the applet’s layout is now GridLayout, instead of the default FlowLayout, the buttons are
positioned according to a grid-like system in the order they are added (see Figure 21-3).
Listing 21-1: Using GridLayout to Create an Object
GridTest.java
/**
* GridTest.java
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*
* GridLayout is a layout manager that aligns components
* vertically and horizontally as a rectangular grid of cells.
* Each component is placed into its own cell.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.1, Jan 97
*/
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
public class GridTest extends Applet {
protected void addGridButton (String buttonName) {
Button button = new Button(buttonName); // create new
button
add(button); // add it
}
public void init() {
resize(400, 300); // resize applet
/* --- Set GridLayout and add buttons: ---- */
GridLayout grid = new GridLayout(3,4); // create GridLayout
setLayout(grid); // set the layout to GridLayout
addGridButton(“Button1”);
addGridButton(“Button2”);
addGridButton(“Button3”);
addGridButton(“Button4”);
addGridButton(“Button5”);
addGridButton(“Button6”);
addGridButton(“Button7”);
addGridButton(“ButtonS”);
addGridButton(“Button9”);
addGridButton(“Buttonl0”);
addGridButton(“Button11”);
}
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GridBagLayout
GridLayout is constraining in that you can only place one component inside each cell in the grid. There
are instances when you may want a component to occupy one or more cells. In these situations, you
should use GridBag Layout (see Table 21-8). While considerably more complicated to use than other
layout managers, GridBagLayout has definite advantages when it comes to controlling your components’
placement on the screen.
Table 21-8
java.awt.GridBagLayout Methods and Variables
Method Signature Description
setConstraints public void setConstraints (Component Sets the constraints for the specified
comp, GridBagConstraints constraints) component.
Parameters:
comp-component to be modified
constraints—constraints to be applied.
getConstraints public GridBag Constraints getConstraints Retrieves the constraints for the
(Component comp) specified component. A copy of the
constraints is returned.
Parameter:
comp-the component to be queried.
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lookup Constraints- protected GridBagConstraints Retrieves the constraints for the
lookupConstraints (Component comp) specified component. The return value
is not a copy, but is the actual
Constraints class used by the layout
mechanism.
Parameter:
comp-component to be queried.
getLayout Origin public Point getLayoutOrigin() Returns the origin of the layout grid.
getLayout Dimensions public int[][] getLayoutDimensions() Returns column widths and row
heights for the layout grid.
getLayoutpublic Weights double[][] getLayoutWeights() Returns the weights of the layout grid’s
columns and rows.
location public Point location(int x, int y) Returns the cell in the layout grid that
contains the point specified by the
location x,y.
addLayout Component public void addLayout Component(String Adds the specified component with the
name, Component comp) specified name to the layout.
Parameters:
name-name of the component.
comp-component to be added.
addLayout Component public void addLayout Component Adds the specified component to the
(Component comp, Object constraints) layout, usin8 the specified constraint
object.
Parameters:
comp-the component to be added.
constraints-where/how the component is
added to the layout.
removeLayout public void removeLayoutComponent Removes the specified component
Component (Component comp) from the layout.
Parameter:
comp-component to be removed.
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preferred LayoutSize public Dimension preferredLayoutSize Returns the preferred dimensions for
(Container parent) this layout, given the components in
the specified panel.
Parameter:
parent-component that needs to be laid
out.
minimumLayout Size public Dimension minimumLayoutSize Returns the minimum dimensions
(Container parent) needed to lay out the components
contained in the specified panel.
Parameter:
parent-component that needs to be laid
out.
getLayout AlignmentX public float getLayoutAtignmentX Returns the alignment along the x axis.
(Container parent) This specifies how the component
would like to be aligned relative to
other components. The value should be
a number between 0 and 1, where 0
represents alignment along the origin,
1 is aligned the furthest away from the
origin, 0.5 is centered, and so on.
getLayout AlignmentY public float getLayoutAlignmentY Returns the alignment along the y axis.
(Container parent) This specifies how the component
would like to be aligned relative to
other components. The value should be
a number between 0 and 1, where 0
represents alignment along the origin,
1 is aligned the furthest away from the
origin, 0.5 is centered, and so on.
invalidate Layout public void invalidateLayout (Container Invalidates the layout, indicating that if
target) the (ayout manager has cached
information, it should be discarded.
layoutContainer public void layoutContainer (Container Lays out the container in the specified
parent) panel.
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Parameter:
parent-specified component being laid
out.
toString public String toString() Returns the string representation of this
grid layout’s values.
Dump LayoutInfo protected void DumpLayoutInfo Prints the layout information. Useful
(GridBagLayoutInfo s) for debugging.
GetLayoutInfo protected GridBag LayoutInfo GetLayout Info Returns the layout constraints.
(Container parent, Int sizeflag)
AdjustFor Gravity protected void AdjustForGravity Adjusts the grid layout on the basis of
(GridBagConstraints constraints, Rectangle r) the cell weights.
GetMinSize protected Dimension GetMinSize (Container Returns the minimum size required by
parent, GridBagLayout Info info) the layout
ArrangeGrid protected void ArrangeGrid(Container Rearranges the grid.
parent)
Variable Signature
MAXGRIDSIZE protected final static int MAXGRIDSIZE
MINSIZE protected final static int MINSIZE
PREFERREDSIZE protected final static int PREFERREDSIZE
comptable protected Hashtable comptable
defaultConstraints protected GridBagConstraints defaultConstraints
layoutInfo protected GridBagLayoutInfo layoutInfo
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columnWidths public int columnWidths[]
rowHeights public int rowHeights[]
columnWeights public double columnWeights[]
rowWeights public double rowWeights[]
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GridBagLayout is more flexible than GridLayout, although it shares the concept of positioning items
according to a grid. Furthermore, unlike GridLayout, GridBagLayout has a GridBagConstraints object
associated with it.
GridBagConstraints specifies how the component is positioned over one or more cells, known as the
display area. To use the GridBagLayout, you must customize one or more of the components’
GridBagConstraints. You do this by setting the instance variables of a GridBagConstraints object.
The source code in Listing 21-2 creates the GridBagLayout shown in Figure 21-4.
Figure 21-4: GridBagLayout is similar to GridLayout, although it allows components (such as these
buttons) to take up more than one cell in the spreadsheet-like grid.
Listing 21-3: Creating an Example of GridBagLayout
/**
* GridBagTest .java
*
* GridBagLayout is a layout manager that aligns components
* vertically and horizontally as a rectangular grid of cells.
* By specifying the GridBagConstraints of a component, a
* component can occupy more than one cell. The cells a component
* occupies are called the “display area” for that component.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
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* @version 1.1, Jan 97
*/
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
public class GridBagTest extends Applet {
protected void addGridBagButton (String buttonName,
GridBagLayout gb, GridBagConstraints gbc) {
Button button = new Button(buttonName); // create new
button
gb.setConstraints(button, gbc); // set the constraints for
it
add(button); // add it
}
public void init() {
resize(400, 300); // resize applet
/* — Create GridBagLayout and add 12 buttons: — */
GridBagLayout gridbag = new GridBagLayout();
// and create new Constraints object for GridBagLayout:
GridBagConstraints c = new GridBagConstraints();
setLayout(gridbag); // set the layout
// Next, specify components to resize themselves both
// horizontally and vertically as needed to fit:
c.fill = GridBagConstraints.BOTH;
// Set a “weight” for columns (weighty) and rows
(weightx),
// determining how to distribute space between
components.
// The default weight is O, which clumps all components
// together in the center of the container - we don’t
// want that!
c.weightx = 1.0;
// add first button, using current constraints:
addGridBagButton(“Buttonl”, gridbag, c);
// specify a “last in row” constraint (determines how
many
// cells are in a row):
c.gridwidth = GridBagConstraints. REMAINDER;
// the next button will be last in its row...
addGridBagButton(“Button2”, gridbag, c);
// and so will this button...
addGridBagButton(“Button3”, gridbag, c);
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// set vertical (column) weight:
c.weighty = 1.0;
// and add another button...
addGridBagButton(“Button4”, gridbag, c);
// reset width of grid of default (number of cells in
row):
c.gridwidth : 1;
// reset vertical (column) weight to default:
c.weighty = 0.0;
// this one begins on a new row:
addGridBagButton(“Button5”, gridbag, c);
// reset row weight to the default, so the next button is
// “squeezed” between those either side of it:
c.weightx = 0.0;
// this one will be next to last on the current row:
addGridBagButton(“Button6”, gridbag, c);
// specify a “last in row” constraint
c.gridwidth = GridBagConstraints.REMAINDER;
// and this one will be the last in this row:
addGridBagButton(“Button7”, gridbag, c);
// reset width to default (number of cells in a row):
c.gridwidth = 1;
// specify component to take up 2 cells in a column:
c.gridheight = 2;
// specifying 1.5 weight distribution on y axis:
c,weighty : 1.5;
// next button will take up two columns:
addGridBagButton(“Button8”, gridbag, c);
c.weighty = 0.0; //reset to the default
// specify a “last in row” constraint:
c.gridwidth = GridBagConstraints. REMAINDER;
// specify component to take up I cell in a column:
c.gridheight = 1;
/* this one will be the last in its row, and take
up one cell: */
addGridBagButton(“Button9”, gridbag, c);
// also last in its row, takes up one cell. However, this
// cell extends to bottom of component 8 (button 8), to
// balance out:
addGridBagButton(“Buttonl0”, gridbag, c);
c.weighty = 1.0; // specifying 1.0 distribution of space
// also last in row (gridwidth hasn’t changed):
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addGridBagButton(“Button11”, gridbag, c);
c.weighty = 0.0; //reset to the default
addGridBagButton(“Button12”, gridbag, c);
}
}
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BorderLayout
BorderLayout (see Table 21-9) arranges components along the border of the container, as opposed to
placing components on the inside, as FlowLayout, GridLayout, and GridBagLayout do.
Table 21-9
Class java.awt.BorderLayout
Method Signature Description
getHgap public int getHgap() Returns the horizontal gap between
components.
setHgap public void setHgap (int hgap) Sets the horizontal gap between
components.
Parameter:
hgap-the horizontal gap between
components.
getVgap public int getVgap() Returns the vertical gap between
components.
setVgap public void setVgap (int vgap) Sets the vertical gap between
components.
Parameter:
vgap-the vertical gap between
components.
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addLayoutComponent public void addLayoutComponent (Component Adds the specified component to
comp, Object constraints) the layout, using the specified
constraint object.
Parameters:
comp-the component to be added.
constraints-where/how the
component is added to the layout.
addLayoutComponent public void addLayoutComponent (String name, Note: addLayout Component () is
Component comp) deprecated. Replaced by add
LayoutComponent (Component, Object).
removeLayout public void remove LayoutComponent Removes the specified component
Component (Component comp) from the layout.
Parameter:
comp-component to be removed.
preferred LayoutSize public Dimension preferredLayoutSize (Container Returns the preferred dimensions
parent) for this layout, given the
components in the specified panel.
Parameter:
parent-component that needs to be
laid out.
minimumLayoutSize public Dimension minimumLayoutSize Returns the minimum dimensions
(Container parent) needed to lay out the components
contained in the specified panel.
Parameter:
parent-component that needs to be
laid out.
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getLayoutAlignmentX public float getLayoutAlignmentX (Container Returns the alignment along the x
parent) axis. This specifies how the
component would like to be
aligned relative to other
components. The value should be a
number between 0 and 1, where 0
represents alignment along the
origin, I is aligned the furthest
away from the origin, 0.5 is
centered, and so on.
getLayoutAlignmentY public float getLayoutAlignmentY (Container Returns the alignment along the y
parent) axis. This specifies how the
component would like to be
aligned relative to other
components. The value should be a
number between 0 and 1, where 0
represents alignment along the
origin, I is aligned the furthest
away from the origin, 0.5 is
centered, and so on.
invalidateLayout public void invalidateLayout (Container target) Invalidates the layout, indicating
that if the layout manager has
cached information, it should be
discarded.
layoutContainer public void layout Container(Container parent) Lays out the container in the
specified panel.
Parameter:
parent-specified component being
laid out.
toString public String toString() Returns the string representation of
this grid layout’s values.
With BorderLayout, you specify a placement of North, South, East, West, or Center. When a BorderLayout
panel is resized, the components reposition themselves along the borders according to their placement. If
there is a component in the center, it happens to occupy whatever space remains. There may not be any
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space left over, however, if the panel has shrunk too much. In this case, the component on the inside
becomes clipped, or partially obscured, if it can be seen at all.
This code creates the basic border layout shown in Figure 21-5.
Figure 21-5: BorderLayout arranges components on the North, South, East, and West borders of a
container. A Center position is also available.
/**
* BorderTest.java
*
* BorderLayout is a layout manager that aligns components to
the
* borders of the container:
* “North”, “South”, “East”, “West”, and “Center”.
*
* All but the “Center” component get laid out according to
* their preferred sizes and the constraints of the container’s
* size, while the “Center” component is placed in the remaining
* space (if any).
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.1, Jan 97
*/
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet. Applet;
public class BorderTest extends Applet {
public void init() {
resize(400, 300); // resize applet
/* — Create BorderLayout and add buttons: — */
setLayout(new BorderLayout()); // set the layout
add(“North”, new Button(“North”));
add(“South”, new Button(“South”));
add(“East”, new Button(“East”));
add(“West” new Button(“West”));
add(“Center”, new Button(“Center”));
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}
}
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Java Bible:Laying Out Components
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
In this example, we didn’t bother to create a BorderLayout object and then feed it to setLayout(). Unless you
need to hold onto the BorderLayout object, you can save a line of code, as we’ve done here, simply by
creating the object inside of the setLayout () method. The same is true for all layouts—if you don’t need to
hold onto the layout object, you can create it and pass it to setLayout () in one step as I’ve done here.
CardLayout
Unlike the previous layout managers, CardLayout (see Table 21-10) only allows one component to be
viewed at a time. You can specify which component to display, so you have control over how and when
components are visible.
Table 21-10
Class java.awt.CardLayout
Methods Signature Description
getHgap public int getHgap() Returns the horizontal gap
between components.
setHgap public void setHgap (int hgap) Sets the horizontal gap between
components.
Parameter:
hgap-horizontal gap.
getVgap public int getVgap() Returns the vertical gap between
components.
setVgap public void setVgap (int vgap) Sets the vertical gap between
components.
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Parameter:
vgap-vertical gap.
addLayoutComponent public void addLayoutComponent (Component Adds the specified component to
comp, Object constraints) the layout, using the specified
constraint object.
Parameters:
comp-the component to be added.
constraints-where/how the
component is added to the
layout.
addLayoutComponent public void addLayoutComponent (String name, Note: addLayout Component () is
Component comp) deprecated. Replaced by add
Layout Component (Component,
Object ).
removeLayout public void remove LayoutComponent (Component Removes the specified
Component comp) component from the layout.
Parameter:
comp-component to be removed.
preferred LayoutSize public Dimension preferredLayoutSize (Container Calculates the preferred size for
parent) the specified panel.
Parameter:
parent-name of the parent
container.
Returns the dimensions of this
panel.
minimumLayoutSize public Dimension minimumLayoutSize (Container Calculates the minimum size for
parent) the specified panel.
Parameter:
parent-name of the parent
container.
Returns the dimensions of this
panel.
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getLayout AlignmentX public float getLayoutAlignmentX (Container Returns the alignment along the
parent) x axis. This specifies how the
component would like to be
aligned relative to other
components. The value should be
a number between 0 and 1,
where 0 represents alignment
along the origin, 1 is aligned the
furthest away from the origin,
0.5 is centered, and so on.
get LayoutAlignmentY public float get LayoutAlignmentY (Container Returns the alignment along the
parent) y axis. This specifies how the
component would like to be
aligned relative to other
components. The value should be
a number between 0 and 1,
where 0 represents alignment
along the origin, 1 is aligned the
furthest away from the origin,
0.5 is centered, and so on.
invalidateLayout public void invalidateLayout (Container target) Invalidates the layout, indicating
that if the layout manager has
cached information, it should be
discarded.
layoutContainer public void layoutContainer (Container parent) Performs a layout in the
specified panel.
Parameter:
parent-name of the parent
container.
first public void first (Container parent) Flips to the first card.
Parameter:
parent-name of the parent
container.
next public void next (Container parent) Flips to the next card of the
specified container.
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Parameter:
parent-name of the parent
container.
previous public void previous (Container parent) Flips to the previous card of the
specified container.
Parameter:
parent-name of the parent
container.
last public void last (Container parent) Flips to the last card of the
specified container.
Parameter:
parent-name of the parent
container.
show public void show (Container parent, String name) Flips to the specified component
name in the specified container.
Parameters:
parent-name of the parent
container.
ame-component name.
toString public String toString() Returns the string representation
of this card layout’s values.
Overrides toString in class Object
With Card Layout, you generally add panels or containers inside each card. You can specify a layout for
each card independently.
CardLayout lets you flip from card to card, displaying the component in each. When a component is
showing, all others are invisible. Figure 21-6 shows the card layout created with the code shown in
Listing 21-3:
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Figure 21-6: CardLayout allows only one component to be visible at a time.
In the example shown in Figure 21-6, four panels actually exist but only the third is visible. Listing 21-3
provides the code required to create this card layout.
Listing 21-3:Card Test Example (JDK 1.1, 1.2, and Later)
/**
* CardTest.java
*
* CardLayout is a layout manager which allows only one component
* to be visible at once; all others are invisible. Components in
* a card layout are often panels, each capable of having a
* different layout. In this way, you can “flip” the screen to
* display a new layout (card).
*
* This test simply creates four different cards, each having a
* button in them. All have the default “FlowLayout” although
* we can specify a different layout for each.
* When the mouse is clicked, the next card is made visible.
*
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 2.0, 20 Jul 97
*/
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.awt.event.*;
public class CardTest extends Applet {
CardLayout card = new CardLayout(); // create new CardLayout
public void init() {
resize(400, 300); // resize applet
/* — set CardLayout and add buttons: — */
setLayout(card); // set the layout to CardLayout
Panel pl : new Panel(); // create new panel
p1.add(new Button(“This is a button on Panel One”));
add(p1, “”);
addMouseListener(pl);
Panel p2 = new Panel(); // create new panel
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p2.add(new Button(“This is a button on Panel Two”));
add(p2,“”); addMouseListener(p2);
Panel p3 = new Panel(); // create new panel
p3.add(new Button(“This is a button on Panel Three”));
add(p3,“”);
addMouseListener(p3);
Panel p4 = new Panel(); // create new panel
p4.add(new Button(“This is a button on Panel Four”));
add(p4,“”);
addMouseListener(p4);
card.first(this); // begin by displaying the first card
}
void addMouseListener(Panel p) {
p.addMouseListener(new MouseAdapter() {
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e) {
card.next(CardTest.this); // “flip” to next card
}
});
}
}
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Java Bible:Laying Out Components
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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The code in Listing 21-3 runs only under JDK 1.1 environments, or later. See Listing 21-4 for
the original version of this code, written in JDK 1.0.2, which runs under earlier versions o! the
Java environments.
Versions 1.1 and 1.2 of the JDK both use the new event model to capture mouse events.
Listing 21.3: Card Test Example (1.02 Version)
/**
* CardTest.java
*
* CardLayout is a layout manager which allows only one component
* to be visible at once; all others are invisible. Components in
* a card layout are often panels, each capable of having a
* different layout. In this way, you can “flip” the screen to
* display a new layout (card).
* This test simply creates four different cards, each having a
* button in them. All have the default “FlowLayout”. although
* we can specify a different layout for each.
* When the mouse is clicked, the next card is made visible.
* @author Aaron E. Walsh
* @version 1.0, 14 Feb 96
*/
import java.awt.*;
import java.applet. Applet;
public class CardTest extends Applet {
CardLayout card = new CardLayout(); // create new CardLayout
public void init() {
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resize(400. 300); // resize applet
/* — set CardLayout and add buttons: — */
setLayout(card); // set the layout to CardLayout
Panel p1 = new Panel(); // create new panel
p1.add(new Button(“This is a button on Panel One”));
add(p1);
Panel p2 = new Panel(); // create new panel
p2.add(new Button(“This is a button on Panel
Two”));
add(p2);
Panel p3 = new Panel(); // create new panel
p3.add(new Button(“This is a button on Panel Three”));
add(p3);
Panel p4 = new Panel(); // create new panel
p4.add(new Button(“This is a button on Panel Four”));
add(p4);
card.first(this); // begin by displaying the first card
}
public boolean mouseDown(Event e, int x, iht y) {
card.next(this); // “flip” to next card
return true;
}
}
Insets
As you know, components in a panel have a gap, either horizontal or vertical, that separates them from
each other. You’ve seen this in all the layouts described earlier in this chapter. In addition, every
container has an inset. An inset surrounds a panel. You can specify whatever size you’d like it to be. For
instance, if you wanted your grid layout to appear 25 pixels in from each border, you would specify
insets of 25 for the top, bottom, left, and right, as follows:
public Insets insets() {
return new Insets(25,25,25,25);
}
Figure 21-7 shows the example just given and how it would affect the border layout. As you can see, this
isn’t a method that you can apply to a panel; it’s a method that you should override for each panel you
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create. For example, if you had several different panels defined in your program, you might override an
insets() method.
Figure 21-7: Insets determine how much space appears around a panel.
Drawing and Updating Components
By now you’ve probably realized that there is no way to explicitly place a component at a specific x,y
location when using layouts. This is no mistake! The reason is that if you were to place a component in
an exact location on the screen, it wouldn’t appear consistently across a wide range of systems.
Pixel-perfect alignment of components on a Macintosh, for instance, wouldn’t necessarily appear so on
any other system because the Mac’s interface components are uniquely designed (in both size and
appearance) for that platform alone. And, since the AWT is designed to use the native components for
each platform it runs on, actual size and appearance varies from platform to platform. While this is
wonderful when it comes to developing software interfaces that look and feel exactly as the user of each
platform expects, it also prevents us from using pixel-perfect placement of components.
Instead, we allow the layout manager to determine where each component is positioned on the screen.
Although it may seem rather constraining, you can use various combinations of layout managers to
accurately position a component on the screen without resorting to explicit x,y coordinates.
Furthermore, since the AWT takes on the responsibility of drawing and updating components, we don’t
have to keep track of which ones had been obscured and then revealed. We simply sit back and let the
AWT do the work for us.
As we discussed earlier, you know that panels are drawn according to the order in which you add them.
The applet is drawn first (if you’re creating an applet), then the first panel that was created and added to
the applet is drawn, then the second, and so on.
If you’d like to draw specific information on an individual panel, simply override the paint() method for
that panel. !n order to redraw graphics on the screen, it’s necessary to invoke the paint() method. We’ve
done this all along using the repaint() method. Unfortunately, when you call repaint(), it doesn’t call paint()
directly. Instead, it calls an intermediary method, update(). This then fills the entire screen with the
background color.
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As a result, you may see a great deal of flickering in your panels when they are updated. In many cases,
you can greatly reduce this flicker in your animation by overriding the update() method. When you do
this, you can eliminate the process of filling the screen with the background color by calling your paint()
method directly:
public void update(Graphics g) {
paint(g); // call your paint method with the Graphics object
}
Depending on what type of drawing your paint() method does, the flicker may or may not he reduced
with this technique. Luckily, there are a number of tricks we can try. For details on reducing flicker in
your applets, see Chapter 31 and read the JavaWorld “Javamation” article provided on the enclosed CD-
ROM.
Overriding the update() method, as shown in the previous code snippet, is particularly effective when
you’re animating an image “in place” (it doesn’t move on either the x or y axis). Since each image, or
frame, in such animations is drawn over the previous one, there’s no need to refresh the screen at all.
Summary
The way in which you position components on the screen depends upon the layout manager the panel
has installed.
• FlowLayout supports three types of alignments: left, right, or center. The default alignment is
center.
• FlowLayout doesn’t provide much control over where components are placed on the screen. You
simply add them, and they are placed on the panel from left to right in the order added. When a
component reaches the right side of the screen, it is wrapped around to the next row, where the
process continues.
• There are many cases where you need more control over where the components are placed. In
this case, you might use GridLayout.
• GridLayout is constraining in that you can only place one component inside each cell in the grid.
There are instances when you may want a component to occupy one or more cells, in these
situations, you should use GridBagLayout.
• BorderLayout arranges components along the border of the container, as opposed to placing
components on the inside, as FlowLayout, GridLayout, and GridBagLayout do.
• Unlike the other layout managers, CardLayout only allows one component to be viewed at a
time. You can specify which component to display, so you have control over how and when
components are visible.
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Java Bible:Bringing It All Together with JDK 1.1
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 22
Bringing It All Together with JDK 1.1
In This Chapter
Designing and implementing JavaDraw
Using an interface-driven approach to application development
Designing your Java applications carefully before you rush to implementation
Digging into the implementation phase and becoming a code warrior
The past six chapters have helped you learn the various parts of the Abstract Windowing Toolkit and
understand how to call each part into action using Java source code, but the real meat and potatoes lie in
bringing it all together in a real-world program. Without a real example to work through, everything else
is simply academic; you might know the concepts, but nothing hits home like actually doing it.
In this chapter we develop a simple drawing program called JavaDraw, and then implement it as a dual-
purpose application/applet. We put the past 21 chapters to work, starting with basic design specification
and working all the way through the code implementation details.
Designing the JavaDraw Application/Applet
Before jumping keys-first into code, we need to consider exactly what it is that we’re programming, and
sketch out the user interface using paper and pen, just as we discussed in Chapter 3. Taking this
approach frees us to think in detail about the project, refining our goals and plan of attack as we go
along, without committing to a single line of code before we’re actually ready.
To begin, we need to know what it is that we’re working on. In this case, the answer is simple:
JavaDraw, a simple drawing program that can be run as both an applet or application. Creating this dual-
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purpose program will give us experience using nearly all the material presented so far in this book
without being too complicated to cover in a single chapter.
And so, there you have it. Your mission, should you choose to accept it, is to develop a simple drawing
program that can be executed as an applet in a Web page or as a standalone application. Although this
specification is rather loose, there are a few requirements we’ll have to work into the program.
Specifically, JavaDraw should allow users to do several things:
• Choose a variety of drawing shapes (line, oval, rectangle, and so on)
• Choose plain, filled, or 3D drawing modes, and mix and match them at will
• Select ink colors for drawing (red, green, blue, black, yellow, and so on)
• Draw using an image, such as a GIF or JPEG, as a paintbrush
• Clear the drawing surface to erase everything and start drawing from scratch
• Find out details about the program, such as the product name, version number, author, and so
on
Now that you know these requirements, you might be tempted to dive in and start programming. Instead,
restrain yourself for a few moments as we approach the task from an entirely different angle—the user’s
perspective.
Interface-Driven Development
Too often, software developers approach programming from an engineering perspective. Although this
isn’t a bad idea, it tends to result in a more complicated product for the end user. Instead of focusing on
what the user should see and do, developers often concentrate their efforts on the underlying code. As a
result, the interface becomes almost an afterthought, shoe-horned into the constraints imposed by the
implementation.
In Chapter 3, we suggested that you first design the interface before writing a single line of code. Doing
so actually reverses the typical software development process; it becomes interface-driven, not code-
driven. At best, the result is a product that is as easy to use as it is powerful. At worst, you’ve saved
yourself buckets of recoding, because you developed a clear mission plan long before launching into
implementation.
Using this interface-driven approach to software development, let’s press ahead with JavaDraw. At the
moment, we know what the product must do, but we don’t know how it should appear to the user. Now
it’s time to attack the interface
A call to arms: pencil and paper first
Before going further, grab a pad of paper and a freshly sharpened pencil. (Okay, a mechanical pencil is
fine if there’s one handy, but beware of ink pens—they’re permanent, don’t ya know?!) Now, think for a
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moment about the nicest, cleanest interface you can conjure up for JavaDraw. Don’t be shy; let yourself
go and dream it up.
We like the idea of a single toolbar area, where all the drawing tools are in one place, and an open area
for actually drawing. So far, so good, but where should the toolbar appear? We’re not overly fond of
toolbars at the bottom of windows. We prefer them at the top, where they are in the majority of today’s
drawing and painting programs, so for us the ideal position is clear: toolbar at top, drawing canvas
beneath.
This interface is easy enough to dream up, and easy enough to sketch, as you can see in Figure 22-1.
Nope, it’s not the fanciest interface in the word, but it’s a start, and that’s the important part. The
interface is coming first, long before the code. So what next? Well, how about fleshing out that toolbar?
Figure 22-1: A rough sketch of the JavaDraw application user interface
Fleshing out bare bones
With the rough sketch of our ideal interface in place, it’s now time to flesh it out. At this point we
reconsider the requirements of the program and try out a few ideas for presenting features to the user.
Should the user select drawing shapes by clicking a button and then choosing items in a dialog box?
How about the colors? Should I use the same dialog box, just as a word processor includes text and style
options in the same dialog box to conserve space? And what about getting information about the
program—should that be a menu item or a button? Hmmm...
Since it’s impossible to make a decision without choices, you might as well sketch out a few different
approaches. You are only using paper and pencil, after all; the worst that can happen is you’ll chuck a
few of the bad ideas into the waste basket or fireplace. No harm there.
After a few trips to the idea buffet, you’ll likely come upon a solid interface for your toolbar. Of course,
if you’re new to interface development, it’ll take more time and practice, but don’t fret—as long as you
put in the effort using pencil and paper first, you’re certain to hit upon a more effective interface than if
you simply begin coding right off the bat.
For us, the interface took hold after a few revisions. We decided against using dialog boxes altogether
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because they’re really not necessary in this case. Opening a dialog box to change shapes and colors just
doesn’t make sense when a nice, fast, and clean pop-up menu does the trick even better. Of course,
labeling these puppies makes it even easier for the user to identify which to use and when, so we decided
to label the two menus Shape and Color.
After much consideration, we decided to place the “draw with an image” option inside the Shape pop-up
menu. Since this is, in effect, a specialized drawing shape, it makes sense to group it with the other
possible shapes. After all, when drawing with an image, you can’t draw with any other shape. Image
thus becomes the last item on the Shape menu.
I decided to use buttons for the “clear canvas” and “get program information” features, shortening the
name of each as much as possible without reducing them so much that they make no sense. And so the
Clear! and About buttons took shape.
Since each shape can potentially be drawn plain, filled, and/or in 3D mode, we decided that the default
mode would be plain. Placing check boxes directly on the toolbar instead of making them multiple-
choice selection menus allows users to quickly toggle between Fill and 3D options. In addition, the
check boxes allow users to see exactly which options are selected without forcing them to first choose a
menu—another argument for placing them directly on the toolbar and in plain view.
Finally, we decided that just seeing a text description of the color wasn’t enough. In most drawing and
painting programs, you choose a color by clicking on a palette. For our purposes, implementing a color
palette wasn’t practical; it’s simply too complicated to do within the amount of space we have to present
the code here, and so we had to come up with something else. The pop-up is a good idea, but seeing the
name of a color just doesn’t cut it—you have to see the color, too.
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Java Bible:Bringing It All Together with JDK 1.1
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
And so, with a little more thought, we decided to take advantage of the natural interface issues that we
were already grappling with. Specifically, we had to create a toolbar that was obviously a toolbar, and
not part of the drawing canvas. To do this, we chose to the make the toolbar gray and the canvas area
white, so that the visual contrast between the two is obvious.
Now we can show the current color on the screen in a place where the user will see it but not be
distracted by it. We had already decided to draw a thin line between the bottom of the toolbar and the
top of the canvas area to further distinguish the two, so after a bit more consideration, we decided to
draw the line in the current color instead of black. That’s a perfect way to let users know what the
current color is without being intrusive.
Voila! We’ve designed the JavaDraw interface, and it took little more than a pencil, paper, and a few
cups of coffee. We made the transformations entirely on paper and in our minds; this saved hours of
recoding that would have been required had we jumped directly into code. But don’t jump in quite yet;
we still need to model the objects our program will use.
Objects, Shmobjects!
We know you’re just itching to get to the code. But trust us, the next step is just as important as
sketching the user interface, perhaps more so. You certainly could begin coding right here and now, but
you’re almost as certain to waste your time if you don’t first consider what objects you’ll need to create.
Yep, more up-front work with a pencil and paper, but it’s well worth it. We promise.
You don’t have to go nuts with applying complicated object-oriented analysis and design here;
at least get a lay of the land before you blaze new trails. Consider your interface and how it
dictates the objects you’ll end up coding.
If you take a look at our final interface design (shown in Figure 22-2), you’d be right to assume that at
least two objects are necessary: a toolbar object and a canvas object. So, why not sketch these out as the
amorphous blobs that they are? Actually, strictly speaking, we do not need the canvas object. We can
draw directly on the area of the applet below the toolbar. In effect, we can let the applet be our canvas.
This is the strategy that we will adopt (see Figure 22-2).
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Figure 22-2: Final user interface for the JavaDraw application
What other objects will JavaDraw need? Well, we need a frame in which to display our applet when it is
running as an application. (Remember, our specification calls for an applet that can run standalone as an
application.) Thus, all in all, we need at least the following objects:
• An applet that we can run in a browser
• A toolbar to let a user select drawing features
• A frame in which to display our applet when running it as an application
Now that we know what we must do, let’s get to work.
Code Warrior-Digging into the Implementation Phase
Of course, the question arises: Where to begin? Let’s begin with the toolbar. Listing 22-1 shows our
implementation of the toolbar, which we call WidgetPanel, because it’s a panel containing a bunch of
widgets.
Listing 22.1: WidgetPanel.Java
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.awt. Image;
import java.applet.*;
import java.net.*;
import Shape;
/*
*
* WidgetPanel
*
*/
class WidgetPanel extends Panel {
private final String AboutButtonName = “About...”,
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ClearButtonName = “CLEAR!”;
protected boolean About_Mode = false;
protected Choice shapeChoice = null,
colorChoice = null;
private Checkbox fillCheckbox = null,
threeDCheckbox = null;
private final static int _WIDTH = 400, // default width
_HEIGHT : 60; // default height
private int width=0, height:=0; // used to size this panel
// CONSTRUCTOR: WidgetPanel()
public WidgetPanel()
this(0,0);
}
// CONSTRUCTOR: WidgetPanel(int, int)
public WidgetPanel(int width, int height) {
// Begin by setting dimensions of this panel:
setSize(width, height);
// Now, let’s actually create the panel:
new Panel();
setBackground(Color.lightGray);
/* - Add buttons - */
// Add About JavaDraw button
Button b = new Button(AboutButtonName);
b.addActionListener(new ActionHandler() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
super.actionPerformed(e);
WidgetPanel.this.about();
}
});
add(b);
// Clear canvas button
b = new Button(ClearButtonName);
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b.addActionListener(new ActionHandler() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e)
super.actionPerformed(e);
WidgetPanel.this.clearDrawCanvas();
}
});
add(b);
/* Add Choice menus — */
// let’s start with the “Shape” choice item:
add (new Label(“Shape:”)); // label first...
shapeChoice = new Choice(); // choice next...
shapeChoice.addItem(“Line”);
shapeChoice.addItem(“Rectangle”);
shapeChoice.addItem(“Oval”);
shapeChoice.addItem(“Polygon”);
shapeChoice.addItem(“Arc”);
shapeChoice.addItem(“Text”);
shapeChoice.addItem(“Image”);
add(shapeChoice);
// now do the same for the “Color” choice:
add (new Label(“Color:”)); // label first...
colorChoice = new Choice(); // choice next...
colorChoice.addItem(“Black”);
colorChoice.addItem(“Blue”);
colorChoice.addItem(“Cyan”);
colorChoice.addItem(“DarkGray”);
colorChoice.addItem(“Gray”);
colorChoice.addItem(“Green”);
colorChoice.addItem(“LightGray”);
colorChoice.addItem(“Magenta”);
colorChoice.addItem(“Orange”);
colorChoice.addItem(“Pink”);
colorChoice.addItem(“Red”);
colorChoice.addItem(“White”);
colorChoice.addItem(“Yellow”);
colorChoice.addItemListener(new ItemListener() {
public void itemStateChanged(ItemEvent e) {
String colorStr =
WidgetPanel.this.colorChoice.getSelectedItem();
WidgetPanel.this.getParent().
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setForeground(UltraColor.stringColor(colorStr));
WidgetPanel.this.repaint();
}
});
add(colorChoice);
/* - Add Checkboxes - */
fillCheckbox = new Checkbox(“Fill”);
add(fillCheckbox);
threeDCheckbox = new Checkbox(“3D”);
add(threeDCheckbox);
}
// getPreferredSize()
// Set the preferred size (width, height) of this panel.
public Dimension getPreferredSize() {
return new Dimension (width, height);
}
// setSize()
// Set the “height” and “width” variables of the panel,
// the values passed into this method if valid, or
// defaults (_WIDTH and _HEIGHT) if not.
public void setSize(int width, int height) {
if (width > 0)
this.width = width;
else
this.width = _WIDTH;
if (height > 0)
this.height = height;
else
this.height = _HEIGHT;
}
// clearDrawCanvas()
// Clear the drawing surface.
// NOTE: This method ASSUMES that the parent
// component is the surface to clear!
public void clearDrawCanvas () {
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Graphics g = getParent().getGraphics();
int w = getParent().getSize().width.
h = getParent().getSize().height;
g.clearRect(0,0,w,h);
}
// Display program “about” info in drawing area...
public void about() {
About_Mode : true;
clearDrawCanvas();
// Save foreground color
Color fg = getParent().getForeground();
// set to black for about text
getParent().setForeground(Color.black);
// get AFTER setting foreground; work around bug in JDK...
Graphics g = getParent().getGraphics();
g.drawString(“JavaDraw!”, 10, 70);
g.drawString(“by Aaron E. Walsh”, 10, 80};
g.drawString(“version 1.0”, 10, 90);
g.drawString(“revised 7.26.97”, 10, 100);
// restore original foreground color
getParent().setForeground(fg);
}
// Define an actionlistener superclass to handle
// processing common to all actions.
class ActionHandler implements ActionListener {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
// Handle about mode
if (About_Mode) {
// if about message is on screen, clear screen
// then return to normal mode by setting
// About_Mode flag to false...
WidgetPanel.this.clearDrawCanvas();
WidgetPanel.this.About Mode = false;
}
}
}
// paint()
// Handle painting of this panel...
public void paint(Graphics g) {
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// draw “divider line” between widget panel and canvas:
for (int yOffset = 0; yOffset < 3; yOffset++) {
g.drawLine (0,
getSize().height - yOffset,
getSize().width,
getSize().height - yOffset);
}
}
/* ............. ACCESSOR METHODS: ............. */
public int getShape() {
return shapeChoice.getSelectedIndex();
}
public boolean isFilled(){
return fillCheckbox.getState();
public boolean isThreeD() {
return threeDCheckbox.getState();
}
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Java Bible:Bringing It All Together with JDK 1.1
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
The heart of WidgetPanel is its main constructor, WidgetPanel(int width, int height). This constructor creates a
panel of a specified width and height and populates it with the widgets dictated by our design: buttons
for displaying information about JavaDraw and for clearing the drawing area, choice menus for selecting
colors and shapes to draw, and check boxes for specifying filled and 3D shapes. The constructor also
sets the size of the toolbar and its background color (light gray). Note that our constructor does not
specify a layout manager. As a result, the toolbar will have a default flow layout that arranges widgets
from left to right across the panel in the order in which we add them to the toolbar panel. This is just fine
for our purposes.
Besides creating the toolbar widgets, WidgetPane1’s main constructor also registers event handlers for
some of them, specifically the About and Clear! buttons and the colorChoice widget. The handler for the
About button displays information about the JavaDraw applet. The Clear! button handler clears the
drawing area. Note that both event handlers derive from an Action Handler class defined within the
WidgetPanel class. The ActionHandler class defines action processing common to the About and Clear!
buttons. In particular, it clears any prevrious About message from the drawing area.
The handler for the colorChoice widget sets the applet’s current foreground drawing color to the color
selected by the user. By so doing, it absolves our drawing code (see the JavaDraw class below) from
having to set the foreground color itself. Note that the WidgetPanel constructor does not register a listener
for the shapeChoice widget. How, then, does JavaDraw know when a user selects a new shape to draw? In
a word, it doesn’t. Instead, we rely on the drawing portion of our code to get the current shape selection
from the shapeChoice widget. Of course, we could have added a listener to detect when a user selects a
new shape and set a state variable in our applet accordingly. However, this would have entailed adding a
state variable to our applet. We found it simpler to let the shapeChoice widget itself serve as our shape
state variable.
Now that we have implemented a toolbar for the JavaDraw applet, let’s proceed to defining a frame in
which to display the applet. Listing 22-2 shows the code for the frame.
Listing 22-2: JavaDrawFrame.java
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// **********************************************************
//JavaDrawFrame.java:
//
//************************************************************
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
//============================================================
//This frame class acts as a top-level window in which the
//applet appears when it’s run as a standalone application.
//============================================================
class JavaDrawFrame extends Frame {
// JavaDrawFrame constructor
//-----------------------------------------------------------
public JavaDrawFrame(String str) {
super (str);
addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter() {
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {
dispose();
System.exit(0);
}
});
}
}
The JavaDraw frame is really not much, just a constructor that registers a window listener with the frame.
The job of the window listener is to detect when a user selects the Close button or Close menu item on
the frame, signaling a wish to end JavaDraw immediately. The window listener obliges by disposing of
any resources associated with it and then invoking the System. exit () function.
At last we are ready to code the JavaDraw applet itself. Listing 22-3 shows the code for the applet.
Listing 22-3: JavaDraw.java
********************************************************
// JavaDraw.java: Applet
//
//*******************************************************
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
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import JavaDrawFrame;
import WidgetPanel;
import Shape;
//========================================================
// Main Class for applet JavaDraw
//
//========================================================
public class JavaDraw extends Applet {
// STANDALONE APPLICATION SUPPORT:
// m_fStandAlone will be set to true if applet is run
// standalone
//-----------------------------------------------------
boolean m_fStandAlone = false;
// OTHER CLASS VARIABLES:
//-----------------------------------------------------
private WidgetPanel guiPanel = null;
private int oldX=0, // last mouse x value
oldY=0; // last mouse y value
// image to draw when in “image“ mode
private Image theImage : null;
private String imagePath = “images/logo.gif”; // path to image
// PARAMETER SUPPORT:
// Parameters allow an HTML author to pass information to the
// applet; the HTML author specifies them using the <PARAM> tag
// within the <APPLET> tag. The following variables are used
// to store the values of the parameters.
//-----------------------------------------------------------
// Members for applet parameters
// <type> <MemberVar> - <Default Value>
//------------------------------------------------------------
private String m_foregroundColor = null;
private String m_backgroundColor = null;
// Parameter names. To change a name of a parameter, you need
// only make a single change. Simply modify the value of the
// parameter string below.
//------------------------------------------------------------
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private final String PARAM_foreColor = “foreColor”;
private final String PARAM_backColor = “backColor”;
// STANDALONE APPLICATION SUPPORT
// The GetParameter() method is a replacement for the
// getParameter() method defined by Applet. This method returns
// the value of the specified parameter; unlike the original
// getParameter() method, this method works when the applet
// is run as a standalone application, as well as when run
// within an HTML page. This method is called by
// GetParameters().
//------------------------------------------------------------
String GetParameter(String strName, String args[]) {
if (args == null) {
// Running within an HTML page, so call original
// getParameter().
//----------------------------------------------------
return getParameter(strName);
}
// Running as standalone application, so parameter values are
// obtained from the command line. The user specifies them as
// follows:
//
// JView JavaDraw param1=<val> param2:<“val with spaces”> ...
//--------------------------------------------------------
int i;
String strArg = strName + “=”;
String strValue = null;
for (i = 0; i < args.length; i++) {
if (strArg.equalsIgnoreCase(args[i].substring(0,
strArg.length()))) {
// Found matching parameter on command line, so extract
its
// value. // If in double quotes, remove the quotes.
//--------------------------------------------------------
strValue= args[i].substring(strArg.length());
if (strValue.startsWith(“\””)) {
strValue = strValue.substring(1);
if (strValue.endsWith(“\””))
strValue = strValue.substring(0, strValue.length()
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- 1);
}
}
}
return strValue;
}
// STANDALONE APPLICATION SUPPORT
// The GetParameters() method retrieves the values of each of
// the applet’s parameters and stores them in variables.This
// method works both when the applet is run as a standalone
// application and when it’s run within an HTML page. When the
// applet is run as a standalone application, this method is
// called by the main() method, which passes it the command-
// line arguments. When the applet is run within an HTML page,
// this method is called by the init() method with args ==
// null.
//-----------------------------------------------------------
void GetParameters(String args[]) {
// Query values of all Parameters
//--------------------------------------------------------
String param;
// foreColor: Specifies default foreground color of this
// program (must be a Color class variable)
//--------------------------------------------------------
param = GetParameter(PARAM_foreColor, args);
if (param != null)
m_foregroundColor = param;
// backColor: Specifies default background color of this
// program (must be a Color class variable)
//-----------------------------------------------------
param = GetParameter(PARAM_backColor, args);
if (param != null)
m_backgroundColor = param;
}
// STANDALONE APPLICATION SUPPORT
// The main() method acts as the applet’s entry point when it
// is run as a standalone application. It is ignored if the
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// applet is run from within an HTML page.
//----------------------------------------------------
public static void main(String args[]) {
// Create Toplevel Window to contain applet JavaDraw
//----------------------------------------------------
JavaDrawFrame frame = new JavaDrawFrame(“JavaDraw!”);
// Must show Frame before we size it so getInsets() will
// return valid values
//----------------------------------------------------
frame.show();
frame.setVisible(false);
frame.setSize(frame.getInsets().left +
frame.getInsets().right + 400, frame.getInsets().top +
frame.getInsets().bottom + 350);
// The following code initializes the applet within the frame
// window. It also calls GetParameters() to retrieve
// parameter values from the command line, and sets
// m_fStandAlone to true to prevent init() from trying to get
// them from the HTML page.
//----------------------------------------------------
JavaDraw applet_JavaDraw = new JavaDraw();
frame.add(“Center”, applet JavaDraw);
applet_JavaDraw.m_fStandAlone = true;
applet_JavaDraw.GetParameters(args);
applet_JavaDraw.init();
frame.show();
}
// JavaDraw Class Constructor
//----------------------------------------------------
public JavaDraw() {
}
// APPLET INFO SUPPORT:
// The getAppletInfo() method returns a string describing the
// applet’s author, copyright date, or miscellaneous
// information.
//----------------------------------------------------
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public String getAppletInfo() {
return “Name: JavaDraw\r\n” +
“Author: Aaron E. Walsh\r\n”;
}
// PARAMETER SUPPORT
// The getParameterInfo() method returns an array of strings
// describing the parameters understood by this applet.
//
// JavaDraw Parameter Information:
// { “Name”, “Type”, “Description” },
//----------------------------------------------------
public String[][] getParameterInfo() {
String[][] info =
{
{ PARAM_foreColor, “String”, “Specifies default foreground
color of this program (must be a Color class variable)“ },
{ PARAM_backColor, “String”, “Specifies default background
color of this program (must be a Color class variable)” },
};
return info;
}
// The init() method is called by the AWT when an applet is
// first loaded or reloaded.
//----------------------------------------------------
public void init() {
if (!m_fStandAlone)
GetParameters(null);
resize(400, 350);
this.setLayout(new BorderLayout());
setBackground(Color.white);
guiPanel = new WidgetPanel();
add(“North”, guiPanel);
addMouseListener(getMouseListener());
addMouseMotionListener(getMouseMotionListener());
}
MouseListener getMouseListener() {
return new MouseAdapter() {
// The mousePressed() method is called if the mouse button
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// is pressed while the mouse cursor is over the applet’s
// portion of the screen.
//
// We simply update the variables that hold the x and y
// position (oldX, oldY)
//----------------------------------------------------
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e) {
oldX = e.getX();
oldY = e.getY();
}
// The mouseReleased() method is called if the mouse button
// is released while the mouse cursor is over the applet’s
// portion of the screen.
//----------------------------------------------------
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e) {
// force redraw of the “dividing line” between panel
// and canvas in case it was drawn over by user...
update(getGraphics());
}
};
}
MouseMotionListener getMouseMotionListener() {
return new MouseMotionAdapter() {
public void mouseDragged(MouseEvent e) {
// MOUSE SUPPORT:
// The mouseDragged() method is called if the mouse cursor
// moves over the applet’s portion of the screen while the
// mouse button is being held down.
// This is where the real drawing takes place.
JavaDraw.this.draw(e.getX(), e.getY());
}
};
}
void draw(int x, int y)
{// We start by getting a
// reference to the graphics drawing area, then check to see
// what kind of drawing should take place (line, circle, etc.).
// In cases where “fi11ed” and/or 3D drawing can take
// place, it’s allowed (assuming these options
// have been selected by the user).
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//
// Note: Although we get a graphics context each time
// this method is called, performance isn’t a problem.
// However, you can always make the “g” variable a global and
// test for null to determine if a new graphics context
// should be loaded. This technique is illustrated with
// “theImage” seen below in the “Shape. IMAGE” case.
//----------------------------------------------------
//get graphics context in which to draw
Graphics g=getGraphics();
boolean fill = guiPanel.isFilled(), // filled mode?
threeD = guiPanel.isThreeD(); // 3D mode?
switch (guiPanel.getShape()) { // what shape should be drawn?
case Shape. LINE:
g.drawLine(oldX, oldY, x, y);
break;
case Shape. RECT:
if (fill) {
if (threeD)
g.fill3DRect(oldX, oldY,x, y, true); // fill 3D rect
else
g.fillRect(oldX, oldY, x, y); // fill regular rect
} else {
if (threeD)
g.draw3DRect(oldX+l, oldY+l, x+l, y+l, true); //3D rect
else
g.drawRect(oldX, oldY, x, y); // draw regular rect
}
break;
case Shape.OVAL:
if (fill) {
g.fillOval(oldX, oldY, x, y);
} else {
g.drawOval(oldX, oldY, x, y); // just draw it
}
break;
case Shape.ARC:
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if (fill) {
g.fillArc(oldX, oldY, 100, 100, x, y); // fill it
} else {
g.drawArc(oldX, oldY, 100, 100, x, y); // just draw it
}
break;
case Shape. POLY:
// create x values
int xCoords[] = {x+oldX, x+55, x+65, x+80, x+80, x+oldX};
// create y values
int yCoords[] = {y+oldY, y+38, y+55, y+30, y+75, y+oldY};
// create polygon
Polygon thePoly = new
Polygon(xCoords,yCoords,xCoords.length);
if (fill) {
g.fillPolygon(thePoly); // fill it
} else {
g.drawPolygon(thePoly); // just draw it
}
break;
case Shape.TEXT:
g.setFont( new Font (“Courier”, Font. BOLD, y/6) );
g.drawString(“JavaDraw!”, x, y);
break;
case Shape. IMAGE:
if (theImage==null)
if (m_fStandAlone) {
theImage =
Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().getImage(imagePath);
} else {
theImage = getImage(getCodeBase(),imagePath);
}
int h = theImage.getHeight(this);
int w = theImage.getWidth(this);
if (fill) {
// draw image and fill transparent parts
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// with foreground color:
g.drawImage(theImage. x - (w/2), y - (h/2),
getForeground(), this);
} else {
// just draw it:
g.drawImage(theImage, x-(w/2), y - (h/2), this);
}
break;
default: break;
}
// dispose graphics context
g.dispose();
// update oldX,oldY to keep track of last mouse position:
oldX=x;
oldY=y;
}
}
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Java Bible:Bringing It All Together with JDK 1.1
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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At first glance, the JavaDraw class looks pretty complicated. However, the essence of this class resides in
only two methods: init () and draw (). The init() method creates an instance of WidgetPanel, JavaDraw’s
toolbar, and inserts it at the top (North) position of the applet window, using a Border layout. The init()
method also registers a mouse button event listener and a mouse motion listener with the applet. These
listeners enable a user to draw on the applet window by dragging the mouse over it. Specifically, when
the user presses the mouse button, the mouse button listener records the location. Then, as the user drags
the mouse over the applet window, the mouse motion listener draws a shape by invoking the applet’s
draw() method.
The draw() method itself is nothing but a big switch statement that draws the shape selected by the
current setting of the toolbar’s shapeChoice menu. Note that for readability, the draw() method uses
symbolic constants, TEXT, POLY, LINE, and so on, to refer to types of shapes. The class Shape defines the
values of these constants (see Listing 22-4). The draw() method also uses a class named UltraColor to
convert color names to color objects (see Listing 22-5).
Listing 22-4: Shape.java
//****************************************************
// Shape.java:
//
//****************************************************
public final class Shape {
public final static int LINE = 0,
RECT = 1,
OVAL = 2,
POLY = 3,
ARC = 4,
TEXT = 5,
IMAGE = 6;
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// CONSTRUCTOR: Shape()
// PRIVATE - Don’t let anyone instantiate this class!
private Shape() {
}
}
Listing 22-5: UltraColor.java
import java.awt.*;
/*
*
* UltraColor
*
*/
public class UltraColor
{
// CONSTRUCTOR: UltraColar()
// PRIVATE- Don’t let anyone instantiate this class!
private UltraColor() {
}
public static Color stringColor (String colorStr {
Color theColor = null;
if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“black”)) {
theColor = Color.black;
} else if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“blue”))
theColor = Color.blue;
} else if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“cyan”))
theColor = Color.cyan;
} else if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“darkGray”))
theColor = Color.darkGray;
} else if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“gray”)) {
theColor = Color.gray;
} else if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“green”)) {
theColor = Color.green;
} else if (colorStr,equalsIgnoreCase(“lightGray”))
theColor = Color.lightGray;
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} else if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“magenta”)) {
theColor = Color.magenta;
} else if (colorStr,equalsIgnoreCase(“orange”)) {
theColor = Color.orange;
} else if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“pink”)) {
theColor = Color.pink;
} else if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“red”)) {
theColor = Col or. red;
} else if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“white”)) {
theColor = Color.white;
} else if (colorStr.equalsIgnoreCase(“yellow”)) {
theColor = Color.yellow;
} else {
System. out.println(“NO COLOR MATCH!”);
}
return theColor;
}
}
Most of the other methods in the JavaDraw class provide support for running JavaDraw either as an
application or as an applet. For example, every Java application must have a static main() method to serve
as an entry point. The JavaDraw class provides such a method. The main() method creates an instance of
the JavaDraw applet inside the JavaDrawFrame class, extracts any command-line arguments, and
initializes the applet. The JavaDraw class also provides a GetParameter () method analogous to the applet
getParameter () method. The applet method extracts parameters from an HTML page that can be used to
customize the applet, the background and initial foreground drawing colors in JavaDraw’s case. The
JavaDraw class’s main() method uses the GetParameter() method to extract the same parameters from the
command line. In this way, JavaDraw lets a user specify these parameters whether it is running as an
application or as an applet.
Finally, Figure 22-3 illustrates the JavaDraw application in action. Now that you’ve seen how to
approach the design and implementation of the JavaDraw applet/application, you’re ready to begin
putting ali of your newly found Java knowledge to work.
Remember to take things a step at a time—begin with your application design and work your
way to the code. Good luck!
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Figure 22-3: The JavaDraw application in action
Summary
In this chapter you’ve learned about the basics of application development. You wouldn’t try to build a
house without a blueprint—so don’t start developing your applications without a plan, either. Keep some
ground rules in mind as you develop your own applications:
• Before jumping keys-first into code, consider exactly what you’re programming; sketch out the
user interface using paper and pen, as discussed in Chapter 3. Taking this approach frees you to
think in detail about the project, refining your goals and plan of attack along the way, without
committing to a single line of code before you’re actually ready.
• Too often, software developers approach programming from an engineering perspective.
Although this isn’t a bad idea, it tends to result in a more complicated product for the end user.
Instead of focusing on what the user should actually see and do, developers often concentrate
their efforts on the underlying code. As a result, the interface becomes almost an afterthought,
shoehorned into the constraints imposed by the implementation.
• We don’t have to go nuts about applying complicated object-oriented analysis and design, but
it’s important to at least get a lay of the land before blazing new trails. At least consider your
interface and how it dictates the objects you’ll end up coding.
• Take a step-by-step approach to your application development. Start by building the basics of
your user interface and flesh out your application from there.
• Finally, don’t forget to take the necessary time to test and debug your application before you
turn it loose on the unsuspecting public!
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Java Bible:Introducing Java Foundation Classes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 23
Introducing Java Foundation Classes
In This Chapter
Defining the Java Foundation Classes (JFC)
Distinguishing JFC from the Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT)
Reviewing Model-View-Controller architecture
Examining Swing classes
Looking at other available Java.related foundation classes
Just what you need—another set of classes to learn before you get to create a user interface for your
programs. The Java Foundation Classes (JFC) can give you more than just another set of user-interface
classes—JFC helps you add a more professional look and feel to your Java applications than you can
with the Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT). The JFC adds more than just a bit of polish to your user
interface. It provides the following features:
• Works with the Java Beans model
• Supports drag-and-drop
• Generates greater support for forms-based applications
• Uses a set of interface widgets
• Provides a pluggable look and feel
• Gives a framework for displaying your user interface
JFC’s Components
So many components must come together to build the user interface for your applications that it’s
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important to take a moment to sort them out.
The JFC isn’t just a single component; it’s actually made up of the following five different
APIs:
• AWT—The original Java GUI component set. The AWT serves as the foundation for many of
the Swing classes, described in the next section.
• Java 2D—A set of classes for 2D graphics and imaging. Primarily used to draw line-based
graphics and images.
• Accessibility—Designed to provide user interface assistance for people with disabilities.
Includes screen magnifiers and audible text readers.
• Drag-and-Drop—Enables data transfer between Java applications and between Java and
native applications.
• Swing—The Swing classes include a new set of interface widgets, including existing AWT
components and more interactive widgets. The Swing classes are loosely based on Netscape’s
Internet Foundation Classes.
So why did they call it Swing, anyway? While at the 1997 JavaOne show in San Francisco,
JavaSoft engineers were showing off a new GUI component set in a musically-based demo.
JavaSoft engineer George Saab joked that music critics were calling swing music the in sound.
Since the classes didn’t have a name yet, Swing seemed like a good choice—after all, Java
already has its own Duke (that funkylooking dancing guy).
Examining Swing Classes
Yes, Swing brings along yet another revision to the Abstract Windowing Toolkit. A number of new
classes are richer and more complicated than their AWT counterparts, but they’re fairly lightweight and
should be easy to use. The Swing classes are designed to be backward-compatible with older code.
Figure 23-1 illustrates the widgets provided by Swing that replace the older AWT versions.
Figure 23-1: The class hierarchy of Swing classes that have AWT counterparts
It’s easy to remember the names of the new Swing classes that have AWT counterparts, Just
put a J in front of the old AWT class name. For example, Label now becomes JLabel.
However, Swing actually includes twice the number of components than there were in the AWT. Figure
23-2 illustrates the hierarchy of these components.
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Figure 23-2: The class hierarchy of Swing classes
Most of the new widgets in Swing provide the basics of user interface design. There are classes for
labels, buttons, check boxes, lists, combo boxes, text fields, and menus. But Swing also includes more
sophisticated components, as well, such as sliders, progress bars, tree controls, tool tips, and tables.
Swing also makes putting graphics into menus easier; Swing widgets offer other improvements as well:
• They redraw themselves more efficiently.
• They can be layered:
• They can be drawn transparently over one another.
In the earlier AWT models, user interface widgets were native classes. This meant that each component
was mapped to its native operating system equivalent. While this worked well, the problem with this
approach was that these classes had to be rewritten for each platform Java supported. This caused
variations in the way a user interface of a Java application looked on different platforms. Swing brings
the promise that the look and feel of controls across user interfaces will be much more consistent,
because the interface elements were no longer implemented using the native operating system. All
Swing interface elements are implemented using only Java. The new AWT event mode[ is still present
in the Swing classes. (The AWT 1.0 event model can’t be used with the Swing widgets, though.)
Model-View-Controller (MVC) architecture
The look and feel of Java Swing components are implemented in pluggable modules, meaning it’s
possible to create custom look-and-feel modules to change the way Swing components work. You can
even change the look and feel of your application components while your application is running.
Another way Swing supports the separation of widgets from native code is through the use of the Model-
View-Controller (MVC) architecture. The MVC architecture separates each widget component into
three parts: a model, a view, and a controller. The model component contains the widget’s data. The
view component handles screen display. And the controller component contains the code that is used to
manipulate the components. Swing components are also JavaBeans (see Chapter 26) and participate in
the JavaBeans event model.
MVC is a methodology that is often used when building user interfaces, in an MVCbased user interface,
there are three communicating objects: the model, view, and controller. The model is the underlying
logical representation, the view is the visual representation, and the controller specifies how to handle
user input. When a model changes, it notifies all views that depend on it. This provides two important,
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powerful features:
• You can base multiple views of the same object on the same model.
• Because models specify nothing in the way the user interface element looks, you can modify or
create views without affecting the underlying model.
A view uses a controller to specify the way it responds. For example, the controller component
determines what to do when receiving mouse or keyboard input.
While the primary purpose of the MVC model is for building user interfaces, it can be also used to
establish a notification protocol between nonvisual objects. A model object can send change
notifications to another set of objects without knowing details about those objects.
This same behavior has been provided in Java since version 1.0 through the Observer/Observable
objects in java.util package.
Swing represents components where the view and controller components are combined into an object
called a delegate. Delegates represent the model, just like the view component in the MVC model, and
translate user input into the model, just like the controller component in the MVC model. While the
communication that occurs between the view and controller components is quite complex, it helps to
simplify the component design process.
Swing widgets are subclasses of JComponent, such as JButton. A JComponent object has a single model and
a single delegate associated with it. Models for a particular JComponent are classes that implement a
model interface specific to that JComponent. For example, for a class to act as a JButton’s model, it must
implement the ButtonModel interface. Delegates are also implementations of a delegate interface that is
specific to the JComponent. The delegate/model hierarchy used by the JButton Swing component is
illustrated in Figure 23-3.
Figure 23-3: The delegate/model hierarchy used by the JButton Swing component
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Java Bible:Introducing Java Foundation Classes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Inheritance differences between Swing and AWT
Figure 23-1 illustrates how a number of the Swing user interface classes are descended from the
JComponent class. For those who have used the AWT in the past, after a quick look it could appear that
all of the Swing classes are inherited from the JComponent class in the same way all classes are inherited
from the Component class in the AWT. However, if you take a closer look at the figure, you’ll notice
some subtle and interesting differences between the way Swing classes are inherited from the JComponent
class and the way AWT classes were inherited from the Component class. A closer look at the button and
menu widget objects can help to illustrate the differences more clearly. (Chapter 24 examines all the
Swing widgets in more detail.)
Button widget changes
There are a number of major differences between Swing and AWT button widget classes. The AWT
provides only two button classes—Button and CheckBox, as shown in Figure 23-4.
Figure 23-4: Button and Checkbox class inheritance with AWT
In Swing, two new kinds of buttons have been added, and the button-component hierarchy tree has been
rearranged, as shown in Figure 23-5.
Figure 23-5: JCheckBox, JRadioButton, and JButton class inheritance with Swing
Swing has both a radio-button class and a check-box class. In the older AWT, there wasn’t a radio-
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button class; the CheckBox functioned as both a check-box class and a radio-button class.
In Swing, the JRadioButton and JCheckBox descend from another new button class named JToggleButton.
All of the Swing button classes (JButton, JToggleButton, JRadioButton, and JCheckBox) are inherited from an
abstract class named AbstractButton, which neatly encapsulates all their common features and capabilities.
The AbstractButton class is directly inherited from the JComponent class.
Menu widget changes
You may know that in the older AWT model, the menu classes descended from the java.lang.Object class
(as shown in Figure 23-6), instead of from the Component class.
Figure 23-6: Menu class inheritance with AWT
In Swing, all menu classes are descended from the JComponent class, as shown in Figure 23-7. As you
can see, the newer Swing model results in a more complex object hierarchy—the JButton and JMenu
classes are closely linked together—this arrangement makes it easier to implement button and menu
events.
Figure 23-7: JMenu, JRadioButtonMenuItem, JCheckBoxMenuItem class inheritance with Swing
Swing also provides a new interface, the Action interface, which listens for both menu and button events
simultaneously. This capability now makes it easier to coordinate button and menu events then was ever
possible before.
Packages
Thirteen packages comprise the Swing classes. Each class has its own purpose:
• com.sun.java.swing—This high-level Swing package primarily contains components, adapters,
default component models, and interfaces for all the delegates and models.
• com.sun.java.swing.basic—This basic Swing package contains the User Interface (UI) classes,
which implement the default look and feel for Swing components.
• com.sun.java.swing.beaninfo—The beaninfo package contains BeanInfo support classes for when the
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Swing components are used within a Bean-connecting tool (see Chapter 26 for more information
on the JavaBeans programming model).
• com.sun.java.swing.border—The border package declares the Border interface and classes, which
define specific border rendering styles.
• com.sun.java.swing.event—The event package is for the Swing-specific event types and listeners.
Swing components can generate their own event types, in addition to the java.awt.event types.
• com.sun.java.swing.multi—The multi package contains the multiplexing user interface classes,
which permit the creation of components from different user interface factories.
• com.sun.java.swing.plaf—The plaf package contains the Pluggable Look-and-Feel API, used to
define custom interfaces.
• com.sun.java.swing.table—The table package contains the interfaces and classes that support the
Swing JTable component.
• com.sun.java.swing.target—The target package contains the support classes for action target
management.
• com.sun.java.swing.text—The text package contains the support classes for the Swing document
framework.
• com.sun.java.swing.text.html—The text.html package contains the support classes for basic HTML
rendering.
• com.sun.java.swing.undo—The undo package provides the support classes for implementing undo/
redo capabilities in a GUI.
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Java Bible:Introducing Java Foundation Classes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Summarizing the Swing Classes
Table 23-1 summarizes the classes provided in the Swing component package. Each Swing user-
interface class component is reviewed in detail in Chapter 24.
Table 23-1
Classes Provided in the Swing Component Package
Component Description
Japplet Implements a Java applet.
JAppletBednInfo Provides information about JApplet to bean-based tools.
JButton Implements a button component.
JButtonBeanInfo Provides information about JButton for bean-based tools.
JCheckBox Implements a check-box component.
JCheckBoxBeanInfo Provides information about JCheckBox for bean-based tools.
JCheckBoxMenuItem Implements a check-box menu item.
JCheckBoxMenuItem Provides information about JCheckBoxMenuItem for bean-based tools.
BeanInfo
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JColorChooser Displays and manages a color-chooser dialog.
JColorChooserBean Provides information about JColorChooser for bean-based tools.
Info
JComboBox Implements a combo-box component.
JComboBoxBeanInfo Provides information about JComboBox for bean-based tools.
JComponent The mother of all Swing components.
JComponentBeanInfo Provides information about JComponent for bean-based tools.
JDesktopIcon Displays an iconified version of a JInternalFrame.
JDesktopIconBeaninfo Provides information about JDesktopIcon for bean-based tools.
JDesktopPane Provides a pluggable DesktopManager object for JInternalFrame objects.
JDesktopPaneBean Provides information about JDesktopPane for bean-based Info tools.
JDialog Adds enhancements Java.awt.Dialog
JDialogBeanInfo Provides information about JDiaIog for bean-based tools.
JfileChooser Implements a file-chooser dialog box.
JFileChooserBeanInfo Provides information about JFi1eChooser for bean-based tools.
JFrame Adds enhancements to java.awt.Frame.
JFrameBeanInfo Provides information about JFrame for bean-based tools.
JinternalFrame Implements a frame object that can be placed inside a JDesktopPane object
to emulate a native frame window.
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JInternalFrameBeanInfo Provides information about JInternalFrame for bean-based tools.
JLabel Creates a display area for displaying read-only text, an image, or both.
JLabeIBeanInfo Provides information about JLabe1 for bean-based tools.
JLayeredPane Can display multiple layered panes (JInternalFrame objects) inside a frame
JLayeredPaneBeanInfo Provides information about JLayeredPane for bean-based tools.
JList Allows the user to select one or more objects from a list. A separate
model, ListModel, represents the contents of the list.
JListBeanInfo Provides information about JList for bean-based tools.
JMenu Implements a menu component.
JMenuBeanInfo Provides information about JMenu for bean-based tools.
JMenuBar Implements a menu bar component.
JMenuBarBeanInfo Provides information about JMenuBar for bean-based tools.
JMenuItem Implements a menu item component.
JMenuItemBeanInfo Provides information about JMenuItem for bean-based tools.
JOptionPane Displays a dialog box that prompts the user for a choice and then passes
that choice on to the executing program.
JOptionPaneBeanInfo Provides information about JOptionPane for bean-based tools.
JPanel Provides a generic container for organizing other components.
JPanelBeanInfo Provides information about JPanel for bean-based tools.
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JPasswordField Displays a field in which the user can type a password. The text of the
password does not appear in the field as it is being typed.
JPasswordFieldBeanInfo Provides information about JPasswordField for bean-based tools.
JPopupMenu Implements a pop-up menu.
JPopupMenuBeanInfo Provides information about JPopupMenu for bean-based tools.
JProgressBar Implements a progress-bar component.
JProgressBarBeanInfo Provides information about JProgressBar for bean-based tools.
JRadioButton Implements a radio-button control.
JRadioButtonBeanInfo Provides information about JRadioButton for bean-based tools.
JRadioButtonMenuItem Implements a radio-button menu item.
JradioButtonMenultemBeanInfo Provides information about JRadioButtonMenuItem for bean-based tools.
JRootPane Instantiates in a single step an object made up of a glass pane, a layered
pane, an optional menu bar, and a content pane.
JRootPaneBeanInfo Provides information about JRootPane for bean-based tools.
JScrollBar Implements a scroll-bar object.
JScrollBarBeanInfo Provides information about JScrollBar for bean-based tools.
JScrollPane Implements a scroll-pane object.
JScrollPaneBeanInfo Provides information about JScroll Pane for bean-based tools.
JSeparator Implements a menu separator object.
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JSeparatorBeanInfo Provides information about JSeparator for bean-based tools.
JSlider Implements a slider-bar object.
JSliderBeanInfo Provides information about JSlider for bean-based tools.
JSplitPane Implements a split-pane component.
JSplitPaneBeanInfo Provides information about JSplitPane for bean-based tools.
JTabbedPane Implements a tabbed-pane (“property-page”) component.
JTabbedPaneBeanInfo Provides information about JTabbedPane for bean-based tools.
JTable Implements a table component.
JTableBeanInfo Provides information about JTable for bean-based tools.
JTextArea Implements a multiline area that can display editable or read-only text.
JTextAreaBeanInfo Provides information about JTextArea for bean-based tools.
JTextPane Implements a text component that can be marked up with attributes to be
represented graphically.
JTextPane-BeanInfo Provides information about JTextPane for bean-based tools.
JToggleButton Implements a two-stage button component.
JToggleButtonBeanInfo Provides information about JToggleButton for bean-based tools.
JToolbar Implements a dockable, floatable tool bar.
JToolBarBeanInfo Provides information about JToolBar for bean-based tools.
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JToolTip Implements a tool-tip component (a component that can display a short
string, such as the name of components or a user tip).
JToolTipBeanInfo Provides information about JToolTip for bean-based tools.
JTree A component that can display a set of hierarchical data in a graphical
outline format.
JTreeBeanInfo Provides information about JTree for bean-based tools.
JViewport Provides a clipped view of an arbitrarily large component. Used by
JScrollPane.
JViewportBeanInfo Provides reformation about JViewport for bean-based tools.
JWindow Adds enhancements to java.awt.Window.
JWindowBeanInfo Provides information about JWindow for bean-based tools.
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Java Bible:Introducing Java Foundation Classes
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Other Foundation Classes
It’s important to keep in mind that other competing interface classes are also being developed by
Netscape and Microsoft. The Netscape lnternet Foundation Classes (IFC) share a common foundation
with the Swing classes. Like everything Microsoft, the Application Foundation Classes (AFC) are
wholly Microsoft and take on their own approach to user interface design. Neither of the aforementioned
foundation classes have made a major stake in the Java application development world. It’s important to
know, though, that there are other Java user-interface classes available. Hopefully a single user-interface
class will dominate in the future. Our bet is it will be Swing.
Internet Foundation Classes
The design of the Swing class library borrowed heavily from Netscape’s Internet Foundation Class
library. The Swing class developers worked closely with Netscape to integrate the best features of both
the old AWT and IFC into a new and better user-interface class library. Although both the IFC and
Swing classes share the same background, the Swing classes as they exist today are quite different. If
you’re interested in finding out more about the Netscape Internet Foundation classes, visit the lnternet
Foundation Class library Web site at http://www.nets cape.com/.
Application Foundation Classes
The Application Foundation Classes, or AFC, is Microsoft’s answer to the AWT. The AFC builds on the
AWT foundation to provide more user-friendly controls for your applications. The Application
Foundation Classes are provided in the following three packages:
• com.ms.ui—This User Interface package, which provides the primary framework for applets,
applications, and user interface controls. The User Interface package is what most people will be
referring to when they speak of the AFC. The User Interface package includes menus, buttons,
canvases, edit controls, frames, lists, marquees, panels, radio buttons, scrollers, and tree view
controls.
• com.ms.fx—This FX package provides advanced graphic controls in your applications,
including control over colors, fonts, curves, text, and textures. The FX package provides more
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flexibility than AWT because it is not limited to only system-defined standards. Especially when
developing intranet applications, you can use the FX classes to use all of your system’s available
fonts and colors.
• com.ms. resource—This Resource package provides access to Win-32 resources, including dialog
boxes and string tables, from your Java applications.
The User Interface package is the heart of the AFC. The AFC is built on the foundation laid by the
AWT. If you’re already familiar with using the AWT, much of what you already know will remain
familiar. Figure 23-8 illustrates the AFC hierarchy. The class names preceded by an asterisk (*) are
AWT classes. As you can see, all of the Application Foundation Classes extend from these base AWT
classes. Figure 23-9 illustrates the class hierarchy of the user interface elements provided by the AFC.
Many of these elements will he familiar to those familiar with AWT (for example, buttons, check boxes,
and radio buttons) while others were not previously available (for example, tree control, marquee, and so
on).
Before you think There goes Microsoft, trying to usurp yet another piece of the Java world, let’s take a
closer look. The AFC is built upon and extends the AWT, making it possible to mix both user interface
models in your applications, which helps to preserve your user interface investment in your current
applications and ease the transition over to a new programming model. Other user interface class models
usually force a developer to choose between the AWT and another library.
Unlike the AWT and Swing, the AFC isn’t entirely written in Java, and in some cases is based on
DirectX components; thus, AFC only runs on Win32 platforms. The Application Foundation Classes
provide new and better scroll bars and sliders, a tree control, a tab display, the ability to move through
the user interface using just the keyboard, and a file-system explorer. The Application Foundation
Classes permit the development of applications with user interfaces that are familiar to users of
traditional Windows-based applications.
Figure 23-8: The MFC class hierarchy
Figure 23-9: The MFC User Interface class hierarchy
Building Java applications with the Application Foundation Classes is no different from building your
applications using the AWT. Instead of using the Applet and Frame classes, the UIapplet and UIFrame
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classes are substituted instead. Since the UIApplet and UIFrame classes are extended from the AWT Applet
and Frame classes it is possible to mix both AWT and AFC components. Listing 23-1 demonstrates how
to create a shell AFC applet. Listing 23-2 demonstrates how to create the HTML necessary to call the
shell applet. The AFC can also be used to create standalone applications. Listing 23-3 demonstrates how
to create a standalone shell application using the AFC. In its current release, the Application Foundation
Classes support both the traditional event-handling model as used in these examples, and the event
delegation model supported by JDK 1.1.
Listing 23-1: How to Create a Shell AFC Applet
// A shell AFC applet. Use this as a template
// for building your own AFC applets.
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
import com.ms.ui.*;
import com.ms.fx.*;
public class AFCAppletShell extends UIApplet {
public init() {
setBackground(FXColor.gray);
// Add other user interface components here
}
}
Listng 23-2: HTML Required to Embed the AFC Applet
<HTML>
<TITLE>A Shell AFC Applet</TITLE>
<CENTER>An Example AFC Applet</CENTER>
<APPLET CODE=AFCAppletShell.class
ID=AFCAppletShell
WIDTH=200
HEIGHT=200>
</APPLET>
</HTML>
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Listing 23-3: How to Create a Shell AFC Applet
// Listing 3: A shell AFC application. Use this
// as a template for building your own AFC
// applications.
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt.*;
import com.ms.ui.*;
import com.ms.fx.*;
public class AFCAppShell extends UIApplet {
public static void main(String args[]) {
AFCShellFrame frame : new
new AFCShellFrame(“AFC Application Shell”);
frame.show();
frame.resize(200,200);
AFCAppShell applet = new AFCAppShell();
// Add the applet to the frame
frame.add(applet);
applet.init();
}
public init() {
setBackground(FXColor.gray);
// Add other user interface components here
}
}
class AFCShellFrame extends UIFrame {
// Frame constructor
public AFCShellFrame(String str) {
super(str);
}
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// Frame event handler
public boolean handleEvent(Event evnt) {
switch(evnt.id) {
// Close the application
case Event.WINDOW_DESTROY:
System.exit(O);
return(true);
// Pass all other events to the UIFrame
// event handler
default:
super.handleEvent(evnt);
}
}
}
Summary
The Java Foundation Classes are more than just another set of user interface classes—they help you add
a more professional look and feel to your Java applications than you can achieve with the AWT.
• The JFC isn’t just a single component, it’s actually a set of five different APIs: AWT, Java 2D,
Accessibility, Drag-and-Drop, and Swing.
• Most of the new widgets in Swing provide the basics of user interface design. There are classes
for labels, buttons, check boxes, lists, combo boxes, text fields, and menus. But Swing also
includes more sophisticated components as well, such as sliders, progress bars, tree controls, tool
tips, and tables.
• Swing supports the separation of widgets from native code through the use of the Model-View-
Controller (MVC) architecture. The MVC architecture separates each widget component into
three parts: a model, a view, and a controller. The model component contains the widget’s data.
The view component handles screen display. And the controller component contains the code
which is used to manipulate the components.
• The JFC isn’t the only game in town—competing interface classes are also being developed by
Netscape and Microsoft. The Netscape Internet Foundation Classes (IFC) share a common
foundation with the Swing classes. Like everything Microsoft, the Application Foundation
Classes (AFC) are wholly Microsoft and take their own approach to user-interface design.
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Java Bible:Getting in the Swing of Things
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 24
Getting in the Swing of Things
In This Chapter
Introducing Swing
Looking at Swing objects
Do you have your feet in the batter’s box, all ready to take a swing? If so, then your’re ready to take a
swing? If so, then you’re ready to take a look at Swing’s user-interface classes—the major new
component of the Java Foundation Classes. They are the new path to user interface design with JDK 1.2
and beyond. This chapter reviews the packages that comprise the Swing user-interface classes and
reviews Swing’s major interface components. A discussion of the Swing classes and user interface
components could easily produce an entire book on its own. This chapter presents a simpler, down-and-
dirty review of the Swing user-interface components, followed by a method reference. (If you’re
interested in a more in-depth treatment of the JFC, read JFC: Java Foundation Classes by Daniel I.
Joshi and Pavel A. Vorobiev, IDG Books Worldwide.) There’s no time to waste—it’s time to get into
the game and hit a home run.
Introduction to the Swing Packages
Swing user-interface classes come in thirteen different packages, as listed in Table 24-1.
Table 24-1
Swing Packages
Swing Package Definition
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com.sun.java.swing This high-level Swing package primarily contains
components, adapters, default component models, and
interfaces for all the delegates and models.
com.sun.java.swing.basic This basic Swing package contains the User Interface (UI)
classes that implement the default look and feel for Swing
components.
com.sun.java.swing.beaninfo The beaninfo package contains BeanInfo support classes for
when the Swing components are used within a Bean-
connecting tool (see Chapter 26 for more information on the
JavaBeans programming model).
com.sun.java.swing.border The border package declares the Border interface and classes,
which define specific border rendering styles.
com.sun.java.swing.event The event package is for the Swing-specific event types and
listeners. Swing components can generate their own event
types, in addition to the java.awt.event types.
com.sun.java.swing.multi The multi package contains the multiplexing user interface
classes that permit the creation of components from different
user interface factories.
com.sun.java.swing.plaf The plaf package contains the Pluggable Lookand-Feel APl
used to define custom interfaces.
com.sun.java.swing.table The table package contains the interfaces and classes that
support the Swing table component.
com.sun.java.swing.target The target package contains the support classes for action
target management.
com.sun.java.swing.text The text package contains the support classes for the Swing
document framework.
com.sun.java.swing.text.html The text.html package contains the support classes for basic
HTML rendering.
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com.sun.java,swing.undo The undo package provides the support classes for
implementing undo/redo capabilities in a GUI environment.
Swing Objects
A number of objects comprise the Swing user interface classes, as shown in Figure 24-1, which
illustrates the Swing object hierarchy. As you’ll notice, Swing has twice the number of components than
there were in the AWT. Most of the new widgets in Swing provide the basics of user interface design.
You’ll find classes for labels, buttons, check boxes, lists, combo boxes, text fields, and menus. But
Swing also includes more sophisticated components as well, such as sliders, progress bars, tree controls,
tool tips, and tables. Let’s look at the basic Swing objects in detail.
Figure 24-1: The Swing user-interface class hierarchy
AbstractButton
The AbstractButton class defines the inherent behavior of all Swing buttons. The AbstractButton class isn’t a
class you would use directly—though several of the more commonly used JComponent classes inherit a
lot of their behavior from this object. For example, the icon usage methods getIcon() and setIcon() are
inherited from the AbstractButton class. Table 24-2 lists and describes the methods provided by the
AbstractButton class.
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Java Bible:Getting in the Swing of Things
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Table 24-2
AbstractButon Methods
Method Description
AddAcessibleSelection(int) Calls setSelected(true).
addActionListener(ActionListener) Adds an ActionListener to the button.
addChangeListener(ChangeListener) Adds a ChangeListener to the button.
addltemListener(ItemListener) Adds an ItemListener to the checkbox.
checkHorizontalKey(int, String) Ensures that the key is valid.
checkVerticalKey(int, String) Ensures that the key is valid.
clearAccessibleSelection() Calls setSelected(false).
createChangeListener() Subclasses that want to handle ChangeEvents differently can
override this to return another ChangeListener implementation.
doAccessibleAction(int) Performs the specified Action on the object.
doClick() Programatically performs a “click”
doClic() Programatically performs a “click”
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getAccessibleActionCount() Returns the number of Actions available in this object.
getAccessibleAction Description(int) Returns a description of the specified action of the object.
getAccessibleName() Gets the accessible name of this object.
getAcessibleSelection(int) Returns Accessible-representing the specified selected item in
the object.
getAccessibleSelectionCount() Returns the number of items currently selected.
getAccessibleStateSet() Gets the state set of this object.
getAccessibtevalue() Gets the value of this object as a Number.
getActionCommand() Returns the action command for this button.
getDisabledIcon() Returns the icon used by the button when it’s disabled.
getDisabledSelectedIcon() Returns the icon used by the button when it’s disabled and
selected.
getHorizontalAlignment() Returns the horizontal alignment of the icon and text.
getHorizontalTextPosition() Sets the horizontal position of the text relative to the icon.
getIcon() Returns the default icon.
getKeyAccelerator() Returns the keyboard accelerator from the current model.
getLabel() This method is deprecated-it’s no longer used,
getMargin() Returns the margin between the button’s border and the label.
getMaximumAccessibleValue() Gets the maximum value ofthisobject as a Number.
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getMinimumAccessibleValue() Gets the minimum value ofthisobject as a Number.
getModel() Gets the model that this button represents.
getPressedIcon() Returns the pressed icon for the button.
getRolloverIcon() Returns the roliover icon for the button.
getRolloverSelectedIcon() get rollover selection icon for the button.
getSelectedIcon() Returns the selected icon for the button.
getText() Returns the button’s text.
getUI() Returns the button’s current UI.
getVerticalAlignment() Returns the vertical alignment of the text and icon.
getVertical TextPosition() Returns the vertical position of the text relative to the icon
valid keys: CENTER (the default), TOP, BOTTOM.
isBorderPainted() Returns whether the border should be painted.
isFocusPainted() Returns whether focus should be painted.
isRooloverEnabled() Checks whether rollover effects are enabled.
isSelected() Returns the state of the button.
paintBorder(Graphics) Paints the button’s border if BorderPainted property is true.
removeAccessibleSelection(int) Calls setSelected(false).
removeActionListener (ActionListener) Removes an ActionListener from the button.
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removeChangeListener (ChangeListener) Removes a ChangeListener from the button.
removeItemListener(ItemListener) Removes an ItemListener from the button.
selectAllAccessibleSelection() Calls setSelected(true).
setAccessibleValue(Number) Set the value of this object as a Number.
setActionCommand(String) Sets the action command for this button.
setBorderPainted(bollean) Sets whether the Border should be painted.
setDisabedIcon(Icon) Sets the disabled icon for the button.
setBorderPainted(boolen) Sets whether the border should be painted
setDisabledSelectedIcon(Icon) Sets the disabled selection icon for the button.
setEnabled(boolean) Enables (or disables) the button.
setFocusPainted(boolean) Sets whether focus should be painted.
setHorizontalAlignment(int) Sets the horizontal alignment of the icon and text.
setHorizontalTextPosition(int) Sets the horizontal position of the text relative to the icon.
setIcon(Icon) Sets the button’s default icon.
setKeyAccelerator(int) Sets the keyboard accelerator for the current model.
setLabel(String) This method has been deprecated-it’s no longer used.
setMargin(Insets) Sets space for the margin between the button’s border and the
label.
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setModel(ButtonModel) Sets the model that this button represents.
setOpaque(boolean) Fills the button’s background with background color if true.
setPressedIcon(Icon) Sets the pressed icon for the button.
setRolloverEnabled(boolean) Enable or disable rollover effects.
setRolloverSelectedIcon(Icon) Sets the rollover selected icon for the button.
setSelected(boolean) Sets the state of the button.
setSelectedIcon(Icon) Sets the selected icon for the button.
setText(String) Sets the bitton’s UI
setUI(ButtonUI) Sets the button’s UI.
setVerticalAlignment(int) Sets the vertical alignment of the icon and text.
setVerticalTextPosition(int) Sets the vertical position of the text relative to the icon.
updateUI() Gets a new UI object from the default User Interface factory.
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Java Bible:Getting in the Swing of Things
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Other common behaviors inherited from the AbstractButton class include:
• The setDisabledIcon, setDisabledSelectedIcon, setPressedIcon, setRolloverIcon, setRolloverSelectedIcon,
and setSelectedIcon methods are used to change the displayed icon, based on the button state.
• The doClick method is used to select the button.
• The setKeyAccelerator method is used to add a keyboard accelerator character to a text label.
• The setVerticalTextPosition and setHorizontalTextPosition methods are used to position text in
different areas around an icon.
• The setVerticalAlignment and setHorizontalAlignment methods are used to anchor an icon or text in
different areas of a button.
JButton
A Swing JButton object can be used just like the older AWT button (java.awt.Button)—to create a user
interface push button. It also responds in the same manner as an AWT button by sending a message to
an ActionListener whenever the button is clicked. By default the background color of a JButton is the same
as the background color of the container control, so you need to set the background color to SystemColor.
control whenever you create a JButton. Listing 24-1 demonstrates how to create a JButton.
Listing 24-1: How to create a simple JButton Object
public class ButtonPanel extends JPand\el {
Public ButtonPanel () {
JButton myButton= new JButton (“Muy JBButton”)"
myButton.setBAckground (SstemColor.control);
add(myButton);
}
}
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You can also include an icon on a JButton, as demonstrated in Listing 24-2. Table 24-3 lists and describes
the JButton class—remember that much of the JButton behaviour is inherited from the AbstractButton class.
Listing 24-2: How to Create a JButton Object that Also displays an Icon
public class ButtonPanel extends JPanel {
public ButtonPanel () {
Icon myIcon = new ImageIcon(“MyButtonIcon.gif”);
JButton myButton = new JButton(“My JButton”);
myButton.setBackground (SystemColor.control);
add(myButton);
}
}
Table 24-3
JButton Methods
Method Description
void updateUI() Notification from the User Interface factory that the look and
fell have changed
public StringgetUIClassID() Returns a string that specifies the name of the look-and-feel
class that renders this component.
publicAccessibleRolegetAccessiblerole() Get the role of this object
JCheckBox
A JCheckBox is similar to an AWT Checkbox that isn’t part of a CheckboxGroup. You can specify your own
icon to be used to illustrate the unchecked and checked state of the check box. Listing 24-3 demonstrates
how to create a JCheckBox object. Table 24-4 lists and describes the method provided by the JCheckBox
class— once again, remember that much of the JCheckBox behavior is inherited from the AbstractButton
class.
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Listing 24-3: How to Create a Simple JCheckBox Object
public class ButtonPanel extends JPanel {
public ButtonPanel () {
// Create checkbox with its state initialized to true
JCheckBox box1 = new JCheckBox(“Check Box 1”, true);
boxl.setIcon(unchecked);
boxl.setSelectedIcon(checked);
// Create checkbox with its state initialized
// to false
JCheckBox box2 : new JCheckBox(“Check Box 2”, false);
box2.setIcon(unchecked);
box2.setSelectedIcon(checked);
add(box1);
add(box2);
};
};
Table 24-4
JCheckBoc Methods
Method Description
getAccessibleActionDescription(int) Returns a description of the specified action of the object.
getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
updateUI() Notification from the User Interface factory that the look and
fell have changed.
JComboBox
The JComboBox works just like AWT’s Choice component—providing a drop-down list of choices in an
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edit box—although some of the methods have been renamed. As with the Choice component, the
JComboBox object also provides an editable option. You can create a JComboBox with a list of default
choices, but still allow the entry of another value through the use of the editable option, as shown in
Listing 24-4. Whenever the user presses a key that matches the first letter of a default choice, it is
automatically displayed. Table 24-5 lists and describes the methods provided by the JCombBox class.
Listing 24-4: How to create a Simple JComboBox Object
public class ComboPanel extends JPanel {
String choices[] : {“Choice1”, “Choice2”,“Choice3”};
public ComboPanel() {
JComboBox combol = new JComboBox();
for (int i=O;i>choices.length;i++) {
combol,addItem (choices[i]);
}
// Allow the Combo Box to be editable combol.setEditable(true);
// Set the maximum number of rows to display
combol.setMaximumRowCount(4);
add(combol);
}
}
Table 24-5
JComboBBox Methods
Method Description
actionPerformed(ActionEvent) This method is public as an implementation side-effect
addActionListener(ActionListener) Adds an ActionListener.
addItemListener(ItemListener) Adds an ItemListener.
contentsChanged(ListDataEvent) This method is public as an implementation side-effect.
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getActionCommand() Returns the action command that is included in the event sent
to action listeners.
getItemCount() Accesses the model.
getSelectedObjects() Returns an array containing the selected item.
hidePopup() Causes the combo box to hide its popup.
insertItemAt(Object, int) Inserts an item in the item list ata given index.
isFocusTraversable() Identifies whether or not this component can receive the
focus.
isOpaque() Returns true if this componentis completely opaque.
processKeyEvent(KeyEvent) Overrides processKeyEvent to process events.
removeActionListener(ActionListener) Removes an ActionListener.
removeAllItems() Convenience to remove all items. This method works only if
the receiving JComboBox uses the default JComboBox data
model.
removeItem(Object) Removes an item from the item list.
removeItemAt(int) Removes the item at anIndex.
removeItemListener(ItemListener) Removes an ItemListener.
selectedItemChanged() This method is called when the selected item changes.
setActionCommand(String) Sets the action command that should be included in the event
sent to action listeners.
setSelectedItem(Object) Sets the receiving JComboBox selected item.
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showPopup() Causes the combo box to show its popup.
updateUI() Overriden from JComponent to change the UIaccording to the
default factory.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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JFrame
The Window class hierarchy is different from the AWT. All the Swing Window classes are subclassed
from the Window object, not JComponent, like many of the other Swing components. The JFrame class
replaces the AWT’s Frame class, providing a frame for your windows where you can add menus and
toolbars. You have two ways to add a menu to your JFrame: you can add older java.awt.MenuBar objects
using the setMenuBar method, or you can add a JMenuBar to a JFrame using the setdMenuBar method.
The other major difference between the dFrame class and the AWT Frame class is that you can no longer
directly add components or use setLayout() to change the Frame LayoutManager. Now, you need to get a
content pane, and then you can add components to that or change its layout. Listing 24-5 demonstrates
how to create a JFrame object. Table 24-6 lists and describes the methods provided by the JFrame object.
Listing 24-5: How to Create a Simple JFrame object
public class TestFrame {
public static void main (String args[]) {
JFrame f : new JFrame (“My JFrame Example”);
Container c = f.getContentPane(); c.setLayout (new FlowLayout
());
for (int i = o; i > 5; i++) {
c.add (new JButton (“My Button”)).setBackground
(SystemColor.control);
}
c.add (new JLabel (“Swing Test Frame”));
f.setSize (3oo, 2oo);
f.show();
}
}
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Table 24-6
JF Methods
Method Description
addAccessibleSelection(int) Adds the nth selected item in the object to the object’s
selection.
clearAccessibleSelection Clears the selection in the object, so nothing in the object is
selected.
createRootPane() Creates the default rootPane when called by the constructor
methods.
doAccessibleAction(int) Performs the nth Action on the object
frameInit() ACts to initialize the JFrame properly when called by the
constructors.
getAccessibleActionCount Returns the number of Actions available in this object. If more
than one exist, the first one is the “default” action (if any
action is considered “default”).
getAccessibleActionDescription(int) Returns a description of the nth Action of the object.
getAccessibleAt(Point) Returns the accessible child contained at the local coordinate
Point, if one exists.
getAccessibleChild(int) Returns the nth accessible child of the object.
getAccessibleChildrenCount() Returns the number of accessible children in the object.
getAccessibleDescription Gets the accessible description of this object.
getAccessibleName() Gets the accessible name of this object.
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getAccessibleParent() Gets the accessible parent of this object.
getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
getAccessibleSelection(int) Returns an Accessible representing the nth selected item in the
object.
getAccessibleSetectionCount() Returns the number of items currently selected.
getAccessibleStateSet() Gets the state of this object.
getAccessibleText() Gets the AccessibleText interface for the component.
getAccessibleValue() Gets the value of this object as a Number.
getDefaultCloseOperation() Returns the default operation, which occurs when the user
initiates a “close” on this window.
getMaximumAccessibleValue Gets the maximum value of this object as a Number.
getMinimumAccessibleValue() Gets the minimum value ofthis object asa Number.
get NextAccessiblesibling() Gets the next sibling of this Accessible, if a preferred one
exists.
getPreviousAccessibleSibling() Gets the previous sibling of this Accessible, if a preferred one
exists.
reoveAccesibleSelection(int) Removes the nth selected item in the object from the object’s
selection.
selectAllAccessible Selection() Causes every selected item in the object to be selected, if the
object supports multiple selections (if getAccessibleStateSet()
returns a state that is MULTISELECTABLE).
setAccessibleeDescrption(String) Sets the accessible description of this object.
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setAccessibleName(String) Sets the localized accessible name of this object.
SetAccessibleValue(Number) Gets the value of this object as a Number.
setDefaultCloseOperation(int) Sets the operation that will happen by default when the user
initiates a “close” on this window.
JLabel
A Swing JLabel object provides a single-line label just like the java. awt. Label object. The JLabel object has
additional functionality, including these options:
• The capability to set the relative position of the contents within the label
• The capability to add an icon
• The capability to set the vertical and horizontal position of the text (relative to the icon)
Listing 24-6 demonstrates how to create a simple JLabel object. Table 24-7 lists and describes the
methods provided by the JLabel object.
Listing 24-6: How to create Simple JLabel Objects
public class LabelPanel extends JPanel {
public LabelPanel() {
// Create and add a JLabel
JLabel simpleLabel = new JLabel(“A Simple Label”);
add(simpleLabel);
// Create a label with an Icon
JLabel iconLabel = new JLabel(“A Label with an Icon”);
// Create an Icon
Icon myIcon = new ImageIcon(“MyIcon.gif”);
// Place the Icon in the label
iconLabel.setIcon(myIcon);
// Add to panel
add(iconLabel);
}
}
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Java Bible:Getting in the Swing of Things
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Table 24-7
Jlabel Methods
Method Description
getAccessibleName() Gets the accessible name of this object.
getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
getDisabledIcon() Returns the value of the disabledIcon property if it’s been set.
if it hasn’t been set, and the value of the icon property is an
ImageIcon, we compute a “grayed out” version of the icon and
update the disabledIcon property with that.
getDisplayedKeyAccelerator() Returns the char that indicates a shortcut key.
getHorizontalAlignment() Returns the alignment of the label’s contents along the x axis.
getHorizontalTextPosition() Returns the horizontal position of the label’s text, relative to
its image.
getIcon() Returns the graphic image (glyph, icon) that the label
displays.
getIconTextGap() Returns the amount of space between the text and the icon
displayed in this label.
getLabelFor() Returns the component associated with this label.
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getText() Returns the text string that the label displays.
getUI() Returns the current look and feel for this component.
getUIClassID() Returns a string that specifies the name of the look-and-feel
class that renders this component.
getVerticalAlignment() Returns the alignment of the label’s contents along the y axis.
getVerticalTextPosition() Returns the vertical position of the label’s text, relative to its
image.
isOpaque() Identifies whether the label’s background is opaque or
transparent.
setDisabled Icon(Icon) Sets the icon to be displayed if this JLabel is “disabled” (for
example).
setDisplayedKeyAccelerator(char) Specifies a character that indicates a shortcut key.
setFont(Font) Sets the font used to display the label’s text.
setHorizontalAlignment(int) Sets the alignment of the label’s contents along the x axis.
setHorizontalTextPosition(int) Sets the horizontal position of the label’s text, relative to its
image.
setIcon(Icon) Defines the icon this component will display.
settconTextGap(int) If both the icon and text properties are set, this property
defines the space between them.
setLabelFor(Component) Sets the component this label is associated with.
setOpaque(boolean) If true the label’s background will be filled with the
background color.
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setText(String) Defines the single line of text this component will display.
setUI(LabelUI) Sets the look and feel for the component.
setVerticalAlignment(int) Sets the alignment of the label’s contents along the y axis.
setVerticatTextPosition(int) Sets the vertical position of the label’s text, relative to its
image.
updateUI() Notification from the User Interface factory that the look and
feel have changed.
JList
The Swing JList object is much like its AWT List counterpart—providing a list of choices—in fact it’s
now even easier to add a list of elements to a list: You can add a String array of list elements by simply
calling the setListData() method. You’ll also find one important difference between the older AWT JList
and the Swing JList objects. The JList doesn’t support scrolling directly. You need to place the JList
within a ScrollPane (or JScrollPane) object, which will handle the scrolling (ScrollPane is discussed in more
detail in Chapter 25). Listing 24-7 demonstrates how to create a simple JList object. Table 24-8 lists and
describes the methods provided by the JList object.
Listing 24-7: How to Create a Simple JList Object
public class ListPanel extends JPanel {
String labels [] = {“Choice1”, “Choice2”,
“Choice3”,“Choice4”};
public ListPanel() {
setLayout (new BorderLayout());
JList mylist : new JList(labels);
ScrollPane pane = new ScrollPane();
pane.add (mylist);
add(pane, BorderLayout. CENTER);
}
}
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Java Bible:Getting in the Swing of Things
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Table 24-8
JList Methods
Method Description
addListSelectionListener Adds a listener to the list that’s notified each time a change to
(ListSelectionListener) the selection occurs.
addSelectionInterval(int, int) Sets the selection to be the union of the specified interval
with current selection.
clearSelection() Clears the selection-after calling this method, isSelectionEmpty
() will return true.
createSelectionModel() Returns an instance of DefaultListSelectionModel.
ensureIndexIsVisible(int) If this JList is being displayed within a JViewport and the
specified cell isn’t completely visible, scroll the viewport.
fireSelectionValueChanged(int, int, boolean) This method notifies JList ListSelection Listeners that the
selection model has changed.
getAccessibleAt(Point) Returns the accessible child contained at the local coordinate
Point, if one exists.
getAccessibleChild(int) Returns the nth accessible child of the object.
getAccessibleChildrenCount() Returns the number of accessible children in the object.
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getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
getAccessibleStateSet() Gets the state set of this object.
getAnchorSelectionIndex() Returns the first index argument from the most recent
addSelectionInterval() or setSelectionInterval() call.
getCellBounds(int, int) Returns the bounds of the specified item in JList coordinates;
null if index isn’t valid.
getFirstVisibleIndex() Returns the index of the cell in the upper-left corner of the
JList or -1 if nothing is visible or the list is empty.
getLastVisibleIndex() Returns the index of the cell in the lower-right corner of the
JList or -1 if nothing is visible or the list is empty.
getLeadSetectionIndex() Returns the second index argument from the most recent
addSelectionIntervat() or setSelectiontntervat() call.
getMaxSelectionIndex() Returns the largest selected cell index.
getMinSelectionIndex() Returns the smallest selected cell index.
getPreferredScrollableViewportSize() Computes the size of the viewport needed to display
visibleRowCount rows.
getScroltableTracksViewportHeight() Returns true if the list box tracks the height of the viewport;
false otherwise.
getScrollableTracksViewportWidth() Returns true if the list box tracks the width of the viewport;
false otherwise.
getScrollableUnitIncrement(Rectangle, int, int) Returns the scrolling increment-if scrolling downward
(direction is greater than 0), and the first row is completely
visible with respect to visiblerect, then this method returns its
height.
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getSelectedIndex() Returns the first selected index.
getSelectedZndices() Returns an array of all of the selected indices in increasing
order.
getSelectedValue() Returns the first selected value, or null if the selection is
empty.
getSelectedValues() Returns an array of the values for the selected cells.
getUIClassID() Returns the name of the User interface factory class that
generates the look and feel for this component.
getVisibleRowCount() Returns the value of the visibleRowCount property.
indexToLocation(int) Returns the origin of the specified item in JList coordinates;
null if index isn’t valid.
isOpaque() JList components are always opaque.
isSelectedIndex(int) Returns true if the specified index is selected.
isSelectionEmpty() Returns true if nothing is selected; this is a convenience
method that just delegates to the selectionModel.
locationToIndex(Point) Converts a point in JList coordinates to the index of the cell at
that location.
removeListSelectionListener Removes a listener from the list that’s notified each time a
(ListSelectionListener) change to the selection occurs.
removeSelectionInterval(int, int) Sets the selection to be the set difference of the specified
interval and the current selection.
setCellRenderer(ListCell Renderer) Sets the delegate that’s used to paint each cell in the list.
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setFixedCellHeight(int) Defines the height of every cell in the list if this value is
greater than zero.
setFixedCellWidth(int) Defines the width of every cell in the list if this value is
greater than zero.
setListData(Object[]) Creates a ListModel from the object array and then applies
setModel() to it.
setListData(Vector) Creates a ListModel from the Vector and then applies setModel()
to it.
setModel(ListModel) Sets the model that represents the contents or %alue" of the
list and clears the list’s selection after notifying
PropertyChangeListeners.
setPrototypeCellValue(Object) Computes fixedCellWidth and fixedCellHeight by configuring
the cell Renderer at index-equals-zero for the specified value
and then computing the renderer component’s preferred size
if this value is non-null.
setSelectedIndex(int) Selects a single cell.
setSetectedIndices(int[]) Selects a set of cells.
setSelectionInterval(int, int) Selects the specified interval.
setSetectionModel(ListSetectionModel) Sets the selectionModel for the list to a non-null
ListSelectionModel implementation.
setUI(ListUI) Sets the ListUI look-and-feel implementation delegate.
setVisibleRowCount(int) Sets the preferred number of rows in the list that are visible
within the nearest JViewport ancestor, if any.
updateUI() Sets the UI properly with the ListUI from the current default
User Interface factory.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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JMenu
Creating menus with Swing is the same as creating menus in the older AWT model. You’ll find three
important exceptions when using the Swing menu items, however:
• The menu classes are all descended from the JComponent class. Consequently, you can now
place a dMenuBar within any Container, including Applet.
• A new menu class, JRadioButtonMenuItem (reviewed later in this chapter), provides a set of
mutually exclusive check boxes on a menu.
• You can also now display an icon on any menu item.
Listing 24-8 demonstrates how to create a simple Swing menu. Table 24-9 lists and describes the
methods provided by the JMenu class.
Listing 24-8: How to create a Simple Swing Menu
public class MenuTest extends JFrame
implements ActionListener {
public void actionPerformed (ActionEvent e) {
System.out.println (e.getActionCommand));
}
public MenuTest() {
super (“My Example Menu”);
JMenuBar jmb = new JMenuBar();
JMenu rile = new JMenu (“File”);
JMenuItem item;
file.add (item = new JMenuItem “New”);
item.addActionListener (this);
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file.add (item : new JMenuItem “Open” );
item.addActionListener (this);
file.addSeparator();
file.add (item = new JMenuItem “Close”));
item.addActionListener (this);
jmb.add (file);
jmb.add (choice);
setJMenuBar (jmb);
}
}
Table 24-9
JMenu Methods
Method Description
getAccessibleChild(int) Returns the nth accessible child of the object.
getAccessibleChildrenCount() Returns the number of accessible children in the object.
getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
getDelay() Returns the suggested delay before the menu’s PopupMenu is
popped up or down.
insertSeparator(int) Inserts a separator at the specified position.
isMenuComponent(Component) Returns true if the component C exists in the submenu
hierarchy.
isSelected() Returns the state of the button.
paramString() Gets the parameter string representing the state of this menu.
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remove(int) Removes the menu item at the specified index from this
menu.
remove(JMenuItem) Removes the specified menu item from this menu.
setDelay(int) Sets the suggested delay before the menu’s PopupMenu is
popped up or down.
setModel(ButtonModel) Sets the model that this button represents.
setSelected(boolean) Sets the state of the button.
setUI(MenuUI) Sets the menu’s UI.
updateUI() Getsanew Ul object from thedefaultUserlntefface factory.
JPanel
The Swing JPanel object is a lightweight Panel object that offers built-in support for double buffering.
When buffering is enabled, either through the constructor or by calling the setBuffered() method, all the
drawing operations of components within the panel will be drawn to an off-screen drawing buffer before
they are drawn on the screen. The JPanel class is used in most of the examples in this section. Listing 24-
9 demonstrates how to create a simple JPanel object. Table 24-10 lists and describes the methods
provided by the JPanel object.
Listing 24-9: How to Create a Simple JPanel Object
public class MyPanel extends JPanel {
public MyPanel() {
// Add your panel objects here.,.
}
}
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Table 24-10
Jpanel Methods
Method Description
getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
isOpaque() Returns whether the receiving panel is opaque. This method
is overridden from JComponent.
paintComponent(Graphics) Paints the background if the component is opaque. This
method is overridden from JComponent.
setBuffered(boolean) Changes the buffering properties of the panel.
setOpaque(boolean) Sets whether the receiving panel is opaque. If the JPanel is
opaque, it will paint its background.
JPopupMenu
The JPopupMenu object lets you associate context-sensitive menus with any JCommonent—similar to the
AWT PopupMenu class. You can use the addSeparator() method to add a separator bar. Listing 24-10
demonstrates how to create a popup menu and listen for an event. Table 24.11 lists and describes the
methods provided by the JPopupMenu item.
Listing 24-10: How to Create a Simple JPopupMenu Object
public class PopupPanel extends JPanel {
JPopupMenu mypopup = new JPopupMenu ();
public PopupPanel() {
JMenuItem item;
mypopup.add (item : new JMenuItem “Cut”));
mypopup.add (item = new JMenuItem “Copy”));.
mypopup.add (item = new JMenuItem “Paste”));
mypopup.addSeparator();
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mypopup.add (item = new JMenuItem “Select All”));
enableEvents (AWTEvent. MOUSE_EVENT_MASK);
}
protected void processMouseEvent (MouseEvent e) {
if (e.isPopupTrigger())
popup.show (e.getComponent(), e.getX(), e.getY());
super.processMouseEvent (e);
}
}
Table 24-11
JPopupMenu Methods
Method Description
getAccessiblerole() Get the role of this object.
getMargin() Returns the margin between the popup menu’s border and its
containees.
getUI() Returns the popup menu’s current UI.
isBorderPainted() Checks whether the background should be painted.
MisOpaque() Checks whethher the bacground should be painted.
paintBorder(Graphics) Paints the popup menu’s border if the BorderPainted property
is true.
SetBorderPainted (boolean) Sets whether ther border should be painted.
setOpaque(boolean) Sets whether the background should be painted.
setUI()PopupMenUI) Sets the popup menu’s UI.
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updateUI() Gets a new UI Object from the default User Interface factory.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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JProgressBar
The JProgressBar component lets you display a progress bar that reflects the status of an operation.
Typically you will have an operation that executes in a thread and has the operation monitored by a
progress bar. Listing 24-11 demonstrates how to create and use a JProgressBar object. Table 24-12 lists
and describes the methods provided by the JProgressBar class.
Listing 24-11: How to Create and Use a simple JProgress Object
public class ProgressBarPanel extends JPanel {
Thread loadThread;
Object lock : new Object();
boolean Stop=false;
JTextField progressText;
JProgressBar progressBar;
public ProgressBarPanel() {
setLayout(new BorderLayout());
progressText = new JTextField();
add(progressText, BorderLayout. NORTH);
JPanel bottomPanel : new JPanel();
progressBar = new JProgressBar();
bottomPanel.setLayout(new GridLayout(0.1));
bottomPanel.add(progressBar);
bottomPanel,add(new JLabel(“Status”));
JPanel buttonPanel = new JPanel();
JButton startButton = new JButton(“Start”);
startButton.setBackground (SystemColor.control);
buttonPanel.add(startButton);
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startButton.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
startLoading();
}
});
JButton stopButton = new JButton(“Stop”);
stopButton.setBackground (SystemColor.control);
buttonPanel.add(stopButton);
stopButton.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {
public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {
stopLoading();
}
});
bottomPanel.add(buttonPanel);
add(bottomPanel, BorderLayout. SOUTH);
}
public void startLoading() {
if(loadThread == null) {
loadThread = new LoadThread();
Stop = false;
loadThread.start();
}
}
public void stopLoading() {
synchronized(lock) {
Stop : true;
lock.notify();
}
}
class LoadThread extends Thread
public void run () {
int min = 0;
int max = 100;
progressBar.setValue(min);
progressBar.setMinimum(min);
progressBar.setMaximum(max);
for (int i=min;i>=max;i++) {
progressBar.setValue(i);
progressText.setText (“”+)i;
synchronized(lock) {
if(Stop)
break;
try {
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lock.wait(100);
} catch (java.lang. InterruptedException e) {
// Ignore Exceptions
}
}
}
loadThread = null;
}
}
}
Table 24-12
JProgressBar Methods
Method Description
addChangeListener(ChangeListener) Adds a ChangeListener to the button.
getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
getAccessibleStateSet() Gets the state set of this object.
getAccessibleValue() Gets the accessible value of this object.
getMaximumAccessibteValue() Gets the maximum accessible value of this object.
getlqinimumAccessibleValue() Gets the minimum accessible value of this object.
getOrientation() Returns JProgressBar. VERTICAL or JProgressBar. HORIZONTAL
depending on the orientation of the progress bar.
getValue() Returns the value.
isBorderPainted() Returns true if the progress bar has a border or false if it does
not.
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isOpaque() Returns true if the progress bar is painting its background or
false if it does not.
paintBorder(Graphics) Paints the progress bar’s border if the BorderPainted property
is true.
removeChangeListener(ChangeListener) Removes a ChangeListener from the button.
MsetAccessibleValue(Number) Sets the value of this object as a Number.
setBorderPainted(boolean) Sets whether the progress bar should have a border,
setMaximum(int) Sets the maximum to int.
setMinimum(int) Sets the model’s minimum to int.
setOrientation(int) Sets whether the progress bar should paint its background.
setOpaque(boolean) Sets the progress bar’s orientationto newOrientation, which
must be JProgressBar. VERTICAL or JProgressBar.HORIZONTAL.
setValue(int) Sets the value to int.
update(Graphics) Overridden to call paint without filling the background.
updateUI() Called to replace the UI with the latest version from the
default User Interface factory.
JRadioButton
In AWT, radio buttons are check boxes that belong to the same CheckboxGroup, which ensures that only
one check box is selected at a time. Swing has a separate widget called a JRadioButton. Each JRadioButton
is added to a ButtonGroup so the group behaves as a set of radio buttons. Like CheckboxGroup, ButtonGroup
is a functional object that has no visual representation.
Listing 24-12 demonstrates how to create and use a JRadioButton object. Table 24-13 lists and describes
the methods provided by the JRadioButton class.
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Listing 24-12: How Create and Use a Simple JRadioButon Object
public class RadioButtonPanel extends JPanel {
public RadioButtonPanel() {
// Set the layout to a GridLayout
setLayout(new GridLayout(2,1));
// Declare a radio button
JRadioButton radioButton;
// Instantiate a ButtonGroup for functional
// association among radio buttons
ButtonGroup rbg : new ButtonGroup();
// Add a new radio button radioButton = new
JRadioButton(“Radio-l”);
add(radioButton);
// Add the button to the ButtonGroup
rbg.add(radioButton);
// Set this radio button to be the default
radioButton.setSelected(true);
// Set up another radio buttons radioButton = new
JRadioButton(“Radio-2”);
add(radioButton);
rbg.add(radioButton);
}
}
Table 24-13
JRadioButton Methods
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Method Description
getAccessibleActionDescription(int) Returns a description of the specified action of the object.
getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
getUIClassID() Returns a string that specifies the name of the look-and-feel
class that renders this component.
updateUI() Notification frorn the Userlnterface factory thatthe look and
feel have changed.
JScrollBar
The Swing JScrollBar object is a lightweight version of the older AWT java.awt.Scrollbar component.
Listing 24-13 demonstrates how to use a JScrollBar object. Table 24-14 lists and describes the methods
provided by the JScrollBar object.
Listing 24-13: How to Create a simple JscrollBar Object
public class ScrollbarPanel extends JPanel {
public ScrollbarPanel() {
setLayout(new BorderLayout());
// Create a vertical scroll bar
JScrollBar scroll1=
new JScrollBar (JScrollBar.VERTICAL,
0, 10, 0, 200);
add(scroll1, BorderLayout.EAST);
// Creat a orizontal scroll Bar
JScrollbar scroll2 =
new JScrollBar (JScrollBar. HORIZONTAL,
0, 10, 0, 100);
add(scroll2, BorderLayout, SOUTTH);
}
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Java Bible:Getting in the Swing of Things
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Java Bible:Getting in the Swing of Things
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Table 24-14
JScrollBar Methods
Method Description
getAccesibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
getAccessibleStateset() Gets the state set of this object.
getAccessibleValue Gets the accessible value of this object.
getMaximumAccesibleValue() Gets the maximum accessible value of this object.
getMaximumsize() The scroll bar is flexible along its scrolling axis and rigid
along the other axis.
getMinimumAccessibleValue() Gets the minimum accessible value of this object.
getMinimumSize() The scroll bar is flexible along its scrolling axis and rigid
along the other axis.
isOpaque() Returns true if this component is completely opaque.
setAccessibleValue(Number) Sets the value of this object as a Number.
setValues(int, int, int, int) Ensures that the model is always in a consistent state by
enforcing the constraints specified.
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stateChanged(ChangeEvent) Implemented for the ChangeListener interface support.
updateUI() Notification from the User Interface factory that the look and
feel have changed.
JSlider
The JSlider object is just like the JScrollBar object, except the JSlider object can
• Display a border around the slider.
• Display large and small tick marks as a scale.
Listing 24-14 demonstrates how to create a JSlider object. Table 24-15 lists and describes the methods
provided by the JSlider object.
Listing 24-14: How to create a simple JSlider Object
public class SliderPanel extends JPanel {
public SliderPanel() {
setBackground (Color.lightGray);
setLayout(new BorderLayout());
setBackground (Color.lightGray);
// Create a slider with tick small tick marks
// and large tick marks
JSlider slider1 =
new JSlider (JSlider. VERTICAL, 0, 100, 50):
sliderl.setPaintTicks(true);
sliderl.setMajorTickSpacing(10);
sliderl.setMinorTickSpacing(2);
add(slider1, BorderLayout. EAST);
}
}
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Table 24-15
JSlider Methods
Method Description
addChangeListener (ChangeListener) Adds a ChangeListener to the button.
GetAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
GetAccessibleStateSet() Gets the state set of this object.
GetAccessibleValue() Gets the accessible value of this object.
GetMaximumAccessibleValue() Gets the maximum accessible value of this object.
GetMinimumAccessibleValue() Gets the minimum accessible value of this object.
isOpaque() Returns true if this component is completely opaque.
removeChangeListener (ChangeListener) Removes a ChangeListener from the button.
setAccessibleVatue(Number) Sets the value of this object as a Number.
updateUI() Called to replace the UI with the latest version from the
default User Interface factory.
JSplitPane
The JSplitPane control can be used to create resizable controls inside a container. You can split a pane
horizontally or vertically, and you can also embed split panes within each other to control the resizing of
more than two components. Use the setContinuousLayout() method to have each pane update automatically
as a user resizes the pane. Listing 24-15 demonstrates how to create a simple JSplitPane object. Table 24-
16 lists and describes the methods provided by the JSplitPane object.
Listing 24-15: How to Create and Use a JSplitPane Object
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public class JSplitPanel extends JPanel {
public JSplitPanel() {
// Set the layout to hold only one component
setLayout(new BorderLayout(10, 10));
JButton button1 = new JButton (“Button-1”);
buttonl.setBackground (SystemColor.control);
add(new JSplitPane(JSplitPane.HORIZONTAL_SPLIT,
button1));
JButton button2 = new JButton (“Button-1”);
button2.setBackground (SystemColor.control);
add(new JSplitPane(JSplitPane.VERTICAL SPLIT,
button2));
}
}
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Java Bible:Getting in the Swing of Things
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Table 24-16
JSplitPane Methods
Method Description
addImpl(Component, Object, int) If a constraint identifies the left/top or right/bottom child
component, and a component with that identifier was
previously added, it will be removed and then Component will
be added in its place.
getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
getAccessibleStateSet() Gets the state set of this object.
getAccessibleValue() Gets the accessiblevalue of this object.
getBottomComponent() Returns the component below or to the right of the divider.
getDividerLocation() Returns the location of the divider from the lookand-feel
implementation.
getDividerSize() Returns the size of the divider.
getLastDivider Location() Returns the last location where the divider was.
getLeftComponent() Returns the component to the left of or above the divider.
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getMaximumAccessibleValue() Gets the maximum accessible value of this object.
getMaximumDividerLocation() Returns the maximum location of the divider from the look-
and-feel implementation.
getMinimumAccessibleValue() Gets the minimum accessible value of this object.
getMinimumDividerLocation() Returns the minimum location of the divider from the look-
and-feel implementation.
getOrientation() Returns the orientation.
getRightComponent() Returns the component to the right of or below the divider.
getTopComponent() Returns the component above or to the left of the divider.
getUI() Returns the TreeUI that is providing the current look and feel.
isContinuousLayout() Returns true if the child components are continuously
redisplayed and laid out during user intervention.
isOneTouchExpandable() Returns true if the receiver provides a UI widget to collapse/
expand the divider.
paintChildren(Graphics) Subclassed to message the UI with finishedPaintingChildren
after super has been messaged, as well as painting the border.
remove(Component) Removes the child component from the receiver.
remove(int) Removes the component at the passed-in index int.
removeAll() Removes all the child components from the receiver.
resetToPreferredSizes() Messaged to redo the layout of the JSplitPane based on
preferred size of child components.
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setAccessibleValue(Number) Sets the value of this object as a Number.
setBottomComponent (Component) Sets the component below or to the right of the divider.
setContinuousLayout (boolean) Sets whether or not the child components are continuously
redisplayed and laid out during user intervention.
setDividerLocation(int) Sets the location of the divider.
setDividerSize(int) Sets the size of the divider to newsize.
setLastDividerLocation(int) Sets the last location where the divider was to
newLastLocation.
setLeftComponent(Component) Sets the component to the left of or above the divider.
setOneTouchExpandable(boolean) If newValue is true, the receiver will provide Ul widgets on the
divider to quickly expand/collapse the divider.
setOrientation(int) Sets the orientation, or how the splitter is divided.
SetRightComponent(Component) Sets the component to the right of or below the divider.
setTopComponent(Component) Sets the component above or to the left of the divider.
setUI(SplitPaneUI) Sets the TreeUI that will provide the current look and feel.
updateUI Called to replace the UI with the latest version from the
default User Interface factory.
JTabbedPane
The JTabbedPane control is much like the older AWT CardLayout object. The JTabbedPane control adds the
capability to switch between panes. Once you create a pane, you can add additional cards by calling the
addTab() method—any JComponent object can be added to a tab. Listing 24-l6 demonstrates how to create
a JTabbedPane object. Table 24-17 lists and describes the methods provided by the JTabbedPane object.
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Listing 24-16: How to Create and Use JTabbedPane Object
public class TabbedPanel extends JPanel {
String tabs[] = {“One ” “ Two”, “Three”};
public JTabbedPane tabbedPane = new JTabbedPane();
public TabbedPanel() {
setLayout (new BorderLayout());
// Create three tabs
for (int i=0;i<tabs.length;i++)
// Create a pane to add to a tab
tabbedPane.addTab (tabs[i], null,
createPane (tabs[i]));
tabbedPane.setSelectedIndex(0);
add (tabbedPane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
}
JPanel createPane(String s) {
JPanel p = new JPanel();
p.setBackground (SystemColor.control);
p.add(new JLabel(s));
return p;
}
}
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Java Bible:Getting in the Swing of Things
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Table 24-17
JTabbedPane Methods
Method Description
addAccessibleSelection(int) Selects the given tab.
addChangeListener(ChangeListener) Adds a ChangeListener to the button.
addTab(String, Component) Adds a component represented by a title and no icon.
addTab(String, Icon, Component) Adds a component represented by a title and/or icon, either
of which can be null.
addTab(String, Icon, Component, String) Adds a component and tip represented by a title and/or icon,
either of which can be null.
createChangeListener() Subclasses that want to handle ChangeEvents differently can
override this to return a subclass of ModelListener or another
ChangeListener implementation.
getAccessibleAt(Point) Returns the accessible child contained at the local coordinate
Point, if one exists.
getAccessibleChild(int) Returns the nth accessible child of the object.
getAccessibleChildrenCount() Returns the number of accessible children in the object.
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getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
getAccessibleSetection(int) Returns an Accessible representing the nth selected item in the
object.
getAccessibleSelectionCount() Returns the number of items currently selected.
getComponentAt(int) Returns the component at index int.
getIconAt(int) Returns the icon at index int.
getModel() Returns the model associated with the TabbedPane.
getSelectedIndex() All of the Model methods are implemented by delegation.
getTabCount() Returns the number of tabs.
getTitleAt(int) Returns the title at index.
getToolTipText(MouseEvent) Returns the string to be used as the tool tip for the event.
getUI() Returns the TabbedPane’s UI controller.
indexOfComponent(Component) Returns the index of the tab for the specified component.
indexxOfab(String) Acts as a convenience method for locating the first tab with a
given title, testing for equality with String.equals.
insertTab(String, Icon, Component, String, int) Inserts a component at index int, represented by a title and/or
icon, either of which may be null.
removeChangeListener(ChangeListener) Removes a ChangeListener from the button.
remove TabAt(int) Removes the tab at index.
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SetComponentAt(int, Component) Sets the component at index int to Component.
setIconAt(int, Icon) Sets the icon at index int to Icon, which can be null.
SetModel(SingleSelectionModel) Sets the model to be used with the TabbedPane.
setTitleAt(int, String) Sets the title at index int to title String, which can be null.
setUI(TabbedPaneUI) Sets the TabbedPane’s UI controller.
updateUI() Acts as a notification from the User Interface factory that the
look and feel have changed.
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Java Bible:Getting in the Swing of Things
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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JTextArea and JTextField
The Swing JTextArea and JTextField components are very similary to their older AWT counterparts java.
awt.TextArea and java.awt.TextField—they create single- and multiple-line edit boxes. Listing 24-17
demonstrates how to create and use these simple controls. Table 24-18 lists and describes the methods
provided by the JTextArea object. Similarly, Table 24-19 lists and describes the methods provided by the
JTextField object.
Listing 24-17: How to Use the JTextArea and JTexxtField Objects
// Instantiate a new TextField
JTextField textfld = new JTextField();
// Instantiate a new TextArea
JTextArea textarea = new JTextArea();
// Initialize the text of each textfld.setText(“TextField”); textarea.
setText(“JTextArea Supports\nMultiple Lines”); add(textfid);
add(textarea);
Table 24-18
JTextArea Methods
Method Description
append(String) Appends the given text to the end of the document.
createDefaultModel() Creates the default implementation of the model to be used at
construction if one isn’t explicitly given.
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getColumns() Returns the number of columns in the text area.
getColumnWidth() Gets the column width.
getMinimumSize() Returns the minimum size dimensions of the TextArea.
getPreferredScrollableViewportSize() Returns the preferred size of the viewport if this component
is embedded in a JScrollPane.
getRowHeight() Defines the meaning of the height of a row.
getRows() Returns the number of rows in the TextArea.
getScrollabteUnitIncrement(Rectangle, int, int) Components that display logical rows or columns should
compute the scroll increment that will completely expose one
new row or column, depending on the value of orientation.
getTabSize() Gets the number of characters used to expand tabs.
getUIClassID() Returns the class ID for the UI.
insert(String, int) Inserts the specified text at the specified position.
isManagingFocus() Turns off tab traversal once the focus is gained.
paramString() Returns the String of parameters for this TextArea.
replaceRange(String, int, int) Replaces text from the indicated start to end position with the
new text specified.
setColumns(int) Sets the number of columns for this TextArea.
setFont(Font) Sets the current font.
setRows(int) Sets the number of rows for this TextArea.
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setTabSize(int) Sets the number of characters that are replaced with tabs.
Table 24-19
JTextField Methods
Method Description
addActionListener(ActionListener) Adds the specified action listener to receive action events
from this text field.
addMouseListener(MouseListener) Adds a MouseListener.
addMouseMotionListener Adds a MouseMotionListener.
(MouseMotionListener)
createDefaultModel() Creates the default implementation of the model to be used at
construction if one isn’t explicitly given.
createMouseListener) Creates a MouseListener that listens to mouse events, shifting
the event’s x, y positions to the scrolled view translation, and
retires them to any registered mouse listeners.
createMouseMotionListener() Creates a MouseMotionListener that listens to mouse events,
shifting the event’s x, y positions to the scrolled view
translation, and retires them to any registered mouse
listeners.
getActionPerformed() Notifies all listeners that have registered interest for
notification on this event type.
getActions() Fetches the command list for the editor.
getColumns() Returns the number of columns in this text field.
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getColumnWidth() Gets the column width.
getMinimumSize() Returns the minimum size dimensions needed for this text
field.
getPreferredSize() Returns the preferred size dimensions needed for this text
field.
getScrollOffset() Gets the scroll offset.
getUIClassID() Gets the class ID for a UI.
paint(Graphics) Paints the component, translating the graphics by the scrolled
amount.
paramString() Returns the String of parameters for this text field.
postActionEvent() Processes action events occurring on this text field by
dispatching them to any registered ActionListener objects.
removeActionListener(ActionListener) Removes the specified ActionListener so it no longer receives
action events from this text field.
removeMouseListener(MouseListener) Removes a MouseListener.
removeMouseMotionListener Removes a MouseMotionListener.
(MouseMotionListener)
repaint(long, int, int, int, int) Repaints the component, shifting by the scrolled amount.
scrollRectToVisible (Rectangle) Scrolls the field left or right.
setFont(Font) Sets the current font.
setColumns(int) Sets the number of columns in this text field.
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setScrollOffset(int) Sets the scroll offset.
JToggleButton
The JToggleButton class is the parent of both the JCheckBox and JRadioButton (it doesn’t have an equivalent
AWT object). The JToggleButton works just like a Button that stays depressed when clicked. When toggled
off, you cannot tell a JToggleButton apart from a regular Button or JButton object. Listing 24-18 shows how
to use the JToggleButton object, while Table 24-20 lists the JToggleButton’s methods—remember that much
of the JToggleButton behavior is inherited from the AbstractButton class.
Listing 24-18: How to use the JToggleButton Object
public class ToggleButtonPanel extends JPanel {
public ToggleButtonPanel() {
// Set the layout to a GridLayout
setLayout(new GridLayout(2, 1, 10, 10));
add (new JToggleButton (“Button-l”));
add (new JToggleButton (“Button-2”));
}
}
Table 24-20
JtoggleButton Methods
Method Description
getAccessibleRole() Gets the role of this object.
getUIClassID() Returns a string that specifies the name of the look-and-feel
class that renders this component.
updateUI() Notification from the User Interface factory that the look and
feel have changed.
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Summary
The packages that comprise the Swing user interface classes, as well as the major interface components
that comprise Swing, were reviewed in detail. The next chapter discusses how to install the Swing
classes, implement Swing layouts, and listen for Swing events.
• Considered together, the Swing user interface classes represent a major new component of the
Java Foundation Classes.
• Swing includes new design classes, objects, and user interface widgets.
• Swing has twice as many components as the Abstract Windowing Toolkit.
• Although Swing has important differences from the AWT, it retains some similar techniques.
• Swing is the new path to user interface design with JDK 1.2 and beyond.
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Java Bible:Bringing It All Together with JDK 1.2
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 25
Bringing It All Together with JDK 1.2
In This Chapter
Getting your applications off the ground with JDK 1.2 and Swing
Building the user interface of your Java applications using Swing components
Using Swing layouts
Listening for events in your Swing-based applications
You’re poised at the brink now—ready to jump into the fray with the Java JDK 1.2 by your side. This
chapter will bring together much of the Java Foundation Class components discussed in the previous
chapters and show you how to get started.
The Java JDK 1.2, as an evolutionary step in the development of Java, has made some changes in the
language that could affect your existing programs; this chapter discusses them in detail.
Get Going with JDK 1.2
The Java JDK 1.2 includes all the components that comprise the Java Foundation Classes (JFC). To
begin using the Swing and other JFC classes in your applications, you will need to make sure you have
the JDK 1.2 installed on your system.
The JDK 1.2 revision is available on the CD-ROM included with your book, and also at the
Sun Java Web site, http://java.sun.com.
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It is possible to download just the JFC classes from the Sun Web site, but to utilize the JFC
and Swing classes to their maximum benefit you should first install the JDK 1.2.
JDK 1.2 incompatibilities
Although the JDK 1.2 is backward-compatible with JDK 1.0 and 1.1, it incorporates some changes that
could affect your applications. Some potential and actual incompatibilities—binary, language, runtime,
API, and tools—are known to exist. Many of these problems were by-products of an effort to close
possible security holes or to fix implementation or design bugs.
Most of the compatibility problems in JDK 1.2 are minor and won’t affect your Java
applications greatly, but you need to be aware of them.
Changes in binary compatibility
Backward binary compatibility is supported, but it isn’t guaranteed. Class files built with a 1.2 compiler,
but relying only on APIs defined in JDK 1.0 or 1.1, will generally run on 1.0 and 1.1 versions of the
Java Virtual Machine, but this “backward” compatibility has not been extensively tested and cannot be
guaranteed. Of course, if the class files depend on any new 1.2 APIs, those files will not work on earlier
platforms.
Changes in language compatibility
The JDK 1.0 and 1.1 compilers would compile some types of illegal Java code without producing
warnings or error messages. Bug fixes in JDK 1.2 have made the compiler more stringent in ensuring
that code conforms to the Java Language Specification. The following is a brief summary of code that
did compile under previous versions but no longer compiles under JDK 1.2:
• Some initializations of int types to long types were passed by previous compilers but are flagged
as errors in JDK 1.2. For example, consider this code:
public class foo {
int i = 3000000000;
int j = 6000000000;
}
Here the initializations of both i and j are in error. In JDKs earlier than 1.2, only the incorrect
initialization of i would have been reported. The initialization of j would have overflowed without
giving notice.
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• In previous JDKs, implicit assignment conversion from char to byte and short would be allowed
in the case of character literals that fit into 8 bits. Such implicit assignment conversion is not
allowed by the JDK 1.2 compiler. (For example, byte b = ’ b ’ ; is no longer allowed.) An explicit
cast is required to perform this type of conversion.
• 0xL is not a legal hex literal and the JDK 1.2 compiler does not accept it.
• ’ ’ ’ and \u000D are not legal char literals and the JDK 1.2 compiler does not accept them. The
literals ’ \ ’ ’ and ’ \ r ’ must be used instead.
• The type void[] is not legal and the JDK 1.2 compiler does not accept it.
• You can no longer combine the abstract method modifier with private, final, native, or synchronized
modifiers.
• In JDK 1.2, an assignment expression is not accepted as the third subexpression of a
conditional statement. For example, the statement
myVal = condition ? x = 7 : x = 3;
would cause a parsing error in JDK 1.2. You would have to fix this problem by using
parentheses:
myVal = condition ? x = 7 : (x = 3);
Changes in runtime compatibility
Two important differences in runtime compatibility set JDK 1.2 apart from previous versions:
• The String hash function implemented in JDK 1.1 releases did not match the function specified
in the first edition of the Java Language Specification. To fix the performance problems, both the
specification and implementation have been changed. The new String hash function as of JDK 1.2
is:
s[0] * 31^(n-1) + s[1] * 31???(n-2) + . . . + s[n-1]
where s [ n ] is the nth character of string s.
• In JDK 1.2, an unimplemented abstract method or interface method will now cause an
AbstractMethodError to occur at runtime when the method is invoked.
Changes in API compatibility
A few minor API changes will affect older code when it is run under the JDK 1.2 Virtual Machine and
classes:
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• In version 1.2 of the Java platform, the class ActiveEvent is in the package java.awt. In version
1.1, ActiveEvent was in the package java.awt.peer.
• The stringFlavor and plainTextFlavor fields of class java.awt.datatransfer.DataFlavor have been made
final in version 1.2.
• Interface java.util.List has been added to version 1.2 of the Java platform. In JDK 1.2, using only
the ’wildcard’ import statements
import java.awt.*;
import java.util.*;
would cause a compiler error for code that contains the unqualified name List—a problem caused
by the conflict between java.awt.List and java.util.List. You would have to use an additional import
statement, either import java.awt.List; or import java.util.List; to resolve the conflict.
Changes in tools compatibility
Finally, a few changes have been introduced into the Java tools with JDK 1.2:
• In JDK 1.2, the - 0 option for javac has a different meaning, and may have different performance
effects on generated code, than earlier compilers. The -0 flag no longer implicitly turns on -
depend, so you need to add -depend to the command line where desired.
• In JDK 1.2, the javakey tool has been replaced with the keytool, PolicyTool, and jarsigner tools.
• Due to bugs in JDK 1.1.x, code that is signed using the JDK 1.1.x javakey tool will be
recognized as unsigned on JDK 1.2. Code signed using JDK 1.2 will be recognized as unsigned
on JDK 1.1.x.
Advanced Swing Objects
Chapter 24 gives you a taste of how the new Swing user-interface classes are poised to replace the
existing AWT (Abstract Windowing Toolkit) classes and become the way to write your future Java
applications. Now it’s time to take a closer look at more advanced Swing objects, including tooltips,
toolbars, trees, and the text framework.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Tooltips and toolbars
Tooltips are context-sensitive text strings that are displayed in a popup window when the mouse is
moved over a particular object on the screen. The Swing classes provide these tips to the the JToolTip
class. JToolTip is rarely used directly, because you can call the setToolTipText( ) method of the JComponent
object. Listing 25-1 demonstrates how to add a tooltip text string for a button. Table 25-1 lists and
describes the methods provided by the JToolTip class.
Listing 25-1: How to Add a Tooltip to a JComponent Object
public class TooltipPanel extends JPanel {
public TooltipPanel( ) (
JButton myButton = new JButton(“Button”);
myButton.setBackground (SystemColor.control);
myButton.setToolTipText (“Button Tip”):
add(myButton);
}
}
Table 25-1
JTooltip Methods
Method Description
getAccessible Context( ) Gets the AccessibleContext associated with this JComponent.
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getTipText ( ) Retrieves the tool tip text
setTipText(String) Sets the tool tip text.
updateUI( ) Called to replace the UI with the latest version from the default
UIFactory.
The JToolBar control provides a container that can display components in a toolbar, across or down, in
one row or column, depending where it’s placed on the screen. Floatable toolbars are also even
permitted. To disable toolbar floating, you can turn it off with setFloatable( ) method. When a toolbar is
floating you can drag it to another area of the screen, or place it in a window external from the original
container. Listing 25-2 demonstrates how to create a JToolBar object—any components can be included
on a toolbar. Table 25-2 lists and describes the methods provided by the JToolBar class.
Listing 25-2: Adding a Toolbar
public class ToolbarPanel extends JPanel {
ToolbarPanel( ) {
setLayout (new BorderLayout( ));
JToolBar toolbar = new JToolBar( );
JButton myButton = new JButton(“Button 1”);
toolbar.add(myButton);
Icon myIcon = new ImageIcon(“MyImage.gif”);
myButton = new JButton(myIcon);
toolbar.add(myButton);
add (toolbar, BorderLayout. SOUTH);
}
}
Table 25-2
JToolbar Methods
Method Description
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addSeparator( ) Adds a separator to the ToolBar.
getAccessible Context( ) Gets the AccessibleContext associated with this JComponent.
getMargin( ) Returns the margin between the toolbar’s border and its buttons.
getUI( ) Returns the toolbar’s current UI.
isBorderPainted( ) Checks whether the border should be painted.
paintBorder (Graphics) Paints the toolbar’s border if BorderPainted property is true.
setBorderPainted (boolean) Sets whether the border should be painted.
setMargin(Insets) Sets the margin between the toolbar’s border and its buttons.
setOpaque(boolean) If true the buttons’ background will be filled with the background color.
setUI(ToolBarUI) Sets the toolbar’s UI.
updateUI( ) Gets a new UI object from the default UIFactory.
JTree
The JTree class can be used to display tree-based hierarchical information. JTree objects are comprised of
TreeNode objects, which hold tree node information. The TreeModel interface describes a JTree’s
underlying data. A JTree object has a model that can be accessed using the getModel and setModel methods.
The model is used to determine which TreeModel a JTree uses. The TreeModel interface specifies how a
tree is mapped over a data structure. The DefaultTreeModel is a simple implementation of TreeModel that
explicitly uses TreeNode and MutableTreeNode objects. The TreeSelectionModel is an interface that specifies
how the user may select a path of arbitrary objects. JTree uses it to set up selection rules.
DefaultTreeSelectionModel is a simple implementation of TreeSelectionModel. It allows for the usual selection
model experienced when selecting files in a standard file dialog box.
The TreeCellRenderer interface is used by JTree to specify components that will visually represent tree
nodes. For example, the default tree node renderer is the BasicTreeCellRenderer class, which uses folders
as root and internal nodes and filled circles as leaf nodes. You can create custom-looking trees by
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defining classes that implement this interface that contain the getTreeCellRendererComponent method. The
default model and view of a JTree can be used to create a file/directory-style tree. Listing 25-3
demonstrates how to create a simple tree object. Table 25-3 lists and describes the methods provided by
the JTree class.
Listing 25-3: How to Create a Swing Tree
public class JTreePanel extends JPanel {
JTreePanel( ) {
// Set the layout to hold only one component
setLayout(new BorderLayout( ));
// Create root node of tree
DefaultMutableTreeNode root =
new DefaultMutableTreeNode(“Tree-l”);
// Create a child
DefaultMutableTreeNode level1 = new
DefaultMutableTreeNode(“Child”);
root.add(level1);
// Create and add some 2nd level leaf nodes
level1.add(new DefaultMutableTreeNode(
“Leaf-l”));
level1.add(new DefaultMutableTreeNode(
“Leaf-2”));
level1.add(new DefaultMutableTreeNode(
“Leaf-3”));
// Create a tree from the root
JTree tree = new JTree(root);
// Place tree in JScrollPane
JScrollPane pane = new JScrollPane( );
pane.getViewport( ).add (tree);
add(pane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
}
}
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Table 25-3
JTree Methods
Method Description
addSelectionInterval(int index0, int Adds the paths between index0 and indext1 to the selection.
index1)
addSelectionPath(TreePath path) Adds the path identified by path to the current selection.
addSelectionPaths(TreePath[] Adds each path in paths to the current selection.
paths)
addSelectionRow(int rows) Adds the paths at each of the rows in rows to the current selection.
addSelectionRows(int[] rows) Adds the paths at each of the rows in rows to the current selection.
addTreeExpansionListener(Tree Adds tel as interested in receiving TreeExpansion events.
ExpansionListener tel)
addTreeSelectionListener(Tree Adds tsl as interested in receiving TreeSelection events.
SelectionListener tsl)
clearSelection( ) Clears the selection.
collapsePath(TreePath path) Insures that the last item identified in path is collapsed and visible.
collapseRow(int row) Insures that the item identified by row is collapsed.
convertValueToText(Object value, This is called by the tree renderer to convert the passed-in value into
boolean selected, boolean text.
expanded, boolean leaf, int row,
boolean hasFocus)
createTreeModel(Object value) Returns a TreeModel wrapping the passed-in Object value.
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expandPath(TreePath path) Insures that the last item identified in path is expanded and visible.
expandRow(int row) Insures that the item identified by row is expanded.
getAccessibleContext( ) Gets the AccessibleContext associated with this Jcomponent.
getCellEditor( ) Returns the editor used to edit entries in the tree.
getCellRenderer( ) Returns the current TreeCellRenderer that is rendering each cell.
getClosestPathForLocation (int x, Returns the path to the node that is closest to x,y.
int y)
getClosestRowForLocation (int x, Returns the row to the node that is closest to x,y.
int y)
getDefaultTreeModel( ) Creates and returns a sample TreeModel.
getEditingPath( ) Returns the path to the element that is being edited.
getInvokesStopCellEditing( ) Returns true if, when editing is to be stopped by changing the selection,
changing data in tree, or by other means, then stop CellEditing will be
invoked; if false, then cancelCellEditing will be invoked.
getEditingPath( ) Returns the path to the element that is being edited.
getInvokesStopCellEditing( ) Returns true if, when editing is to be stopped by changing the selection,
changing data in the tree, or by other means, then stopCellEditing will be
invoked; if false, then cancelCellEditing will be invoked.
getLastSelectedPathComponent( ) Returns the last path component in the selection.
getLeadSelectionPath( ) Returns the last path that was added.
getLeadSelectionRow( ) Returns the lead selection index.
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getMaxSelectionRow( ) Gets the last selected row.
getMinSelectionRow( ) Gets the first selected row.
getModel ( ) Returns the TreeModel that is providing the data.
getPathBetweenRows(int index0, Returns JTreePath instances representing the path between index0 and
int index1) index1 (including index1).
getPathBounds(TreePath path) Returns the Rectangle that the last item in path will be drawn into.
getPathForLocation(int x, int y) Returns the path for the given location.
getPathForRow(int row) Returns the path for the passed-in row.
getPreferredScrollableViewport Returns the preferred viewable size of a JTree.
Size( )
getRowBounds(int row) Returns the Rectangle that the item identified by row will be drawn into.
getRowCount( ) Returns the number of rows that are currently being displayed.
getRowForLocation(int x, int y) Returns the row for the passed-in location.
getRowForPath(TreePath path) Returns the row that the last item identified in path is visible at.
getRowHeight( ) Returns the height of each row.
getScrollableBlockIncrement Returns the amount for a block increment, which is the height or width
(Rectangle visibleRect, int of visibleRect, based on orientation.
orientation, int direction)
getScrollableTracksViewport Returns false.
Height( )
getScrollableTracksViewport Returns false.
Width( )
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getScrollableUnitIncrement Returns the amount to increment when scrolling.
(Rectangle visibleRect, int
orientation, int direction)
getSelectionCount( ) Returns the number of nodes selected.
getSelectionModel( ) Returns the model for selections.
getSelectionPath( ) Returns the path to the first selected value, or null if nothing is currently
selected.
getSelectionPaths( ) Returns the path of the selected values, or null if nothing is current
selected.
getSelectionRows( ) Returns all the currently selected rows.
getShowsRootHandles( ) Returns true if handles for the root nodes are displayed.
getToolTipText(MouseEvent Overriding to allow renderer’s tips to be used if it has text set.
event)
getUI( ) Returns the TreeUI that is providing the current look and feel.
getVisibleRowCount( ) Returns the number of rows that are to be made visible.
isCollapsed(int row) Returns true if the value identified by row is currently collapsed.
isCollapsed(TreePath path) Returns true if the value identified by path is currently collapsed; this
will return false if any of the values in path are currently not being
displayed.
isEditable( ) Returns true if the tree is editable.
isEditing( ) Returns true if the tree is being edited.
isExpanded(int row) Returns true if the value identified by row is currently expanded.
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isExpanded(TreePath path) Returns true if the value identified by path is currently expanded; this
will return false if any of the values in path are currently not being
displayed.
isFixedRowHeight( ) Returns true if the height of each row is a fixed size.
isLargeModel ( ) Returns true if the receiver is configured for a large model.
isOpaque( ) Returns true if this component is completely opaque.
isPathEditable(TreePath path) Returns true if the tree is editable.
isPathSelected(TreePath path) Returns true if item identified by path is currently selected.
isRootVisible( ) Returns true if the root node from the TreeModel is currently visible.
isRowSelected(int row) Returns true if the row identified by row is selected.
isSelectionEmpty( ) Returns true if the selection is currently empty.
isVisible(TreePath path) Returns true if the value identified by path is currently visible; false
otherwise.
makeVisible(TreePath path) Insures that the value identified by path is currently visible.
removeSelectionInterval(int Removes the paths between index0 and index1 from the selection.
index0, int index1)
removeSelectionPath(TreePath Removes the path identified by path from the current selection.
path)
removeSelectionPaths(TreePath[] Removes the paths identified by paths from the current selection.
paths)
removeSelectionRow(int row) Removes the path at the index row from the current selection.
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removeSelectionRows(int[] rows) Removes the paths that are selected at each of the indices in rows.
removeTreeExpansionListener Removes tel as being interested in receiving TreeExpansion events.
TreeExpansionListener tel)
removeTreeSelectionListener Removes tsl as being interested in receiving TreeSelection events.
(TreeSelectionListener tsl)
scrollPathToVisible (TreePath Makes sure all the path components in path are expanded (except for the
path) last path component) and tries to scroll the resulting path to be visible.
scrollRowToVisible(int row) Scrolls the item identified by row to be visible.
setCellEditor(TreeCellEditor Sets the cell editor to cell Editor.
cellEditor)
setCellRenderer(TreeCell Renderer Sets the TreeCellRenderer that will be used to draw each cell.
tcr)
setEditable(boolean flag) Sets the tree to being editable based on the boolean flag.
setInvokesStopCellEditing If newValue is true, when editing is to be stopped by changing the
(boolean newValue) selection, changing data in the tree, or by other means, then stop
CellEditing will be invoked; if false, then cancel CellEditing will be
invoked.
SetLargeModel(boolean Sets the receiver to being a large model based on newValue.
newValue)
setModel(TreeModel model) Sets the TreeModel that will provide the data.
setRootVisible(boolean Sets, based on rootVisible, whether or not the root node from the
rootVisible) TreeModel is visible.
setRowHeight(int rowHeight) Sets the height of each row to be rowHeight.
setSelectionInterval(int index0, int Sets the selection to the paths of the nodes between index0 and index1.
index1)
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setSelectionModel(TreeSelection Sets the selection model to selectionModel.
Model selectionModel)
setSelectionPath(TreePath path) Sets the selection to the value identified by path.
setSelectionPaths(TreePath[] Sets the selection to paths.
paths)
setSelectionRow(int index) Sets the selection to the path at index row.
setSelectionRows(int[] rows) The selection is set to the paths for the items at each of the rows in rows.
setShowsRootHandles(boolean Sets whether or not the root handles are to be displayed.
display)
setUI(TreeUI ui) Sets the TreeUI that will provide the current look and feel.
setVisibleRowCount(int count) Sets the number of rows that are to be visible.
startEditingAtPath(TreePath path) Selects the last item in path and tries to edit it.
stopEditing( ) Stops the current editing session.
treeDidChange( ) Sent when the tree has changed enough that we need to resize the
bounds, but not enough that we need to remove the expanded node set
(for example, nodes were expanded or collapsed, or nodes were inserted
into the tree).
updateUI( ) Called to replace the UI with the latest version from the default
UIFactory.
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Java Bible:Bringing It All Together with JDK 1.2
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Text framework/Document interface
The Document interface is used as an independent structure for holding text. It supports markup of styles,
notification of changes, and tracking of changes to undo changes. Text is marked up with structures
called elements. Elements describe the state of a document with an arbitrary set of attributes. A
document can be viewed from its elements. Documents also contain methods to describe the number of
lines and paragraphs of text. In many cases, a single document structure can describe a text component’s
model. The Document interface, however, permits multiple views of the text data. Several Document views
are a part of the Swing classes. The simplest is AbstractDocument, which is intended primarily as a
superclass to extend and form models that are more complete. The primary feature of the
AbstractDocument class is its locking mechanism. It implements the readers/writers model to allow either
one writer or multiple readers access to the content. Writers must wait for notification of ali observers of
a previous change before they can begin another mutation cycle. AbstractDocument is the abstract
superclass of two full-featured document models, PlainDocument and DefaultStyledDocument, The purpose
of PlainDocument is for short and simple text. It can manage text content as a string, and doesn’t support
history or undo operations. The DefaultStyledDocument also supports a document format similar to the
Rich Text Format (RTF). It relies on structure elements to mark up the text into styles.
JTable
The Swing classes support tables through the com.sun.java.swing.table package. The package contains
classes and interfaces that handle the creation and display of column-based data. The JTable class
supports features such as editing, colorizing, simultaneous row-column selection, and getting
information about the selected entries. Listing 25-4 demonstrates how to create a JTable object. Table 25-
4 lists and describes the methods provided by the JTable object.
Listing 25-4: Creating a Simple Table with the JTable Object
public class TablePanel extends JPanel {
TablePanel( ) {
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setLayout (new BorderLayout( ));
// Create data model
MyDataModel MyModel =
new MyDataModel( );
// Create and setup the table
JTable table = new JTable (MyModel);
// Resize columns
table.sizeColumnsToFit (false);
// Place table in JScrollPane
JScrollPane scrollPane =
JTable.createScrollPaneForTable(table);
// Add to Screen
add(scrollPane, BorderLayout.CENTER);
}
}
class MyDataModel extends AbstractTableModel {
// AbstractTableModel takes care of
// TableModelListener list management
String columns[] = {“Column-l”, “Column-2”,
“Column-3”};
String rows[][] = {
{“1”, “7”, “100”},
{“2”, “6”, “99”},
{“3”, “5”, “98”},
{“4”, “4”, “97”},
{“5”, “3”, “96”},
{“6”, “2”, “95”},
{“7”, “1”, “94”},
};
private int numColumns = columns.length;
private int numRows = rows.length;
public int getColumnCount( ) {
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return numColumns;
}
public int getRowCount( ) {
return numRows;
}
public Object getValueAt (int row, int column) {
return rows[row][column];
public void setValueAt (Object aValue,
int row, int column) {
String cellValue;
if (aValue instanceof String)
cellValue = (String)aValue;
else
cellValue = aValue.toString( );
rows[row][column] = cellValue;
fireTableChanged (new TableModelEvent (this, row) );
}
public String getColumnName (int columnIndex) {
return columns[columnIndex];
}
}
Table 25-4
JTable Methods
Method Description
addColumn(TableColumn Column Appends a Column to the end of the array of columns held by the
JTable’s column model.
addColumnSelectionInterval(int Adds the columns from index0 to index1 inclusive to the current
index0, int index1) selection.
addRowSelectionInterval(int Adds the rows from index0 to index1 inclusive to the current selection.
index0, int index1)
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clearSelection( ) Deselects all selected columns and rows.
columnAtPoint(Point point) Returns the index of the column that point lies in, or -1 if it lies outside
the receiver’s bounds.
convertColumnIndexToModel (int Returns the index of the column in the model whose data is being
index) displayed in the column viewColumnIndex in the display.
convertColumnIndexToView (int Returns the index of the column in the view that is displaying the data
index) from the column modelColumnIndex in the model.
createDefaultColumnModel( ) Returns the default column model object that is a
DefaultTableColumnModel.
createDefaultColumnsFromModel This method will create default columns for the table from the data
() model using the getColumnCount( ) and getColumnType( ) methods defined
in the TableModel interface.
createDefaultDataModel( ) Returns the default table model object, that is a DefaultTableModel.
createDefaultSelectionModel( ) Returns the default selection model object, that is a
DefaultListSelectionModel.
createDefaultTableHeader( ) Returns the default table header object, that is a JTableHeader.
createScrollPaneForTable (Jtable This static method is provided to simplify the task of wrapping a JTable
table) in a scroll pane.
editCellAt(int x, int y) Programmatically starts editing the cell at row x and column y, if the
cell is editable.
editCellAt(int x, int y, EventObject Programmatically starts editing the cell at row x and column y, if the
event) cell is editable.
editingColumn( ) If sent while isEditing( ) is true, this returns the index of the editing
column; otherwise returns -1.
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editingRow( ) If sent while isEditing( ) is true, this returns the index of the editing row;
otherwise returns -1.
getAccessibleContext( ) Get the AccessibleContext associated with this Jcomponent.
getAutoCreateColumnsFromModel Returns whether the table will create default columns from the model.
()
getAutoResizeMode( ) Returns auto resize mode of the table.
getCellEditor( ) Sets the cellEditor variable.
getCellRect(int x, int y, boolean Returns a rectangle locating the cell that lies at the intersection of row
flag) and column.
getColumn(Object obj) Returns the TableColumn object for the column in the table whose
identifier is equal to obj, when compared using equals ( ).
getColumnClass(int column) Returns the type of the column at position column in the view.
getColumnCount( ) Returns the number of columns in the column model; note that this may
be different from the number of columns in the table model.
getColumnModel( ) Returns the TableColumnModel that contains all column information of
this table.
getColumnName(int column) Returns the name of the column at position column in the view.
getDefaultEditor(Class editclass) Returns the editor to be used when no editor has been set in a
TableColumn.
getDefaultRenderer(Class Returns the renderer to be used when no renderer has been set in a
rendclass) TableColumn.
getEditorComponent( ) If the receiver is currently editing, this will return the component that
was returned from the CellEditor.
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getGridColor( ) Returns the color used to draw grid lines.
getIntercellSpacing( ) Returns the horizontal and vertical spacing between cells.
getModel( ) Returns the TableModel that provides the data displayed by the receiver.
getRowCount( ) Returns the number of rows in the table.
getRowHeight( ) Returns the height of a table row in the receiver.
getSelectionModel( ) Returns the ListSelectionModel that is used to maintain row selection
state.
getShowGrid( ) Returns true if the receiver draws grid lines around cells, false if it
doesn’t.
getTableHeader( ) Returns the tableHeader working with this JTable.
getToolTipText(MouseEvent Overriding to allow renderer’s tips to be used if it has text set.
event)
getValueAt(int row, int column) Returns the cell value at row and column.
isCellEditable(int row, int column) Returns true if the cell at row and column is editable.
isOpaque( ) Returns true if this component is completely opaque.
moveColumn(int column, int Moves column to the position currently occupied by targetColumn.
targetColumn)
removeColumn(TableColumn Removes a column from the JTable’s array of columns.
column)
removeColumnSelectionInterval Deselects the columns from index0 to index1 inclusive.
(int index0, int index1)
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removeRowSelctionInterval(int Deselects the rows from index0 to index1 inclusive.
index0, int ndex1)
resizeAndRepaint( ) Properly sizes the receiver and its header view, and marks it as needing
display.
rowAtPoint(Point point) Returns the index of the row that point lies in, or -1 if is not in the range
[0, getRowCount( )-1].
selectAll( ) If a column is selected, then this selects all columns.
setAutoCreateColumnsFromModel Sets the table’s autoCreateColumns FromModel flag.
(boolean flag)
setAutoResizeMode(int mode) Sets the table’s auto-resize mode when the table is resized.
setCellEditor(TableCellEditor cell Sets the cellEditor variable.
Editor)
setCell SelectionEnabled(boolean Sets whether this table allows both a column selection and a row
enable) selection to exist at the same time.
setColumnModel Sets the column model for this table to newModel and registers with for
(TableColumnModel newModel) listener notifications from the new column model.
setColumnSelectionAllowed Sets whether the columns in this model can be selected.
(boolean flag)
setColumnSelectionInterval(int Selects the columns from index0 to index1 inclusive, if column selection
index0, int index1) is allowed.
setDefaultEditor(Class class, Sets a default editor to be used if no editor has been set in a
TableCellEditor editor) TableColumn.
setDefaultRenderer(Class class, Sets a default renderer to be used if no renderer has been set in a
TableCellRenderer render) TableColumn.
setEditingColumn(int newValue) Sets the editingColumn variable.
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setEditingRow(int row) Sets the editingRow variable.
setGridColor(Color color) Sets the color used to draw grid lines to color and redisplays the
receiver.
setIntercellSpacing(Dimension Sets the width and height between cells to newSpacing and redisplays the
newSpacing) receiver.
setModel(TableModel newModel) Sets the data model for this table to newModel and registers with for
listener notifications from the new data model.
setRowHeight(int newRowHeight) Sets the height for rows to newRowHeight and invokes tile.
setRowSelectionAllowed(boolean Sets whether the rows in this model can be selected.
flag)
setRowSetectionInterval(int Selects the rows from index0 to index1 inclusive, if row selection is
index0, int index1) allowed.
setSelectionModel (List Sets the row selection model for this table to newModel and registers
SelectionModel newModel) with for listener notifications from the new selection model.
setShowGrid(boolean flag) Sets whether the receiver draws grid lines around cells.
setTableHeader(JtableHeader Sets the tableHeader working with this JTable to newHeader.
newHeader)
setValueAt(Object, int, int) Sets the value for the cell at row and column.
sizeColumnsToFit(boolean flag) Resizes one or more columns of the table so that the sum width of all
columns will equal to the width of the table.
tableChanged(TableModel Event The TableModel Event should be constructed in the coordinate system of
newModel ) the model, the appropriate mapping to the view coordinate system is
performed by the JTable when it receives the event.
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updateUI( ) Called to replace the UI with the latest version from the default
UIFactory.
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Layouts
Swing has five primary layout managers:
• Scroll PaneLayout
• ViewportLayout
• BoxLayout
• OverlayLayout
• SpringLayout
The BoxLayout, OverlayLayout, and SprintLayout function like their counterparts in the older AWT user-
interface model. The BoxLayout also happens to be built into the Box component.
BoxLayout
The BoxLayout layout manager allows you to arrange components along either an x axis or y axis. In a y-
axis BoxLayout, for instance, components are arranged from top to bottom in the order they are added.
Unlike GridLayout, Box Layoutt allows components to occupy different amounts of space along the
primary axis. Table 25-5 lists and describes the methods provided by the JBox Layout object.
Table 25-5
JBoxLayout Methods
Method Description
getLayoutAlignmentX(Container) Returns the alignment along the x axis for the container.
getLayoutAlignmentY(Container) Returns the alignment along the y axis for the container.
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invalidateLayout(Container) Indicates that a child has changed its layoutrelated information, and
thus any cached calculations should be flushed.
layoutContainer(Container) Called by the AWT when the specified container needs to be laid out.
maximumLayoutSize(Container) Returns the maximum dimensions needed to lay out the components
contained in the specified target container.
minimumLayoutSize(Container) Returns the minimum dimensions needed to lay out the components
contained in the specified target container.
preferredLayoutSize(Container) Returns the preferred dimensions for this layout, given the components
in the specified target container.
ScrollPaneLayout
The ScrollPaneLayout is the layout manager used by a JScrollPane. The layout defines nine different areas
for the JScrollPane:
• JViewport—in the center for the content
• JScrollBar objects—one each for horizontal and vertical scrolling
• JViewport objects—one for column headers, the other row
• Component objects—one for each of the corners. The JScrollPane constants to specify the corners
are: LOWER_LEFT_CORNER, LOWER_RIGHT_CORNER, UPPER_LEFT_CORNER,
UPPER_RIGHT_CORNER
The center viewport portion of this layout is of primary interest for simple layouts. A JViewport is itself a
container object that can hold components.
ViewportLayout
ViewportLayout is the layout manager used by a JViewport. You should never need to use the layout
directly, as it is automatically associated with a JViewport object, and positions the internal component
for you based upon the JViewport properties.
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Java Bible:Bringing It All Together with JDK 1.2
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Event Listeners
Like the AWT, Swing has its own event package for Swing-specific events. There are events and event
listeners within this package, while the event sources exist outside the package. Table 25-6 lists and
describes the objects Swing uses to listen for events.
Table 25-6
Event-Listener Objects
Method Description
AncestorEvent An ancestor added, moved, removed.
ChangeEvent An object’s state change.
Document Event Document state change.
DragEvent Drag support.
ListDataEvent A list’s contents were changed; an interval added or removed.
ListSelectionEvent A list’s selection status change.
MenuEvent A menu was selected/posted, deselected, cancelled.
TableColumnModel Event A table column was changed.
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TableModelEvent A table model was changed.
TreeExpansionEvent A tree was expanded or collapsed.
TreeModelEvent A tree model was changed.
TreeSelectionEvent A tree selection status changed.
Each listener interface is coupled with a single event type and contains a method for each type of event
the event class embodies. For example, the ListDataListener contains three methods, one for each type of
event that the ListDataEvent has: contentsChanged( ), intervalAdded( ), and interval Removed( ).
Wrapping Up JFC and Swing (for Now)
The last three chapters have covered a lot of ground in discussion of Java Foundation Classes and Swing
user-interface classes. Even so, that discussion is only the beginning. There’s always more to know
about Swing and JFC; in effect, you’ve seen the future of Java user interface programming. If you’d like
to stay on top of the latest Swing and JFC developments, check out the following Web sites:
• Using the JFC/Swing Packages:
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/ui/swing/index.html
• The Swing Connection:
http://java.sun.com/products/jfc/swingdoc-current/index.html
• Creating a User Interface:
http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/ui/index.html
Swing 1.0 Release Notes
By the time you read this, Swing 1.0 should be shipping. The main Swing classes and APIs will be
locked in when Swing 1.0 is released, although the APIs that implement Swing’s pluggable look-and-
feel designs will not be frozen. These are the main Swing API packages that will be frozen when Swing
1.0 is released:
• com.sun.java.swing
• com.sun.java.swing.border
• com.sun.java.swing.event
• com.sun.java.swing.multi
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• com.sun.java.swing.plaf
• com.sun.java.swing.table
• com.sun.java.swing.text
• com.sun.java.swing.tree
• com.sun.java.swing.undo
• com.sun.java.accessibility
The APIs that implement Swing’s pluggable look-and-feel designs will not be frozen—they will
continue to evolve until they appear in the final version of JDK 1.2. These are the packages that
will not be frozen when Swing 1.0 is officially released:
• com.sun.java.swing.basic
• com.sun.java.swing.windows
• com.sun.java.swing.motif
• com.sun.java.swing.organic
• com.sun.java.swing.preview
Also, when Swing 1.0 is released, the JColorChooser and JFileChooser components will be moved to a new
swing.preview package. This is because the color-chooser and file-chooser APIs will still be changing for
a few months after the official release. The look-and-feel implementation that has been known up to now
as the Java look and feel (JLF) will be called the Organic look and feel (this means that the swing.jlf
package will be renamed swing.organic). Also, a new package that implements the Macintosh look and
feel will be named swing.macintosh.
Summary
This chapter reviewed how to make the most of Swing and Java Foundation Classes with the Java
Development Kit 1.2. This chapter reviewed:
• Incompatibilities between JDK 1.2 and previous versions of Java include binary, language,
runtime, API, and tools. Most of these problems are minor and won’t affect your Java
applications greatly—but you need to be aware of them.
• With its Swing and Java Foundation Classes, JDK 1.2 enables you to integrate Swing objects,
layouts, and event listeners into your applications.
• Advanced Swing objects such as toolbars, tooltips, trees, and a text framework can lend
sophistication to your user interfaces.
• More than just a current hot topic, the Swing and Java Foundation Classes are likely to
dominate the future of user-interface programming in Java.
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Java Bible:JavaBeans
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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PART V
Advanced Java
In This Part
Chapter 26: JavaBeans
Chapter 27: Networking
Chapter 28: JDBC: The Java Database–Connectivity API
Chapter 29: Multimedia
Chapter 30: Future of Java
Although you have learned much about the basics of the Java programming language by this point in the
book, this section introduces you to some advanced topics that outline exciting Java capabilities and
directions. Due to the object–oriented nature and the class–based strategy of the Java programming
language, it’s easy to extend and its uses are diverse. In this part you’ll learn how to implement and use
JavaBeans—standalone components that can be used by other applications—including the Java
applications you create.
Java also provides complete support for networking and database connectivity. The chapters in this part
explore how to add network connectivity to your own Java applications, and how to add database
support with the Java Database Classes (JDBC). The JDBC provides an open architecture, providing
access to a number of native database platforms. This part also includes a review of Java multimedia
support, and shows you how to enliven your applications with animation and sound.
With these capabilities in place and more to come, Java continues to change and evolve—so this part
wraps up with a look at what to expect in the short–and long–term future of Java.
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CHAPTER 26
JavaBeans
In This Chapter
Understanding the basics of JavaBeans
Using software components and component models as application building blocks
Giving objects a personality using properties
Creating custom JavaBeans
Looking into a bean with introspection
Handling JavaBean events
Keeping JavaBeans around with persistence
Using the BeanBox to build JavaBeans
Cooking up your first JavaBean
Going the distance with Glasgow and Enterprise JavaBeans
JavaBeans Basics
In the preceding chapters, you learned how to create Java applets and applications using the Java
programming language and the various tools that come with the Java Development Toolkit (JDK).
Depending on your background in software development, writing Java applets and applications may not
be radically different from what you already know.
JavaBeans, however, is likely to feel altogether new, even if Java came naturally to you. The reason for
this is simple: JavaBeans builds on Java, so you have to know Java before you can work with
JavaBeans. Assuming that you’ve worked through the chapters leading up to this one, or at least a good
deal of them, you’re ready for JavaBeans.
JavaBeans is a software component model for Java. It describes how to create and use reusable software
components, known as beans, that you can manipulate visually using special-purpose builder tools (also
known as application builders).
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Assuming we have a few beans (whether we create them from scratch or use preexisting beans), we can
use a builder tool such as the BeanBox utility that comes with the Beans Development Kit (BDK) to
visually configure them to fit our needs. (See the “BeanBox Builder Tool Basics” section later in this
chapter.)
Right out of the gate we’re dealing with four new terms:
• JavaBeans—a software component model specifically for Java.
• Software component model—describes how to create and use reusable software components to
build an application. The model tells you how to connect components so they can continue to
function as intended and simultaneously cooperate with the other components in your
application.
• Bean—a reusable Java program based on the JavaBeans component model.
• Builder tool—an application development tool, such as Borland’s JBuilder or Symantec’s
Visual Café. This type of tool lets you both create new beans and use existing beans to create an
application. You should treat these functions as two distinct operations. The BeanBox program
that comes with the BDK performs the second function; it lets you visually manipulate existing
beans to create an application.
Many developers mistakenly use the singular JovaBean interchangeably with the term bean,
and you’ll often hear the plural JavaBeans used to refer to more than one bean. For example,
you might hear a developer claim to have created several really cool JavaBeans. In this
context, the developer is clearly talking about beans, or reusable software programs, not the
JavaBeans component model from which such beans are derived. You need to interpret the
meaning of these terms differently depending on how they are used.
Software components and software component models
While the terms software components (or simply components) and software component model (or
component model) may seem new, they have been around for many years. Software components and
software component models go hand-inhand; you can’t have one without the other.
A software component is a self—contained program that behaves in a well-known, predictable manner,
courtesy of a software component model. The component model functions as the “master plan” from
which the component draws life. Component models are really just a means to an end—it’s the
components that we really want.
Software components—the next “big thing”?
Object-oriented languages such as Java represent a quantum leap forward in the field of software
development. Objects help us rapidly build software programs and, if used properly, are reusable to an
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extent that the software industry hasn’t seen before. And so, in a sense, objects are really the “next big
thing,” even though they’ve been around for a while.
Before objects, software programs were generally “hand crafted”—you had to reinvent the wheel each
time you created a new program. But thanks to objects, we can create repositories of code (known as
packages in Java) that can be used over and over again, greatly enhancing our productivity as software
developers while also increasing the overall quality of the final program.
You can think of objects as the reusable building blocks (frames, doors, windows, steps, and so forth)
that you use to build a larger structure. To be sure, building a house would be a daunting task if we had
to build every little piece of it from scratch. However, if we only have to slap together a set of different
prebuilt pieces, the job of building a house becomes a lot less challenging. By the same token, creating a
software program is quite tedious if you have to create it from scratch, as you would if you used a
procedural language such as Pascal or C. However, if you use objects (akin to building blocks) instead,
the process goes much more quickly.
You can think of software components as fully prefabricated buildings, if you start with a completed
building instead of a set of building blocks, the lion’s share of work is already done; all you have to do is
paint the house, put up some wallpaper, and plant a little grass out front. You just customize it a bit and
you’re ready to move in. To extend this idea to software development, a project that would require a
reasonable amount of effort if you used objects requires practically no effort at all if you use components.
Of course, such an analogy oversimplifies the relationship between objects and components, but it
captures the essence of the most significant difference: Objects are reusable building blocks, and
components are reusable programs that you can customize using a builder tool such as BeanBox.
You usually build software components using objects. Objects and software components are
complimentary, and they are useful and appropriate at different points in the software-development
process.
If you’re familiar with visual software-development tools such as Visual Basic, Visual Age,
and Delphi, then you’ve already been exposed to software components. All of these products
let you create software components, and they’ve been around for some time. The biggest
difference between the software components that you create with these tools and those you
develop with JavaBeans is the language; beans are software components created with Java.
Regardless of the language, the concept is the same: A component is a reusable program that
greatly reduces the effort required to get a specific job done.
Software component models—“master plans” or “means to an end”?
To create and use software components, you have to use a software component model that describes how
to develop and use components and supplies the mechanism for doing so. A software component model
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generally consists of two major elements:
• A detailed specification that describes how to create and use components
• A software implementation (in other words, an Application Programming Interface, or API) of
the specification that supplies a concrete mechanism for building and using components
Naturally, how you create and use components depends on the specific component model. If you’re
working with the JavaBeans component model, you’ll use the Java language, along with the JavaBeans
specification—an official document that formally defines how to create and use beans—and the
JavaBeans API.
The JavaBeans specification is available on JavaSoft’s Web site at http://java.sun.com/beans/
spec.html, and is definitely worth getting your hands on if you’re serious about JavaBeans.
Heck, even if you’re not serious about JavaBeans, it’s worth checking out.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Some programmers regard software component models as the final word on developing and using
components. They view the model as the “master plan” from which everything related to software
components emanates. However, others don’t pay much attention to the model itself because they’re
interested in using existing components and don’t want to be bothered with the finer points of creating
them from scratch.
In truth, you don’t have to actively involve yourself with a software component model in order to create
or use software components. However, even if you try to ignore the model, you can’t escape it. Because
the model describes how components are built and used and also provides the mechanism for creating
and using them, you’re always involved with it at some level. You just might not know or care. But
that’s okay.
You can run, but you can’t hide...
Even if you don’t care about the software component model, if you’re using components, you’ll find
yourself dealing with the five standard services that component models (including JavaBeans) generally
supply to their components:
• Property manipulation
• Customization (also known as interface publishing)
• Introspection (also known as interface discovery)
• Event support (also known as event handling)
• Persistence (the capability to maintain state)
Property manipulation
Just like objects, beans (and all other components) have certain properties. The background color of a
button is a property. The time elapsed since its initial invocation can also be a property. Component
models encourage developers to use a standard manner by which properties can be manipulated or
changed—usually an explicitly defined method. In the case of beans, accessor methods are used. The
JavaBeans specification calls for each property to have two associated accessor methods: a “get” method
that reads the value of a property, and a “set” method that sets the value of a property.
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Customization
Customization, or interface publishing, is a key feature of JavaBeans. One of the hallmarks of a properly
designed bean is that you can visually customize it using a builder tool.
Builder tools, such as the BeanBox, are essential when working with software components such as
beans—they let you visually customize the appearance and behavior of components. You can build
sophisticated applications by simply stringing together beans that you’ve customized to fit your needs.
To do their magic, builder tools must be able to figure out exactly what capabilities a component
supports and how these capabilities can be customized. If the builder tool has this information, it can let
the user (typically a developer such as you or me) tweak its various properties using little more than the
mouse and perhaps a few taps of the keys. Using builder tools and beans greatly reduces the coding
effort traditionally required to create an application. However, you have to document your code very
carefully. You have to know the capabilities and customizable parts of a bean before you can modify it,
and you usually get this information by looking at the documentation accompanying the bean.
Although beans are most useful when visually manipulated using builder tools, we can also
tap into them through plain old-fashioned code. In fact, the JavaBeans specification (http://
java.sun.com/beans/spec.html) shows how programmers can manually assemble and
customize beans using nothing more than Java code. This is possible because beans are
created using traditional Java APIs, meaning that they’re built using standard Java classes and
coding techniques.
Introspection
Introspection, or interface discovery, enables builder tools to understand how beans work by analyzing
their internal structure. Builder tools use introspection to figure out which properties, events, and
methods a bean supports. Using this intimate information, builder tools can control the appearance and
behavior of a bean, which in turn enables us to visually manipulate and customize beans.
JavaBeans supports two distinct forms of introspection: implicit introspection and explicit introspection.
Implicit introspection is a fundamental form of introspection supported by all beans. It’s built into every
bean and requires no extra effort by the bean creator to implement. Explicit introspection is a more
sophisticated form of introspection that requires additional work on behalf of a bean’s creator during the
bean development process. Implicit introspection is information inherent to the bean and readily
available, while explicit introspection depends on the willingness of the bean to provide additional
information (in the form of extra code written for the bean).
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Implicit introspection relies on Java’s own reflection package, java.lang.reflect. This suite of
APIs, new to JDK 1.1, allows a program to examine the internal structure of itself or any other
Java class. By default, all beans support reflectionbased introspection, which is used to
deduce what properties, events, and public methods a bean supports. Explicit introspection, on
the other hand, enables you to provide custom BeanInfo classes that are used in place of
reflection to describe the internals of the bean. Thus, explicit introspection, by way of the
BeanInfo class, gives you ultimate control over how your bean can be manipulated and
customized, but it requires extra effort on your part.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 26-1 shows the SimpleBeanInfo class, which is a utility class used to construct BeanInfo classes.
Table 26-1
Class java.beans.SimpleBeanlnfo
Constructor Signature Description
SimpleBeanInfo() public SimpleBean Info() This is a utility class. It simplifies
creation of BeanInfo classes, should you
choose to provide it. In the absence of
BeanInfo classes, introspection is used to
gather information about a bean.
Method Signature Description
getBean Descriptor publicBeanDescriptor getBeanDescriptor Override this if you want to provide
() explicit information about the class and
the customizer of the bean.
getProperty Descriptors public Property Descriptor[] get Override this if you want to provide
PropertyDescriptors() explicit information about a property.
getDefault Property Index public int getDefault PropertyIndex() Override this if you want to define a
default property for the bean supporting
indexed properties.
public EventSet Descriptor[] getEvent Override this if you want to provide
getEventSet Descriptors
SetDescriptors() explicit information about an event set.
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getDefautt EventIndex publicintgetDefault Eventtndex() Override this if you want to define a
default event set.
getMethod Descriptors public Method Descriptor[] get Override this if you want to provide
MethodDescriptors() explicit information about a method.
getAdditional BeanInfo public BeanInfo[] get AdditionalBeanInfo Override this if you want to provide
() additional information on a bean.
getIcon public Image getIcon (int iconKind) Override this if you want to provide
icons for your bean.
loadImage public Image loadImage (String This utility method helps load icon
resourceName) images. It takes the name of a resource
file associated with the current object’s
class file and loads an image object
from that file. Typically images will be
GIFs.
Parameter:
resourceName—a pathname relative to the
directory holding the class file of the
current class
Returns an image object. May be null if
the load failed.
We also have the Introspector class shown in Table 26-2. Along with the SimpleBeanInfo class, these two
classes can provide us with a great deal of information about beans.
Table 26-2
Class java.beans.lntrospector
Method Signature Description
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getBeanInfo public static BeanInfo getBeanInfo(Class Introspect on a Java bean and learn
beanClass) about all its properties, exposed
methods, and events. When an error
occurs an Introspection Exception object is
thrown.
decapitalize public static String decapitalize(String Utility method to take a string and
name) convert it to normal Java variable name
capitalization. This is done by
converting the first character from
uppercase to lowercase. If more than
one character exists and both the first
and second characters are uppercase, we
leave it alone. For example, FooBah
becomes fooBah and X becomes x, but
URL stays as URL.
getBeanInfo SearchPath public static String[] Returns an array of package names that
getBeanInfoSearchPath () will be searched to find BeanInfo classes.
setBeanInfo SearchPath public static void set Sets the array of package names that
BeanInfoSearchPath (String path[]) will be used for finding BeanInfo classes.
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Persistence
Persistence is the capability of a bean to save and restore its state. In essence, this means that you can
permanently save a bean to disk along with all of the runtime attributes that it possesses, and later
“resurrect” it from disk with all its attributes intact. The capability to save and restore state is an
important feature of beans. Without it, we’d have to reconfigure them from scratch each time we quit
and then reran our builder tool.
Thanks to persistence, we can use builder tools to manipulate and configure beans to our heart’s content
without worrying that our work will be lost when we exit from the tool. Similar in nature to how a word
processor enables us to save the state of each document we write, persistence gives builder tools the
capability to save the changes we make to our beans.
JavaBeans supports two forms of persistence: automatic persistence and external persistence. Automatic
persistence is near effortless, because it relies on Java’s built-in serialization mechanism to save and
restore the state of a bean. External persistence, on the other hand, gives you the option of supplying
your own custom classes to control precisely how a bean’s state is stored and retrieved. For example,
your application may require you to save the state of a bean in a relational database. Externalization lets
you do just that.
In most cases, you’ll find that automatic serialization is the way to go. Because adding support for
automatic persistence is a trivial effort when creating beans, there’s no good reason to bother writing
external persistence classes unless the automatic route falls to do the trick. While you may need to use
external persistence if you’re developing complicated beans that have special persistence requirements,
in this chapter I focus on automatic persistence because it’s probably all you’ll need when you first start
developing your own beans.
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JavaBeans supports automatic persistence through Java’s own Object Serialization
mechanism, which is part of the java.io package in JDK 1.1. (JDK 1.0 does not inherently
support serialization; you must manually craft your own solution if you want to save and
restore object state.) Specifically, java.io.Serializable is an interface that a class can implement
to indicate that it can be serialized. The java.io.Serializable interface is extended by the java.
ioExternalizable interface. The java.io.Externalizable interface defines two methods, readExternal()
and writeExternal(), which together enable a class to have complete control over the writing of
its state. For more details on the java.io package and persistence, see Chapter 13.
BeanBox Builder Tool Basics
If you want to really understand the power of beans and fully appreciate the services each bean receives
courtesy of the JavaBeans component model, you actually need to work with beans instead of merely
reading about them. And to do that, you need to get your hands on a pile of premade beans and a bean-
savvy builder tool that you can use to visually manipulate them. As luck would have it, the Beans
Development Kit gives you both. Better still, the BDK is free.
The BDK is available on the CD-ROM that comes with this book and at Sun’s Java Web site,
http://java.sun.com/beans/. For more details, see Appendix B.
Introducing the Beans Development Kit
The Beans Development Kit (BDK) is created by JavaSoft, the same folks who created the Java
Development Toolkit, and made freely available to developers such as yourself. It’s important to note,
however, that the BDK is not intended to be a full-blown beans development environment. Instead, its
purpose in life is to support early-stage application development using beans while also acting as a
“reference base” for both bean developers and tool vendors. In short, don’t expect all the bells and
whistles from the BDK that you would from a commercial bean development tool such as the
BeanMachine created by Lotus Development Corporation.
The BDK is a bare-bones environment that offers just enough to get you started with beans, but not too
much more than that. Just as you’ll outgrow the JDK in time, you’re certain to outgrow the BDK if you
spend more than a little time working with beans. In the meantime, it’s the perfect introduction to beans
development, so we start here.
The BDK comes with a builder tool called the BeanBox, along with the JavaBeans APl (the java.beans
package) and a variety of bean source code examples. Although we explore the JavaBeans APl and some
of the source code examples provided with the BDK later, at the moment we focus on the BeanBox
builder tool, because using it is perhaps the best way to really understand how beans work.
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Many professional Java development tools also support JavaBean development. You can find
the latest and greatest JavaBean tools online at http://java.sun. com/beans/tools.html. This site
is devoted entirely to JavaBean development tools. If you’re unsure of where to begin when it
comes to finding the perfect JavaBeans development tool for your needs, be sure to consult
this online site made available through Sun’s JavaSoft division. Note that although many of
today’s tools support both bean development and application development based on beans, the
two are different beasts. Bean development requires a tool that enables you to create beans with
the intention that such beans will be used by others to create applications. Sun’s Java
Workshop is an example of such a tool. Application development based on beans means you
already have access to a number of beans, and your job is to put them together to create an
application. Java Studio is an example of this second type of tool.
The BeanBox
The BeanBox builder tool provided with the BDK is a pure Java application that runs under JDK 1.1.
Because it’s built entirely with Java, the BeanBox is platformindependent.
To run the BeanBox, simply move to the beanbox directory located inside the main BDK directory that is
created on your hard drive when you run the BDK installer. (This assumes, of course, that you’ve
installed the BDK. If you haven’t, you’ll have to do so now if you want to work through the examples in
this chapter.) Windows 95 users can invoke the run.bat batch file by double-clicking it with the mouse
in the Windows Explorer or by typing run at the command prompt in a DOS window. Solaris and other
UNIX-flavor users can use the run.sh shell script.
When you run the BeanBox, three windows appear, as shown in Figure 26-1.
These windows perform the following functions:
• ToolBox—Lists the sample beans provided with the BDK. You can add your own beans to this
list. You’ll find out how later in this chapter.
• BeanBox—This window is a simple container in which you can manipulate and configure
beans.
• Properties—Lists the properties of the bean currently selected in the BeanBox window.
Before you begin to explore the BeanBox in more detail, note that the BeanBox is a very simplistic
example of a builder tool. Builder tools come in many flavors, so you’re sure to find one that suits your
personal tastes. They come in the form of Web site and Web page builders, visual application
development tools, GUI layout builders, and just about any other type of software-development oriented
tool you can think of. In fact, a plain-vanilla word processor that simply lets you drop beans into your
documents is also considered a “builder tool.”
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Figure 26-1: The BeanBox interface consists of three main windows: ToolBox, BeanBox, and
Properties.
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Event support
Event support, or event handling, refers to a bean’s capability to understand and deal with events.
Events, as you may recall from previous chapters in this book, especially those chapters that discuss
Java’s Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT), are the programmatic mechanism used to exchange change-
of-state notifications among objects. In simpler terms, events are used to tell objects that something
(such as a mouse click or a key press) has happened, which in turn enables the object to react
accordingly.
JavaBeans supports the same event model used by the AWT, and in doing so supports the notion of
source beans and listener beans: Beans that produce an event are considered the source of the event,
while those beans that are registered to receive the event are considered listeners of the event. JavaBeans
uses an event as a simple communication device that enables us to connect beans, just as the AWT uses
an event to connect objects. (For more details on events, refer to Part IV of this book, which covers the
Abstract Windowing Toolkit.) While most AWT events result from user interaction and have a visual
implication, bean events can (and in many cases do) have nonvisual contexts. When a number in a bean
reaches a certain threshold, that could trigger an event that causes another bean to change its behavior.
All of this could happen without the user ever “seeing” anything.
The “Cooking Up Your First Bean” section later in this chapter outlines the basic event model in
JavaBeans. The event scheme can easily become complex, and careful design is a must for successful
applications. For example, cases occur in which the source must send out a number of events
simultaneously. Such a broadcast is encapsulated in the EventSetDecriptor class (see Table 26-3). Methods
are provided to group such related events together and act on each one of them accordingly. For
example, the getListenerMethods() method returns an array of method objects that are called when certain
events occur.
Table 26-3
Class java.beans.EventSetDescriptor
Constructor Signature Description
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EventSet Descriptor public EventSetDescriptor (Class Sometimes an event source needs to fire
sourceClass, String eventSetName, Class more than a single event
listenerType, String
simultaneously. You do this by using an
listenerMethodName)
EventSetDescriptor where a group of
events are delivered at once.
public EventSetDescriptor (Class Different constructors are used
sourceCtass, String eventSetName, Class depending on how you want to create
listenerType, String
the EventSetDescriptor. Your choices are
listenerMethodNames[], String
addListenerMethod Name, String simple design patterns, introspection,
remove ListenerMethodName) and from scratch.
public EventSetDescriptor (String
eventSetName, Class listenerType,
Method listenerMethods[], Method
addListenerMethod, Method
removeListenerMethod)
public EventSetDescriptor (String
eventSetName, Class listenerType,
Method Descriptor listenerMethod
Descriptors[], Method add
ListenerMethod, Method
removeListenerMethod)
getListenerType public Class get ListenerType() Returns the Class object for the event
handier that will be invoked when the
event is fired.
getListenerMethods public Method[] get ListenerMethods() Returns an array of Method objects for
the target methods within the target
listener interface that will get called
when events are fired.
getListenerMethod public Method Descriptor[] get Returns an array of MethodDescriptor
Descriptors ListenerMethod Descriptors() objects for the target methods within the
target listener interface that will get
called when events are fired.
getAddListener Method public Method get AddListenerMethod() Returns the method used to register a
listener at the event source.
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getRemoveListener Method public Method get RemoveListener Returns the method used to register a
Method() listener at the event source.
setUnicast public void set Unicast(boolean unicast) Used to designate an event as unicast.
Parameter: unicast—true if the event set
is unicast
isUnicast public boolean is Unicast() Returns true if the event set is unicast.
setInDefault EventSet public void setIn DefaultEventSet Marks an event set as being in the
(boolean inDefault EventSet) default set. By default this is true.
isInDefault EventSet public boolean is InDefaultEventSet() Reports whether an event set is in the
default set.
Returns true if the event set is in the
default set.
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Tapping into existing beans
Now let’s perform some very simple tasks to get you familiar with the BeanBox and its elements. In the
ToolBox, click the OurButton bean, and then click in the BeanBox area. You have just instantiated your
first JavaBean! The OurButton component (bean) has been placed inside the BeanBox container, as
shown in Figure 26-2.
You can use the property sheet on the right side of the screen to customize the bean you have just
created. Go ahead and change some of its properties, such as background color and label.
An important feature of beans is the event model, which lets two beans communicate with each other.
To see this communication visually, we need another bean in addition to the OurButton bean. Let’s use
the Juggler bean, which shows the famous Duke juggling three beans in a continuous animation. We can
use the OurButton bean to stop the animation with a click of the button.
Figure 26-2: The OurButton bean
Place an instance of the Juggler bean inside the BeanBox, and then follow these step:
1. Change the label property of OurButton to STOP.
2. Make sure that the OurBotton bean is selected, and then choose Edit, Events; Select action, and
then click actionPerformed.
3. Now you can see a red line starting from the STOP button. connect the line to the Juggler and
click the mouse button.
4. An EventTargetDialog box pops up. In this box, select stopJuggling and then click OK. The
stopJuggling event is something that is supported by the Juggler bean. You are instructing the bean
to do whatever it has to do to stop the Duke from juggling when it receives a “signal” from the
OurButton bean.
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5. Now click the STOP button and see what happens. The juggler stops juggling.
The event generated by clicking the OurButton bean caused another event (stopJuggling) to occur in the
Juggler bean. This seemingly simple mechanism is the foundation of interaction among beans. Such
interaction can quickly become complex as the number of beans grows.
Continue playing with the BeanBox until you are comfortable with the environment. Take a look at all
the beans and their properties. Try connecting more beans together. For example, you can create a
START button for the Juggler.
Under the File menu, you will find the Serialize command. You issue this command to make your beans
persistent. For example, you can customize a hutton bean with the right background and foreground
colors and the right label. You can then “serialize” the bean, give it a new name, and thus make it
available for subsequent usage. You no longer have to start with the basic button and customize it every
time.
You can’t really see introspection with the BeanBox. The property sheet window, however, is mostly the
result of introspection. The items in the property sheet change as you change beans. For each bean, its
customizable properties are identified at runtime and are placed on the Property Sheet. Depending on the
type of the property (color, text, and so on) an appropriate “customizer” is also provided. That’s why
you get a menu of colors for the Foreground property, but a text field for the Label property.
Cooking Up Your First Bean
A bean is not required to inherit from any particular base class or interface. Visible beans must inherit
from java.awt.Component so that they can be added to visual containers, but invisible beans aren’t required
to do this.
Properties, events, and methods
As a software component, each bean has its own properties. Consider a simple push-button bean. It has a
color property, a size property, and a label property. The label itself has other properties, such as font,
size, and color. Properties that are meant to be accessible to other beans are called public properties.
Those that are internal to the bean itself are classified as private properties.
Typically, in Java you can access a property belonging to a class directly and get or set its value.
Properties are often stored as a simple variable. The JavaBeans specification changes this. JavaBeans
requires that accessor methods be provided for all public (readable) properties. This means that, for a
given property, a method must be provided to gets its value, and another method must be provided to set
its value. This is a fundamental part of beans and one thing that distinguishes a bean from an ordinary
class definition.
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Aside from single-value properties, beans can have indexed, bound, and constrained properties. Indexed
properties are similar to arrays. A bound property is linked to an event. When that property is changed,
an event is fired to notify another bean of the change. Consider a radio button. When its property is
changed from ON to OFF, you may need to gray out some other radio buttons or menu selections. This
is where a bound property is useful. To facilitate dealing with bound properties, the utility class
PropertyChangeSupport is often used. This class is shown in Table 26-4. You can add and remove listeners
that must be notified when the value of a bound property is changed.
Table 26-4
Class jave.beans.PropertyChangeSupport
Constructor Signature Description
PropertyChange Support public PropertyChange Support This is a utility class. It handles the common
(Object source) things that a bean supporting bound
properties must perform.
Method Signature Description
addProperty ChangeListener public synchronized void Adds a PropertyChangeListener from the listener
addProperty ChangeListener list.
(PropertyChange Listenerlistener)
Parameter: listener–the PropertyChangeListener
to be added.
removeProperty public synchronized void Removes a PropertyChange Listener from the
ChangeListener removeProperty ChangeListener listener list.
(PropertyChange Listener listener)
Parameter: listener–the PropertyChangeListener
to be removed.
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fireProperty Change public void fire PropertyChange When a bound property changes, you can
(String property Name, Object old notify all registered listeners by invoking this
Value, Object new Value) method.
Parameters:
propertyName–the programmatic name of the
property that was changed. oldValue–the old
value of the property. newVa1ue–the new
value of the property.
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You can use the PropertyDescriptor class to systematically specify the description of properties. Using the
methods outlined in Table 26-5, you can, for example, find out the accessor methods for a property or
determine whether it is bound or constrained.
Table 26-5
Class java.beans. PropertyDescriptor
Constructor Signature Description
Property Descriptor public Property Descriptor() This class describes a bean property. The property is
supported via accessor methods per the JavaBeans
specification.
The class can be constructed in three ways. The first
method is to use simple design patterns identified by get
and set methods. The second approach is to specify the
name of the property and the name of the methods used
for reading and writing that property. The last option is
to specify the name of the property and the objects used
to read and write the property.
Method Signature Description
getProperty Type public Class get Returns the Java type info for the property.
PropertyType()
getRead Method public Method Returns the method that should be used to read the
getReadMethod() property value.
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getWrite Method public Method Returns the method that should be used to write the
getWriteMethod() property value.
isBound Public boolean isBound() Returns true if the property is a bound property.
setBound public void setBound Parameter: bound–true if the property is a bound
(boolean bound) property.
is Constrained public boolean isConstrained Returns true if the property is a constrained property.
()
Set Constrained public void setConstrained Parameter: constrained–Returns true if the property is a
(boolean constrained) constrained property.
setProperty public void Lets you associate a particular PropertyEditor with a
EditorClass setPropertyEditor Class property.
(Class property EditorClass)
Parameter: propertyEditorClass–the class for the desired
Property Editor.
get Property public C1ass Returns any explicit PropertyEditor class that has been
EditorClass getPropertyEditor Class() registered for this property.
A constrained property is similar to a bound property with one difference. The bean being notified of a
change must actually validate that change. For example, suppose you have a bean inside another bean.
When the inner bean is resized, you can have the parent bean notified via a constrained property. The
parent bean must then verify that the size change is valid and only after that verification does the resize
actually occur. To facilitate this “veto” power of constrained properties, you can use the
VetoableChangeSupport class (see Table 26-6). This is a utility class that lets you add listeners that allow or
disallow a change in the value of a constrained property.
Table 26-6
Class java.beans.VetoableChangeSupport
Constructor Signature Description
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VetoableChange public VetoableChange This is a utility class. It handles the common things that
Support Support(Object source) a bean supporting constrained properties must perform.
Method Signature Description
addVetoable public synchronized void Adds a VetoableChangeListener from the listener list.
ChangeListener addVetoableChange Listener
(Vetoable Parameter: listener–the VetoableChangeListener to be
ChangeListenerlistener) added.
removeVetoable public synchronized void Removes a VetoableChangeListener from the listener list.
ChangeListener removeVetoable
ChangeListener Parameter: listener–the VetoableghangeListener to be
(VetoableChange Listener
removed.
listener)
fireVetoable Change public void fireVetoable When a constrained property changes, you can notify
Change all registered listeners by invoking this method.
(StringpropertyName, Object
oldValue, Object newValue) Parameters: propertyName–the programmatic name of the
property that was changed. oldValue–the old value of the
property. newValue–the new value of the property.
Properties basically define a component, and for the component to be reusable, it must allow
customization and modification of its properties. But properties are only half of the story. A component
must have a behavior and must be able to communicate with other components. The event model in
JavaBeans addresses this need.
As mentioned before, events are what connect beans together. Beans use an event model that consists of
two parts: a source object and a listener object. The source object is responsible for firing an event. This
is like a broadcast message indicating that something has happened (a resize event, for example). The
listener object is responsible for listening for events that it is interested in and performing certain actions
when it receives notification that a relevant event has occurred.
Typically a bean registers itself with another bean to indicate its interest in some event. It is then notified
when such an event has occurred. You can also use an adapter to filter events before they arrive at the
listener. This gives you some control over propagation of events. Sometimes, the bean is only interested
in a certain combination of events. In these cases, you can use an adapter to determine whether the
special combination exists, and only pass the events on to their respective listeners if the combination
does indeed exist.
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Descriptors
Beans are only as useful as what we know about them. While simple introspection provides a
mechanism to “inspect” a bean and learn about its properties, it often proves to be inadequate. Just as
good documentation can be the key to successfully using an application and taking advantage of its
features, a good description of a bean can do wonders for its successful deployment. Because beans can
be used in a variety of builder tools, a great deal of effort has been made to create a systematic umbrella
around the “descriptive” aspects of beans. As a result, we have classes that encompass descriptions of
methods, properties, and parameters. Table 26-7 lists the FeatureDescriptor class, which is the base class
for other “descriptor” classes. You can set/get a short textual description of a feature, set/get its
attributes, determine whether the particular feature is hidden or not, and even determine whether the
feature is intended for “expert” users or not.
Table 26-7
Class java.beans.FeatureDescriptor
Constructor Signature Description
FeatureDescriptor public FeatureDescriptor() The FeatureDescriptor class is the common base class for
the “descriptor” classes such as PropertyDescriptor,
EventSet Descriptor, and MethodDescriptor. It supports some
common information that can be set and retrieved for
any of the introspection descriptors. It also provides a
generic mechanism for adding arbitrary attribute/value
pairs.
Method Signature Description
getName public String getName() Returns the name of the property/method/ event.
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setName public void setName (String Parameter: name–the name of the property/ method/
name) event.
getDisplayName public String Returns the localized name for the property/ method/
getDisplayName() event. The default is the same as its name from getName.
setDisplay Name public void set DisplayName Parameter: displayName–the localized name for the
(String displayName) property/method/event.
isExpert public boolean isExpert() The expert flag lets you designate a feature intended for
“expert” users. This provides a degree of feature
customizability.
Returns true if this feature is intended for use by experts
only.
setExpert public void set Expert The expert flag lets you designate a feature intended for
(boolean expert) “expert” users. This provides a degree of
customizability to the feature.
Parameter: expert–returns true if this feature is intended
for use by experts only.
isHidden public boolean isHidden() The hidden flag is used to identify features that are
intended only for the tool’s intemal use and should not
be exposed to the user.
Returns true if this feature should be hidden from users.
setHidden public void setHidden The hidden flag is used to identify features that are
(boolean hidden) intended only for the tool’s internal use and should not
be exposed to the user.
Parameter: hidden–true if this feature should be hidden
from users.
getShortDescription public String get Returns a localized description associated with this
ShortDescription() property/method/event. This defaults to be the name.
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setShortDescription public void setShort Associates a description with a feature.
Description(String text)
Parameter: text–a (localized) short description to be
associated with this property/method/event.
setValue public void setValue (String Associates a named attribute with this feature.
attributeName, Object value)
Parameters: attributeName–the localeindependent name
of the attribute value–the value.
getVatue public ObjectgetValue Retrieves a named attribute with this feature.
(String attributeName)
Parameter: attributeName–the locale-independent name
of the attribute.
Returns the value of the attribute. May be null if the
attribute is unknown.
attributeNames public Enumeration Returns an enumeration of the localeindependent names
attributeNames() of all attributes that have been registered with setValue.
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A MethodDescriptor class also exists, based on the FeatureDescriptor class. This class provides a more
detailed look at methods. In particular, it is important to have a good description of a method’s
parameters. Tables 26-8 and 26-9 show the MethodDescriptor, and Table 26-10 shows the
ParameterDescriptor classes.
Table 26-8
Class java.beans. MethodDescriptor Constructors
Signature Description
public MethodDescriptor (Method method) A MethodDescriptor describes attributes of a method
supported by the bean.
Parameter: method–the low-level method information.
public MethodDescriptor (Method method, Parameters: method–the low-level method information.
ParameterDescriptor parameterDescriptors[]) parameterDescriptors–descriptive information for each of the
method’s parameters.
Table 26-9
Class java.beans.MethodDescriptor Methods
Method Signature Description
getMethod public Method getMethod() Returns a description of the
method.
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GetParameter public ParameterDescriptor[] Returns the locale-independent
Descriptors getParameterDescriptors() names of the parameters.
Table 26-10
Class java.beans.ParameterDescrtptor
Constructor Signature Description
Parameter Descriptor public Parameter Descriptor() The ParameterDescriptor class is used to
provide additional information on each of the
parameters, beyond the Iow-level type
information provided by the java.1ang.reflect.
Method class.
Two-bean example
Let’s take a look at the code for a couple of beans. These beans are connected via the event model. The
following example implements an increment function as two separate beans, The first bean contains a
button, The second bean is a simple label. When you click the button, an event is generated notifying all
registered listeners (in this case the label bean). The label bean then simply increments the value of the
label. We have intentionally kept this example very simple so you can see the various aspects of beans
you have learned so far, such as events and properties. Listing 26-1 is the label bean, which we call My
Label.
Listing 26-1: The MyLabel Bean
package event;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.io.Serializable;
public class MyLabel extends java.applet.Applet
implements ActionListener, Serializable
{
private iht value = 0;
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public MyLabel()
{
}
public synchronized void paint(Graphics g)
{
String valueText = “” + value;
FontMetrics fm = g.getFontMetrics();
g.setColor(getBackground());
g.setColor(getForeground());
g.drawString(valTxt, 0, 0);
}
public synchronized void update(Graphics g)
{ Image hidden = createImage(getSize().width,
getSize().height);
paint(hidden.getGraphics());
g.drawImage(hidden, 0, 0, null);
}
// event handler
public void actionDone(ActionEvent evt)
{ value = value + 1;
repaint();
}
}
Note that the bean is an applet with a null constructor (per the bean specification). It implements
Serializable, which is again part of the requirement. An event handier (listener) exists in the label bean;
the event handler simply increments the value of the label by 1 and then redraws the content. This is the
Listener method that must be registered with the event source.
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Java Bible:JavaBeans
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Listing 26-2 shows the event source, which is the button bean.
Listing 26-2: The Button Bean
package event;
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import java.io.Serializable;
import java.util.Vector;
public class Button extends Canvas
implements MouseListener, Serializable
{
private transient Vector actionListeners;
private String label = “Increment”;
private boolean depressed;
public Button() {
addMouseListener(this);
}
public synchronized void paint(Graphics g){
FontMetrics fm = g.getFontMetrics();
int asc = fm.getMaxAscent();
int siz = asc + fm.getMaxDescent();
int wdth = getSize().width;
int hght = getSize().height;
int txtWdth = fm.stringWidth(label);
g.setColor(getBackground());
g.fillRect(0, 0, wdth, hght);
g.draw3DRect(0, 0, wdth-1, hght-1. !depressed);
g.setColor(getForeground());
g.drawString(label, (wdth-txtWdth)/2, (hght-siz)/2
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+ asc);
}
public synchronized void update(Graphics g)
{ Image hidden = createImage(getSize().width,
getSize().height);
paint(hidden.getGraphics());
g.drawImage(hidden, 0, 0, null);
}
public Dimension getMinimumSize()
{ FontMetrics fm = getFontMetrics(getFont());
return new Dimension(10 + fm.stringWidth(label),
10 + fm.getMaxAscent() +
fm.getMaxDescent()
);
}
public Dimension getPreferredSize()
{ return getMinimumSize();
}
public void mouseClicked(MouseEvent e)
{
}
// this is the event we really care about
public void mousePressed(MouseEvent e)
{ depressed = true;
repaint();
}
// another event we care about
public void mouseReleased(MouseEvent e)
{ depressed = false;
fireEvent();
repaint();
}
public void mouseEntered(MouseEvent e)
{
}
public void mouseExited(MouseEvent e)
{
}
// registration for new listeners
public synchronized void addActionListener
(ActionListener lis)
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if (actionListeners == null)
actionListeners = new Vector();
actionListeners.addElement(lis);
}
// removes a registered listener
public synchronized void
removeActionListener(ActionListener lis)
{ if (actionListeners != null)
actionListeners.removeElement(lis);
}
// the actual firing of the event
private void fireEvent()
{ if (actionListeners != null)
// vector is used to keep track of listeners
{ Vector listeners;
ActionEvent evt = new ActionEvent (this,
ActionEvent.ACTION_PERFORMED, null);
synchronized(this) { listeners = (Vector)
actionListeners.clone(); }
// go through each listener one by one and invoke the event
// handler
for (int i = 0; i < listeners.size(); i ++ )
{ ActionListener lis =
(ActionListener)listeners.elementAt(i);
lis.actionDone(evt);
}
}
}
}
Again, note how the applet implements Serializable and has a null constructor. An adapter class is used to
keep track of the events generated by the mouse. When the MouseRelease event occurs, we go through
each of the listeners registered and invoke their actionDone method, passing it the current event object.
Also note that we are using a utility class to register (add) listeners and remove them. The code skeleton
is the foundation for complex event handling in JavaBeans, so study it closely until you feel comfortable
with the flow.
You can import and use the preceding two beans with the BeanBox. First, you must store the beans in a
JAR file (JAR files are discussed in detail in Chapter 11), and then you can import them into the
BeanBox. In fact, if you place the JAR file in the appropriate directory, the beans automatically show up
in the BeanBox window.
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Java Bible:JavaBeans
Going the Distance
Beans are an important part of Java. its initial success prompted several new developments, which are all
based on the software component model. “Glasgow” is the code name for the next release of JavaBeans
(the current JavaBeans release is version 1.0). It adds several capabilities to JavaBeans and the bean
framework. Let’s take a quick look at each one.
The Beans Development Kit comes with a comprehensive tutorial, which is an excellent step-
by-step guide to working with the BDK. In addition, the tutorial teaches you how to create
and use your own beans—so it’s the perfect thing to read when you’re done with this chapter.
Although simple in concept, JavaBeans is worthy of its own book. In fact, plenty of books
dedicate themselves to JavaBeans programming. But before you rush out and buy one, be sure
to check out the tutorial that comes with the BDK first; you’ll likely find that it contains
exactly what you need to kick your beans habit into high gear without having to plunk down
more cash.
Extensible Runtime Containment and Services protocol
This specification is an effort to provide a more effective method for integration of beans into their
container environment. A component resides inside a container. However, the JavaBeans specification
has not defined a mechanism by which the bean can get information about the services available to it
from the container. In addition, the hierarchy of beans inside a container is not well defined. The
Extensible Runtime Containment and Services protocol addresses these shortcomings. With this
protocol, beans will be executed under different containers. For example, the same bean could be
executed inside an applet container or a Webtop (Web browser) container. It is important for the bean to
be able to find information about its container at runtime. Associating each bean with its container
creates a hierarchy, which is useful under any component model. Almost ali GUI implementations
employ such a hierarchy. For example, if you close the main window of an application, all of its child
windows close as well.
Activation Framework specification
When you download a file using your Web browser, the browser looks at the file’s MIME type to
determine what application/plug-in to launch so that you can view that file. The Activation Framework
specification provides a somewhat similar service for beans. One of the services that the framework
offers is determination of the type of arbitrary data. Other services include discovery of the operations
available on the data and encapsulation of data access methods.
Native-platform-capable Drag-and-Drop specification
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AWT JDK 1.1 underwent some major changes. Most of the changes were geared toward
providing a more powerful foundation for developing quality graphical user interfaces. JDK
1.1 introduced the Uniform Data Transfer Mechanism and the Clipboard protocol, both of
which are essential for providing user interfaces. The Drag-and-Drop specification builds on
that foundation and completes the last piece of the puzzle. This specification will enable
interaction among beans (Java software components) and components already available on the
particular platform.
Enterprise JavaBeans specification
Another important development on the bean front is the Enterprise JavaBeans specification. This is an
attempt to transfer the advantages of JavaBeans, which are mostly visual components on the client side,
to the server. Components on the server are fundamentally different from visual components. For one
thing, they are most likely not visual. Their functions are typically database connectivity, transaction
processing, and communication to remote objects. In a way, server components are more challenging to
develop, but the effort is ongoing and Enterprise JavaBeans will be available by the time you read this
book.
Summary
In this chapter, we have taken a look at one of the most exciting and growing aspects of the Java
programming language. The JavaBeans specification takes Java to the next level by creating a standard
software component model for the language. Important points to remember about this chapter include
the following:
• With components, software development becomes more consistent and systematic.
• A bean is an object created based on the bean specification. It has a null constructor, a set of
properties, a set of accessor methods for accessing those properties, and it interacts with other
beans using events.
• Serialization is used to add persistence to beans and introspection to find information about
beans at runtime and at the time of design.
• Beans are customizable via the BeanBox, which is distributed as part of the Bean Development
Kit.
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Java Bible:Networking
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 27
Networking
In This Chapter
Using the URL classes for high-level communications
Using the Socket classes for low-level communications
Using the RMI system for built-in communications
The Java language comes from Sun Microsystems. Also from Sun, we get the motto The network is the
computer. From this line of reasoning, you could assume that Java would have something to do with
networking—and it does.
Java was built from the ground up with networking in mind, giving us the ability to write network-savvy
programs with relative ease from day one. Today, Java’s networking capabilities continue to grow by
leaps and bounds as new features are layered on top of an already substantial foundation and research
projects focused on Java networking make their way from JavaSoft’s labs to our personal computers.
In this chapter, we’ll explore the various elements that give Java a leg up over traditional programming
languages when it comes to developing network-aware programs. In doing so, we’ll dive into the “core”
classes that together form Java’s solid networking infrastructure.
Stacking Data with Addresses and Ports
The technology of the Internet is based on the TCP/IP stack. This stack—a piece of software that
connects your applications to the Internet—can work with a number of protocols that wrap and unwrap
data, and has some special addressing tricks that make the Internet work. Any number of computers can
be connected; it works perfectly connecting two computers across the room from each other, or millions
of computers scattered all over the world.
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What’s in an address?
The most fundamental thing you need to know when sending data over the Internet is where the data
should go. Like dialing a phone or addressing an envelope, you need to know some magic incantation
that will direct your message. There is a computer out there that deserves to receive the data you want to
sendwall you have to do is make sure your data gets to the right program inside the right computer. To
do this, there are just three things you need to know:
• The IP address of the target computer
• The protocol that will be used to package the data
• The port number specifying a specific application to receive the data
That’s it. Using these three pieces of information you can send any data to any program inside any
computer in the world. For example, if you want your Web browser to send a request to the Web server
program at IDG Books Worldwide, you need to know that the IP address is 206.80.51.140, the protocol
is TCP, and the port number is 80.
The IP address
The IP address (IP stands for Internet Protocol) is simply a 32-bit number. Every computer on the
Internet is assigned one of these numbers. If you use a dial-up connection, your Internet provider has a
whole bunch of these numbers and, when you make a connection, it assigns one to your computer for the
duration of your connection. Computers that are always connected to the Internet, such as Web servers,
are assigned numbers that they keep. That’s how we can find them; we send out the URL (www.
idgbooks.com, for example) and get the IP number back. We discuss URLs further in the “URL
Operations” section later in this chapter.
The IP address is a 32-bit number. That means there are 4,294,967,694 of them. There need to be a lot of
them because every computer on the Internet has to have one. They are not normally written as a one big
number, but rather as four little numbers—one representing the numeric value of each of the four bytes
of the complete number. An IP address written in this way, which is sometimes called the dot format,
looks like this:
206.80.51.140
The actual numeric value is 3,461,362,572, but we never write it that way.
The protocol
The TCP/IP stack uses two protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol). (Actually, the stack uses other special-purpose protocols as well, hut you don’t need to know
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more about them to send data across the Internet.) The TCP protocol is the most robust of the two and is
what makes the Internet work so well. This is not to minimize the value of UDP because there are some
places where it really comes in handy. The real name of the stack should probably be TCP/UDP/IP, but
that begins to get a bit unwieldy.
The reason the protocol can be considered part of the address is that a process that is expecting a
message in one protocol will never receive a message that is sent in a different protocol. That is, if you
write a program that receives messages in TCP protocol, a UDP message will never be delivered to it.
The port number
Once an Internet message arrives at a computer and works its way up to the top of the stack, the stack
then looks at the port number and protocol (TCP or UDP) of the message to determine which of the
programs waiting for messages should be awarded this particular message. The application is handed the
message, usually through a socket connection, and the communication is complete.
Protocols can share port numbers without conflict. For example, if you write an application that receives
TCP messages on port 2012, there can be another process, running simultaneously, that receives UDP
messages on port 2012.
As you can see, the port number is a crucial part of the addressing scheme. If a port number is incorrect,
messages will become scrambled among the applications. You need to make sure when choosing your
own port number that you don’t pick one that is already used for something. Generally, if you pick a
number above 1024, you should be safe (unless you just happen to run into someone else that is
experimenting). The port number is an unsigned 16-bit number, so it can go on up to 32,767.
There are certain pre-assigned port numbers used throughout the Internet. These are called well-known
ports. They handle e-mail, file transfers, the World Wide Web, and all of the other services available on
the Internet. Table 27-1 lists some examples.
Table 27-1
A Few Commonly Used Port Numbers
Port Number Keyword Description
5 ECHO Message returned to sender
9 DISCARD Message received and ignored
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17 QUOTE Returns the quote of the day
20 FTP DATA File Transfer Protocol port for data transfer
21 FTP File Transfer Protocol port for control messages
23 TELNET Remote terminal Iogin
25 SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
80 HTTP The Web server
53 DOMAIN Domain Name Server
101 HOSTNAME The InterNIC host name server
103 X400 X.400 mail service
111 SUNRPC Sun remote procedure call
117 UUCP-PATH UUCP path service
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Java Bible:Networking
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
From network to internetwork
All Internet communication is made possible by the TCP/IP stack. This stack is the software that resides
inside each and every computer connected to the Internet. It operates like a two-way bucket brigade
passing the message from one hand to another until it reaches the destination. At the top of the stack are
the user’s application programs. At the bottom is the physical communications link. Messages flow up
and down in the stack, all the while being appropriately packaged, unpackaged, and addressed along the
way.
This software is called a stack because it is made of pieces that conceptually sit one on top of the other
like the layers of a cake. Think of a network as a huge silver platter with a bunch of computers sitting on
it like cakes, and think of the Internet as the connections among the platters. Some platters only hold one
cake, and some hold hundreds. The icing on the top of each cake is the programmer’s interface.
A message from an application program will proceed from the icing down through all the layers to the
platter. The message will then move to the bottom of another cake—on another platter if need be—and
then up through the layers of the other cake to the icing at the top and the application that is waiting for
it. There are times when a message rising up through the layers will only go part of the way, be re-
addressed, and then sent back down to the platter to be moved on to another cake—this is the action of
an Internet router, which can send a message from any platter to any other platter. This type of
communication forms an internetwork.
The TCP/IP stack
The TCP/IP stack is a collection of protocols that fit together in a software stack in such a way that data
inserted at one end will be converted, according to the rules of some protocol, and come out the other
end. In the simplest terms, the conversion is in the form of wrapping the package for delivery and
unwrapping it on receipt. There can also be some other juggling for sizing and data verification and
such.
The structure of a pair of TCP/IP stacks is diagrammed in Figure 27-1. An application is at one end of
the stack (the top) while the network hardware and its drivers are at the other end (the bottom). For
communications to occur, data passes from the application down through each layer of the stack and
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right out the bottom, where it is transmitted over some kind of data link. After being transmitted across
the link, the data arrives at the bottom layer of another stack and works its way up until it arrives at some
other application.
Figure :27-1: A pair of applications connected through a pair of TCP/IP stacks.
Sockets
Strictly speaking, the socket layer is not a part of the traditional TCP/IP stack, but sockets are so useful
that everyone who programs Internet communications uses them. It is possible to talk directly from an
application to the TCP/UDP layer of the stack without using sockets, and things were done this way for
several years, but sockets make life so much easier. Besides, there are sockets built into the Java API, so
why go elsewhere when everything you need is at your fingertips? if you would like to hear a
programmer rant on for a while, find one who programmed Internet communications before the days of
sockets.
In Java, all you need to do is create an object from the java. net. Socket class and start reading and writing
over the Internet. However, just like making a phone call or sending a letter, you need to know the
address of the recipient, or know how to get it.
TCP or UDP
These two protocols differ in the way they carry out the action of communicating. The TCP protocol
establishes a two-way connection between a pair of computers, while the UDP protocol is a one-way
message sender. The common analogy is that TCP is like making a phone call and carrying on a two-
way conversation, while UDP is like mailing a letter.
The basic actions of the two protocols are very similar. They both pack data in headers and footers
before sending it, and they both unpack it on reception. The difference comes in the relationship
between sender and receiver. With TCP, the receiver converses with the sender as necessary to verify
the valid transmission of the data (which could have been divided into several packets). With UDP, the
sender never expects to hear a response, and the receiver doesn’t bother to send one.
IP
This layer adds a new header to data being sent. Any human-readable names and addresses are
encapsulated into binary blocks that are sent over the Internet. The IP address, the 32-bit binary number,
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is included in the header and is used to guide the data on its way. On receipt of data at this level, the
binary headers are stripped off and what remains is passed up to the appropriate protocol on the level
above.
Network
This is where the rubber hits the road (or the hits hit the highway). This is the connection to a dial-up
modem, fiber link, LAN, cable modem, or whatever. What actually happens here will vary from one
type of network to another, but the end result is that a binary stream is sent over some physical link to
another computer. It then becomes the problem of the stack on the target computer to figure out what to
do with it.
URL Operations
If you are going to work with the Internet and the World Wide Web, you need to create and manipulate
URLs. Java has a handy little class for doing just that. The class java. net. URL is a wrapper for the
standard URL string and has some methods that you can use to find out about the string and to fiddle
with it. It can even make the connection for you. These methods are listed in Table 27-2.
Table 27-2
java.net.URL Methods
Method Description
equals (Object) Determines whether two URL objects represent the same resource in the
same way.
getContent() Makes a connection and reads addressed contents.
getFile() Returns the filename portion of the URL.
getHost() Returns the host name portion of the URL.
getPort() Returns the port number from the URL
getProtocol() Returns the name of the protocol of the URL.
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getRef() Returns the anchor reference portion of the URL
openConnection() Establishes a connection and returns the URL Connection object for it.
openStream() Establishes a connection and returns a stream for reading it.
sameFile(URL) Determines whether two URL objects address the same resource (ignoring
references).
setURLStreamHandler Factory Specifies the factory to be used to create any streams to establish
() connections.
toExternalForm() Returns the URL in the string form used by Web browsers.
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Java Bible:Networking
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
As you can see, the URL class supplies you with just about everything you need to read files and other
resource data across an internet. There are several ways to get an object of this class. You can use a
constructor to create one, or you can call a method to return one to you. The constructors listed in Table
27-3 construct URL objects from String objects and from other URLs.
Table 27-3
Class java.net.URL Constructors
Constructor Description
URL(String, String, int, String) The first String is the protocol, such as http. The second String is the host,
such as www.idgbooks.com. The int is the port number. The final String is
the name of the file, such as index.html.
URL(String,String, String The first String is the protocol, such as http. The second String is the host,
such as www.idgbooks.com. The final String is the name of the file, such
as index.html.
URL (URL,String) The URL argument is the basis on which to build the new one. The String
is an incomplete form used to modify the settings found in the original
URL.
URL (String) The String.
These are not the only ways you can get a URL object. If you are programming an applet, you can call
the method getCodeBase( ) to get the URL of the directory containing the applet’s class file, or you can
call the method getDocumentBase( ) to get the URL of the directory containing the HTML file that invoked
the applet. And, while this technique is not necessarily involved directly with networking, you can also
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get a URL object by calling the getResource( ) method of either Class or ClassLoader.
There is one other way. The method OpenConnection(), listed in Table 27-2, returns a URLConnection object
for the URL, and a URLConnection object has a method named getURL( ) that returns a URLConnection. See
the “Sockets” section later in this chapter for more information about the connections.
Basic URL manipulations
Just to show that it really works, here is a simple program that accepts your input string and uses it to
construct a URL object from scratch:
import java.net.*;
public class ShowURL {
public static void main(String[] arg) {
try {
URL url = new URL(arg[0]);
System.out.println(“File: ” + url.getFile());
System.out.println(“Host: ” + url.getHost());
System.out.println(“Port: ” + url.getPort());
System.out.println(“Protocol: ” + url.getProtocol());
System.out.println(“Ref: ” + url.getRef());
System.out.println(url.toExternalForm());
} catch(MalformedURLException e) {
System.out.println(e);
}
}
}
It is necessary to catch the MalformedURLException that could be thrown from the constructor of the URL
object. If the exception is not thrown, it doesn’t mean that the URL is valid—it only means that the input
string is syntactically correct. This program allows you to enter the name of a URL and prints out its
various parts. For example, typing this line:
java ShowURL <http://www.xyz.com:80/poo.html#raul>
resultsin this output:
File: /poo.html
Host: <www.xyz.com>
Port: 80
Protocol: http
Ref: raul
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<http://www.xyz.com:80/poo.html#raul>
You most likely know the general format of a URL string, but you may not be familiar with a couple of
parts. You can optionally include the port number in the string, but it isn’t necessary to do so because the
HTTP protocol causes a default to port 80. There are some rare instances in which you might want to
specify the port number. For example, if you are experimenting with a new protocol that has no pre-
defined default, or if you want to work with a Web server but don’t want it to be publicly available, you
can have it read from another port number and there will be no conflicts.
The reference is the location in the HTML where search engines look for inquiry strings and Web
browsers look for the names of tags to automatically scroll to another portion of the page—that is, a link
to a specific location within a page.
The great Web-page snatch
Reading a Web page from across an internet connection is almost as easy as calling it by name. Here is
an example that will list the entire text of any Web page on the lnternet:
import java.net,*;
import java.io.*;
public class Snatch {
public static void main(String[] arg) {
int character;
BufferedInputStream bin;
try {
URL url = new URL(arg[0]);
bin = (BufferedInputStream)url.getContent();
while((character = bin.read()) > 0)
System.out.print((char)character);
System.out.println();
} catch(MalformedURLException e) {
System.out.println(e);
} catch(IOException e) {
System.out.println(e);
}
}
}
All you need to do is type the URL string of a Web page, and the entire thing will be listed on the
screen. Making a call to getContent () is the same as making a call to openConnection( ) to get a
URLConnection object, and then calling its getConnect() method. The getContent() method returns an Object
object that must be cast to the correct type before it can be used—there is more about this in the
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“URLConnection operations” section later in this chapter.
You have to catch the Mal FormedURLException, which is thrown on a syntax error in the construction of
the URL object. Also, you need to catch the IOException that could be thrown from the getContent() method
or from reading from the BufferedInputStream object.
Encoding the URL string
Certain characters have special meanings and, if you want to include them, you need to insert them in
such a way that they will not have an undesired effect. Say, for example, you want to include spaces,
colons, slashes, or some other character that is used in the structure of a URL. To do this, take the URL
string you would like to send and pass it through the encode() method of java. net. URLEncoder. Anything
that might cause a problem is encoded so that it won’t. Because this originated as a MIME process, it is
known as MIME encoding.
This simple program accepts a string as a command-line argument and then displays the MIME encoded
form of it.
The command line
java Encode “In character math ‘a’+1 == ‘b’”
resulted in this output:
In+character+math+%27a%27%2B1+%3D%3D+%27b%27
The encoding scheme converts all spaces to + characters. The characters A-Z and a-z, as well as 0-9, are
left unchanged. All other characters are converted to a threecharacter sequence beginning with % and
ending with a two-digit hexadecimal representation of the ASCII value of the character (which also
happens to be the Unicode value).
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Java Bible:Networking
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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URLConnection operations
It is possible to use a URL object to create a URLConnection object. In fact, you can create several
URLConnection objects from a single URL and maintain more than one simultaneous connection, although
this is almost never necessary. The URLConnection constructor is protected, so to create a URLConnection,
you need to make a call to OpenConnection() of a URL object.
Several default settings are established when a URLConnection object is created. Static methods in the
class allow the defaults to be modified. In addition, you can use a number of methods to query and
modify the current settings for a URLConnection object. Most of the fields listed in Table 27-4 are
protected, which means they can only be accessed through the methods.
Table 27-4
The Configuration Fields of the URLConnection
Field Description
allowUserInteraction Set this boolean field to true if there is some sort of human reaction involved
with the resource (such as a data entry form on a Web page). The default
setting is false.
connected This boolean becomes true when a connection is established.
doInput This boolean is true if the URLConnection can be used to read the resource.
doOutput This boolean is true if the URLConnection can be used to write to the resource.
fileNameMap The public static FileNameMap class can be used to convert the name of a file
into MIME format.
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ifModifiedSince This long holds a date. A request to retrieve a remote resource will use the
one in local cache instead if the remote version is older than the date.
url This field is a reference to the URL from which this URLConnection was
constructed.
useCaches Setting this boolean to false forces the URLConnection to never use a cache—it
will always get a new copy of the resource.
Table 27-5 is a list of the methods available in the URLConnection class. Several of them can be used to
set the values of the internal fields. The defaults were designed to handle the most common situations, so
unless you are doing something special, just leave them as they are. A number of them can be used to
deal with the data.
Table 27-5
java.net.URLConnection Methods
Method Description
connect() Opens a communications link.
getAllowUserInteraction() Returns the setting of the allowUser InteractionFlag
getContent() Retrieves the object addressed by the URL. The actual type
of object returned depends on the type of resource addressed
by the URL
getContentEnconding Returns the value of the content-encoding header field. Could
be null.
getContentLength() Returns the content length, Returns -1 if it is not known.
getContentType Returns the value of the content-type header field. Could be
null.
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getDate() Returns the value of the date header field as a long. Could be
zero.
getDefaultAllowUserInteraction() Returns the default setting of allowUserInteraction.
getDefauttRequestProperty (String) Returns the default value of a request property.
getDefaultUseCaches() Returns the default setting of the useCaches flag.
getDoInput() Returns the current value of the doInput flag.
getDoOutput() Returns the value of the doOutput flag.
getExpiration() Returns the expiration date of the URL as a long. Could be
zero.
getHeaderField(String) Returns the value of the header field specified by its name.
getHeaderField(int) Returns the header number (counting from the top).
getHeaderFieldDate(String,long) The header field named as the String is taken to be a date and
its long value is returned. If it is not found, the supplied
default is returned.
gettHeaderFieldInt(String.int) The header field named as the String is taken to be an integer
and its value is returned. If it is not found, the supplied
default is returned.
getHeaderFieldKey(int) Returns the key value specified by the number. Could be
null.
getIfModifiedSince () Returns the value of the date ifModifiedSince.
getInputStream() Returns an InputStream that can be used to read the resource.
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getLastModified() Returns, as a long, the date found in the last-modified header
field. Could be zero.
getOutputStream() Returns an OutputStream that can be used to write to the
location addressed by the URL.
getRequestProper(String) Returns the string value of the named property.
getURL() Returns the URL used to establish this connection.
getUseCaches() Returns the value of the useCaches flag.
guessContentTypeFromName (String) Looks at the name passed to it and returns a string identifying
the type of resources. For example, a name ending with .html
would be assumed to be a Web page.
guessContentTypeFromStream (InputStream) Reads the InputStream passed to it and attempts to determine
the type of resource by reading from it and analyzing what it
finds.
setAllowUserInteraction (boolean) Sets the value of the allowUser Interaction flag.
setContentHandlerFactory Specifies the ContentHandlerFactory to be used by all
(ContentHandlerFactory) URLConnection objects.
setDefaultRequestProperty (String,String) Uses the first String as the key and the second as the general-
request property. These properties are then used in the
creation of every URLConnection.
setDefaultUsesCaches(boolean) Sets the value of defaultUsesCaches.
SetDoInput(boolean) Sets the value of doInput.
setDoOutput(boolean) Sets the value of doOutput.
SetIfModifiedSince(long) Sets the value of ifModifiedSince.
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setRequestProperty(String, String) Uses the first String as the key and the second as the value
and sets the generalrequest property. These properties are
then used only for this URLConnection.
setUsesCaches(boolean) Sets the value of usesCaches.
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Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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The incoming headers
This is a simple program that, when given a URL string, opens a connection to the URL and displays all
the header information:
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
public class WhatIsIt {
public static void main(String[] arg) {
int i = 1;
BufferedInputStream bin;
try {
URL url = new URL(arg[0]);
URLConnection con = url.openConnection();
String header = con.getHeaderField(i);
String key = con.getHeaderFieldKey(i);
while(header != null) {
System.out.println(“H” + i + “: ”+
key + “=” + header);
i++;
header = con.getHeaderField(i);
key = con.getHeaderFieldKey(i);
}
} catch(MalformedURLException e) {
System.out.println(e);
} catch(IOException e) {
System.out.println(e);
}
}
}
This example uses the URL object to establish a connection and then retrieves all the headers from it.
This command supplies the URL for the home page of an ISP:
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java WhatIsIt <http://www.xyz.net>
The output is the complete list of headers and the values at the time the query was made:
H1: Date=Thu, 26 Feb 1998 20:28:05 GMT
H2: Server=Apache/1.1.3
H3: Content-type=text/html
H4: Content-length=1659
H5: Last-modified=Thu, 26 Feb 1998 04:24:27 GMT
H6: Connection=Keep-Alive
H7: Keep-Alive=timeout=15, max=5
The methods used, getHeaderField() and getHeaderKey(), retrieve the names of the fields and their values
according to their positions in the file. Different locations on the Internet will supply different levels of
detail—the number and content of the headers will vary—but you should always be able to determine
content type.
Sockets
If you need to get closer to things than you can with the URL classes described in the previous section,
you can use the sockets that are built into the Java core classes. Sockets are certainly no more difficult to
use than URLs, and, with sockets, you have a lot more control over your communications. The
drawback is that you will have to handle more of the details yourself. With the URL classes, we’re only
able to work with the client side of the client/server architecture—with sockets, we can work both sides
of the street.
Finding an address
The Internet makes finding addresses quite simple really. You supply the name and the address will
come right back for you. The class InetAddress will do this. Here is a simple program showing how it
works:
import java.net.*;
public class GetAddresses {
public static void main(String[] argv) {
InetAddress ia;
try {
ia = InetAddress.getLocalHost();
System.out.println(“Local host: ” + ia);
ia = InetAddress.getByName(null);
System.out.println(“Null host: ”+ ia);
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ia = InetAddress.getByName(“www.idgbooks.com”);
System.out.println(“IDG host: ”+ ia);
} catch(UnknownHostException e) {
System.out.println(e);
}
}
}
This program retrieves three addresses—two of them are local and one is from the lnternet. The output
looks like this:
Local host: default/206.66.1.79
Null host: localhost/127.0.0.1
IDG host: www.idgbooks.com/206,80.51.140
This program was run from a computer with a dial-up connection, and the address 206.66.1.79 is the one
that was assigned to the connection by the Internet service provider. That is the address returned from
getLocalHost().
The second address, 127.0.0.1, is kind of special. This address is on every computer and is designed to
not go anywhere. Whenever an application sends a message down the TCP/IP stack to this address, the
message will simply reverse itself and return right back up the stack. You might find it handy if you
have a couple of local applications that need to talk to one another—or if you want to test a client server
connection by using a single computer.
The third address was retrieved from over the lnternet, it is the address of the computer hosting the main
Web page for IDG Books Worldwide. You now know how I found the address of IDB Books
Worldwide in the “What’s in an address?” section earlier in this chapter.
Setting up a simple socket server
This program sets itself up as a server and waits for a client connection to occur. Whenever a connection
is made, the server spawns a new copy of itself (that is, it starts a new thread) and this copy is used to
field requests and return responses. Any number of these threads can run at any one time, and they each
remain active until the corresponding client—the program that initiated the connection—either requests
a disconnect or drops its own connection.
This server doesn’t do much. It simply receives character strings from the client and displays them:
import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;
public class Server implements Runnable {
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Socket socket;
int ID;
public static void main(String[] arg) {
int port = 9999;
int count = 0;
try {
ServerSocket s = new ServerSocket(port);
System.out.println(“Waiting on port ”+ port);
while(true) {
Socket socket = s.accept();
System.out.println(“Connect! ID=” + ++count);
Server server = new Server(socket,count);
Thread thread = new Thread(server);
thread.start();
}
} catch (Exception e) {
System.err.println(“Server error”);
System,err.println(e);
}
}
Server(Socket socket,int ID) {
this.socket = socket;
this. ID = ID;
}
public void run() {
try {
InputStream is = socket.getInputStream();
InputStreamReader isr = new InputStreamReader(is);
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(isr);
while(true) {
String str = br.readLine();
if(str.trim().equals(“quit”))
break;
System.out.println(“ID ”+ ID + “: ”+ str);
}
} catch (Exception e) {
System.err.println(e);
} finally {
System.out.println(“Disconnect! ID” + ID);
try {
socket.close();
} catch(IOException e) {
System.out.println(e);
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}
}
}
}
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Java Bible:Networking
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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This socket server program waits on port number 9999 for a connection request. It does this by creating
a new ServerSocket object and then going into an infinite loop calling the accept() method. Whenever accept
() returns, it is with a Socket object representing a connection that has just been made.
Whenever a new connection is made, a new thread is created to handle communications. This thread is
assigned the newly connected Socket, and it is assigned a unique number. The loop then continues by
calling accept(), again waiting for another thread. This architecture enables Java to handle as many
sockets as the underlying operating system will allow.
Once the thread comes into existence, the run() method is called. The thread will remain alive until run()
returns. The run() method establishes input from the socket by calling getInputStream(). This is a raw input
stream that you can interpret any way you like, but for the example here we are assuming that the only
input will be character strings. To handle them, an InputStreamReader is attached to the raw input stream
and, in turn, a BufferedReader is attached to it. This allows us to use the readLine() method in the
BufferedReader to interpret the incoming stream of bytes as character strings.
The reading is done in a continuous loop until the word quit is received to break the connection. Note
that only the one connection is broken (by making a call to the close() method of the socket); this has no
effect on any other active connections, nor on the ServerSocket being used to establish connections.
Sending from a simple socket client
Now that we have a server ready to go, we need a client to send messages to it. This very simple client
reads lines of text from the keyboard and sends it to the server:
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
public class Client {
public static void main(String[] args ) {
int port = 9999;
String inString;
InputStreamReader isr = new InputStreamReader(System.in;
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(isr);
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try {
InetAddress address = InetAddress.getByName(null);
Socket socket = new Socket(address,port);
OutputStream os = socket.getOutputStream();
OutputStreamWriter osw = new OutputStreamWriter(os);
PrintWriter pw = new PrintWriter(osw);
while((inString = br.readLine()) != null) {
pw.println(inString);
pw.flush();
if(inString.trim().equals(“quit”))
System.exit(0);
}
} catch (IOException e) {
System.err.println(e);
}
}
}
A BufferedReader is created to read lines of text from the keyboard. A socket is created with the same port
number as the server. The number 9999 was chosen arbitrarily. The other end of the socket could be
anywhere on the lnternet, but for this example, a call is made to InetAddress, getByName(null) to get the
address of the local host. Once the socket is created, the getOutputStream() method is called to get the
writeable stream. This stream, along with an OutputStreamWriter, is then used to construct a PrintWriter that
will be used to send strings through the socket connection.
The loop reads one string after the other and sends it to the server. After each string is sent, it is tested to
see if it’s the termination command, if the string is quit, the server will have recognized it on receipt and
closed the other end of the socket. This application exits, causing the socket to close on this end.
These two simple programs—the server and the client—demonstrate the power of the Internet. Two
simple programs like this can be anywhere in the world and, as long as the Internet address of the server
is known to the client, they can hook up and communicate.
RMI Operations
The idea behind RMI is very simple. A program running on a computer somewhere on the Internet can
invoke a method that is resident in a program running somewhere else on the Internet. To make this
happen, several things need to be done, and all of them are built in to the java.rmi package.
The best way to learn about RMI is to go through a step-by-step explanation of what it takes to set things
up for an RMI invocation.
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The package
Create a directory that has the name of the package you would like to use. This directory can be inside
other directories as long as the CLASSPATH variable is set correctly and the package names are included
in the source files. This example uses the package name rmitest, which means that the CLASSPATH list of
names includes the name of the directory immediately above the directory named rmitest.
The interface
For one program to invoke the method of another, they have to agree on the name and arguments of the
method. Java has a built-in way of handling this. If an interface is defined and they both use it, then the
name and arguments are bound to match. So, the first thing to do is define the interface. For our
example, the interface is a very simple one with a single method:
package rmitest;
public interface StringTag extends java.rmi.Remote {
public String appendX(String instring)
throws java.rmi.RemoteException;
}
This interface defines the single method appendX(). It takes a String object as an argument and supplies a
String as its return value. For our example, all the method is going to do is append XXX onto the end of
any string it receives.
The arguments and return values must be serializable. To do this, they must implement the Serializable
interface. Most of the Java APl implements this interface, but if you are going to write any classes to
pass as remote arguments, you need to write them so that they can be written to a stream.
The implementation
You need to write a class that implements the interface. For this example, it is called StringTagImpl:
package rmitest;
import java.rmi.*;
import java.rmi.server.UnicastRemoteObject;
public class StringTagImpl extends UnicastRemoteObject
implements StringTag {
public StringTagImpl() throws RemoteException {
super();
}
public String appendX(String s) throws RemoteException {
return(s + “XXX”);
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}
public static void main(String[] arg) {
System.setSecurityManager(new RMISecurityManager());
try {
StringTagImpl sm = new StringTagImpl();
Naming.rebind(“StringTag”,sm);
System.out.println(“StringTag bound in registry”);
} catch(Exception e) {
System.out,println(“StringTagImpl: ”+ e);
}
}
}
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Java Bible:Networking
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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This is the server side of the rmi call—this is the class that holds the method that will actually be called.
Not only does it implement the interface we described in the previous section, but it also extends the
UnicastRemoveObject class, thus making it capable of receiving remote method calls.
There is always a default constructor. This one doesn’t do anything, but it is included here to point out
that if you need to have a constructor, you have to define it as throwing a RemoteException. The exception
is actually thrown from the constructor of the superclass.
The body of the method is defined. This example is very simple—it simply creates a return string by
combining the one passed in with the three characters XXX.
This program is to be executed on the server, so it must have a main(). The RMISecurityManager() must be
defined so it will be in place to control access requested from remote locations. Without the security
manager in place, no RMI is possible. The fact that you can design and install your own security
manager gives you a great deal of control over security.
This object has to register itself with the Naming registry. When a remote request arrives at this
computer, there is a search in the registry for the name. If a match is found, the appropriate method is
called.
The stubs and the skeletons
Once the above pieces are defined, they can be compiled into class files with the Java compiler, like this:
javac StringTag.java
javac StringTagImpl.java
But there is one more step. The caller of the method will need a stub, and the method being called will
need a skeleton. These are both class files, and you get both of them with this single command:
rmic rmitest.StringTagImpl
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The output takes the form of these two files:
StringTagImpl_Skel.class
StringTagImpl_Stub.class
Then when the client calls the method, it actual calls the stub. The stub gathers up the necessary
information and transmits it over the Internet to the machine that holds the server—the actual method.
On the server side, there is a search in the registry for the name and, if found, the data that came over the
lnternet is turned over to the skeleton. The job of the skeleton is to unwrap the data and make the actual
method call. When the method returns, the skeleton wraps up the answer and transmits it back to the
stub. The stub then unwraps the returned data and passes the result to the original caller of the method.
This process of stubs and skeletons wrapping and unwrapping data is called marshalling and
unmarshalling.
Starting the registry
Before any calls can be made, the host system needs to have a registry. The registry is the program that
resolves the name requests that come in across the lnternet. It is the one that holds the information that is
passed in the Naming calls.
To start the registry on Window 95 or NT, enter
start registry
To start the registry on a UNIX system, enter
registry &
Starting the server
If a stub is not already on a local machine, it will be downloaded from the remote machine. To make this
possible, when the server is started you have to specify the codebase so that the stub can be found. The
codebase is defined this way on the command line that starts the server running:
java -Djava.rmi.server.codebase:http:/q/rmitest/
rmitest/StringTagImpl
The applet that makes the call
The remote call can be made from an applet or an application. For this example, we have an applet that
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calls the method:
package rmitest;
import java.awt.*;
import java.rmi.*;
public class StringTagApplet extends java.applet.Applet {
String tagged;
public void init() {
try {
StringTag st = (StringTag)Naming.lookup(
“//” + getCodeBase().getHost() + “/StringTag”);
tagged = st.appendX(“The string ”);
} catch(Exception e) {
System. out.println(e);
e.printStackTrace();
}
}
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.drawStri ng(tagged, 25,30);
}
}
This applet uses the Naming.lookup() method to get a reference to the local stub for the remote class. Once
the stub has been retrieved, the methods can all be called just as if the stub were a local object, in our
example, there is only one method, and it is called to make modifications to the character string.
The HTML
To run an applet, you need a browser and the HTML that controls it. Here is the HTML from this
example:
<HTML>
<title>String appending</title>
<center><h1>Append X and Y</h1></title>
The result of appending to the strings is:
<p>
<applet codebase=“..” code=“rmitest. StringTagApplet”
width=500 height=120>
</applet>
</HTML>
This HTML executes the applet. The setting of the codebase string depends on where the class files are
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located on your system. Note that the applet calls getCodeBase() to get a URL object representing the
directory holding the class files.
Entering the command
appletviewer StringTag. html
pops up a window that displays the string that was modified by a remote procedure call.
Summary
Java takes the flexibility of the lnternet and makes it easy. You should now understand how to add
networking support to your own applications. Important points to remember abut this chapter include
these:
• The most fundamental thing you need to know when sending data over the Internet is where the
data should go. To do this, there are just three things you need to know: the IP address of the
target computer; the protocol that will be used to package the data; and the port number
specifying a specific application to receive the data.
• Sockets have been around several years now, and they really simplified things, but with the
Java Sockets class it has even become simpler. Beyond that, if you are working with URL
addressing, the URL classes, which rest on top of the sockets, make that kind of work easier than
it has ever been.
• The RMI system is quite unique, and it has some very interesting implications. Local
applications will no longer need regular upgrades because critical methods actually reside on
other machines. A programmer can write code to access database information without caring
what machine holds the actual data—in fact, the data can be moved at will without affecting any
of the programs or system configurations.
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 28
JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
In This Chapter
Learn the basics of database connectivity from Java using the JDBC API
Review the techniques for starting a connection to the database using JDBC drivers and JDBC URLs
Understanding how to perform database queries and updates, and Variations on retrieving the results
Overview of the JDBC API
An introduction to advanced JDBC techniques
This chapter covers the Java Database Connectivity Application Programming Interface (JDBC API),
defined by JavaSoft, Inc. as part of the Core Java API. JDBC allows any applet or application written in
Java to access remote databases and retrieve or update information stored in such databases. After an
introduction to JDBC, the chapter discusses how to connect to databases and perform queries and
updates. The subsequent section is a reference that lists the contents of the whole API, and finally we
discuss more advanced issues such as stored procedures, transactions, and three-tier partitioning.
Introduction to JDBC
JDBC, the Java Database Connectivity API, is one of the key players in making Java an appropriate
language and platform for building world-class applications. In this introduction, you learn the
fundamentals of JDBC:
• Universal database connectivity
• Traditional client/server architectures ???SQL
• Database drivers
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• The JDBC API
Universal database connectivity from Java
The Java Database Connectivity API allows Java applets, servlets (Web-server-side applets), and
standalone applications to access data stored in relational database management systems (DBMS) in a
universal way. The industry standard for accessing data is SQL (Structured Query Language), which
permits maximum interoperability. Of course, SQL is the language used with JDBC. You build the
connectivity itself using a single, standard API no matter what the DBMS: the JDBC API.
Relational databases are the most common kind of DBMS today and they impose absolute separation
between physical and logical data. By accessing data through the logical model associated with it, you
avoid the limitations of supplying information about physical storage locations. Relational databases let
you define relationship and integrity rules among data sets organized in tables.
Using one query language (SQL) and one API (JDBC) lets you provide universal database connectivity
from Java.
Last but not least, JDBC will work independently of the network environment. It is well suited for the
intranet as well as for the Internet.
Basic characteristics of JDBC
To understand JDBC, you need to get acquainted with its most important characteristics. If you already
have some knowledge of ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) under Microsoft Windows, you will
probably see that JDBC and ODBC are similar in many ways:
• Call-level SQL interface: JDBC is a call-level SQL interface for Java used at the client side. It
is totally independent of the various database management systems. It is a low-level application
programming interface that allows Java programs to issue SQL statements and retrieve their
results. It also provides methods for managing errors and warning messages. Figure 28-1 shows
where JDBC is usually used.
• SQL conformance: JDBC does not set any restrictions on the type of queries that can be sent
to an underlying DBMS driver. An application may use as much SQL functionality as desired.
The underlying drivers are authorized to claim JDBC compliance if they fully support ANSI
SQL-92 Entry Level, which is widely supported today and guarantees a wide level of portability.
• Convenient implementation: JDBC can be implemented on top of common SQL-level APIs,
in particular, on top of ODBC.
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JDBC is usually implemented using native or nonnative drivers instead of being used on top of
ODBC.
Figure 28.1: JDBC is used at the client side.
• Consistent API: JDBC provides a Java interface that stays consistent with the rest of Java.
There are no conflicts due to opposed philosophies.
• KISS paradigm: The JDBC mechanisms are simple to understand and use, although there are
little restrictions on specific database functionalities. (KISS means “Keep it simple, stupid.”)
• Strong, static typing: JDBC uses strong, static typing wherever possible. This allows for more
error checking to be performed at compile time.
• One functionality, one method: JDBC, unlike many other complex DBMS SQL-level APIs,
is simple enough for a beginner to use, yet powerful enough for an experienced programmer.
JDBC components
A typical architecture involving JDBC to connect to databases usually involves four essential
components: the application itself, the JDBC driver manager, specific drivers for the databases, and
finally the database management systems.
Application
The user application invokes JDBC methods to send SQL statements to the database and retrieve results.
It performs the following tasks:
• Requests a connection with a data source
• Sends SQL statements to the data source
• Defines storage areas and data types for the resultsets
• Requests results
• Processes errors
• Controls transactions—requests commit or rollback operations
• Closes the connection
Driver manager
Tile primary role of the JDBC driver manager is to load specific drivers on behalf of the user
application. It may also perform the following tasks:
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• Locate a driver for a particular database
• Process JDBC initialization calls
• Provide entry points to JDBC functions for each specific driver
• Perform parameter and sequence validation for JDBC calls
Driver
The driver processes JDBC method invocations, sends SQL statements to a specific data source, and
returns results back to the application. When necessary, the driver translates and/or optimizes requests so
that the request conforms to the syntax supported by the specific DBMS. The driver can handle these
tasks:
• Establish a connection to a data source
• Send requests to the data source
• Perform translations when requested by the user application
• Return results to the user application
• Format errors in standard JDBC error codes
• Manage cursors if necessary
• Initiate transactions if it is explicitly required
Data Source
The data source consists of the data the user application wants to access and its parameters (in other
words, the type of DBMS and network layer, if any, used to access the DBMS).
The JDBC API defines the possible interactions between the user application and the driver manager;
the JDBC Driver API defines interactions among the driver manager and all JDBC drivers. Figure 28-2
shows the relationship among the four JDBC components.
Figure 28-2: The complete JDBC architecture
Ready for client/server
The first generation of client/server architectures is two-tiered. It contains two active components: the
client, which requests or sends data, and the server, which can be a DBMS. This type of system
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processes database queries and updates separately from those associated with user interface logic and
presentation. In this respect, such a system differs from old-fashioned, mainframe-style user applications
that handled gigabyte-long sequential files. Figure 28-3 depicts a typical client/server architecture.
Figure 28-3: Typical client/server architecture with a DBMS
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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The two components usually run on different platforms, and in the Internet context, there may be
numerous instances of client applications running at the same time. In the middle, the network serves as
a transport mechanism for SQL messages containing database queries and rows of data resulting from
these queries. This is illustrated in Figure 28-4.
Figure 28-4: SQL messages and resultsets
JDBC conforms to the traditional client/server architecture. As we will see later, however, alternatives to
the two-tiered client/server have emerged: three-tiered and multi-tiered. These approaches are basically
an extension of the two-tiered client/server, so JDBC also has a place in such advanced architectures.
Data definition and manipulation using SQL
In contrast to the complete programming languages used to build complex applications, SQL is
commonly used within a host language (which in turn offers the specific features for building complete
applications). Nevertheless, SQL is an industry standard for database access. It enables data definition,
manipulation and management, as well as access protection and transaction control.
SQL originated from the concept of relational databases; it handles many database objects for RDBMS
purposes, including tables, indexes, keys, rows, and columns. First standardized by the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, SQL was designed to be independent of any programming
language or DBMS.
The ANSI 1989 standard defines three programmatic interfaces to SQL:
• Modules: These procedures may be defined within separate compiled modules and then called
from a traditional programming language.
• Embedded SQL: This specification defines embedded statements for a few traditional
programming languages. It allows static SQL statements to be embedded within complete
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programs.
• Direct invocation: Here access is implementation-defined — it can be different for every
platform.
Although embedded SQL was quite popular a few years ago, it is not the best answer to the problem of
querying databases in client/server environments. It is static in all senses of the term, and this limitation
makes it unsuitable for newer software architectures.
The newer ANSI specification, SQL-92, addresses the needs of modern environments. !t contains many
new features, including support for dynamic
SQL — as well as support for scrollable cursors, an advanced technique for accessing resultsets.
Although dynamic SQL is not as efficient as static SQL, it does allow SQL statements to be prepared, to
include parameters, and to be generated at runtime. (If you are using prepared statements, system
performance may actually improve.) Dynamic SQL allows the database to prepare an access plan before
execution, and to reuse the access plan each time the statement is called.
The SQL language may be used for various purposes, including these:
• Querying a database, as interactive language used by humans
• Querying a database within a program
• Defining data organization
• Administering data
• Accessing multiple data servers
• Managing transactions
The SQL language supports a set of verbs used to define, store, manipulate, and retrieve data. These
keywords include CREATE TABLE, SELECT, INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE, and so on.
The following examples illustrate the most common actions you can perform with SQL:
• Creating a table:
CREATE TABLE employees
(
id int PRIMARY KEY,
name char(25) NOT NULL,
address char(25) NOT NULL,
city char(25) NOT NULL,
zip char(25) NOT NULL,
dept int,
phone char(12),
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salary int
)
• Removing a table:
DROP TABLE employees
• Supplying new data:
INSERT INTO employees VALUES
(
1,
“John Doe”,
“10725 Java Drive”,
“Mountain View”,
“CA 94040”,
1,
“415-960-1300”
60000
)
• Removing rows of data:
DELETE FROM employees
WHERE dept = 0
• Retrieving data:
SELECT * FROM employees
WHERE dept = 1
ORDER BY salary DESC, name
• Modifying data:
UPDATE employees SET salary = 70000
WHERE name : “John Doe”
• Creating an index:
CREATE INDEX employees_idx
ON employees (name)
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• Creating a stored procedure:
CREATE PROCEDURE getMaxSalary (@themax int OUT)
AS SELECT @themax = MAX(salary)
FROM employees
SQL is a rich language. Various options and parameters are available for these keywords. You
can (for example) nest statements for database queries, join tables, and define transactions.
JDBC drivers
As mentioned before, JDBC is independent of the various database management systems. Almost all of
them use proprietary (non- or poorly documented) protocols to communicate with clients, so JDBC uses
database drivers specific to these database engines.
Database vendors and third parties offer three types of JDBC drivers:
Native database drivers
These drivers process JDBC calls and send SQL statements to the data source. They may be native-API/
partly-Java or native-protocol/all-Java. A native-API partly-Java driver forwards the calls to a locally
installed library, usually developed in C and provided by the database vendor. It may be a DLL or a
UNIX shared library, for example. Figure 28-5 shows the Java and non-Java sides of such a driver.
Figure 28-5: A native-API partly-Java driver
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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A native-protocol, ali-Java driver implements in Java all the layers necessary to communicate with the
database. These drivers are obviously fully portable, because they do not use local libraries or other
native code. This type of driver illustrated in Figure 28-6.
Figure 28-6: A native-protocol ali-Java driver
Bridge drivers
A bridge driver acts as a bridge between JDBC and another CLI (Call-level Interface). For example, the
JDBC-ODBC bridge is a bridge driver. It processes JDBC calls, and in its turn calls ODBC functions
that send SQL statements to the ODBC data source. Figure 28-7 shows the Java and non-Java sides of
such a driver.
Figure 28-7: A JDBC-ODBC bridge driver
DBMS-independent, ali-Java Net drivers
These drivers use a DBMS-independent, published network protocol. They are obviously very portable
because they are 100-percent Java. Figure 28-8 depicts such a driver.
Figure 28-8: A Net driver
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Overview of the API
The two major components of JDBC are the JDBC API and the JDBC Driver API. The JDBC API is a
programming interface for database application developers; the JDBC Driver API is a lower-level
programming interface for developers of specific drivers. We will focus on the JDBC API. Figure 28-9
clearly indicates the role of both APIs.
Figure 28-7: 28-9: The APIs
Database application developers use these interfaces and classes:
• java.sql.DriverManager: This class provides methods to load drivers and to support the creation of
database connections using methods expressed in the java.sql.Driver interface.
• java.sql.Connection: Represents a particular connection on which further action is performed.
• java.sql.Statement: Associated to a connection, this package is used to send SQL statements to the
database.
• java.sql.CallableStatement: Same role, but in the context of database stored procedures.
• java.sql.PreparedStatement: Same role, but in the context of precompiled SQL.
• java.sql.ResultSet: Allows access to the resulting rows of a statement.
• java.sql.ResultSetMetaData: Gives information such as the column type and column properties of
the resultset.
• java.sql.DatabaseMetaData: Provides information about the database as a whole.
Typical uses
You can use JDBC to connect Java to databases, send SQL statements from a Java client, and then
retrieve the results, if any, off the database. This is true for standalone Java applications, as well as for
Java applets running in Web browsers (if a 100-percent Java JDBC driver is used) and Java servlets
running at the side of Web servers.
However, you need to consider a few things when running JDBC in a client applet. As long as an applet
is unsigned, it is considered untrusted. There are some differences, however, between untrusted applets
on the Internet (or on an intranet) and traditional standalone applications:
• Untrusted applets cannot access local files or open arbitrary network connections to remote
hosts. In contrast, an application can access the local file system in accordance with the
permissions that were granted to the user.
• Untrusted applets cannot rely on specific facilities provided by the underlying operating
system—such as a local registry—to locate a database. Applications often rely on such facilities.
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For example, ODBC uses an INI file or the registry, and most proprietary APIs use specific
property and configuration files.
• Response times of untrusted applets may be arbitrary when sporadic traffic peaks arise on the
Internet; connections may be interrupted in the middle of a transaction because of network
failure.
• Estimating the maximum number of simultaneous users of an untrusted applet is difficult in the
Internet scenario.
Despite these differences, JDBC is still a good option for letting applets communicate with a database
located on the Web server side. There are many situations in which you might want to use JDBC. To
give you some examples, JDBC and 100-percent-Java JDBC drivers are easier to use than HTML
solutions in the following cases:
• Lookups of online catalogs, using multiple search criteria, that return complex types such as
text, images, compound documents, sounds, binary files, and so on.
• Any transactional Web application. JDBC allows you to group statements in one atomic
transaction. This is mandatory when (for example) debit and credit have to happen at the same
time on different tables.
• Replacement of any traditional database client software for a larger audience, on an intranet, an
extranet, or the Internet using off-the-shelf Web browsers.
• Building decision-support tools that often rely on existing relationships among data entities,
without any prior knowledge of these relationships.
• Simple, webtop-oriented administration tools for DBAs and DBOs (database administrators
and database owners).
Connecting to a remote database
Java and your database can talk to each other, and they may as well start doing so. In this section, you
will learn how to load a database driver, how to locate the database management system, and how to
establish a connection to it.
A connection must be established to enable access to a database. Such a connection is a Java object,
containing methods and data members that access the database and also hold and manage connection
state. Various connection parameters are necessary to locate important elements of the database
system—the database itself, specific drivers and protocols, user accounts and passwords in the DBMS,
and so on. (You’ll learn the format to use for such parameters later in this chapter.)
The first general step is to establish a connection. The last step will, of course, be to terminate (or close)
the connection. Opening and closing the connection will create and release user resources within the
driver manager, the driver, and the database management system.
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Choosing an appropriate driver
Databases talk with clients by using various—but incompatible—protocols. As a result, for every
specific database connection you establish, you have to provide an appropriate driver to JDBC to let it
manage the connection. Methods that load a driver and handle driver properties are provided within the
DriverManager and Driver objects. To tell JDBC what drivers are available, you provide the needed
information through a jdbc.drivers system property. You can do so from the java interpreter command line
or by means of a property file.
The following code shows how to use the command line for standalone programs and applets:
% java -Djdbc.drivers:foobar MyProgram
% java -Djdbc.drivers=foobar sun.applet.AppletViewer
MyApplet.html
The following code shows how to use a file, which you might want to do when you use the Applet
Viewer or the Hot Java Web browser, for example:
# on unix. this is~/.hotjava/properties
jdbc.drivers=vendor1.driver1
As explained later in the chapter, you can also specify the drivers programmatically.
The exact driver name is set by the driver manufacturer. Refer to your driver’s documentation
for more details about its package name and class name.
Although the database URL specifies a specific database and protocol to be used, it may
sometimes be useful to let the JDBC choose among two or more drivers especially when
you’re using multiple databases. If you want to do so, just specify a list of drivers in the jdbc.
drivers property, separating the driver class names with colons:
‘vendor1.dbdrv:vendor2.sql.foodriver:vendor3.db.connectdrv’
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JDBC will then try to use each of the drivers listed in jdbc.drivers until it finds one that can successfully
connect to the given URL. Drivers that are considered untrusted code are skipped. The driver will
register itself with the driver manager to allow connections to be established.
In case the jdbc.drivers system property is unavailable, you might want to use a programmatic technique
to force a particular driver to be loaded. For example, the following line of Java code loads a JDBC-
ODBC bridge driver:
Class. for Name(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”);
Another method is to use the following statements:
java.sql.Driver myDriver = new sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver();
java.sql.DriverManager.registerDriver(myDriver);
These statements explicitly instantiate the JdbcOdbcDriver class and register it with the driver manager.
Locating the database
JDBC uses a particular syntax for naming a database. The JDBC designers wanted to adopt a syntax
widely used in the Internet context: the URL (Universal Resource Locator) syntax. The URL for JDBC
data sources has this form:
jdbc:<subprotocol >: <subname>
In this syntax, jdbc indicates that the protocol is JDBC, the subprotocol field is the name of the JDBC
driver to be used, and the subname is a parameter string that depends on the subprotocol. This
mechanism is depicted in Figure 28-10.
Figure 28-10: The JDBC mechanism for naming a data source
These two examples show you how you can use database URLs:
jdbc:odbc:sampledb;UID:javauser;PWD:hotjava
In this example, a JDBC-ODBC bridge is used, and the ODBC DSN (data source name) is sampledb. The
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database user name is javauser, and the password is hotjava.
jdbc:mydbdrv://www.mydomain.net:8192/mydb
In this case, the subprotocol is called mydbdrv, the database engine is running on the www.myd@main.
net host (the subname field), the TCP/IP port used is 8192, and mydb is the name of the database to be
accessed. The meaning of these parameters is somewhat arbitrary: For example, if the subprotocol (the
driver) always uses the same port number, you don’t have to provide it in the URL. You could also
interpret mydb, which is a “subsubname,” as anything else as well.
The ODBC subprotocol URL should always conform to this syntax:
jdbc:odbc:<dsn>[;<attribute-name>=<attribute-value>]*
As you can see, the JDBC URL syntax is flexible enough to allow specific drivers to interpret their own
syntax.
Creating a connection
This URL string is used to create connections to the database, For this purpose, the getConnection()
method on the driver manager is used to request a Connection object:
...
Connection connection;
String url= “jdbc:odbc:datasource”;
Class.forName(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”);
Connection = DriverManager.getConnection(url, “javauser”
“hotjava”);
...
This example shows how to pass the URL string to the driver manager and specific parameters to the
driver itself. Here is some further explanation of the code:
• The protocol is JDBC.
• The driver is a JDBC-ODBC bridge.
• The ODBC DSN (data source name) is mysource.
• A username is provided: javauser.
• A password is provided: hot java.
The driver manager will try to find a registered JDBC driver that is allowed to reach the data source
specified in the URL. Note that there are other methods that allow you to make a connection to the
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database. They have the same name, but they accept different parameters:
Connection getConnection(String url);
Connection getConnection(String url, String user, String
password);
Connection getConnection(String url, java.util.Properties
info);
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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A connection will not last forever, so there is a method to terminate it: close(). This method releases
driver and database resources of the connection. Listing 28-1 illustrates how to open and close a
connection to a database using a JDBC-ODBC bridge.
Listing 28-1: Opening and Closing a Connection
// opening and closing a connection
import java.sql.*;
class SimpleExample
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
String url= “jdbc:odbc:mysource”;
try {
Class.forName(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”);
Connection connection =
DriverManager.getConnection(url,
“javauser”, “hotjava”);
//...
connection.close();
} catch (Exception ex) {
System.out.printing(“A problem occurred during the
establishment of the connection: ” + ex);
}
}
}
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In case of problems during the creation of the Connection object, the getConnection() method throws a java.
sql.SOLExcepti on. You should catch such exceptions and write appropriate code to handle them, at least
to warn the user that there was a problem.
Performing database queries and updates
You are now ready to surf your database management system and perform queries and updates from
Java. This section teaches you these techniques through comprehensive examples.
Database queries and updates
You use the Connection object to send SQL statements to the database engine. You can use different
methods for doing this depending on the kind of operation needed. In this chapter, we will focus on
sending normal SQL statements. Unlike prepared statements or calls to stored procedures, (discussed
later), normal SQL statements are usually built, sent, and executed only once. This is the case, for
example, within an interactive query tool where the user is allowed to build his or her own queries on
the fly. Normal statements include both statements to query data from the database and statements to
update the data.
Immediately after creating the connection, you have to create a SQL statement. This is not to say that
you can’t build a SQL query string before opening the connection. You are free to do so. A JDBC
statement is an object associated with a connection, and it is used later to execute the SQL statement
string within this connection environment on the DBMS.
This is the method used to create a Statement object:
Statement createStatement();
You obtain the Statement object by invoking this method on the Connection instance, as shown in the
following example:
...
Connection connection = DriverManager.getConnection(url,
“javauser”, “hot java”);
Statement statement = connection.createStatement();
myConnection.close();
...
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The SQL statement will finally be sent to the DBMS, where it is parsed, optimized, and then
executed??? But we have not built the statement text yet. Indeed, the SQL string is passed to the
database at the time the call for execution of the statement is issued. Figure 28-11 illustrates this
mechanism.
This SQL string may be converted into the DBMS native SQL grammar by the driver. It is possible to
see the converted string without sending it to the database. You will normally not use this facility, but in
some cases you might want to know what the native translation of a query is prior to sending it.
This method requires the Connection object because it is DBMS-dependent.
Indeed, a connection is associated to one and only one DBMS through its driver:
String nativeSQL(String sql);
Figure 28-11: Sending an SQL statement
The string passed as an argument is the “user” SQL statement; nativeSQL() returns the native form of this
statement.
Opening a connection and creating a statement are necessary before executing a query. They are
required in all your JDBC-based applications.
SQL statements that return an integer, such as DELETE, UPDATE, and INSERT, do not need additional
processing. The method to send them returns the integer, which usually is interpreted as a counter. Other
SQL statements do not return rows of data or a counter.
This is not the case with queries that return normal rows of data; the resultset is composed of zero, one,
or multiple rows coming from the database. Consequently, the next step is to scan this resultset, row by
row, until all the rows of data have been fetched. You perform this operation within a loop. We will see
later how to analyze the data that composes rows.
You create the ResultSet object when you send the statement to the DBMS. You do so by executing the
Statement object. Closing the resultset releases all data associated with it.
You can use different methods to send a SQL statement to the database. They vary depending on the
type of statement and the type of data they return. They apply to the newly created Statement object:
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ResultSet executeOuery(String sql):
If the query returns normal rows of data, then you should use the executeQuery() method. In this case, the
query is typically a static SQL SELECT statement. The SQL text is simply passed as a String argument.
The text does not have to be translated to the native form, which otherwise you could do by
using nativeSQL().
This method returns a ResultSet object, which is discussed in the next section of this chapter, “Retrieving
the results.”
int executeUpdate(String sql);
In case the SQL statement returns nothing (returning nothing is different than returning 0 rows) or an
integer value, as it is the case with SQL INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE clauses, you should use the
executeUpdate method. The call returns the integer value or 0 for statements that return nothing:
boolean execute(String sql);
When a SQL statement returns more than one result, you have to use execute() to request execution of the
statement, as shown in Listing 28-2.
Listing 28-2: Querying the Database
// querying the database
import java.sql.*;
class SimpleExample
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
String url= “jdbc:odbc:mysource”;
try {
Class.forName(“sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”);
Connection connection =
DriverManager.getConnection(url,
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“javauser”, “hotjava”);
String sql = “SELECT * FROM employees”;
System.out.println(“native form: ”+
connection.nativeSQL(sql));
Statement statement = connection.createStatement();
ResultSetrs = statement.executeQuery(sql);
connection.close();
} catch (Exception ex) {
System.out.println(“A problem occurred: ”+ ex);
}
}
}
Retrieving the results
Resultsets are composed of rows of data. You use the resultSet.next() method in a loop to access and
retrieve all these rows, row by row. Figure 28-12 illustrates the mechanism used to scan the rows
contained in the resultset.
Figure 28-12: The next() method used to scan a resultset
Note that a resultset is initially positioned before its first row. You need to call the method first to access
the first row. After the first call, the first row becomes the current row, and it is ready to be processed.
Successive calls to next() will make the subsequent rows current, row by row. The method returns false
when there are no more rows available in the resultset.
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Getting the number and label of columns
A row is usually composed of table data that may be organized in columns of different types. You may
want to obtain the properties of the resultset’s rows their number, type, and so on—at runtime. You can
use the metadata methods on resultsets to obtain column and type information for your dataset. Only the
column number and column labels are in the following examples.
The getMetaData() method returns a ResultSetMetaData object, which you can use to call getColunCount():
int getMetaData().getColumnCount();
The return type is integer. It is the number of columns contained in the rows composing this resultset:
String getMetaData().getColumnLabel(int i);
The parameter is the column index, where a value of 1 indicates the first column. The method obviously
returns the label for the column at this index. Needless to say, the index range is 1 to getColumnCount().
It may be more efficient to store the ResultSetMetaData object once instead of calling the
getMetaData() method to create it each time you need to access a property. The driver may
provide caching, but it is a good idea not to use features such as caching unless they’re really
necessary. Because the JDBC allows you to access a wide variety of data sources, it’s a good
idea not to rely on any inherent driver behavior if you expect your applications to be portable.
Accessing columns
Columns must be fetched until there are no more to be fetched. You can do so in a loop using the
column indexes or column names that you obtained with the ResultSetMetaData object. This is illustrated
in Figure 28-13.
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Figure 28-13: An overview of accessing columns
The rows’ contents are accessible via getXXX() methods that allow extraction of values from the columns
of rows contained in the resultset.
You can access columns in two ways: by column index or by column name. Accessing a column by
name is more convenient, but certainly less efficient. Certain SQL statements return tables without
column names or with multiple identical column names. It is absolutely necessary to use column
numbers in these cases. Figure 28-14 shows how to access the columns of a resultset.
Figure 28-14: Accessing columns with getXXX()
All the columns within a row must be read in left-to-right order, and each column must be read only
once. This rule may not be true with some DBMSs, but observing it ensures maximum portability
Accessing columns by column indexes
These are the getXXX() methods available to fetch columns in a row:
String getString(int columnlndex);
boolean getBoolean(int columnIndex);
byte getByte(int columnIndex);
short getShort(int columnIndex);
int getInt(int columnIndex);
long getLong(int columnIndex);
float getFloat(int columnIndex);
double getDouble(int columnIndex);
java.math.BigDecimal getBigDecimal(int columnIndex, int scale);
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byte[] getBytes(int columnIndex);
java.sql.Date getDate(int cotumnIndex);
java.sql.Time getTime(int columnIndex);
java.sql.Timestamp getTimestamp(int columnIndex);
java.io.InputStream getAsciiStream(int columnIndex);
java.io.InputStream getUnicodeStream(int columnIndex);
java.io.InputStream getBinaryStream(int columnIndex);
Object getObject(int columnIndex);
All these methods return the column value of the current row. Column indexes are integers.
The following code snippet shows how to execute a SQL statement and retrieve the results using column
indexes. The rows are always read from left to right; columns are only read once:
...
java.sql.Statement statement = connection.createStatement();
ResultSet rs = statement.executeQuery(“SELECT name, title,
salary
FROM employees”);
while (rs.next()) {
// print the columns of the row that was retrieved
String name = rs.getString(1);
String title = rs.getString(2);
long salary = rs.getLong(3);
System.out.println(“Employee ”+ name +“ is ”+ title +“
and earns $” + salary);
}
...
Accessing columns by column names
Column names may be more convenient to use as a means of access; the following getXXX() methods
support column names:
String getString(String columnName);
boolean getBoolean(String columnName);
byte getByte(String columnName);
short getShort(String columnName);
int getInt(String columnName);
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long getLong(String columnName);
float getFloat(String columnName);
double getDouble(String columnName);
java.math.BigDecimal getBigDecimal(String columnName, int scale);
byte[] getBytes(String columnName);
java.sql.Date getDate(String columnName);
java.sql.Time getTime(String columnName);
java.sql.Timestamp getTimestamp(String columnName);
java.io.InputStream getAsciiStream(String columnName);
java.io.InputStream getUnicodeStream(String columnName);
java.io.InputStream getBinaryStream(String columnName);
Object getObject(String columnName);
The parameter you use should match exactly the column name of the row that you want to access.
The following code shows the same example as before, this time using column names:
...
java.sql.Statement statement = connection.createStatement();
ResultSet rs = statement.executeQuery(“SELECT name. title.
salary
FROM employees”);
while (rs.next()) {
// print the columns of the row that was retrieved
String name = rs.getString(“name”);
String title = rs.getString(“title”);
long salary = rs.getLong(“salary”);
System.out.println(“Employee ”??? name ???“ is ”??? title + “
and
earns $” ??? salary);
}
...
Putting the JDBC to Work
Listing 28-3 illustrates the previous techniques we learned for sending and executing database queries as
well as for retrieving the results. It is as Interactive SQL program written using the JDBC; it allows SQL
statements to be sent interactively using the keyboard. The program parses the keyboard input and sends
the statements to the database if the input is not a keyword such as go or exit. The results are then
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displayed on the screen. Note how we handled statements that return multiple resultsets and/or update
counts.
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Listing 28-3: The Interactive SQL Application
import java.sql.*;
import java.io.*;
import java.util.*;
public class isql {
static DataInputStream kbd = new
DataInputStream(System.in);
static String url = “jdbc:odbc:netbank”;
static String driver = “sun.jdbc.odbc.JdbcOdbcDriver”;
static String login = “dba”;
static String passwd = “javabank”;
static Connection curConn = null;
public static void main(String argv[]) throws IOException
{
String temp = “”;
System.out.println(“Simple Java Isql.\n”);
System.out.print(“Enter the url or [ENTER] for ”+ url+
“ : ”);
System.out.flush(); temp = kbd.readLine();
if (!temp.equals(“”)) url: temp;
System.out.print(“Enter the login or [ENTER] for ”+
login +“ : ”);
System.out.flush(); temp = kbd.readLine();
if (!temp.equals(“ ”)) login = temp;
System.out.print(“Enter the passwd or [ENTER] for
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default: ”);
System.out.flush();
temp = kbd.readLine();
if (!temp.equals(“ ”)) passwd = temp;
isql session = new isql();
}
public isql() throws IOException
{
try {
Class.forName(driver);
curConn = DriverManager.getConnection(url, login,
passwd);
checkForWarnings(curConn.getWarnings ());
}
catch(java.lang. Exception ex) {
System.out.println(“url : ”+ url);
System.out.println(“login : ”+ login);
System.out.println(“passwd : ”+ passwd);
ex.printStackTrace();
return;
}
processQueries();
finalize();
}
protected void finalize()
{
try {
curConn.close();
}
catch (SQLException ex) { }
}
private void processQueries() throws IOException
{
int i = 1;
String temp = “”;
String query = “”;
String results = “”;
System.out.println(“Type ‘quit’ on a blank line to
exit, or ‘go’ to execute the query.”);
do {
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System.out.print(i + “> ”);
System.out.flush();
temp = kbd.readLine();
if (temp.equals(“quit”))
break;
if (temp.equals(“go”)) {
executeThisQuery(query);
i = 1;
query = “”;
}
else {
query = query +“ ” + temp;
i++;
}
} while (true);
}
private void executeThisQuery(String sqlText)
{
boolean resultSetIsAvailable;
boolean moreResultsAvailable;
int i = O;
int res=O;
try {
Statement curStmt = curConn.createStatement();
resultSetIsAvailable = curStmt.execute(sqlText);
ResultSet rs = null;
for (moreResultsAvailable = true;
moreResultsAvailable;)
{
checkForWarnings(curConn.getWarnings());
if (resultSetIsAvailable)
{
if ((rs = curStmt.getResultSet()) !: null)
{
// we have a resultset
checkForWarnings(
curStmt.getWarnings());
ResultSetMetaData rsmd =
rs.getMetaData();
int numCols = rsmd.getColumnCount();
// display column headers
for (i : 1; i <= numCols; i++)
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{
if (i > 1) System.out.print(“, ”);
System,out.print
(rsmd.getColumnEabel(i));
}
System.out,println(“ ”);
// step through the rows
while (rs.next())
{
// process the columns
for (i = 1; i <= numCols; i++)
{
if (i > 1)
System.out.print(“. ”);
System.out.print
(rs.getString(i));
}
System.out.println(“ ”);
}
}
else
{
if ((res = curStmt.getUpdateCount())
!= -1)
{
// we have an updatecount
System.out.println(res +“ row(s)
affected.”);
}
// else no more results
else
{
moreResultsAvailable = false;
}
}
if (moreResultsAvailable)
{
resultSetIsAvailable =
curStmt.getMoreResults();
}
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}
if (rs != null) rs.close );
curStmt.close();
}
catch (SQLException ex) {
// Unexpected SQL exception.
ex.printStackTrace ();
}
catch (java.lang. Exception ex) {
// Got some other type of exception. Dump it.
ex.printStackTrace ();
}
}
private static void checkForWarnings (SQLWarning warn)
throws SQLException
{
while (warn != null) {
System.out.println(warn);
warn = warn.getNextWarning();
}
}
}
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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The JDBC API
This is a reference to the JDBC interfaces and classes. All these interfaces and classes are available in
the java.sql package, which has been part of the JDK since JDK 1.1: They are the “application” side API
of JDBC. The “driver” side API is not covered here because it is only useful for writers of JDBC drivers.
Note that the java.sql. DatabaseMetaData interface is not covered here.
Interface java.sql.CallableStatement
public interface CallableStatement
extends Object
extends PreparedStatement
Methods:
public abstract BigDecimal getBigDecimal(int parameterIndex,
int scale) throws SQLException
public abstract boolean getBoolean(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract byte getByte(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract byte[] getBytes(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract Date getDate(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract double getDouble(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract float getFloat(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract int getInt(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLExcept on
public abstract long getLong(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract Object getObject(int parameterIndex) throws
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SQLException
public abstract short getShort(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract String getString(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract Time getTime(int parameterIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract Timestamp getTimestamp(int parameterIndex)
throws SQLException
public abstract void registerOutParameter(int parameterIndex, int
sqlType) throws SQLException
public abstract void registerOutParameter(int parameterIndex, int
sqlType, int scale) throws SQLException
public abstract boolean wasNull() throws SQLException
Interface java.sql.Connection
public interface Connection
extends Object
Variables:
public final static int TRANSACTION NONE
public final static int TRANSACTION_READ_COMMITTED
public final static int TRANSACTION_READ_UNCOMMITTED
public final static int TRANSACTION REPEATABLE_READ
public final static int TRANSACTION_SERIALIZABLE
Methods:
public abstract void clearWarnings() throws SQLException
public abstract void close() throws SQLException
public abstract void commit() throws SQLException
public abstract Statement createStatement()throws SQLException
public abstract boolean getAutoClose() throws SQLException
public abstract boolean getAutoCommit() throws SQLException
public abstract String getCatalog() throws SQLException
public abstract DatabaseMetaData getMetaData() throws
SQLException
public abstract int getTransactionIsolation() throws
SQLException
public abstract SQLWarning getWarnings() throws SQLException
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public abstract boolean isClosed() throws SQLException
public abstract boolean isReadOnly() throws SQLException
public abstract String nativeSQL(String sql) throws
SQLException
public abstract CallableStatement prepareCall(String sql)
throws SQLException
public abstract PreparedStatement prepareStatement(String sql)
throws SQLException
public abstract void rollback() throws SQLException
public abstract void setAutoClose(boolean autoClose) throws
SQLException
public abstract void setAutoCommit(boolean autoCommit) throws
SQLException
public abstract void setCatalog(String catalog) throws
SQLException
public abstract void setReadOnly(boolean readOnly) throws
SQLException
public abstract void setTransactionIsolation(int level throws
SQLException
Interface java.sql.Driver
public interface Driver
extends Object
Methods:
public abstract boolean acceptsURL(String url) throws
SQLException
public abstract Connection connect(String url, Propert es
info) throws SQLException
public abstract int getMajorVersion()
public abstract int getMinorVersion()
public abstract DriverPropertyInfo[] getPropertyInfo(String
url, Properties info) throws SQLException
public abstract boolean jdbcCompliant()
Interface java.sql.PreparedStatement
public interface PreparedStatement
extends Object
extends Statement
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Methods:
public abstract void clearParameters() throws SQLException
public abstract boolean execute() throws SQLException
public abstract ResultSet executeQuery() throws SQLException
public abstract int executeUpdate() throws SQLException
public abstract void setAsciiStream(int parameterIndex,
InputStream x, int length) throws SQLException
public abstract void setBigDecimal(int parameterIndex,
BigDecimal x) throws SQLException
public abstract void setBinaryStream(int parameterIndex,
InputStream x, int length) throws SQLException
public abstract void setBoolean(int parameterIndex, boolean x)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setByte(int parameterIndex, byte x)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setBytes(int parameterIndex, byte x[])
throws SQLException
public abstract void setDate(int parameterIndex, Date x)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setDouble(int parameterIndex, double x)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setFloat(int parameterIndex, float x)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setInt(int parameterIndex, int x) throws
SQLException
public abstract void setLong(int parameterIndex, long x)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setNull(int parameterIndex, int sqlType)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setObject(int parameterIndex, Object x,
int targetSqlType, int scale) throws SQLException
public abstract void setObject(int parameterIndex, Object x,
int targetSqlType) throws SQLException
public abstract void setObject(int parameterIndex, Object x)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setShort(int parameterIndex, short x)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setString(int parameterIndex, String x)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setTime(int parameterIndex, Time x)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setTimestamp(int parameterIndex,
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Timestamp x) throws SQLException
public abstract void setUnicodeStream(int parameterIndex,
InputStream x, int length) throws SQLException
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Interface java.sql.ResultSet
public interface ResultSet
extends Object
Methods:
public abstract void clearWarnings() throws SQLException
public abstract void close() throws SQLException
public abstract int findColumn(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract InputStream getAsciiStream(int columnIndex)
throws SQLException
public abstract InputStream getAsciiStream(String columnName)
throws SQLException
public abstract BigDecimal getBigDecimal(int columnIndex, int
scale) throws SQLException
public abstract BigDecimal getBigDecimal(String columnName,
int scale) throws SQLException
public abstract InputStream getBinaryStream(int columnIndex)
throws SQLException
public abstract InputStream getBinaryStream(String columnName)
throws SQLException
public abstract boolean getBoolean(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract boolean getBoolean(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract byte getByte(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract byte getByte(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract byte[] getBytes(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
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public abstract byte[] getBytes(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract String getCursorName() throws SQLException
public abstract Date getDate(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract Date getDate(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract double getDouble(int columnIndex) throws
SQLExce)tion
public abstract double getDouble(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract float getFloat(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract float getFloat(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract int getInt(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract int getInt(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract long getLong(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract long getLong(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract short getShort(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract short getShort(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract String getString(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract String getString(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract Time getTime(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract Time getTime(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract Timestamp getTimestamp(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract Timestamp getTimestamp(String columnName)
throws SQLException
public abstract InputStream getUnicodeStream(int columnIndex)
throws SQLException
public abstract InputStream getUnicodeStream(String
columnName) throws SQLException
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public abstract ResultSetMetaData getMetaData() throws
SQLException
public abstract Object getObject(int columnIndex) throws
SQLException
public abstract Object getObject(String columnName) throws
SQLException
public abstract SQLWarning getWarnings() throws SQLException
public abstract boolean next() throws SQLException
public abstract boolean wasNull() throws SQLException
Interface java.sql.ResultSetMetaData
public interface ResultSetMetaData
extends Object
Variables:
public final static int columnNoNulls
public final static int columnNullable
public final static int columnNullableUnknown
Methods:
public abstract String getCatalogName(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract int getColumnCount() throws SQLException
public abstract int getColumnDisplaySize(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract String getColumnLabel(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract String getColumnName(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract int getColumnType(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract String getColumnTypeName(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract int getPrecision(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract int getScale(int column) throws SQLException
public abstract String getSchemaName(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract String getTableName(int column) throws
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SQLException
public abstract boolean isAutoIncrement(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract boolean isCaseSensitive(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract boolean isCurrency(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract boolean isDefinitelyWritable(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract int isNullable(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract boolean isReadOnly(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract boolean isSearchable(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract boolean isSigned(int column) throws
SQLException
public abstract boolean isWritable(int column) throws
SQLException
Interface java.sql.Statement
public interface Statement
extends Object
Methods:
public abstract void cancel() throws SOLException
public abstract void clearWarnings() throws SQLException
public abstract void close() throws SQLException
public abstract boolean execute(String sql) throws
SQLException
public abstract ResultSet executeQuery(String sql) throws
SQLException
public abstract int executeUpdate(String sql) throws
SQLException
public abstract ResultSet getResultSet() throws SQLException
public abstract int getUpdateCount() throws SQLException
public abstract int getMaxFieldSize() throws SQLException
public abstract int getMaxRows() throws SQLException
public abstract boolean getMoreResults() throws SQLException
public abstract int getQueryTimeout() throws SQLException
public abstract SQLWarning getWarnings() throws SQLException
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public abstract void setCursorName(String name) throws
SQLException
public abstract void setEscapeProcessing(boolean enable)
throws SQLException
public abstract void setMaxFieldSize(int max) throws
SQLException
public abstract void setMaxRows(int max) throws SQLException
public abstract void setQueryTimeout(int seconds) throws
SQLException
Class java.sql.Date
java.lang.Object
|
+----java.util.Date
|
+----java.sql.Date
public class Date
extends Date
Constructors:
public Date(int year, int month, int day)
public Date(long date)
Methods:
public String toString()
public static Date valueOf(String s)
Class java.sql.DriverManager
java.lang.Object
|
+----java.sql.DriverManager
public class DriverManager
extends Object
Methods:
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public static void deregisterDriver(Driver driver) throws
SQLException
public static synchronized Connection getConnection(String
url, Properties info) throws SQLException
public static synchronized Connection getConnection(String
url, String user, String password) throws SQLException
public static synchronized Connection getConnection(String
url) throws SQLException
public static Driver getDriver(String url) throws SQLException
public static Enumeration getDrivers()
public static int getLoginTimeout()
public static PrintStream getLogStream()
public static void println(Stringmessage)
public static synchronized void registerDriver(Driverdriver)
throws SQLException
public static void setLoginTimeout(int seconds)
public static void setLogStream(PrintStreamout)
Class java.sql.DriverPropertyInfo
java.lang. Object
|
+----java.sql.DriverPropertyInfo
public class DriverPropertyInfo
extends Object
Variables:
public String choices[] public String description
public String name public boolean required
public String value
Constructors:
public DriverPropertyInfo(String name, String value)
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Class java.sql.Time
java.lang. Object
|
+----java.util.Date
|
+----java.sql.Time
public class Time
extends Date
Constructors:
public Time(int hour, int minute, int second)
public Time(long time)
Methods:
public String toString()
public static Time valueOf(String s)
Class java.sql.Timestamp
java.lang.Object
|
+----java.util.Date
|
+----java.sql.Timestamp
public class Timestamp
extends Date
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Constructors:
public Timestamp(int year, int month, int date, int hour, int
minute, int second, int nano)
public Timestamp(long time)
Methods:
public boolean equals(Timestamp ts)
public int getNanos() public void setNanos(int n)
public String toString()
public static Timestamp valueOf(String s)
Class java.sql.Types
java.lang.Object
|
+----java.sql.Types
public class Types
extends Object
Variables:
public final static int BIGINT = -5
public final static int BINARY = -2
public final static int BIT = -7
public final static int CHAR = 1
public final static int DATE = 91
public final static int DECIMAL = 3
public final static int DOUBLE = 8
public final static int FLOAT = 6
public final static int INTEGER = 4
public final static int LONGVARCHAR = -4
public final static int LONGVARBINARY = -1
public final static int NULL = 0
public final static int NUMERIC = 2
public final static int OTHER
public final static int REAL = 7
public final static int SMALLINT = 5
public final static int TIME : 92
public final static int TIMESTAMP = 93
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public final static int TINYINT = -6
public final static int VARBINARY = -3
public final static int VARCHAR = 12
Class java.sql.DataTruncation
java.lang. Object
|
+----java.lang.Throwable
|
+----java.lang. Exception
|
+----java.sql.SQLException
|
+----java.sql.SQLWarning
|
+----java.sql.DataTruncation
public class DataTruncation
extends SQLWarning
Constructors:
public DataTruncation(int index, boolean parameter, boolean
read,
int dataSize, int transferSize)
Methods:
public int getDataSize()
public int getIndex()
public boolean getParameter()
public boolean getRead() public int getTransferSize()
Class java.sql.SQLException
java.lang.Object
|
+----java.lang. Throwable
|
+----java.lang. Exception
|
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+----java.sql.SQLException
public class SQLException
extends Exception
Constructors:
public SQLException(String reason, String SQLState, int
vendorCode)
public SQLException(String reason, String SQLState)
public SQLException(String reason) public SQLException()
Methods:
public int getErrorCode()
public SQLException getNextException()
public String getSQLState()
public synchronized void setNextException(SQLException ex)
Class java.sql.SQLWarning
java.lang.Object
|
+----java.lang.Throwable
|
+----java.lang. Exception
|
+----java.sql.SQLException
|
+----java.sql.SQLWarning
public class SQLWarning
extends SQLException
Constructors:
public SOkWarning(String reason, String SOkstate, int
vendorCode)
public SQLWarning(String reason, String SQLstate)
public SQLWarning(String reason)
public SQLWarning()
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Methods:
public SOLWarning getNextWarning()
public void setNextWarning(SQLWarning w)
Advanced Techniques
JDBC also has some nice features that allow developers to program enterprise-class applets and
applications. This section focuses on prepared statements, stored procedures, database transactions, and
three-tier software design.
Database prepared statements
A prepared statement is a SQL statement sent to the database prior to its execution. Unlike stored
procedures, prepared statements do not remain in the database after the resources associated with them
are freed. They may be called a number of times with different parameter values. Figures 28-15 and 28-
16 illustrate some differences between the execution of simple SQL statements and the execution of
prepared statements.
In the first case, the SQL text is sent to the database along with specific values and literals. Figure 28-15
illustrates an INSERT.
Figure 28-15: Sending a static statement
When executing a prepared statement, the SQL statement is already at the database side. It has been sent
there using a specific mechanism. Only parameter values are passed; the call may be issued many times
with different parameter values. Depending on the DBMS, the SQL statement may or may not have been
optimized and precompiled at the database side, shown in Figure 28-16.
Figure 28-16: Sending parameters to a prepared statement
To summarize this procedure, you must follow these steps to use prepared statements with JDBC:
1. Prepare the SQL statement.
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2. Set IN parameters.
3. Execute the statement.
4. Get the results, if any.
5. If necessary, set new IN parameter values and re-execute this statement:
PreparedStatement prepareStatement(String sql);
This method is used to get a PreparedStatement object that will later be executed. Parameters are
symbolized by ? characters.
Passing IN parameters
When you use callable statements, IN parameters must be set individually. The following methods are
available for this purpose:
void setNull(int parameterIndex, int sqlType);
void setBoolean(int parameterIndex, boolean x);
void setByte(int parameterIndex, byte x);
void setShort(int parameterIndex, short x);
void setInt(int parameterIndex, int x);
void setLong(int parameterIndex, long x);
void setFloat(int parameterIndex, float x);
void setDouble(int parameterIndex, double x);
void setBigDecimal(int parameterIndex, java.math. BigDecimal x);
void setString(int parameterIndex, String x);
void setBytes(int parameterIndex, byte x[]);
void setDate(int parameterIndex, java.sql.Date x);
void setTime(int parameterIndex, java,sql.Time x);
void setTimestamp(int parameterIndex, java.sql.Timestamp x);
void setAsciiStream(int parameterIndex, java, 10. InputStream x,
int length);
void setUnicodeStream(int parameterIndex, java.10. InputStream x,
int length);
void setBinaryStream(int parameterIndex, java.10. InputStream x,
int length);
void setObject(int parameterIndex, Object x);
void setObject(int parameterIndex, Object x, int targetSqlType);
void setObject(int parameterIndex, Object x, int targetSqlType.
int scale);
void clearParameters();
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The setObject() and clear Parameters() methods have the same meaning as they do for callable
statements.
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Executing the query and retrieving results
Once all IN parameters have been set, you execute a prepared statement as you do a normal one. A
prepared statement may return a count value as well as a resultset. The following code shows all these
steps put together:
Connection connection = DriverManager.getConnection(url,
“javauser”, “hotjava”);
PreparedStatement stmt = connection.prepareStatement
( “UPDATE employees SET salary : ? WHERE name : ?”);
stmt.setInt(1, 100000);
stmt.setString(2, “Jones”);
int res = stmt.executeUpdate();
stmt.close();
connection.close ();
...
Stored procedures
Basically, a stored procedure is a SQL statement sent once to the database. The DBMS will pre-compile
it and store it in the database. Stored procedures are often used to store and perform some processing on
the data that would be irrelevant if done within the clients. Database vendors claim it is the place to put
the core business logic (as far as relational data is concerned). Figure 28-17 illustrates this statement.
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Figure 28-17: Invoking a stored procedure
Statements that invoke stored procedures should use the JDBC CallableStatement class. You must call a
dedicated method to prepare the callable statement. You then use the usual methods to execute the
statement:
CallableStatement prepareCall(String sql);
where the argument is of the form:
“{? =call stored_procedure_name ?, ?. ....}”
This is the method used to prepare a callable statement. It returns a CallableStatement object. You will
discover the reason we need something more elaborate than a simple Statement object soon.
Stored procedures may, of course, return multiple result types, because they may he composed of SQL
statements that return diverse result types. You use the usual methods to retrieve these results. If results
such as resultsets are returned by a procedure, they must be retrieved first before accessing other kinds
of return values from the procedure. Indeed, stored procedures may also have parameters.
Stored procedures may be called with parameters. They provide maximum flexibility by allowing values
to be passed from and to the user’s application. Such parameters are of two types: IN and/or OUT. IN
parameters are used to pass data to the stored procedure and OUT parameters are values returned by the
procedure code. Special JDBC methods let you set and access these parameters. Once the statement has
been executed, you can explore all its OUT parameters one by one, in left-to-right order. If your stored
procedure returns a resultset, you would simply add a loop to fetch the resultset before accessing the
OUT parameters.
Setting IN parameters
IN parameters receive a value from the user’s application. They are set via setXXX() methods that take
two arguments: the parameter index, beginning at 1, and the value to set. The following methods are
used to set values corresponding to their parameter’s specific type:
void setNull(int parameterIndex, int sqlType);
void setBoolean(int parameterIndex, boolean x);
void setByte(int parameterIndex, byte x);
void setShort(int parameterIndex, short x);
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void setInt(int parameterIndex, int x);
void setLong(int parameterIndex, long x);
void setFloat(int parameterIndex, float x);
void setDouble(int parameterIndex, double x);
void set BigDecimal(int parameterIndex, java.math.BigDecimal x);
void setString(int parameterIndex, String x);
void setBytes(int parameterIndex, byte x[]);
void setDate(int parameterIndex, java.sql.Date x);
void setTime(int parameterIndex, java.sql.Time x);
void setTimestamp(int parameterIndex, java.sql.Timestamp x);
void setAsciiStream(int parameterIndex, java.io.InputStream x,
int length);
void setUnicodeStream(int parameterIndex, java.io.InputStream x,
int length);
void setBinaryStream(int parameterIndex, java,io.InputStream x,
int length);
void setObject(int parameterIndex, Object x);
void setObject(int parameterIndex, Object x, int targetSqlType);
void setObject(int parameterIndex, Object x, int targetSqlType,
int scale);
void clearParameters();
The setObject(...) methods belong to advanced JDBC features. They allow given Java objects to be stored
in the database. However, they are converted to the database target SQL data type before they are
actually sent to the database. Note that it is possible to pass database-specific abstract data types by
using a driver-specific Java type and using a targetSqlType of java.sql.types.OTHER with the setObject(int
parameterIndex, Object x, int targetSqlType) and the setObject(int parameterIndex, Object x, int targetSqlType, int
scale) methods.
Setting OUT parameters
OUT parameters must be registered prior to executing the callable statement. This is the way to specify
their type. You can use the following methods to register these OUT parameters:
void registerOutParameter(int parameterIndex, int sqlType);
The first argument is the parameter index, beginning at 1. The type argument must be defined in java.sql.
Types.
void registerOutParameter(int parameterIndex, int sqlType, int
scale);
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This method is used to register OUT parameters of type SQL Numeric or Decima1. The scale argument
represents the desired number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
Accessing parameters
You must access parameters in left-to-right order with the appropriate method that matches their type.
The following methods are provided for this purpose:
boolean wasNull ();
String getString(int parameterIndex);
boolean getBoolean(int parameterIndex);
byte getByte(int parameterIndex);
short getShort(int parameterIndex);
int getInt(int parameterIndex);
long getLong(int parameterIndex);
float getFloat(int parameterIndex);
double getDouble(int parameterIndex);
java.math.BigDecimal getBigDecimal(int parameterIndex, int
scale);
byte[] getBytes(int parameterIndex):
java.sql.Date getDate(int parameterIndex);
java.sql.Time getTime(int parameterIndex);
java.sql.Timestamp getTimestamp(int parameterIndex);
Object getObject(int parameterIndex);
If an OUT parameter has a null value, was Null() returns true. Note that you must call the corresponding
getXXX() method before calling wasNull().
The following code snippet illustrates how to prepare a callable statement, set IN parameters, register
OUT parameters, execute the statement, and access the OUT parameters:
...
Connection connection = DriverManager.getConnection(url,
“javauser”, “hot java”);
CallableStatement stmt = connection.prepareCall(
“(call my_stored_procedure ?, ?}”);
stmt.setString(1, “Hot java ”);
stmt.registerOutParameter(2, java.sql.types.VARCHAR);
int res = myStmt.executeUpdate();
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String outParam = stmt.getString(2);
stmt.close();
connection.close();
Database transactions
JDBC supports database transaction management. Transactions provide a way to group SQL statements
so that they are treated as a whole: Either all statements in the group are executed or no statements are
executed. All statements within a transaction are treated as a work unit. Transactions are thus useful to
guarantee, among other things, data consistency.
Completing a transaction is referred to as committing the transaction, while aborting it is referred to as
rolling back the transaction. A rollback undoes the whole transaction. Therefore, a transaction’s
boundaries are the beginning of its block and the commit or rollback. Once a commit has been issued,
the transaction cannot be rolled back. Note that some DBMSs support nested transactions as well as
intermediate markers within a transaction to indicate the point to which the transaction can be rolled
back.
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Transaction modes
Two transaction modes are usually supported by commercial DBMSs: unchained mode and ANSI-
compatible chained mode. You should check your documentation to find out which one is the default.
• The unchained mode requires explicit statements to identify the beginning of a transaction
block and its end, which will always be a commit or rollback statement. The transaction block
may be composed of any SQL statements.
• The chained mode does not require explicit statements to delimit the transaction statements,
because it implicitly begins a transaction before any SQL statement that retrieves or modifies
data. The transaction must still be explicitly ended with a transaction commit or rollback.
Be aware that stored procedures that use the unchained transaction mode may be incompatible with
other chained-mode transactions.
Transaction isolation levels
The ANSI defines three standard levels of transaction isolation. Transaction isolation makes sense when
concurrent transactions execute simultaneously. The ANSI specification defines restrictions on the kind
of actions permitted in this context of concurrent transactions to prevent dirty reads, non-repeatable
reads, and phantoms.
• Level 1: No dirty reads. Dirty reads occur when a transaction updates a row, and then a
second transaction reads that row before the first transaction commits. If the first transaction then
roils back the change, the information read by the second transaction becomes invalid.
• Level 2: No non-repeatable reads. Non-repeatable reads occur when a transaction reads a
row, and then another transaction updates the same row. If the second transaction commits,
subsequent reads by the first transaction get different values than the original read.
• Level 3: No phantoms. Phantoms occur when a transaction reads a set of rows that satisfy a
search condition, and then another transaction updates, inserts, or deletes one or more rows that
satisfy the first transaction’s search condition. In this situation, if the first transaction performs
subsequent reads with the same search condition, it obtains a different set of rows.
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Note that the higher levels include restrictions imposed by all the lower levels. In practice, you achieve
compatibility with all the transaction isolation levels by using locking techniques. You should check
your database documentation for information on these techniques, and see how they can affect
performances in a multiuser environment. As a general rule, remember that the higher the transaction
isolation level, the longer locks are held.
Managing transactions with JDBC
JDBC always opens connections in auto-commit mode. This means that each statement is executed as a
separate transaction without the need for supplying commit or rollback commands. In this default mode,
it is not possible to perform rollbacks.
JDBC provides methods to turn off auto-commit mode, to set the transaction isolation level, and to
commit or roll back transactions. JDBC transactions begin as soon as the auto-commit mode is disabled.
In this case, an implicit transaction is associated with the connection, and it is completed or aborted with
commit and rollback methods. The commit or rollback will then start a new implicit transaction. Note
that the commit and rollback makes JDBC close all PreparedStatements, CallableStatements, and ResultSets
opened during the transaction. Simple Statement objects stay open. This is the default behavior, and it
may be disabled.
These are the JDBC methods to manage transactions:
void setTransactionIsolation(int isolationlevel);
int getTransactionIsolation();
void setAutoCommit(boolean autocommit);
boolean getAutoCommit();
void commit();
void rollback();
void setAutoClose(boolean autoClose);
boolean getAutoClose();
Table 28-1 lists the possible JDBC transaction isolation levels for setTransaction Isolation().
Table 28-1
JDBC Transaction Isolation Levels for
setTransactionIsolation()
Transaction Isolation Level Description
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TRANSACTION_READ_UNCOMMITTED Dirty reads are done.
TRANSACTION READ COMMITTED Only reads on the current row are repeatable.
TRANSACTION REPEATABLE READ Reads on all rows of a result are repeatable.
TRAN SACTIONSERIALIZABLE Reads on all rows of a transaction are repeatable.
TRAN SACTIONNONE Transactions are not supported.
Note that this method cannot be called while in the middle of a transaction:
int setTransactionIsolation();
It returns the current transaction isolation levels. Note that a value of zero means that transactions are
not supported. Compare
void setAutoCommit(boolean autocommit);
where setAutoCommit(false) will implicitly begin a new transaction. You have to use either commit() or
rollback() to terminate the transaction. Again, compare
boolean getAutoCommit();
which returns the current auto-commit state. False means that user transactions are in use. Next, consider
void commit();
This method completes the transaction. Ail changes made since the previous transaction termination
(committed or rolled back) are made permanent. All transaction locks are released. By contrast, in
void rollback();
all changes made since the previous transaction termination (committed or rolled back) are dropped.
This method “undoes” the current transaction statements. All transaction locks are released. Finally,
consider
void setAutoClose(boolean autoClose);
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When the connection is in auto-close mode, all its PreparedStatements, CallableStatements and ResultSets are
closed when the transaction is committed or rolled back. This is the default behavior, but you can disable
it by passing false as the parameter. Note that some databases allow these objects to remain open across
commits, whereas other databases close them. One more method,
boolean getAutoClose();
returns the current auto-close state for this connection.
Three-tiered design
Although the two-tiered architecture is widespread today, another design is becoming more common. To
avoid embedding the application’s logic at both the database side and the client side, a third software tier
may he inserted, as shown in Figure 28-18.
Figure 28.18. The three-tiered architecture
In three-tired architectures, most of the business logic is located in the middle tier. One of the reasons
for doing this is simple: It is easier to implement light changes in the logic whenever the business
activity or business rules change because only the middle tier must be adapted.
A complete study of three-tiered architectures involving a database management system is beyond the
scope of this chapter. However, we can mention the primary directions in which this architecture is
headed:
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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The middle tier will show a number of functionalities to the clients using a well-defined API. These
functionalities may be defined after the business services that the client has to access to perform its role.
Methods such as getAverageSalary(), GetListOfEmployees(), setNewEmployee(), and getEmployeesByDepartment()
are examples of such business-oriented services. These methods will return business objects--Java
objects defining an Employee, a SetOfEmployees, a Department, a Company, a Product, a ProductCatalog, a
PriceList, and so on. Clients will then simply invoke these methods to send or retrieve these business
objects, or to perform some processing irrelevant to them, but encapsulated in a business service.
Speaking of processing which is irrelevant to clients, consider the following business service:
ProductCatalog.sendToCustomerByEmail(). It can easily be written once, and then reused everywhere!
The middleware of choice for such an architecture is a simple, lightweight remote method invocation
protocol such as RMI or CORBA on top of IIOP. These protocols are extremely simple to use from
Java, but that’s a whole other story!
The Future of Java Database Connectivity-Java Blend
Java Blend provides mappings between Java classes and relational tables. Developers can choose a
mapping optimized for the expected kinds of queries, which better represent the underlying design of the
database. Java Blend includes a mapping tool, which performs the mapping, uses schema information
such as foreign keys to determine a default mapping that can be enhanced by the user. Java Blend
includes the following abilities:
• Handle one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many relationships. Foreign keys in the
database are mapped to references in Java.
• Automatically infer inheritance relationships among tables, or create them for Java subclasses.
• Map one class to multiple tables, or multiple classes to one table, through various partitioning
algorithms.
• Easy to port between DBMS products. Because the Java Blend programmer’s interface is
specifically designed to conform to the ODMG standard for Object/Relational mappings and
object databases, it is easy to port to various DBMS products. (See www.odmg.org for more
information on ODMG standards.)
• Use any DBMS for which JDBC- or ODBC-compliant drivers have been defined. Java Blend
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Java Bible:JDBC: Java API for Database Connectivity
implements ODMG on top of JDBC, bridging these higher-level and lowerlevel standards.
For more information on Java Blend, refer to the Sun’s Java Web site at http://sun.java.com
Summary
This chapter covered the Java Database Connectivity API, part of the Core Java API. We have
introduced JDBC and explained how to connect to databases and perform queries and updates. Important
points to remember when you use the JDBC include these:
• The Java Database Connectivity API is the universal way to connect to a database from Java,
and is a key enabler for real client-server capabilities using Java.
• We learned how to connect to relational databases using specific JDBC drivers and JDBC
Uniform Resource Locators to locate these databases.
• Database queries and updates require diverse approaches to the retrieval of resultsets, using
column indexes and column names.
• The JDBC API reference section listed the API briefly.
• Advanced techniques such as prepared statements, stored procedures, and database transaction
management can help you build more robust database client applications.
• The three-tiered design can easily be implemented by using JDBC behind your servers.
For further information about JDBC, IDG Books Worldwide also publishes JDBC, Java
Database Connectivity, Bernard Van Haecke, ISBN 0-7645-3144-1. It contains by a
comprehensive tutorial, numerous examples, as well as a complete reference for the JDBC
API.
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Java Bible:Multimedia
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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CHAPTER 29
Multimedia
In This Chapter
Getting started with Java animation
Creating a multimedia splash screen for your Java applications
Creating flicker-free animation using double-buffering
Enhancing your Java multimedia application through graphic sprites
Adding sound to your multimedia applications
One of the most exciting features of Java is its capability to help developers create sophisticated
multimedia software products with relatively little effort. With built-in support for graphics, sound, and
networking, Java opens the door for a new wave of multimedia technology.
Thanks to increased horsepower on the desktop, multimedia is used more today than ever before.
Although users now take for granted the ways multimedia improves and enriches the computing
experience, such as browsing the World Wide Web, it’s also the cornerstone of emerging, futuristic
technologies that are rapidly making their way into mainstream computing. Data visualization, complex
simulations, realistic interactive games, and virtual reality are but a few of the areas in which multimedia
is making an impact.
Today, doctors can practice “cybersurgery” without actually donning scrubs, pilots can hone their skills
in difficult military situations without having to strap into a fighter jet, and scientists can watch a deadly
virus ravage a host’s immune system from the comfort of a reclining chair. Although these high-end
systems are out of reach for the average user at the moment, the multimedia technology they employ is
rocketing out of the research labs and into our homes even as you read this. Tomorrow you’ll be able to
take the controls and participate in these amazing experiences yourself.
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Perhaps most important today, however, is multimedia for the masses. By combining text, sound, and
graphics in creative ways, multimedia makes computers easier to use, more intuitive, and more
accessible to the average user. Toss in a dash of interactivity, enabling users to actually participate in the
experience, and multimedia delivers on its promise of revolutionizing personal computing as you know
it. For proof, look no further than today’s Java-savvy Web browser.
Much of the initial hype surrounding Java was due to its builtin multimedia capabilities, although only
recently has any work been done with advanced multimedia features. Before Java, creating a networked,
multimedia software project for multiple platforms was nothing short of horrifying.
Thanks to Java, this kind of nightmarish experience is quickly becoming a thing of the past. In this
chapter you explore the basics of Java multimedia, starting with simple techniques for animating images
and playing sound clips. Then you move into more complex territory as I discuss advanced multimedia
topics such as double-buffered animations, sprites, parallax scrolling, and other cool topics. Hold on to
your keyboard!
3...2...1...Action!
Computer animation is similar to more traditional forms of animation—flipbooks, television, and
movies. These forms all play a series of still images, each slightly different from one another, in quick
succession. Our eyes fill in the “blanks” between still frames, tricking us into seeing motion where there
is none. With this in mind, animation in Java is simple: Just load up a bunch of images, and draw each in
quick succession. It’s simple, at least in theory.
Practically, however, there are other issues you need to concern yourself with when moving from static
display to animation. Most significantly, you need to keep track of the various images used in the
animation, keeping in mind that these images will most likely reside on the network and require
downloading prior to use. As you learned in Chapter 17, an array can be used to store the images used in
an animation, but that approach isn’t very flexible. For starters, you must know in advance how many
images the animation contains in order to create the array in the first place. And, to make matters worse,
you have to create a unique array for each animation, meaning your program will be overrun with array-
management code if more than a few animations are required. Finally, there’s no good, clean way to
deal with incremental downloading of images as they come across the wire (or are loaded from the hard
drive)—perhaps the biggest drawback to using arrays. What you need is a solid solution for dealing with
multiple animation sequences. Thankfully, Java delivers one: MediaTracker.
You start with loading and displaying images and eventually move to animation. You also learn about
audio in Java. Along the way I illustrate points by developing an intro-screen application, a complete
animated sprite library, and a sound-event model, ali suitable for high-octane multimedia applications.
MediaTracker (java.awt. MediaTracker)
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Before you delve deep into graphics and sound, it’s important to tackle the issue of managing these
elements in Java using the MediaTracker class. Because your images and sounds are often located
somewhere on the network, and not on the machine on which the Java program is actually running, you
don’t have any guarantee that these elements will be immediately available when you need them.
Instead, it often takes time for images and sounds to be downloaded over the network, although your
program is raring to go.
You’ve probably already noticed this when dealing with images in your applets. Because an image
coming over the wire downloads a little at a time, it appears onscreen incrementally as more and more of
it becomes available for drawing. This is because the image is still being downloaded when the applet
tries to draw it; the applet draws what it can and waits for more to arrive. This situation may be fine
when drawing individual images to the screen, but what about animations? In an animation, it’s critical
that all images in the sequence are completely loaded in order to create the illusion of motion. What
good does flipping through a bunch of partially loaded images do, aside from convincing the user that
something bizarre is going on with his or her display?
Understanding this, the good folks who gave us Java also gave us MediaTracker, a class specifically
designed to manage images. Although it doesn’t support sound, MediaTracker is indispensable when it
comes to multimedia animations. With MediaTracker, you can load images over the network and assign
each image an ID number to group them logically for later retrieval, enabling you to manage multiple
animations with a single MediaTracker object. Even more importantly, MediaTracker enables you to quickly
and easily ensure that all images for a particular group are completely loaded before using them.
Using MediaTracker is easy—it works just the way you might want it to. First, instantiate a new
MediaTracker object, add to it the images you want to “track,” and then ask it to wait until all those
images are loaded. MediaTracker is so easy to use, there’s no reason not to when it comes to animations.
In fact, it’s even worth considering when you’re only using a single image. As a testimony to its
simplicity, here is an applet that loads a single image but doesn’t display it until MediaTracker has
determined that it’s completely finished loading:
import java.awt.*;
public class MediaTrackTest extends java.applet.Applet {
private MediaTracker tracker;
private Image picture;
public void init() {
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Image now loading...”);
tracker = new MediaTracker(this);
picture = getImage(“anyimage.gif”);
tracker.addImage(picture, 1);
}
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public void paint(Graphics g) {
try {
tracker.waitForID(1, 5000);
} catch (InterruptedException e) {
// Set status bar to error message...
getAppletContext().showStatus(e.toString());
}
if(tracker.isErrorID(1)) {
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Error loading image.”);
} else {
g.drawImage(picture, 0, 0, this);
}
}
}
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Java Bible:Multimedia
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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This applet’s init() method contains the code that creates the MediaTracker object and adds to it an image
(loaded using the getImage() method you’ve been using all along). In this example, an ID of one (1) is
assigned to the image. Because only one image is being dealt with in this example, the ID code isn’t
really crucial, as you’ll see in a moment. But if multiple images were loaded, they could be logically
grouped together by ID for later retrieval. In this way, you can use a single MediaTracker object to keep
track of any number of unique animations.
When it’s time to draw your image onscreen, as in the paint() method, the MediaTracker object is sent the
waitForID message. In this example, you tell your MediaTracker object to give all images with the ID of
one (1) up to 5000 milliseconds to load. Because this method can potentially be interrupted by another
thread, you should call it from within a try-catch clause:
try {
tracker.waitForID(1, 5000);
} catch (InterruptedException e) {
// Set status bar to error message...
getAppletContext().showStatus(e.toString());
}
This try-catch clause catches only a potential exception that is thrown when a thread interrupts the
process of waiting for the image to load. It doesn’t help you find out if the image was successfully
loaded. To do that, you could have either checked the boolean value returned by this waitForID() method
or explicitly asked the MediaTracker if any errors were encountered for images of this ID:
if(tracker.isErrorID(1)) {
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Error loading image.”);
} else {
g.drawImage(picture, 0, 0, this);
}
If an error has occurred, the user is alerted with a message on the browser’s status bar. If not, you can
safely assume the image has been completely loaded and so draw it on the screen.
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Of course, this is just a simplistic example of using MediaTracker. Later in this chapter you really put this
class to work. In the meantime, it’s worth knowing that MediaTracker provides a few variations on the
methods it supports. For example, you could have told MediaTracker to wait as long as necessary for the
image to load, instead of the 5000 milliseconds specified in this example. However, because this version
of the waitForID() method doesn’t return a boolean value indicating the success or failure of the operation,
you have no choice but to explicitly test for errors using any one of the various methods provided, as
outlined in Listing 29-1. Listing 29-2 demonstrates how to catch MediaTracker error events.
Listing 29-1: The Error-Handling Methods Provided by the MediaTracker Object
public class java.awt.MediaTracker extends java.lang.Object
// Fields
public final static int ABORTED;
public final static int COMPLETE;
public final static int ERRORED;
public final static int LOADING;
// Constructors
public MediaTracker(Component comp);
// Methods
public void addImage(Image image, int id);
public void addImage(Image image, int id, int w, int h);
public boolean checkAll();
public boolean checkAll(boolean load);
public boolean checkID(int id);
public boolean checkID(int id, boolean load);
public Object[] getErrorsAny();
public Object[] getErrorsID(int id);
public boolean isErrorAny();
public boolean isErrorID(int id);
public int statusAll(boolean load);
public int statusID(int id, boolean load);
public void waitForAll();
public boolean waitForAll(long ms);
public void waitForID(int id);
public boolean waitForID(int id, long ms);
Listing 29-2: How to Catch MediaTracker Errors
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try {
tracker.waitForID(1);
} catch (InterruptedException e) {
...
}
if(tracker.isErrorAny()) { // test for errors with ANY images!
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Error loading image.”);
} else {
g.drawImage(picture, 0, 0, this);
}
When it comes to waiting for images to load, you could have told MediaTracker to wait for all of them
instead of just the ones with a specific ID (this would make sense, because the preceding code snippet
indicates that you can check for errors occurring with any images loaded, not just those of a specific ID).
Just like using ID codes, you can wait either indefinitely or for a specific amount of time (specified in
milliseconds):
public void waitForAll();
public boolean waitForAll(long ms);
Of course, the real power of MediaTracker lies in its capability to keep track of multiple groups of images.
We might, for example, load a bunch of images for one animation and assign each the ID zero (0), and
then add an entirely new group of images for a completely different animation, and give them a different
ID, such as one (1). Then, we could wait for all regardless of ID using one of the waitForA11() methods,
or explicitly specify both in our try-catch clause:
try {
tracker.waitForID(0);
tracker.waitForID(1);
} catch (InterruptedException e) {
...
}
Although the MediaTracker class is a great way to manage your images, it does have shortcomings. Most
significantly, it doesn’t support sound. If it was only meant for images, you would think a name like
ImageTracker would have been more appropriate, no? Although you can always override MediaTracker
yourself and add support for sound that way, it sure would be nice if it lived up to its name by
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supporting other media types. Nevertheless, for the rest of this chapter you’ll use MediaTracker in all your
code to ensure smooth, professional-looking animation—it’s just too useful to ignore!
Adding that professional splash
Although simple code examples are a nice way to learn about MediaTracker, it’s time to put your
newfound knowledge to good use and develop something worthwhile. How about a nifty splash screen
that you can use with all your Java programs? By splash screen I mean the catchy product or company
logo that most traditional applications display during the first few moments of execution (like the yellow
cup o’ Joe displayed when Symantec’s Café development environment loads). Although such splash
screens may seem merely decorative, they’re usually displayed to give the user something snazzy to
look at while the program prepares itself for use.
Write one of these splash screens for Java, not only to look cool but also to “hide” the process of image
loading from the end user. If you need to load images anyway, why not do it while the splash screen is
displayed instead of tossing up a boring message such as “Images loading, please wait...”?
In this example you create a class called, not surprisingly, SplashScreen. SplashScreen takes two
parameters: one telling the class what image to display to the user, the other a vector (growable array) of
images that must be loaded before the splash screen terminates. SplashScreen uses MediaTracker to wait for
the display image to load and then draws it centered on the screen. SplashScreen waits for all the images
referenced in the vector to load. (The display image remains onscreen to give the user something to look
at as the vector’s images load.) When each of the vector’s images has been loaded, SplashScreen knows
it’s time to go away—it terminates and cleans up after itself. When all is said and done, the host
application is able to use the images it requires without worrying about poky image loading.
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Java Bible:Multimedia
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
You already know how to deal with image loading using MediaTracker, but how do you display the splash
image on the screen for the user to see without painting directly on the applet’s (or application’s)
drawing surface? You just want a drawing surface separate from the program itself, so SplashScreen can
do what it needs without any knowledge of the code that calls it.
There’s a way to do just that. As you may recall from Chapter 20, Java’s AWT provides exactly the
functionality you need in its Window class. We simply extend the Window class and override its paint()
method to get our hands on a drawing surface that is completely independent of any program that will
use SplashScreen.
When you have a drawing surface on which to display your splash image, the rest is just as easy—the
SplashScreen() constructor and the loadAndShow() method do most of the work. Start by taking a look at the
constructor. Because you want to make Sp1ashScreen as simple and painless to use as possible, the
constructor is also simple: It takes a String parameter, specifying the SplashScreen image itself, and a
vector of images to load. (Because SplashScreen will typically be called from a full-featured program, the
caller should already have references to the images it uses, meaning the image vector should be
relatively simple for the caller to create.)
SplashScreen uses two MediaTracker objects, one to track the SplashScreen image itself, and the other to track
the images to be used by the host application. The constructor mainly prepares you for image tracking.
Listing 29-3 shows the code, along with another constructor for convenience that takes a vector of image
filenames:
Listing 29-3: Tracking the SplashScreen Images
public class SplashScreen extends Window {
private MediaTracker LogoTracker, ImagesTracker;
private Image intro;
public SplashScreen(String i, MediaTracker m, Frame parent) {
super(parent);
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ImagesTracker = m;
intro = getToolkit().getImage(i);
LogoTracker = new MediaTracker(this);
LogoTracker.addImage(intro, 1);
}
public SplashScreen(String i, Vector v, Frame parent) {
super(parent);
intro = getToolkit().getImage(i);
ImagesTracker = new MediaTracker(this);
for(int j=O;j<v.size();j++) {
ImagesTracker.addImage(getToolkit().getImage((String)
(v.elementAt(j))), 0);
}
LogoTracker = new MediaTracker(this);
LogoTracker.addImage(intro, 1);
}
}
Now you’re ready to roll (or, more accurately, wait!). The loadAndShow() method sets everything off. It
waits for the SplashScreen logo to load, centers the splash screen window and resizes it to fit the logo
image exactly, and then displays it. The logo is displayed only long enough to load all the host images
passed in by the constructor, and then it hides and disposes itself. As usual, you need to catch exceptions
thrown by MediaTracker. Listing 29-4 shows the code:
Listing 29-4: Completing SplashScreen with LoadAndShow
import java.awt.*;
import java.util.Vector;
public class SplashScreen extends Window {
private MediaTracker LogoTracker, ImagesTracker;
private Image intro;
public SplashScreen(String i, MediaTracker m, Frame parent) {
super(parent);
ImagesTracker : m;
intro = getToolkit().getImage(i);
LogoTracker = new MediaTracker(this);
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LogoTracker.addImage(intro, 1);
}
public SplashScreen(String i, Vector v, Frame parent) {
super(parent);
intro = getToolkit().getImage(i);
ImagesTracker = new MediaTracker(this);
for(int j=O;j<v.size();j++) {
ImagesTracker.addImage(getToolkit().getImage((String)
(v.elementAt(j))), 0);
}
LogoTracker = new MediaTracker(this);
LogoTracker.addImage(intro, 1);
}
public void loadAndShow() {
try {
LogoTracker.waitForAll(8000);
} catch(InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println(“Error loading intro: ”+e.toString());
}
// Our image is loaded, display our splash screen this.show();
// Now center the window
Dimension screenSize = getToolkit().getScreenSize();
this.move((screenSize.width - intro.getWidth(this))/2,
(screenSize.height - intro.getHeight(this))/2);
this.resize(intro.getWidth(this), intro.getHeight(this));
this.getGraphics().drawImage(intro, 0, 0, this);
try {
ImagesTracker.waitForAll(8000);
} catch (InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println(“Error loading images: ”+e.toString());
};
// Hide and clean up our splash screen
hide();
dispose();
}
// Let’s override this just in case the window
// needs to be redrawn public void paint(Graphics g) {
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this.resize(intro.getWidth(this), intro.getHeight(this));
g.drawImage(intro, 0, 0, this);
}
}
If you’ve read most of this book so far, the majority of code shown here will seem self-explanatory, with
the possible exception of the centering code. This bit of code gets the current screen width and height in
pixels, subtracts the dimensions of the logo image (which is available immediately because you have
waited for it to load), and divides what’s left in half. This gives you the upper-left corner in which to
draw your centered logo. Now you can add a professional touch to your Java applications with a few
extra lines of code.
Flicker-free animation: double-buffering
Before you get going with a killer animation example, there is one more administrative detail to worry
about when painting images to the screen in quick succession: screen flicker. When your rendering code
draws repeatedly to a visible graphics context, synchronization problems lead to visual degradation. In
graphics and game programming, this problem is typically avoided by drawing to a hidden offscreen
buffer in memory. Then, when all rendering for the current frame is completed and in the buffer, the
whole buffer is copied to the onscreen visible display area. This end-of-frame-copying process is known
in graphics circles as blitting, and the entire process that takes place in offscreen memory is known as
double-buffering.
The word frame refers to the individual sequences of an animation, which, when drawn
rapidly in sequence, produce the illusion of motion. By rendering each frame offscreen, in
memory, the entire frame is guaranteed to be complete before it is painted on the physical
screen where the user can see it. Although not a tremendous issue when dealing with small
images, as you’ve been doing so far, animations with more complex frames (such as sprites,
discussed later in this chapter) or larger, full-screen images, generate more flicker if you don’t
use doublebuffering to transfer them from offscreen memory to the screen.
Double-buffering in Java isn’t altogether different from any other language. In Java, the technique is
achieved by using the createImage() method (java.awt. createImage) to create a fresh, new image from which
an offscreen graphics content will be created (the “buffer”). Instead of drawing directly to the screen, the
images in your animations (each image is a “frame”) are instead drawn into the buffer. When the frame
in the buffer is ready, meaning the entire current image has been drawn into the buffer, the whole kit and
caboodle is transferred directly onto the screen—the frame is blitted from offscreen memory into display-
screen memory using the drawImage() method.
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Although it’s probably confusing the first time around, double-buffering in Java is actually simple
compared to other languages. With Java, you don’t have to deal directly with memory allocation and
memory copying. Instead, you can simply use the methods provided in Java’s AWT to get the same
results with a fraction of the hassle. The whole process is pretty simple and follows the chain of events
described earlier. Check it out in Listing 29-5:
Listing 29-5: Double-Buffering
Image buffer;
Graphics offscreen;
Dimension d = this.size();
screenWidth = d.width;
screenHeight = d.height;
// Create offscreen buffer the size of our applet window
buffer = createImage(d.width, d.height);
offscreen = buffer.getGraphics();
// Render graphics using offscreen here
offscreen.fillRect...
offscreen.drawImage...
// Now copy everything from offscreen buffer to
// onscreen display area
getGraphics().drawImage(buffer, 0, 0, this);
As with MediaTracker, you will incorporate double-buffering from now on to keep your output looking
sharp and professional. Although you’ve explored the essentials of Java’s multimedia capabilities so far,
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it’s just the beginning. But fret not—the groundwork has been laid for producing extremely slick and
professional Java animations, the kind you’d expect with world-class multimedia products. The basics
are already behind you: loading, managing, and drawing flicker-free animations. Now you just have to
put what you’ve learned to good use.
Putting It All Together: A Sprite Engine
You will now use all of your hard-earned knowledge to build something useful: a sprite engine. A sprite
is the term used in graphics programming to describe an image displayed in an animation, like the
images typically used in video games. Although sprites have been around for years in arcade-style video
games and, more recently, in desktop computer games, they are now commonly used to spice up Web
sites. A sprite engine is a nice way to encapsulate many of the details of sprite animation, which can get
hairy at times if you’re new to sprite programming.
To take advantage of what you’ve learned so for, you’re going to build a basic Java sprite engine—a
clean, versatile, and reusable framework suitable for generalpurpose multimedia applications.
In time, you’ll find that it’s easy to inadvertently “over-objectify” your code, turning
everything possible into an object. Although objects are indeed the focal point of object-
oriented programming, too much of a good thing can be dangerous, if you go nuts and turn
everything in your program into an object, you’ll likely find that even the most simple
programs become incredibly complex.
Worse still, the overhead associated with managing so many objects (when it comes to applets, the
overhead of loading classes over the network when needed, each of which requires a separate network
connection) can greatly impact the overall speed of your program. As a result, your now overly complex
program is also unnecessarily slow! For these reasons, the sprite engine discussed here is intentionally
simple; objects are kept to a minimum, both to make the code easy for you to understand and efficient
when running.
A sprite for thought
Start with the basic concepts behind a sprite and a sprite engine. Think of the Sprite class as the graphical
information needed to display a sprite on the screen —nothing more, nothing less. You will treat sprites
created using one image and sprites created using multiple images as similarly as possible,
encompassing both in the Sprite class.
The core functionality you need is the capability to draw an image, or series of images (an animation),
centered at any arbitrary point on the screen. To do so, you need to perform these three tasks:
• Load and store one or more images using MediaTracker.
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• Keep track of the center point where the drawing will occur.
• Provide logic to flip between successive images for animated sprites.
To start, use a Vector object called imageList to store your image(s), because you don’t want to limit
yourself with the amount of images allowed per Sprite. For animated sprites, you want to be able to flip
between each image that makes up the animation (and not limit yourself to one image per frame), so add
a speed variable to dictate how many frames must pass before you display the next image in an animated
sprite.
In addition to this basic behavior, it’s also nice to be able to make sprites visible and invisible at will, so
also add a boolean visible variable. Your sprite engine will use these variables to display your sprites
properly, but it’s just the beginning. Take a look at what you have so far:
public class Sprite extends Object {
protected Vector imageList;
protected int currentImage;
protected int currentSpeed;
public boolean visible = true;
public int xPos, yPos;
public int speed = 1;
public int width, height;
}
You have two variables for internal use: currentImage and currentSpeed. Always have currentImage set to the
offset into your vector containing the image number to draw for this frame. Use currentSpeed to loop from
0 to speed; when it resets, it increments your currentImage by one, providing the animation.
There are a few other things to note here. You are inheriting Sprite from Object so that you can later make
a vector of Sprites in your sprite engine. This is a little hokey, but it is specific to Vectors and we purists
just need to live with it. Also, note that your normally private variables are protected instead, so you can
easily extend other classes from it. If you felt like building a particle system or video game later, this
would be the way to do it. You want to make this as easy to use and extend as possible.
You then declare two internal variables for tracking your current image and current speed, which will be
used for sprites with multiple images. You also keep track of the sprite’s center point with xPos, yPos,
whether it should currently be drawn with the boolean visible, the speed to loop through its images (if it
has more than one), and two convenience variables for the sprite’s image width and height. Now you’ll
add some methods.
There are two ways to instantiate a Sprite. You can have one image or multiple images. For example,
consider
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public Sprite(Applet a, String imgName);
public Sprite(Applet a, String imgName, int numImages);
If you have only one image to use, you can call the first constructor; if you want an animated sprite, you
can use the second constructor. The imgName parameter is a filename relative to the applet and should be
specified in the standard filename format. Either way, you need to pass a reference to your current applet
so the sprite can locate the images using getDocumentBase(). If you use the animated sprite constructor,
use the imgName as the filename without any numbers in it, and use numImages as the number of images
to read in, starting with 1:
Sprite firstSprite = new Sprite(this, “image/test.gif”, 3);
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
This builds a new animated sprite using images test1.gif, test2.gif, and test3.gif from the image subdirectory
of the directory from which the applet was launched. Now you have a basic Sprite class. You can directly
change its position and speed and make it visible or invisible. You want to encapsulate loading and
waiting for images, so use the MediaTracker internally, as in Listing 29-6:
Listing 29-6: How to Encapsulate Loading and Waiting
public Sprite(Applet a, String imgName) {
imageList : new Vector();
a.getAppletContext().showStatus(“Fetching image: ”+imgName);
imageList.addElement(a.getImage(a.getDocumentBase(), imgName));
waitForImages(a);
a.getAppletContext().showStatus(“Sprite loaded successfully.”);
width = ((Image)imageList.elementAt(0)).getWidth(a);
height = ((Image)imageList.elementAt(0)).getHeight(a);
xPos = width/2;
yPos = height/2;
}
public Sprite(Applet a, String imgName, int numImages) {
imageList = new Vector();
for(int i:0;i<numImages;i++) {
try {
String prefix = new String(imgName.substring(0,
imgName.length() - 4));
String ext = imgName.substring(imgName.length() - 4);
a.getAppletContext().showStatus(“Fetching image:
”+prefix+(i+l)+ext);
imageList.addElement(a.getImage(a.getDocumentBase(),
prefix+(i+l)+ext));
} catch(StringIndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
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System.out.println(“Error reading sprite: ”+e.toString());
}
}
waitForImages(a);
a.getAppletContext().showStatus(“Sprite loaded
successfully.”);
width = ((Image)imageList.elementAt(0)).getWidth(a);
height = ((Image)imageList.elementAt(0)).getHeight(a);
xPos = width/2;
yPos = height/2;
}
This code fetches the image or images passed to it, adding each one to the Sprite’s internal vector of
images called imageList. You have to do some string parsing to resolve the image names nicely, but a
little work here will make it that much easier to use later. Each time the Sprite fetches an image, it sets
the applet’s status bar to “Fetching <image name>.” Then it calls the internal function waitForImages().
This sets your applet’s status bar to “Waiting for images to load...” and uses a MediaTracker to wait for all
images in imageList to load.
The Sprite constructor then sets the internal variables width and height to the width and height of the first
image in imageList (it assumes that all images are the same size), and it initializes the center point to the
middle of the image. As a result, the default sprite will be drawn in the upper-left corner of your applet if
you don’t change its position.
A few more small details: CurrentImage() returns the image at the offset currentImage into imageList. The
advance() function advances the animated sprites’ current images according to their speed. It increments
the sprite’s currentSpeed, incrementing the sprite’s current image every speed frames. If an animated
sprite’s speed is three, then every three times advance() is called, the sprite’s current image advances by
one. This also loops back to the first image when it exceeds the number of images loaded. Whew! Okay,
now get those sprites moving.
Start your sprite engine
Now that you have a nice, functional Sprite class, you need a sprite engine to manipulate it. The sprite
engine handles standard graphical operations such as managing the graphics context and double-
buffering, and it provides support for a background image or color. It also keeps a running calculation of
the frames displayed per second. After you write the sprite engine, you will have offloaded all the
graphics operations from the programmer to the engine, freeing yourself to work on the motion behind
the sprites and your program logic. You need a Vector to maintain a list of Sprites to track, and you need
internal variables for doublebuffering and for drawing a background color or image. Here’s the first try:
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public class SpriteEngine extends Applet {
// List of all Sprites we are keeping track of
private Vector spriteList;
// Accessible to child for game purposes
protected int screenWidth, screenHeight;
// For double buffering
private Image buffer;
private Graphics offscreen;
// For color or image background support
private Color bgcolor;
private Image bgImage;
// For frame counting
private long startTime, stopTime;
private int frameCounter;
...
}
Notice that you are inheriting your SpriteEngine class from Applet. This is because you are designing the
SpriteEngine to be inherited from, not contained in, applications that use it. Now start writing the
functions. I like to design using the simplest interface I can imagine—the dream API. For example, this
one comes close:
public class GraphicalApplication extends SpriteEngine {
...
Sprite s = new Sprite...
Sprite s1 = new Sprite...
addSprite(s);
addSprite(s2);
while(!done) {
advance();
blit();
}
...
}
The users of your sprite engine build a new class that inherits from SpriteEngine. In the main code,
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typically in the body of run(), users instantiate the Sprites they want to display and then add them to the
SpriteEngine so it now tracks and displays them. Users can then simply call advance() to have animated
sprites advance their images and blit() to draw everything to the screen as fast as possible. Double-
buffering and a background image or color are taken care of automatically, and sprites are drawn
centered over their xPos, yPos coordinates, in the order in which they are added to the engine. Sound
good? I think so, so here goes. Start with an easy one, addSprite():
public void addSprite(Sprite s) {
spriteList.addElement(s);
}
Here the process simply adds the sprite passed as a parameter to the internal vector of sprites, called
spriteList. Now try advance():
public void advance() {
for(int i:0;i<spriteList.size();i++) {
((Sprite)spriteList.elementAt(i)).advance();
}
}
This process also is pretty simple. It runs through the current list of sprites being tracked by the engine
and calls their individual advance() functions. This is where the power of OOP comes in. If a specific
subclass of Sprite wants to define its own behavior here, it can do so with no change to the sprite engine.
Particles can move with gravity, bullets can gain or lose acceleration, or Tumbling Duke can jitter like
he’s had four cups of coffee—just by adding functionality to a specific Sprite’s advance() method.
There are a few helper functions to cover before you get to blit(), namely setSize(), setBackground(), and
getFPS(). First, blit() needs to perform automatic double-buffering. You have already seen the code for
this, but you haven’t seen it in action. Here is the same basic code, but now it also checks to see whether
the window has been resized since your last call. Put this in a separate function, called setSize():
private void setSize() {
Dimension d : this.size();
screenWidth = d.width;
screenHeight = d.height;
// Recreate offscreen double buffer
buffer = createImage(d.width, d.height);
offscreen = buffer.getGraphics();
done = false;
}
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
This refreshingly straightforward function is called whenever the engine notices that the window has
changed size. It does this by comparing the values of screenWidth and screenHeight with the applet’s
dimensions. Now look at setBackground(). There are two versions of this function; one version takes a
Color as a parameter, and the other takes a String. If a Color is passed, the animation’s background is set to
this color. If a String is passed, it is assumed to be an image filename relative to the code base, and it is
loaded and stretched to fit the applet’s output window. This could be used to display a starry night
background for a space animation, or maybe a test tube filled with green gunk for your elusive particle
system. The color version is tribal; the image background version is a little more complex, mostly
because it needs to wait for the image to load:
public void setBackground(Color c) {
bgcolor = c;
}
public void setBackground(String imagename) {
bgImage = getImage(getDocumentBase(), imagename);
MediaTracker m = new MediaTracker(this);
m.addImage(bgImage, 0);
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Waiting for background image
to load...”);
try {
m.waitForAll(8000);
} catch (InterruptedException e) {
// Set status bar to error message...
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Error loading background
image: ”+e.toString());
}
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Image loaded.”);
bgcolor = null;
}
The last function to examine before you write blit() is getFPS(). It’s a performance statistic that calculates
how many frames per second you are currently displaying, and it will appear in your applet’s status
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window while you are animating. It uses the getTime() method of Date to find out how many seconds have
elapsed, and it divides the number of frames you have displayed so far by the result to get your current
frames per second:
public float getFPS() {
Date d = new Date();
stopTime = d.getTime();
// Divide by 1000 because start and stop time in milliseconds
float time = (stopTime-startTime)/((float)1000);
float fps = ((float)frameCounter)/time;
startTime = stopTime;
frameCounter = 0;
return fps;
}
Now, on to your blit() function. I have covered all of the functions it uses, so there isn’t much else to
explore. The blit() function first calls setSize() if it sees that your applet window has changed size since
the last frame, recreating the double buffer if necessary. It then either fills the background with a color
or scales an image to fit, or does neither, depending on whether either version of setBackground() was
previously called. The blit() function then runs through the list of Sprites in spriteList and draws all visible
Sprites centered over its internal position as given by xPos, yPos. All background and sprite drawing
happens in the offscreen buffer. That buffer is copied to your onscreen applet window, displaying your
updated animation frame. Every 15 frames, your applet status window is set to the current frames per
second:
// Draw background, draws all sprites at specified size,
// then copies the whole thing to the graphics context
// passed to it (usually the applet gc). This handles
// double buffering automatically.
public void blit() {
if(startTime == 0) {
Date d = new Date();
startTime = d.getTime();
}
// First check if window has changed in size...
Dimension d = this.size();
if((d.width != screenWidth) || (d.height != screenHeight)) {
setSize();
}
// First draw background color or image...
if(bgcolor != null) {
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offscreen.setColor(bgcolor);
offscreen.fillRect(0, 0, screenWidth, screenHeight);
} else if(bgImage != null) {
offscreen.drawImage(bgImage, 0, 0, screenWidth,
screenHeight, this);
}
// Now run through list of sprites and draw them
// at their current point at their current scaling
for(int j=0;j<spriteList.size();j++) {
Sprite s = (Sprite)(spriteList.elementAt(j));
if(s.visible) {
offscreen.drawImage(s.currentImage(), s.xPos -
((int)(((float)s.width)/((float)2))), s.yPos -
((int)(((float)s.height)/((float)2))), this);
}
}
// Now draw buffer to screen...
getGraphics().drawImage(buffer. 0, 0, this);
// Now update our frames per second...
frameCounter++:
if(frameCounter % 15 == 0) {
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Average fps: ”+getFPS());
}
}
A couple more details and you’ll be done. Notice that the boolean variable done is always set to false until
the sprite engine is destroyed. This prevents synchronization problems when the engine is destroyed
while it is still drawing. There is also the init variable that should be set by the host application after all
the sprites have been added and loaded. The host application typically enters a while(!done) loop, each
time changing sprite positions and program variables and then calling advance() and blit(). The final
version of your sprite engine looks like Listing 29-7:
Listing 29-7: The Srite Engine
import java.applet.Applet;
import java.util.Vector;
import java.awt.Graphics;
import java.awt.Image;
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import java.awt.Dimension;
import Java.awt.Color;
import Java.awt.MediaTracker;
import Java.util.Date;
public class SpriteEngine extends Applet {
// List of all Sprites we are keeping track of
private Vector spriteList;
// Accessible to child for game purposes
protected int screenWidth, screenHeight;
// For double buffering
private Image buffer;
private Graphics offscreen;
// For color or image background support
private Color bgcolor;
private Image bgImage;
// For happy cleanup
protected boolean init = false, done = false;
// For frame counting
private long startTime, stopTime;
private int frameCounter;
public SpriteEngine() {
spriteList = new Vector();
}
public void addSprite(Sprite s) {
spriteList.addElement(s);
}
public void advance() {
for(int i=0;i<spriteList.size();i++) {
((Sprite)spriteList.elementAt(i)).advance();
}
}
private void setSize() {
Dimension d = this.size();
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screenWidth = d.width;
screenHeight = d.height;
// Recreate offscreen double buffer
buffer = createImage(d.width, d.height);
offscreen = buffer.getGraphics();
done = false;
}
public void setBackground(Color c) {
bgcolor = c;
}
public void setBackground(String magename) {
bgImage = getImage(getDocumentBase(), imagename);
MediaTracker m = new MediaTracker(this);
m.addImage(bgImage, 0);
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Waiting for background image to
load...”);
try {
m.waitForAll(8000);
} catch (InterruptedException e) {
// Set status bar to error message...
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Error loading background
image: ”+ e.toString());
}
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Image loaded.”);
bgcolor : null;
}
public float getFPS() {
Date d = new Date();
stopTime = d.getTime();
// Divide by 1000 because start and stop time in milliseconds
float time = (stopTime-startTime)/((float)1000);
float fps = ((float)frameCounter)/time;
startTime = stopTime;
frameCounter = 0;
return fps;
}
// Draw background, draws all sprites at specified size,
// then copies the whole thing to the graphics context
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// passed to it (usually the applet gc) This handles
// double buffering automatically.
public void blit() {
if(startTime == 0) {
Date d = new Date();
startTime = d.getTime();
}
// First check if window has changed n size...
Dimension d = this.size();
if((d.width != screenWidth) || (d.height != screenHeight)) {
setSize():
}
// First draw background color or image...
if(bgcolor != null) {
offscreen.setColor(bgcolor);
offscreen.fillRect(0, 0, screenWidth, screenHeight);
} else if(bgImage != null) {
offscreen.drawImage(bgImage, 0, 0, screenWidth,
screenHeight, this);
}
// Now run through list of sprites and draw them
// at their current point at their current scaling
for(int j=O;j<spriteList.size();j++) {
Sprite s = (Sprite)(spriteList,elementAt(j));
if(s.visible) {
offscreen.drawImage(s.currentImage(), s.xPos -
((int)(((float)s.width)/((float)2))), s.yPos -
((int)(((float)s.height)/((Float)2))), this);
}
}
// Now draw buffer to screen...
getGraphics().drawImage(buffer, 0, 0, this);
// Now update our frames per second...
frameCounter++;
if(frameCounter % 15 == 0) {
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Average fps: ”+getFPS());
}
}
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public void paint(Graphics g) {
// Init set to true by application when ready to
// start main loop to prevent synchronization problems
if(init) {
blit();
}
}
public void destroy() {
done = true;
}
}
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Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Lightweight sprites: SpriteShadows
Now, how about that particle system I keep blabbing about? If you run any of the examples, you’ll
notice that much time is spent waiting for the sprite images to load. No one wants to wait. This is
especially true over the Web, where the average webber’s attention span is rivaled by that of an average
two-year old. If you wanted to have an animation with, for example, 200 sprites with the same image,
think how long that would take to load and how much memory would be wasted with redundant image
data. Now imagine if each sprite had ten frames of animation. Am I painting a dismal enough picture
yet?
The solution is remarkably simple, and it’s so easy to implement that you’ll add it right now with just a
few lines of code. I call them SpriteShadows. A SpriteShadow is a subclass of Sprite that takes only another
Sprite (or a SpriteShadow) as a parameter. It sets all its internal variables—including x and y position,
visible attribute, and speed—to the Sprite parameter. It then sets all the images in its imageList equal to the
image references in the Sprite parameter’s list. Notice that it doesn’t re-read any images—it depends on
the Sprite parameter having done that already. A SpriteShadow just sets its image references to point to the
already loaded image(s).
The net result is that both Sprites use the same image or set of images, so there is only the additional
overhead associated with having another Sprite to draw. Listing 298 shows the code:
Listing 29-8: SpriteShadow
import java.util.Vector;
public class SpriteShadow extends Sprite {
public SpriteShadow(Sprite s) {
visible = s.visible;
xPos = s.xPos;
yPos = s.yPos;
imageList = new Vector();
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for(int i:0;i<s.imageList.size();i++) {
imageList.addElement((s.imageList.elementAt(i)));
}
currentImage = s.currentImage;
speed : s.speed;
currentSpeed = s.currentSpeed;
width = s.width;
height = s.height;
}
How about that particle system? Start with one particle—it moves randomly, bouncing off the wails of
your applet (this behavior is controlled by its advance() method). For every frame, your applet creates a
SpriteShadow using the original Sprite as the parameter to its constructor; they are then added to your
SpriteEngine. You end up with a screen full of particles in no time, with minimal memory usage and
almost no loading time! If your original Sprite was animated with multiple images, you could even have
the individual SpriteShadows running through the animation at different speeds because they each track
their own speed and currentlmage independently. Not bad. After all is said and done, your Sprite,
SpriteEngine, and SpriteShadow total fewer than 300 lines of code.
Clipping and parallax scrolling
Now that you have all the low-level graphics details out of the way, how do you realistically manipulate
your sprites? You could increment a sprite’s coordinates by a constant every frame, but that looks about
as realistic as Pong.
One technique for moving sprites realistically is called parallax scrolling. This is a graphics term for
describing the way close-up objects appear to move faster than far-away objects. For example, if you
look out to one side when you’re driving down the highway, you see the grass (or billboards, depending
where you live) on the side of the road rushing by you while the far-off mountains (or skyscrapers)
appear to be moving slowly or not at all.
Parallax scrolling is really a special case of simulated perspective, and it is much easier to implement.
You can implement it by incrementing all sprites’ horizontal coordinates according to the supposed
distance from the viewer. In your highway example, you might increment the grass four pixels every
frame and the mountains only one pixel per frame because they are supposed to be much farther off. The
difference fools your eyes into believing that the mountains are farther away from the grass, although
they are both represented on the same flat screen. You will see an example of this in a moment.
Another detail to attend to is the subject of clipping. Clipping is the process of making sure you don’t
draw sprites or parts of sprites to an area offscreen. If the aforementioned grass is scrolled off one edge
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of the screen, normally you would have to adjust the grass size so that you don’t write to an illegal
memory address. Luckily for you, however, Java handles clipping automatically. It even provides an
extra function called clipToRect() if you want to clip to a specific region. Of course, you do lose some
performance as Java adjusts all drawing operations to valid boundaries before drawing them, causing a
slowdown. Who knows, maybe the Java team decided on the easier brute-force approach of checking
every pixel before writing it. At any rate, you know you don’t have to worry about it.
A mystic temple and Jane on Mars
Now that you have a working sprite library and know how to put some realistic motion behind your
sprites, you have all the tools to create a realistic animation. In this section is a little demo of all these
components in action. I asked my friend, Scott Downey ([email protected]), to create some artwork for
me, and a couple of hours later he gave me this—don’t complain if it’s a little surreal. This example uses
the sprite library and all the topics I’ve covered so far. Although the code is simple, I think you’ll be
impressed by the output.
With the actual graphics part of the code weighing in at only about 50 lines, this is a good indication that
you designed your sprite engine well. You still have full control over your sprites, but you passed off all
the drawing duties to the engine. Notice that you start by deriving a new class from SpriteEngine, agreeing
to make it multithreaded by implementing Runnable. Now you simply have to write two methods: init()
and run(). The init() method just starts a new thread in standard fashion; you’ve seen this many times
before, so I won’t cover it further. The run() method contains the actual sprite’s animation code and starts
by initializing the Jane sprite, the background sprite, and four parallax sprite layers. This is
accomplished with the following lines:
Sprite s = new Sprite(this, “img/jane.gif”, 18);
Sprite 11 = new Sprite(this, “img/levell.gif”);
Sprite 12 = new Sprite(this, “img/level2.gif”);
Sprite 13 = new Sprite(this, “img/level3.gif”);
Sprite 14 = new Sprite(this, “img/level4.gif”);
setBackground(“img/bg.gif”);
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Java Bible:Multimedia
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Two cheers for putting so much work into the Sprite constructors! This code reads the images janel.gif
through jane18.gif into one animated sprite, reads layerl.gif through layer4.gif into four static sprite layers,
and reads bg.gif as your background. Because of your extensive MediaTracker usage, all images are loaded
completely before the code returns. The layer images serve as your four parallax scrolling layers. You
then add these to the sprite engine in back-tofront drawing order so that the engine can track and draw
them. You only need one more line to get these images onscreen, and that’s blit(). As you recall, this
method actually draws all the sprites at their current x, y coordinates, doublebuffering automatically.
The rest of the code in this example shows parallax scrolling and hard-coded numbers to make the
animation look right. After setting everything up, run through your main loop, which scrolls each layer
by a certain amount. Then call advance(), and then call blit(), which draws the new frame, advance() calls
each sprite in the engine’s own advance() function. This lets animated sprites track and change their
currently displayed image independently. Sprites can also optionally keep track of other variables
according to frame rate. For example, if the sprite was an enemy in a game you were writing, you could
add functionality here that would determine its lifespan and direction, perhaps adjusting both randomly
every frame. The only sprite that actually does anything in its advance() function in this case is Jane,
which advances its current image by one, providing animation.
Here’s the final code in Listing 29-9 (try to ignore the hard-coded mess):
Listing 29-9: Jane on Mars: Animation Using Sprites
import java.lang.Thread;
import java.awt. Color;
import java.awt. Dimension;
import java.awt. Event;
public class Jane extends SpriteEngine implements Runnable {
private Thread t;
public void init() {
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super.init();
t = new Thread(this);
t.start();
}
public void run() {
init = true;
int mountainCounter = 0;
Sprite s = new Sprite(this, “img/jane.gif”, 18);
Sprite 11 = new Sprite(this, “img/levell.gif”);
Sprite 12 = new Sprite(this, “img/level2.gif”);
Sprite 13 = new Sprite(this, “img/level3.gif”);
Sprite 14 = new Sprite(this, “img/level4.gif”);
setBackground(“img/bg.gif”);
// Add to engine in back to front order:
addSprite(14);
addSprite(13);
addSprite(12);
addSprite(11);
addSprite(s);
s.xPos = 380; s.yPos = 228;
11.xPos = 75; 11.yPos = 175;
12.xPos = 110; 12.yPos = 150;
13.xPos = 130; 13.yPos = 170;
14.xPos = 180; 14.yPos = 100;
while(!done) {
s.xPos-=2;
11.xPos+=3;
12.xPos+=2;
13.xPos++;
if(++mountainCounter > 2) {
mountainCounter = 0;
14.xPos++;
}
// Reset our animation
if((s.xPos > screenWidth) || (s.xPos < 0)) {
s.xPos = 380; s.yPos = 228;
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11.xPos = 75; 11.yPos = 175;
12.xPos = 110; 12.yPos = 150;
13.xPos = 130; 13.yPos = 170;
14.xPos = 180; 14.yPos = 100;
mountainCounter: 0;
}
advance();
blit();
}
}
}
Now take a look at the applet, if you haven’t already. Notice the parallax scrolling? The ground is
scrolling along at three pixels per frame, the rocks behind it are scrolling at two pixels per frame, and the
temple and mountain range are creeping along at one pixel per frame. This gives the illusion of depth
and distance and is much more visually interesting than a flat scrolling rate. Also notice that Java is
clipping all the images to your visible applet area automatically, so you don’t have to worry about your
images scrolling off the edge of the screen with disastrous results. There you have it! Congratulations,
you’ve come a long way. Now move on to audio in Java.
Bright lights, loud city
So far, we have touched upon the visual side of things, but what about sound? What good is a spaceship
flying through space without the satisfying whirs and clicks of alien technology? Where there’s
animation, there should be sound. Once again, the Java APl for playing sound is almost insultingly easy:
AudioClip a = getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “sounds/sound.au”);
a.play();
All sound types are encapsulated by the class AudioClip, just as all image types are covered by Image.
Like drawing images, before we can play a sound we have to fetch it first with the getAudioClip()
function. This returns an AudioClip reference that we can use to call the play() method.
Although the Java JDK 1.1 can only support the audio (.au) sound file format, the Java JDK
1.2 can also support Wave (.way) sound file format.
I can already hear you saying, What about audio-clip loading latency? MediaTracker doesn’t work for
sounds. The getAudioClip() function actually waits until the sound is loaded before it returns, providing
the sound resource functionality that the MediaTracker is missing. The other useful functions for playing
sounds are the stop() and loop() sound methods, which behave as you might expect. The only loophole (so
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to speak) when you play sounds is that there is currently no way to tell what sounds are playing—or
when a sound has stopped playing. Listing 29-10 shows a sample applet that demonstrates Java audio in
all its playing, stopping, and looping glory:
List 29-10: A Sample Java Audio Applet
import java.applet.*;
import java.util.Vector;
public class SoundsTest extends Applet implements Runnable {
private Vector soundList;
private Thread t;
public void init() {
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Getting audio clips...(this
may sound funky!)”);
soundList = new Vector();
AudioClip a:
a = getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “sounds/intro.au”);
soundList.addElement(a);
a = getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “sounds/bullet.au”);
soundList.addElement(a);
a = getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “sounds/warp.au”);
soundList.addElement(a);
a = getAudioClip(getCodeBase(), “sounds/explode2.au”);
soundList.addElement(a);
try {
t.sleep(4000);
} catch(InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println(“Thread sleep failed: ”+e.toString());
}
}
public void start() {
t = new Thread(this);
t.start();
}
public void run() {
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Playing 4 simultaneous
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sounds...”);
for(int i=0;i<soundList.size();i++) {
((AudioClip)soundList.elementAt(i)).play();
}
try {
t.sleep(16000);
} catch(InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println(“Thread sleep failed: ”+e.toString());
}
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Playing and stopping
sounds...”);
// Play all sounds
for(int i:0;i<soundList.size();i++) {
((AudioClip)soundList.elementAt(i)).play();
}
// Pause 2 seconds
try {
t.sleep(2000);
} catch(InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println(“Thread sleep failed: ”+e.toString());
}
// Stop all sounds
for(int i=0;i<soundList.size();i++) {
((AudioClip)soundList.elementAt(i)).stop();
}
try {
t.sleep(1000);
} catch(InterruptedException e) {
System.out.println(“Thread sleep failed: ”+e.toString());
}
getAppletContext().showStatus(“Looping sounds...(annoying,
huh?)”);
for(int i=0;i<soundList,size();i++) {
((AudioClip)soundList.elementAt(i)).loop();
}
}
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// Important! Otherwise the sound could potentially keep
// after applet closes!
public void stop() {
for(int i=0;i<soundList.size();i++) {
((AudioClip)soundList,elementAt(i)),stop();
}
}
}
There isn’t much more to know about playing sounds in Java—it’s just too easy. Incorporating it nicely
into a time-critical application is a different matter, but we’ll do that next.
A sound-event model
There isn’t a whole lot left to the imagination with Java audio. The only hard part is using it in a real
application, such as a game or another real-time application. Implementing a sound-event model,
suitable for a more comprehensive multimedia application, demonstrates the point.
In this small example, it seems strange to post our sound messages to our event queue instead of just
playing them, but think of the example in a larger context. Any function that can send your applet a
message can play a sound according to your applet’s context. This means we can consolidate all our
sound code into one section. For a game, this might mean that we can keep track of, say, the sound for
our player’s current weapon so we don’t need this logic everywhere we want to play a sound. For a
multiplayer game, this would mean that you could send sound events to another player’s applet. And
because specific sounds aren’t decided by the function that posts the message, program logic only has to
be included in the handleEvent method.
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Java Bible:Multimedia
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
If this is just case-statement-type logic, it doesn’t help us too much, but what if we use a complex
algorithm for determining which sound to play? Without a soundevent model, we would have to
distribute this code everywhere from which a sound might be played—not a very maintainable or
practical approach. Even more important, we don’t want to have our sound data everywhere we need to
be able to trigger a sound from, especially in a networked environment where latency times are a
problem. A sound-event model provides that extra layer of abstraction for creating a robust and
responsive sound environment.
The only tricky part is posting a message to the component’s event queue, and that’s not tough. We use
the postEvent() method, which takes an Event as a parameter. So before we can call it, we need to build an
Event that our handleEvent() method will recognize as an event signaling a sound trigger. There are a few
constructors for Event(). Not surprisingly, I’ll opt for the easiest one: public Event(Object target, int id, Object
arg). For this simple example, we’ll pass our applet as the target an arbitrary sound event constant that
distinguishes this event as a sound event, and an actual audioClip as our argument.
Here’s the code to post the event from within the applet that is receiving the sound:
static final int SOUND_EVENT = -1;
public void playSound() {
this.postEvent(new Event(this, SOUND_EVENT, sound));
}
Here’s how we could detect the sound event from within handleEvent():
public boolean handleEvent(Event evt) {
if(evt.id == SOUND_EVENT) {
((AudioClip)evt.arg).play();
return true;
}
return false;
}
When playSound() is called, it creates a new Event type, SOUND_EVENT, and an argument, sound, that is a
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fictitious AudioClip. The next time handleEvent is called and that event is read from the event queue, we
notice that it is of type SOUND_EVENT so we know the argument is the AudioClip to play. In a bigger
system, we probably wouldn’t want to pass an AudioClip as a parameter; rather, we would pass a constant
such as PLAYER1_CURRENT_WEAPON_SND. That way, our handleEvent could apply logic to this
identifier and resolve it to an AudioClip by itself. This also means code that signals a sound to be played
doesn’t actually have to load the sound itself. Let’s try a bigger example that actually runs. This applet
plays different sounds depending on mouse events. Try it out with Listing 29-11:
Listing 29-11: Playing Sounds with Mouse Events
import java.applet.*;
import java.awt,Event;
public class SoundEventModelTest extends Applet {
// Hopefully we’re not clobbering a different event enum
static final int SOUND_EVENT = -1;
AudioClip mouseDownSound, mouseUpSound, mouseDragSound;
// Load sound clips so we’ll be all ready to
// play them at a moment’s notice
public void init() {
mouseDownSound = getAudioClip(getCodeBase(),
“sounds/smack.au”);
mouseUpSound = getAudioClip(getCodeBase(),
“sounds/pop.au”);
mouseDragSound = getAudioClip(getCodeBase(),
“sounds/bullet.au”);
}
// We override the handleEvent method to implement two
// functions. Posting sounds to the event queue when
// necessary and reading sounds from the event queue
// and then playing them.
public boolean handleEvent(Event evt) {
// We received a sound event that we posted!
if(evt.id == SOUND_EVENT) {
((AudioClip)evt.arg),play();
return true;
}
// User pressed down on a mouse button, post an event
// to play the mouse down sound...
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if(evt.id == Event.MOUSE_DOWN) {
getAppletContext().showStatus(“MouseDown”);
this.postEvent(new Event(this, SOUND_EVENT,
mouseDownSound));
return true;
}
// User released a mouse button, post an event to play
// the mouse up sound...
if(evt.id == Event.MOUSE_UP) {
getAppletContext().showStatus(“MouseUp”);
this.postEvent(new Event(this, SOUND EVENT, mouseUpSound));
return true;
}
// User is dragging the mouse, post an event to play the
// mouse drag sound...
if(evt.id == Event.MOUSE DRAG) {
getAppletContext().showStatus(“MouseDrag”);
this.postEvent(new Event(this, SOUND_EVENT,
mouseDragSound));
return true;
}
return false;
}
Although slightly annoying, this example starts to showcase the event model in action. Remember, those
events could be posted from other applets or applications using InterApplet Communication.
The only other feature that would be useful to add to our sound-event model is the capability to track
sounds that are currently playing. This could be done by the programmer registering a play duration for
each sound to be played. The sound model would track the time when a sound was started and could
provide simple functions to query whether a specified sound’s duration had passed yet. This wouldn’t be
perfect, as playing sounds is largely system dependent, but it would probably work reasonably well for
most applications.
Summary
Adding multimedia to your applications can bring new and dynamic life to your Java applications. There
are a number of standard animation techniques, such as double-buffering and sprites, which can
dramatically enhance your Java-based multimedia applications. Key points to remember about this
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chapter include the following:
• One of the most exciting features of Java is its capability to help developers create
sophisticated multimedia software products with relatively little effort. With built-in support for
graphics, sound, and networking, Java opens the door for a new wave of multimedia technology.
• MediaTracker is indispensable when it comes to multimedia animations. With it, we can load
images over the network and assign each an “ID number” to group them logically for later
retrieval, allowing us to manage multiple animations with a single MediaTracker object. And, even
more importantly, MediaTracker allows us to quickly and easily ensure that all images for a
particular group are completely loaded before using them.
• When your rendering code draws repeatedly to a visible graphics context, synchronization
problems lead to visual degradation. Avoid this problem by blitting—drawing to a hidden
offscreen buffer in memory; when all rendering for the current frame is completed and in the
buffer, the whole buffer is copied to the onscreen visible display area. This entire double-
buffering process takes place in offscreen memory.
• A sprite is the term used in graphics programming to describe an image displayed in an
animation, like the images typically used in video games. Although they’ve been around for years
in arcade-style video games (and, more recently, in desktop computer games), sprites are now
commonly used to spice up Web sites.
• Parallax scrolling, a technique for moving sprites realistically, is a special case of simulated
perspective (and a lot easier to implement). Implement it by incrementing all sprites’ horizontal
coordinates according to their supposed distance from the viewer.
• Clipping is the process of making sure we don’t draw sprites or parts of sprites to an area off-
screen, if the aforementioned grass is scrolled off one edge of the screen, normally we would
have to adjust the grass size so that we don’t write to an illegal memory address.
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Java Bible:The Future of Java
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
CHAPTER 30
The Future of Java
Although Java is unquestionably one of the most significant software developments of our time, the
question inevitably comes around to What next? After all, we're dealing with the most explosive area
ever: network computing in general, and the World Wide Web in particular. Innovations on the Web are
being made by the bucketload, with previously unseen technology appearing on the ether every day.
We're accustomed to new and exciting Web technology hurtling towards us at Mach 9. So what's in store
for Java, and will it keep pace?
Although it's impossible to answer these questions with absolute confidence, it's a sure bet that Java is
here to stay. In the short time since it's been available, Java has sparked a revolution on the World Wide
Web as well as on computer desktops around the world, thanks to the relative ease with which you can
use Java to build cross-platform, network-savvy programs.
But the buzz doesn't stop there. Java is well on its way to revolutionizing the entire consumer-electronics
market as well—the very area for which it was originally developed, but which it failed to penetrate at
the time. Today, however, it's clear that Java will soon invade home appliances and hand-held gizmos
almost as fast as it invaded the Web and our personal computer systems. Gird thyself, my friend.
Thanks to a flurry of advanced Java technologies soon to be released by Sun Microsystems and their
many partners, we can expect the Java invasion to continue at a blistering pace. From chips, cards, and
international standards, to lightning-fast Just In Time (JIT) compilers, brand new APIs, fully distributed
computing capabilities, and Java Network Computer—Java promises to grow by leaps and bounds in
just about every way you can imagine.
The question really isn't Will Java survive? so much as it is How in the world can I keep up with Java?
Fortunately, there's an easy way to do just that. As a Java Bible reader, you're granted special access to a
“living” online article called “The Future of Java.” Simply point your Web browser to the following
Web site whenever you feel out of touch with the rapidly changing world of Java, and drink it all in:
http://www.mantiscorp.com/java/future/
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Java Bible:The Future of Java
As a regularly updated extension of this book, “The Future of Java” is published online to keep you
abreast of important Java developments on the horizon. It's my way of saying “thanks” to you for
reading the Java Bible. I hope you've enjoyed the book, and look forward to hearing from you. Please
write to me at [email protected].
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Java Bible:Java Language Reference
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
APPENDIX A
Java Language Reference
You can shape your Java source code by using a versatile set of comments, separators, keywords,
literals, data types, variables, and operators. This appendix provides a list of such basic tools, as well as
the classes, methods, constructors, interfaces, and variables you can use to create Java objects, packages
(groups of classes), strings, and arrays.
Comments
Java supports three different comment styles:
// This comment can’t span more than one line.
/* This type of comment can, and often does, span multiple lines.
/** This Doc Comment is used to generate documentation automatically from
source code. Doc Comments can also span more than one line.
Separators
Separators are characters used to group and arrange Java source code. The following characters are valid
Java separators:
( ) { } [ ], .
Keywords
A number of words are reserved in Java; you can’t use them to name your classes, methods, or variables
because each one has a specific purpose, and can be used only for that purpose. These reserved words
are also known as keywords (see Table A-1).
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Table A-1
Java Keywords
abstract boolean break byte
case catch char class
const continue default do
double else extends false
final finally float for
goto if implements import
instanceof int interface long
native new null package
private protected public return
short static super switch
synchronized this throw throws
true transient try void
volatile while
Using a strict definition, the words true, false, and null are not keywords—they are literal constant
values—but they are included in this table because they are reserved by Java and cannot be used for any
other purpose.
The words const and goto are not defined as part of the Java language, but they are reserved for possible
future use.
Literals
Java supports the following types of literals:
• Numeric (integer and floating-point)
• Character (character and string)
• Boolean
• The null literal
Numeric literals
The following are integer literals. The default is int (32 bits). The letter L (upperor lowercase) specifies
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64 bits:
545 43L 7632 4367 2346 57
These next examples are floating-point literals. The letter D (upper- or lowercase) specifies double. The
letter F (upper- or lowercase) specifies float. The default is double:
5.34 .366 3e-6 5.34F 2.f .366F 3.03e+6f
Numeric integer literals can take one of three forms:
• Decimal form (representing positive integer values)
• Hexadecimal form (representing positive, zero, or negative values)
• Octal form (representing positive, zero, or negative values)
The following are numeric literals in decimal form. They consist of an initial digit ranging from 1 to 9,
that may be followed by one or more digits ranging from 0 to 9:
935467L 534643 63036 2 2L
The following are a few examples of hexadecimal literals. They consist of a leading Ox or OX, followed
by one or more hexadecimal digits:
OxA8870X20C15E0 0xFFFA9B12 0x5AD6 0x63036 0X2 0x2L
And here are some octal literals, which consist of a leading 0 optionally followed by one or more digits,
ranging from 0 to 7:
023505323434 0000 035674L 000235
Table A-2 shows the range of decimal, hexadecimal, and octal literals that are legal in Java
programming.
Table A-2
Legal Range of Decimal, Hexadecimal, and Octal Literals
Literal Decimal Hexadecimal Octal
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Max Positive 2147483647 Ox7fffffff 017777777777
(231-1) int
Max Negative -2147483648 0x80000000 020000000000
(-231) int
Max Positive 92233720368 0x7fffffffffff 0777777777777777777777L
(263-1) long 54775807L ffffL
Max Negative -9223372036 0x800000000000 0400000000000000000000L
(-263)long 854775807L 0000L
Character literals
Java supports both single-character literals and string literals.
Single-character literals
Single-character literals are expressed either as a single character or as an escape sequence beginning
with the backslash character, enclosed in single quotes (’\’). Consider these examples:
’a’’A’ ’z’ ’Z’ ’\t’ ’\b’ ’\u012d’ ’\\’
Any character literal can be used as a Unicode escape if you specify the letter u and follow it with
exactly four hexadecimal digits. A leading-zero escape is an octal escape that can be used to express the
values ’\0’ through ’\0377’ (see Table A-3).
Table A-3
Character Literal Escape Codes
Escape Sequence Unicode Escape What They Represent
\b \u0008 backspace (BS)
\t \u0009 horizontal tab (HT)
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\n \u000a linefeed (LF)
\f \u000c form feed (FF)
\r \u000d carriage return (CR)
\“ \u0022 double quote (*)
\’ \u0027 single quote (’)
\\ \u005c backslash (\)
String literals
String literals are comprised of zero or more characters enclosed in double quotes, and may use the same
escape sequences as single-character literals.
Following are examples of valid string literals:
“Hello World” (basic string)
“Are you looking at me?” (your basic string, with an attitude)
“” (an empty string)
“” (a string containing a blank)
“\” “ (a string containing only ”)
“This string is ” + (three strings concatenated into one
“too long to fit ” + using the+ operator)
“on one line!”
Boolean literals
As with boolean data types generally, boolean literals can hold only one of two possible values: true or
false. You can assign boolean variables to either of these two literals, and use them in expressions:
boolean my Boolean = false
while (true) ( // infinite loop
}
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Data Types and Variables
Java supports four categories of data types:
• Primitive types
• Class types
• Interface types
• Array types
Every variable in a Java program has an associated data type, which is often called its compile-time type
since the compiler can always determine the type before a program is executed.
Java also supports two kinds of data values:
• Primitive values
• References (references to objects or arrays)
These can be stored in variables, passed to methods as arguments, returned as values, and be operated
upon.
Table A-4 shows the primitive data types that are usable in Java.
Table A-4
Primitive Data Types
Type Category Values
byte integral arithmetic 8-bit signed twos complement integers
short integral arithmetic 16-bit signed twos complement integers
int integral arithmetic 32-bit signed twos complement integers
long integral arithmetic 64-bit signed twos complement integers
float floating-point arithmetic 32-bit IEEE 754 floating-point numbers
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double floating-point arithmetic 64-bit IEEE 754 floating-point numbers
char character 16-bit Unicode characters which are 16-bit
unsigned integers
boolean boolean true and false
Table A-5 shows the legal value ranges Java allows for integral data types.
Table A-5
Legal Value Ranges for Integral Types
type Legal Range
byte -128 to 127, inclusive
short -32768 to 32767, inclusive
int -2147483648 to 2147483647, inclusive
long -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807, inclusive
Table A-6 shows the legal value ranges Java allows for floating-point data types.
Table A-6
Legal Value Ranges for Floating-Point Types
Type Legal Range (from smallest to largest)
float negative infinity, negative finite values, negative zero, positive zero, positive
finite values, and positive infinity
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double negative infinity, negative finite values, negative zero, positive zero, positive
finite values, and positive infinity
Table A-7 shows Java’s default data-type values.
Table A-7
Default Data-Type Values
Type Default
byte zero: (byte)0
short zero: (short)0
int zero: 0
long zero: 0L
float positive zero: 0.0f
double positive zero: 0.0d
char null character: \u0000’
boolean false
reference (objects) null
NaN: Not-a-Number
Floating-point data types support a special value known as Not-a-Number (NAN). NaN is used to
represent the result of operations such as dividing zero by zero, where an actual number isn’t produced.
Most operations that have NaN as an operand will produce NaN as a result. A NaN value will never test
as equal to any other number, not even itself.
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Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on one or more variables or objects. They include arithmetic
and boolean operators, as well as a specific set of Java operators.
Java operators
The operators specific to Java are as follows:
= > < ! ~ ? : ==
<= >= != && || ++ - +
– * / & | ^ % <<
>> >>> += -= *= /= &= |=
^= %= <<= >>= >>>=
Table A-8 shows the distinctive order of preference that applies to Java operators.
Table A-8
Java Operator Precedence
Precedence Operators
First . {} (grouping)
Second ++ - +unary -unary ! ~
Third new (casting)
Fourth */%
Fifth +binary -binary
Sixth << >> >>>
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Seventh < > <= >= instanceof
Eighth == !=
Ninth &
Tenth ^
Eleventh |
Twelfth &&
Thirteenth ||
Fourteenth ?:
Fifteenth = += -= *= /= &= |= ^= %= >>= <<= >>>=
Last ,
As noted in Table A-8, some unary and binary arithmetic operators are also Java operators; as such they
have specific operations they can perform, as shown in Table A-9.
Table A-9
Arithmetic Operators in Java
Type Operator Operation Notes
Unary - negation
~ bitwise
complement
++ increment Postfix and prefix
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- decrement Postfix and prefix
Binary + addition
+= addition (a=a+b) is equivalent to (a+=b)
- subtraction
-= subtraction (a =a-b) is equivalent to (a-=b)
* multiplication
*= multiplication (a=a*b) is equivalent to (a*=b)
/ division Rounds toward zero. Division by zero
throws ArithmeticException.
/= division (a=a/b) is equivalent to (a/=b)
% modulo %0 throws ArithmeticException.
>>= right shift (a=a>b) is equivalent to (a>=b)
(propagate sign)
<< left shift
>> right shift Sign is propagated
>>> zero-fill right shift Pads with zeros on left
Java’s boolean operators can be unary, binary, or ternary; each type has specific operations and
characteristics available to it in Java (as shown in Table A-10).
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Table A-10
Boolean Operators in java
Type Operator Operation Notes
Unary ! negation
Binary & logical AND Evaluates both operands
&= logical AND (a=a&b) is equivalent to (a&=b)
| logical OR Evaluates both operands
|= logical OR (a=a|b) is equivalent to (a|=b)
^ logical XOR Evaluates both operands
^= logical XOR (a=a^b) is equivalent to (a^=b)
&& logical AND Short-circuit evaluation of operands
|| logical OR Short-circuit evaluation of operands
> greater than
< less than
>= greater than or
equal
<= less than or equal
== equality
!= inequality
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Ternary == if, then (if a then b else c) is equivalent to (a?b:c)
Classes, Methods, Constructors, Interfaces, and Variables
Classes are the code templates, or blueprints, from which objects are created (instantiated). The body of
a class is typically made of variables, which maintain an object’s state, and methods that produce the
behavior of an object. Special methods known as constructors are used in the instantiation of objects.
Defining classes
Class declaration is especially vital in Java programming. When you declare a class, you can specify
(for example):
• The name of the class
• What type of access other objects will have to it (an access level is specified using a class
modifier)
• What superclass it inherits state and behavior from (default is java.lang. Object)
• What interfaces it implements (if any)
Following is the structure of a class definition (items in brackets are optional):
[ClassModifier] class className [extends superClass] [implements
interfaces] {
...
/*class body (typically variables and methods) */
...
}
Table A-11 shows the ClassModifier keywords you can use to custom-tailor a Java class to meet the needs
of your application.
Table A-11
ClassModifier keywords
ClassModifier Description
<blank> When no class modifier is specified, the class or interface is accessible to objects
within the current package.
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public Specifies that the class or interface is accessible to objects outside the package it
is part of. Only one public class is permitted per source code file, and that file
must have the same name as the class and a .java extension (example:
HelloWorldApplet.java).
final Specifies that the class or interface can not be subclassed. The Array class, for
example, is final. As a result, you can’t create an Array subclass.
abstract Specifies the class cannot be instantiated. It may contain one or more abstract
methods (methods defined without an implementation body). All interfaces are
abstract.
Inner classes
One class can be defined inside another class. The inner class is only available to the class that contains
it. In this example, Tpoint is an inner class, available for use only inside Triangle:
class Triangle {
Tpoint pl;
Tpoint p2
Tpoint p3;
public Triangle() {
p1 = new Tpoint(5,10);
p2 = new Tpoint(7,21);
p3 = new Tpoint(30,8);
}
class Tpoint {
int x;
int y;
Tpoint(int x, int y) {
this.x = x;
this.y = y;
}
}
}
Anonymous classes
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An anonymous class is declared without a name. To define an instance of an anonymous class, you
would use the new ken, word with the name of a particular class you want the anonymous class to
extend. In this example, the WindowAdapter class is instantiated with its windowClosing() method
overloaded to exit the application:
public class Anon extends Frame {
public Anon() {
addWindowListener(new WindowAdapter())
public void windowClosing(WindowEvent e) {
System.exit(O);
}
}
}
}
This code will exit the application whenever a user closes the window with the mouse.
Defining methods
Methods are the code routines that form the behavior of an object, and are analogous to functions in
procedural programming languages. In order to define a method, you must write a method declaration
and then implement the body of it. At the very least, a method is made up of:
• A return type
• The method name
• A method body
All three are shown in this piece of code:
returnType name() {
...
/*method body */
...
}
The example above is a very simple skeleton of a method declaration, which has many optional parts. In
the following method declaration summary, each of the items in brackets is optional:
[accessSpecifier] [static] [abstract] [final] [native]
[synchronized] returnType methodName ([paramlist]) [throws
exceptionsList] {
...
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/*method body */
...
}
If a method doesn’t return a value, use the void keyword in place of a return type:
void theMethod() {
}
However, if a method does specify a return type, it must return a value of that type:
Table A-12 shows modifiersfor methods, constructors, and member variables.
Table A-12
Modifiers for Methods, Construtors, and Member Variables
Modifier Description
public A public class or interface is accessible by any entity that can access the package.
A public variable, method, or constructor can be accessed by any entity that can
access the defining class or interface. It can be accessed from a subclass without
qualification, If overridden, it can be accessed from a subclass by using super.
private A private class or interface can only be accessed from within its defining
compilation unit.
A private variable or method can only be accessed from within its defining class.
A method can be both private and protected.
protected A protected constructor can be accessed by code within the same package, or from
the constructor of a subclass by using super.
A protected variable or method can be accessed directly from a subclass without
qualification. If it has been overridden, it can be addressed by using super.
A method can be both private and protected.
<default> (This is the default when none of public, private, or protected is specified.)
A default class can be accessed only within its own package.
A default method is the same as public.
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A default constructor can be addressed from a subclass by using super only if the
subclass is in the same package.
A default variable or method is inherited only by subclasses defined in the same
package.
final A final method or variable cannot be overridden.
A final class cannot be extended.
static A static field is part of the class and all instances of the class share the same field
and its values.
A static method is part of the class. It can be called normally, as the method of an
object, and it can also be called by using the name of the class. Non-static
members of the class can refer to it, but it cannot refer to non-static members of
the class.
abstract An abstract class cannot be instantiated—it can only be extended. It may contain
one or more abstract methods.
All interfaces are abstract whether specified so or not.
synchronized Used when more than one thread is executing. Specifies that the method,
constructor, or field will be locked when being used by a thread to prevent
simultaneous access by more than one thread.
native Indicates the method’s actual implementation is in another language, commonly
C.
Constructors
Constructors are methods having the same name as their class, and are used to perform special
initialization of objects when they are created.
Unlike standard methods, constructors cannot have a return type because they default to returning an
object of the type being instantiated. They may optionally, however, accept parameters and specify an
access level:
[accessSpecifier] className([paramlist]) {
}
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Method and constructor parameters
Methods and constructors may optionally accept one or more parameters. In the case of multiple
parameters, a comma is used to separate them. Each parameter is declared as follows:
dataType name
For example, the following method accepts three parameters:
void myMethod (String lastName, int age, float weight) {
...
}
When a method requires no parameters, the parentheses alone are provided:
void myMethod () {
...
}
Interfaces
An interface is an entirely abstract class. All methods in an interface are abstract, and must be supplied a
method body by any class that implements the interface.
The syntax for declaring an interface follows (items in brackets are optional):
[public] [abstract] interface name [extends interface1,
interface2, ... ] {
... all methods must be public and abstract ...
... all variables will be treated as public, static, and final
...
}
To use an interface, a class need only follow the keyword implements with the name(s) of the interface(s)
it plans to use. Although a class may only extend, or subclass, a single superclass, any number of
interfaces may be implemented by one class:
class myClass implements interfacel, interface2, ... {
}
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Variables
Java classes may contain two types of variables:
• Member variables: Ones directly associated with the class and objects made from it. (They are
declared inside the class but outside of any method.)
• Non-member variables: Ones not associated with the class. (They are variables declared inside
methods, and variables passed in as parameters to methods.)
Variables are used to store either primitive data values, or references to classes (including interfaces), or
arrays, and are declared using the following format:
dataType variableName
More that one variable name may be supplied for a given data type, provided each one is separated from
the others by a comma. Variables may optionally be set to a value, or initialized, at the time they are
declared. The following are a few variable declarations:
byte myByte = 5;
short count = 1234;
int age, miles;
long millimeters, nanoseconds;
float weight = 2035;
double pi;
char theChar = ’z’;
boolean critical = false, webBased = true;
Button okButton = new Button(“OK”);
AudioClip welcomeSound;
int myArrayOfIntegers[];
Member variables
All member variables are declared within the body of the class, not inside a method or as a parameter to
a method. Member variables come in two flavors: class variables and instance variables. Following is a
summary of the possible member variable declarations (items in brackets are optional):
[accessSpecifier] [static] [final] [transient] [volatile]
dataType variableName
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The transient keyword is currently ignored in Java, but is expected to be implemented in a
future release of the language.It has to do with values being stored or not being stored for
object persistence.
Class variables—those declared using the static keyword—occur only once per class, no matter how
many instances of that class are created. Memory for class variables is allocated by the Java runtime
system the first time a class is encountered, and only then. Ali instances (objects) of a class share class
variables they all see; all access exactly the same value associated with a class variable.
In contrast, instance variables—those declared not using the static keyword-are allocated once for every
instance of a class. Whenever an instance of a class is created, the system allocates memory for all
instance variables in that class. As a result, each object has its own copy of the instance variables
defined in a class.
Class variables are distinguished from instance variables using the static keyword, as shown in the
following example:
class Bogus {
static int myClassVar // declare class variable of type int
int myInstanceVar // declare instance variable of type
int
...
/* Method Declarations would follow... */
...
The volatile keyword can be used to notify the Java compiler that a field is to be accessed by separate
threads, and that any thread could change the value. The JVM, then, will not keep local copies of the
value but, instead, will access the field itself whenever the value is needed or is to be changed.
Constant variables
Class and instance variables can be declared as final, meaning they can never be changed. You can think
of final variables as constants: once they’re set, which must be done when declared, they can’t be
altered. To attempt such value modification will invoke an error message from the compiler or the Java
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runtime.
By convention, constant names in Java are in all capital letters. Thus, you might declare the value of pi
using a constant as follows:
final double PI = 3.14159265359
Non-member variables
Variables that are part of a method parameter list, or are declared inside a class method, are not
considered member variables. Although they may be critical to the object, they aren’t considered part of
the object’s formal state. They come into existence when the method is called and disappear when it
returns.
Unlike member variables, non-member variables cannot be specified as public, private, protected, final,
static, volatile, or even transient. As a result, they have a very simple declaration format:
dataType variableName
this and super variables
In order to allow convenient access to the current object and its superclass, Java provides two special
variables: this (references the current object) and super (references the object’s superclass). These
variables may be used anywhere in the body of the class, and are often seen inside methods and
constructors.
super is typically used to invoke a method or constructor in the superclass:
super.methodName() // invoke superclass method
super([parameterList]) // invoke superclass constructor
this can be used to invoke the current object’s constructor, although typically isn’t used to invoke
methods, since the method name alone will do the trick:
this([parameterList]) // invoke current object’s constructor
this.methodName() // functional equivalent to methodName()
this is most often used to qualify references to field names. In this example it allows the class to have a
variable with the same name as that on the method’s argument list:
setApCount(int apCount) {
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this.apCount = apCount:
}
Objects
Objects are created, or instantiated, from class definitions using the new keyword:
new className() // instantiates an object from class
When a constructor is used in the instantiation of an object, parameters are often required:
new className(param1, param2, param3, ...)
Typically, the objects you create will be assigned to a variable. To do this, you must declare the variable
as being of the same data type as the class itself (or of a data type compatible with the class):
className myObject = new className() // set variable equal to
new object
Methods in an object are invoked by using dot notation. The invocation includes the name of the method
and a list of parameter values:
myObject.methodName() // invoke method requiring no parameters
myObject.methodName(param1, param2, param3, ...) // parameters
may be required
Variables inside an object may, or may not, be made available by using dot notation. Typically,
variables are accessible only though special accessor methods:
myObject.variableName // direct access
myObject.getVariableMethod() // access via method
Class variables may be directly accessed without having to first instantiate an object, by providing the
name of the class in dot notation:
className.classVariable /* class variable access without
instantiation */
Likewise, class methods may be accessed without first requiring object instantiation:
className.classMethod() /* class method access without
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instantiation */
Duplicating objects
An object can be duplicated by using the clone() method, assuming they are of the same data type (or are
compatible) and the class supports cloning. For an object to be cloned, its class must implement the
Clonable interface, otherwise a CloneNotSupportedException will the thrown. Here is an example of cloning:
newObjectVariable = anObjectVariable.clone()
Determining an object’s class
You can find out what class an object was created from by cascading the getClass() and getName()
methods as follows:
anyObject.getClass().getName() /* retrieve the class name
(a String) */
The above returns a String object, and so you might assign it to a string variable for future use:
String theClassName = anyObject.getClass().getName()
You can also use the instanceof operator to determine if an object was created from a specific class. To do
so, provide the object on the left of instanceof and the class name on the right:
anyObject instanceof name
The boolean value true is returned if the object is an instance of the name class, has the name class as a
superclass, or implements the name interface. Otherwise false is returned.
Comparing objects
Object references can be tested to see whether they refer to the same object in memory by testing for
equality this way:
anyObject == anotherObject
The boolean value true is returned if the two object references point to the same object, otherwise false is
returned.
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Two different objects can contain the same values, and be identical in all other respects, but
this equality test will still result in false.
To test two different objects for equality, use the equals() method:
anyObject.equal s(anotherObject)
The boolean value true is returned if the two objects are equal (contain the same values) otherwise false is
returned. The default equals() method inherited from Object is a simple test for equality of the contents of
the fields in the object, but some classes override equals() changing the comparison technique.
Object references
Whenever you assign an object to a variable or pass an object as a parameter to a method or class, it’s
clone by reference. That is, instead of using a copy of the object, a reference—which is much like a
pointer in C—is used. You can use the = operator to specify which object is being referred to:
objectVariablel = objectVariable2
In this example, we don’t copy objectVariable2 into objectVariable1. Instead, objectVariable1 now merely
references (or points to) the same thing as objectVariable2. Whenever the object referred to by
objectVariable2 is altered, objectVariablel sees the result.
This way of treating an object is different from copying the object because both variables point to the
same instance rather than maintaining separate copies. The most straightforward way to copy, or
duplicate, an object is to clone it, as described earlier.
Null references
null reference is a place holder used to specify that there is currently no instance of an object. That is, we
can set object references to null, and then test them to see whether they are null or whether an actual
instance is being referred to:
anyObject = null // set an object to null
if (anyObject == null) { // test for null
...
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Type wrappers
Java’s primitive data types are not objects, and, in many cases, must be “wrapped” inside one before
they can be passed as a parameter. To facilitate this process, Java provides these wrapper classes:
Boolean (java.lang.Boolean)
Byte (java.lang.Byte)
Character (java.lang.Character)
Integer (java.lang.Integer) Float (java.lang.Float)
Double (java.lang.Double)
Long (java.lang.Long)
Short (java.lang.Short)
Void (java.lang.Void)
Each of these has a TYPE reference that refers to its Class object. The Void wrapper does nothing except
hold a type specifier, but it can be used as a convenient placeholder much like null.
Packages
Java classes can be organized into packages, allowing classes to be conceptually grouped with similar
classes. Packages allow code to be easily reused, since you can import entire groups of classes (or
specific classes in a package) into your own programs without having to manage the whereabouts of the
class files.
Placing classes in packages
To specify a class as being part of a particular package, you need only supply the keyword package,
followed by the name of the package at the top of the source file (before import statements or class
definitions):
package packageName; /* makes class(es) in file part of
this package */
Packages can be nested inside one another by using dot references to qualify the names like
package java.awt;
and
package java.awt.event;
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Using packages
Classes that are part of a package can be accessed in one of four ways:
1. By importing an entire package using the asterisk (*) wildcard, making all public classes in
the package available to your program. When importing packages, you must supply the import
statement before the class definition:
import java.awt.event.*
All that is needed is to refer to the class name:
ActionEvent actionEvent = new ActionEvent();
2. By importing a specific class in a package and referring to the class by name. When importing
packages, you must supply the import statement before the class definition:
import java.awt.event.ActionEvent;
All you need refer to is the class name:
ActionEvent actionEvent = new ActionEvent();
3. By specifying the complete package name without the asterisk as a wildcard:
import java.awt.event;
It is then necessary to only specify the last part of the package name when referring to the class:
event.ActionEvent actionEvent = new event.ActionEvent();
4. By specifying a class by its full name, including the package it is part of, directly in your code.
In this case, you don’t use the import statement at all and so may specify the class anywhere in
the body of your source code:
java.awt.event.ActionEvent actionEvent =
new java.awt.event.ActionEvent();
Standard Java packages
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Java comes with a large library of classes you’ll use in your programs. These classes are organized into
eight Application Programming Interface (API packages and one debugging package.
Table A-14
Standard Java Packagres: General Description
API Packages Description
java.applet Applet classes and interfaces
java.awt Abstract Windowing Toolkit (AWT) classes and interfaces
java beans Platform-neutral component architecture
java.io Input/output classes and interfaces
java.lang Core Java language classes and interfaces
java.math Extended precision arithmetic
java. net Network classes and interfaces
java.awt.peer Interface to machine-dependent GUI
java.rmi Remote Method Invocation
java.security Encryption and decryption of data
java. sql Relational database interface definition (JDBC)
java.text String and text manipulation
java. util Utility classes and interfaces
org.omg CORBA
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Other Packages Description
javax. servlet Server-side Java servlets
sun.tools.debug Debugging classes and interfaces
Table A-15 shows standard Java packages specifying their interfaces and classes.
Table A-15
Standard lava Packages: Interfaces and Classes
Package Interface(s) Class(es)
java.applet AppletContext AppletStub Applet
AudioClip
java.awt ActiveEvent Adjustable AWTEvent AWTEventMulticaster AWTPermission
Composite CompositeContext AlphaComposite BasicStroke BorderLayout Button
ItemSelectable LayoutManager Canvas CardLayout Checkbox CheckboxGroup
LayoutManager2 MenuContainer CheckboxMenuItem Choice Color Component Container
Paint PaintContext PrintGraphics Cursor Dialog Dimension Event EventQueue FileDialog
Shape Stroke Transparency FlowLayout Font FontMetrics Frame GradientPaint
Graphics Graphics2D GraphicsConfiguration
GraphicsDevice GraphicsEnvironment
GridBagConstraints GridBagLayout GridLayout Image
Insets Label List MediaTracker Menu MenuBar
MenuComponent MenuItem MenuShortcut Panel Point
Polygon PopupMenu PrintJob PrintJob2D Rectangle
ScrollPane Scrollbar SystemColor TextArea
TextComponent TextField TexturePaint Toolkit Window
java.awt.accessibility Accessible AccessibleLayout AbstractAccessible AccessibleEnumeration
AccessibleText AccessibleResourceBundle
AccessibleRoleAccessibleState AccessibleStateSet
java.awt.color ColorSpace ICC_ColorSpace CMMException ProfileDataException
ICC_Profile ICC_ProfileGray
ICC_ProfileRGB
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java.awt.datatransfer ClipboardOwner Transferable Clipboard DataFlavor StringSetection
java.awt.dnd DragSourceListener DnDConstants DragSource DragSourceContext
DropTargetListener FlavorMap DragSourceDragEvent DragSourceDropEvent
DragSourceEvent DropTarget DropTargetContext
DropTargetContext.TransferableProxy
DropTargetDragEvent DropTargetDropEvent
DropTargetEvent
java.awt.event ActionListener ActionEvent AdjustmentEvent ComponentAdapter
AdjustmentListener ComponentEvent ContainerAdapter ContainerEvent
ComponentListener FocusAdapter FocusEvent InputEvent InputMethodEvent
ContainerListener FocusListener ItemEvent KeyAdapter KeyEvent MouseAdapter
InputMethodListener ItemListener MouseEvent MouseMotionAdapter PaintEvent TextEvent
KeyListener MouseListener WindowAdapter WindowEvent
MouseMotionListener
TextListener WindowListener
java.awt.font MultipleMaster OpenType GlyphJustification Info GtyphMetrics GlyphSet
StyledString StytedStringIterator TextAttributeSet
TextHitInfo TextLayout
java.awt.geom PathIterator AffineTransform Arc2D Arc2D.Float Area CubicCurve2D
CubicCurve2D.Float Dimension2D Ellipse2D Ellipse2D.
Float FlatteningPathIterator GeneralPath
GeneralPathIterator Line2D Line2D.Float Point2D
Point2D.Double Point2D.Float QuadCurve2D
QuadCurve2D.Float Rectangle2D Rectangle2D.Double
Rectangle2D.Float RectangularShape RoundRectangle2D
RoundRectangle2D.Float
java.awt.im InputMethodRequests InputContext InputMethodHighlight
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java.awt.image BufferedImageOp AffineTransformOp AreaAveragingScaleFilter
ImageConsumer ImageObserver BandCombineOp BandedSampleModel
ImageProducer ImagingLib BilinearAffineTransformOp BufferedImage
RasterImageConsumer RasterOp BufferedImageFilter ByteLookupTable ColorConvertOp
RenderedImage ColorModel ComponentColorModel
TileChangeListener ComponentSampleModel ConvolveOp CropImageFilter
WritableRenderedImage DataBuffer DataBufferByte DataBufferInt
DataBufferShort DirectColorModel FilteredImageSource
ImageFilter IndexColorModel Kernel LookupOp
LookupTable MemoryImageSource
MultiBandPackedSampleModel
NearestNeighborAffineTransformOp PackedColorModel
PixelGrabber RGBImageFilter Raster ReplicateScaleFilter
RescaleOp SampleModel ShortLookupTable
SingleBandPackedSampleModel ThresholdOp
TileChangeMulticaster WritableRaster
java.awt.peer ButtonPeer.java CanvasPeer.java (none)
CheckboxMenuItemPeer.java
CheckboxPeer.java ChoicePeer.
java ComponentPeer.java
ContainerPeer.java DialogPeer.
java FileDiatogPeer.java FontPeer.
java FramePeer.java LabelPeer.
java LightweightPeer.java
ListPeer.java MenuBarPeer.java
MenuComponentPeer.java
MenuItemPeer.java MenuPeer.
java PanetPeer.java
PopupMenuPeer.java
ScrottbarPeer.java ScrollPanePeer.
java TextAreaPeer.java
TextComponentPeer.java
TextFieldPeer.java WindowPeer.
java
java.awt.print Printable Book Book. PageAndPainter PageFormat Paper
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Java awt swing Action BoundedRangeModel AbstractAction AbstractButton AbstractButton.
ButtonModel Cell Editor Cell ButtonChangeLi stener AbstractListModel
EditorListener ComboBoxEditor AbstractLookAndFeel BorderFactory Box Box. Filler
ComboBoxModel BoxLayout ButtonGroup CellRendererPane
DesktopManager FileType Icon DebugGraphics DefaultBoundedRangeMode!
JComboBox. KeySel ectionMana DefaultButtonModel DefaultCellEditor DefaultCell
lIRenderer ListModel Editor. EditorDelegate DefaultCelt Renderer
ListSelectionModel Renderer DefaultCellRenderer.ValueProperty Defaul
ScrollPaneConstants Scrollable tDesktopManager DefaultFocusManagerDefaultListModel
SingleSetectionModel DefaultListSetectionModel DefauttSingteSelectionModet
SwingConstants UIDefaults. Package Interface(s) Class(es) DirectoryModel
ActiveValue UIDefaults. DirectoryModel .WindowsRootDir FileType.Computer
LazyVatue WindowConstants FileType. ExtensionBased FileType. FloppyDrive
FileType. Fotder FileType.GenericFileFiteType.
HardDrive FileType.Hidden FocusManager GrayFitter
ImageIcon JApplet JButton JCheckBox
JCheckBoxMenuttem JColorChooser JComboBox
JComponent JDesktopIcon JDesktopPane JDiatog
JDirectoryPane JDirectoryPane, DefaultActionListener
JDirectory Pane,GoUpAction JDirectoryPane, Redi rector
JDirectoryPane,SelListener JEditorPane JFiteChooser
JFileChooser.ModalListener JFrame JInternatFrame
JLabel JLayeredPane JList JMenu JMenu.WinListener
JMenuBar JMenuttem JOptionPane JPanel
JPasswordField JPopupMenu JPopupMenu.
ComponentListener JPopupMenu. Wi nLi stener
JProgressBar JProgressBar.ModelListener JRadioButton
JRadioButtonMenuItem JRootPane JRootPane.
RootLayout JScrollBar JScrollPane JScrotlPane. ScroltBar
JSeparator JStider JStider.ModetListener JSplitPane
JTabbedPane JTabbedPane.ModelListener JTable
JTextArea JTextFietd JTextPane JToggleButton JToggt
eButton. Toggt eButtonModet JToolBar JToolBar.
Separator JToolTip JTree JTree, DynamicUtil TreeNode
JTree. EmptySelectionModet JTree.
TreeSelectionRedirector JViewport JViewport.
ViewListener JWindow KeyStroke OverlayLayout
ProgressMonitor ProgressMoni tor I nputStream Repai
ntManager ScroltPaneLayout SizeRequirements
SpringLayout SpringLayout. SpringValues SwingUtilities
SyntheticImage Timer ToolTipManager Toot TipManager.
insideTimerActi on Tool TipManager.
outsideTimerAction Tool TipManager.
stittInsideTimerAction TypedFile UIDefaults UIManager
ViewportLayout
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java.awt.swing.basic (none) AbstractOptionPaneUI AbstractOptionPaneUI.
SyncingLayoutManager AbstractTreeUI
BasicArrowButton BasicButtonBorder
BasicButtonListener BasicButtonUI
BasicCheckBoxMenuItemUI BasicCheckBoxMenuItemUI.
CheckboxMenuItemLi stener BasicCheckBoxUI
BasicComboBoxEditor BasicComboBoxEditor.
UIResource BasicComboBoxRenderer
BasicComboBoxRenderer.UIResource
BasicComboBoxUI BasicDesktopIconUI
BasicDesktopPaneUI BasicDirectoryPaneUI
BasicDirectoryPaneUI.Listener BasicEditorPaneUI
BasicEditorPaneUI.EditorController BasicFieldBorder
BasicFileChooserUI BasicFileChooserUI.CancelAction
BasicFileChooserUI.GoHomeAction BasicFileChooserUI.
Listener BasicFileChooserUI.MkdirAction
BasicFileChooserUI.NoFocusButton BasicFileChooserUI.
OkayAction BasicFileChooserUI.TypeRenderer
BasicFileChooserUI.TypesComboBoxModel
BasicGraphicsUtils BasicIconFactory
BasicInternalFrameUI BasicInternalFrameUI.
BorderListener BasicLabelUI BasicListCellRenderer
BasicListCellRenderer.UIResource BasicListUI
BasicListUI.DataListener BasicListUI.PropertyListener
BasicListUI.SelectionListener BasicLookAndFeel
BasicMarginBorder BasicMenuBarBorder
BasicMenuBarUI BasicMenuBarUI.ContaineeListener
BasicMenuBarUI.ContaineeMenuListener
BasicMenuBarUI.ContainerListener BasicMenuBarUI.
DragListener BasicMenuBarUI.MenuSelectionListener
BasicMenuItemUI BasicMenuItemUI.MenuItemListener
BasicMenuUI BasicMenuUI.DragListener BasicMenuUI.
MenuChangeListener BasicMenuUI.MenuMouseListener
BasicMenuUtilities BasicOptionPaneUI
BasicPasswordFieldUI BasicPopupMenuUI
BasicPopupMenuUI.ComponentListener
BasicPopupMenuUI.DragListener BasicPopupMenuUI.
MenuSelectionListener BasicPopupMenuUI.
PopupContainerListener BasicPopupMenuUI.
PopupContainerListener .ContaineeListener
BasicPopupMenuUI.PopupListener BasicProgressBarUI
BasicRadioButtonMenuItemUI
BasicRadioButtonMenuItemUI.RadioButtonMenu
ItemListener BasicRadioButtonUI BasicScrollBarUI
BasicScrollBarUI.ArrowButtonListener BasicScrollBarUI.
ModelListener BasicScrollBarUI.ScrollListener
BasicScrollBarUI.TrackListener BasicScrollPaneUI
BasicScrollPaneUI.BasicScrollPaneLayout
BasicScrollPaneUI.HSBListener BasicScrollPaneUI.
VSBListener BasicScrollPaneUI.ViewportListener
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BasicSeparatorUI BasicSliderUI BasicSliderUI.
ActionScroller BasicSliderUI.FListener BasicSliderUI.
ModelListener BasicSliderUI.ScrollListener BasicSliderUI.
SizingListener BasicSliderUI.TrackListener
BasicSpinnerUI BasicSplitPaneDivider
BasicSplitPaneDivider.DividerLayout
BasicSplitPaneDivider.DragController
BasicSplitPaneDivider.MouseHandler
BasicSplitPaneDivider .VerticalDragController
BasicSplitPaneUI BasicSplitPaneUI.
BasicHorizontalLayout Manager BasicSplitPaneUI.
BasicSplitPaneBorder BasicSplitPaneUI.
BasicVerticalLayoutManager BasicTabbedPaneUI
BasicTableHeaderUI BasicTableUI BasicTextAreaUI
BasicTextFieldUI BasicTextPaneUI BasicTextUI
BasicToggleButtonUI BasicToolBarUI BasicToolTipUI
BasicTreeCellEditor BasicTreeCellEditorContainer
BasicTreeCellRenderer BasicTreeUI BasicTreeUI.
BasicTreeMouseListener BasicTreeUI.
BasicTreeUIPaintInfo BasicTreeUI.CollapsedIcon
BasicTreeUI.ExpandedIcon BasicVisibleTreeNode
LargeTreeModelNode Spinner StringSpinner
VisibleTreeNode
java.awt.swing. (none) AbstractButtonBeanInfo JButtonBeanInfo
beaninfo JCheckBoxBeanInfo JComboBoxBeantnfo
JComponentBeanInfo JInternalFrameBeanInfo
JLabelBeanInfo JMenuBeanInfo JMenuttemBeantnfo
JOptionPaneBeanInfo JPopupMenuBeanInfo
JRadioButtonBeantnfo JSptitPaneBeantnfo
JToggteButtonBeanInfo JTreeBeanInfo SwingBeanInfo
java.swing.border Border AbstractBorder BevelBorder CompoundBorder
EmptyBorder EtchedBorder LineBorder MatteBorder
SoftBevelBorder TitledBorder
java.swing.event AncestorLi stener ChangeListener AncestorEvent ChangeEvent DragEvent EventListenerList
DocumentEvent DocumentEvent. ListDataEvent ListSelectionEvent MenuEvent
ElementChange TableCotumnModelEvent TableModelEvent
DocumentListener TreeExpansionEvent TreeModelEvent TreeSelectionEvent
ListDataListener ListSel
ectionListener MenuLi stener
TableCol umnModel Listener
TableModel Listener
TreeExpansionListener
TreeModel Listener
TreeSelectionListener
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java.awt.swing.jlf (none) JFillSlider JLFArrowIcon JLFButtonBorder
JLFButtonListener JLFButtonUI JLFButtonUI.
JLFButtonMargin JLFCheckBoxMenuItemUI
JLFCheckBoxUI JLFComboBoxEditor
JLFComboBoxEditor.UIResource JLFComboBoxIcon
JLFComboBoxListCellRenderer
JLFComboBoxListCellRenderer.UIResource
JLFComboBoxUI JLFDesktopIconUI
JLFDesktopManager JLFDesktopMenu
JLFDesktopPaneUI JLFDirectoryPaneUI
JLFFileChooserUI JLFFileChooserUI.JLFTypeRenderer
JLFFrameBorder JLFIconFactory
JLFInternalFrameButton JLFInternalFrameUI JLFLabelUI
JLFListCellRenderer JLFListUI JLFLookAndFeel
JLFMenuBarBorder JLFMenuBarUI JLFMenuItemBorder
JLFMenuItemUI JLFMenuUI JLFOldSliderUI
JLFOldTabbedPaneUI JLFPasswordFieldUI
JLFPopupMenuBorder JLFPopupMenuUI
JLFProgressBarUI JLFRadioButtonMenuItemUI
JLFRadioButtonUI JLFRolloverButtonBorder
JLFScrollBarUI JLFScrollButton JLFScrollPaneUI
JLFSeparatorUI JLFSliderUI JLFSpinnerUI
JLFSplitPaneDivider JLFSplitPaneUI JLFTabbedPaneUI
JLFTableHeaderUI JLFTableUI JLFTextAreaUI
JLFTextBorder JLFTextFieldUI JLFTextPaneUI
JLFToggleButtonUI JLFToolBarUI JLFToolTipUI
JLFTreeCellRenderer JLFTreeUI JLFUtitities
java.awt.swing.motif (none) MotifBorderFactory MotifButtonListener MotifButtonUI
MotifCheckBoxMenuItemUI
MotifCheckBoxMenuItemUI .
CheckboxMenuItemListener MotifCheckBoxUI
MotifComboBoxRenderer MotifComboBoxRenderer.
UIResource MotifComboBoxUI MotifDesktopIconUI
MotifDesktopPaneUI MotifEditorPaneUI
MotifFrameBorder MotifGraphicsUtits
MotiftnternalFrameBorder MotiftnternalFrameUI
MotifLabelUt MotifLookAndFeel MotifMenuBarUI
MotifMenuBarUI.ContaineeListener MotifMenuBarUI.
ContaineeMenuListener MotifMenuItemUI
MotifMenuttemUI.MenuItemListener MotifMenuUI
MotifMenuUI.MenuMouseListener MotifOptionPaneUI
Moti fPasswordFieldUI MotifPopupMenuUI
MotifPopupMenuUI.MenuSelectionListener
MotifProgressBarUI MotifRadioButtonMenuItemUI
MotifRadioButtonMenuItemUI.RadioButtonMenu
ItemListener MotifRadioButtonUI MotifScrollBarButton
MotifScrollBarUI MotifScrollPaneUt MotifSeparatorUI
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MotifStiderUI MotifSplitPaneDivider MotifSplitPaneUI
MotifTabbedPaneUI MotifTextAreaUI MotifTextFieldUI
MotifTextFieldUI.MotifFieldController MotifTextPaneUI
MotifTextUt MotifTextUI.MotifCaret MotifTextUt .
MotifControlIer MotifToggteButtonUI MotifTootTipUI
MotifTreeCellRenderer MotifTreeCellRenderer.Tr
eeLeafIcon MotifTreeUt MotifTreeUI.MotifCollapsedtcon
MotifTreeUI.MotifExpandedIcon
java.awt.swing.multi (none) MultiButtonUI MultiCheckBoxMenuItemUI
MultiComboBoxUI MultiDesktopIconUI
MultiDesktopPaneUI MultiDirectoryPaneUI
MultiInternalFrameUI MultiLabelUI MultiListUI
MultiLookAndFeel MultiMenuBarUI MultiMenuItemUI
MultiMenuUI MultiOptionPaneUI MultiPopupMenuUI
MultiProgressBarUI MultiRadioButtonMenuItemUI
MultiScrollBarUI MultiScrollPaneUI MultiSeparatorUI
MultiSliderUI MultiSpinnerUI MultiSplitPaneUI
MultiTabbedPaneUI MultiTableHeaderUI MultiTableUI
MultiTextUI MultiToggleButtonUI MultiToolBarUI
MultiToolTipUI MultiTreeUI
java.awt.swign.plaf UIResource BorderUIResource ButtonUI CheckBoxMenuItemUI
ColorUIResource ComboBoxUI ComponentUI
DesktopIconUI DesktopPaneUI DimensionUIResource
DirectoryPaneUI FileChooserUt FontUtResource
IconUIResource tnsetsUIResource tnternalFrameUI
LabelUI ListUI MenuBarUI MenuItemUI MenuUI
OptionPaneUI PopupMenuUI ProgressBarUI
RadioButtonMenuItemUI ScrollBarUI ScrollPaneUI
SeparatorUI SliderUI SpinnerUI SplitPaneUI
TabbedPaneUI TableHeaderUI TableUI TextUI
ToggleButtonUI ToolBarUI ToolTipUI TreeUI
java.awt.swing.table TableCellEditor AbstractTableModel DefaultTableColumnModel
TabteCeltRenderer DefaultTableModel JTableHeader TableColumn
TableCotumnModet TableModel
java.awt.swing.target Iterator Target TargetManager TargetManager.Abstract TargetManager. Dummy
Trigger TargetManager.tmptementation TargetManager. Util
Trigger. Abstract TriggerAction
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java.awt.swing.text AbstractDocument. AbstractDocument AbstractDocument. AbstractElement
AttributeContext AbstractDocument. BranchElement AbstractDocument.
AbstractDocument. Content LeafElement BoxView ComponentView CompositeView
AttributeSet Caret Document DefaultCaret DefaultDocumentEvent
Element Highlighter Highlighter. DefaultDocumentEvent.ElementEdit DefaultEditorKit
Highlight Highlighter. DefaultHighlighter DefaultHighlighter.
HighlightPainter Keymap DefaultHighlightPainter DefaultStyledDocument
MutableAttributeSet Position DefaultStyledDocument.ElementBuffer
Style StyledDocument DefaultStyledDocument.ElementSpec
TabExpander TextController DefaultStyledDocument.SectionElement
ViewFactory DefaultTextController DefaultTextController.KeyBinding
DefaultTextUI EditorKit FieldView IconView
JTextComponent LabelView ParagraphView
PasswordView PlainDocument PlainView Segment
SimpleAttributeSet StringContent StyleConstants
StyleContext StyleContext.NamedStyle StyledEditorKit
StyledEditorKit.AlignmentAction StyledEditorKit.
BoldAction StyledEditorKit.FontFamilyAction
StyledEditorKit.FontSizeAction StyledEditorKit.
ForegroundAction StyledEditorKit.ItalicAction
TextAction Utilities View
java.awt.swing.undo StateEditable UndoableEdit AbstractUndoableEdit CompoundEdit StateEdit
UndoableEditListener UndoManager UndoableEditEvent UndoableEditSupport
java.beans Aggregate AppletInitiatizer AggregateObject BeanDescriptor Beans
BeanInfo Customizer Delegate EventSetDescriptor FeatureDescriptor
DesignMode IndexedPropertyDescriptor Introspector MethodDescriptor
PropertyChangeListener ParameterDescriptor PropertyChangeEvent
PropertyEditor PropertyChangeSupport PropertyDescriptor
VetoableChangeListener Visibility PropertyEditorManager PropertyEditorSupport
VisibilityState SimpleBeanInfo VetoableChangeSupport
java.beans.beancontext BeanContext BeanContextChild BeanContextAddedEvent BeanContextEvent
BeanContextMembershipListener BeanContextMembershipEvent
BeanContextRemovedEvent BeanContextSupport
BeanContextSupport.BCSChildInfo
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java.io DataInput DataOutput BufferedInputStream BufferedOutputStream
Externatizable FilenameFitter BufferedReader BufferedWriter ByteArrayInputStream
ObjectInput ByteArrayOutputStream CharArrayReader
ObjectInputValidation CharArrayWriter DataInputStream DataOutputStream File
ObjectOutput Replaceable FileDescriptor FitetnputStream FileOutputStream
Resolvable Seriatizable FilePermission FileReader FileWriter FittertnputStream
FilterOutputStream FitterReader FilterWriter InputStream
InputStreamReader LineNumberInputStream
LineNumberReader ObjectInputStream
ObjecttnputStream. GetFietd ObjectOutputStream
ObjectOutputStream. PutFietd ObjectStreamClass
ObjectStreamField OutputStream OutputStreamWriter
PipedInputStream PipedOutputStream PipedReader
PipedWriter PrintStream PrintWriter
PushbackInputStream PushbackReader
RandomAccessFite Reader SequenceInputStream
SerializablePermission StreamTokenizer
StringBufferInputStream StringReader StringWriter
Writer
java.lang Cloneable Comparable Runnable Boolean Byte Character Class ClassLoader Compiler
Runtime.MemoryAdvice Double Float Integer Long Math Number Object Package
Process Runtime RuntimePermission SecurityManager
Short String StringBuffer System Thread ThreadGroup
ThreadLocal Throwable Void
java.lang.ref (none) CachedReference GuardedReference PhantomReference
Reference ReferenceQueue WeakReference
java.lang.reflect Member AccessibleObject Array Constructor Field Method
Modifier ReflectPermission
java.math (none) BigDecimal Bigtnteger
java.net ContentHandlerFactory Authenticator ContentHandler DatagramPacket
FileNameMap SocketImplFactory DatagramSocket DatagramSocketImpl
URLStreamHandlerFactory HttpURLConnection InetAddress JarURLConnection
MulticastSocket NetPermission PasswordAuthentication
ServerSocket Socket SocketImpl SocketPermission URL
URLClassLoader URLConnection URLEncoder
URLStreamHandler
java.rmi Remote MarshatledObject Naming RMISecurityManager
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java.rmi.activation ActivationInstantiator Activatabte ActivationDesc ActivationGroup
ActivationMonitor ActivationGroupDesc ActivationGroupID ActivationID
ActivationSystem Activator
java.rmi.dgc DGC Lease VMID
java.rmi.registry Registry RegistryHandler LocateRegistry
java.rmi.server LoaderHandler LogStream ObjID Operation RMtClassLoader
RMIFaitureHandler RemoteCatl RMISocketFactory RemoteObject RemoteServer
RemoteRef ServerRef Skeleton RemoteStub SocketType UID UnicastRemoteObject
Unreferenced
java.security Certificate Guard Key Principal AccessControtContext AccessController
PrivateKey PublicKey AlgorithmParameterGenerator
AlgorithmParameterGeneratorSpi AlgorithmParameters
AlgorithmParametersSpi BasicPermission CodeSource
DigestInputStream DigestOutputStream GuardedObject
Identity IdentityScope KeyFactory KeyFactorySpi
KeyPair KeyPairGenerator KeyPairGeneratorSpi
KeyStore MessageDigest MessageDigestSpi Permission
PermissionCollection Permissions Policy Provider
SecureClassLoader SecureRandom Security
SecurityPermission Signature SignatureSpi SignedObject
Signer
java.security.acl Acl AclEntry Group Owner AclNotFoundException LastOwnerException
Permission NotOwnerException
java.security.cert X509Extension Certificate RevokedCertificate XSO9CRL
XSO9Certificate
java.security.interfaces DSAKey DSAKeyPairGenerator (none)
DSAParams DSAPrivateKey
DSAPublicKey
java.security.spec AlgorithmParameterSpec DSAParameterSpec DSAPrivateKeySpec
KeySpec DSAPublicKeySpec EncodedKeySpec
PKCS8EncodedKeySpec X509EncodedKeySpec
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java.sql CallableStatement Connection Date DriverManager DriverPropertyInfo Time Timestamp
DatabaseMetaData Driver Types
PreparedStatement ResultSet
ResultSetMetaData Statement
java.text AttributeSet Annotation AttributedString BreakIterator ChoiceFormat
AttributedCharacterIterator CotlationElementIterator CollationKey Collator
CharacterIterator DateFormat DateFormatSymbols DecimalFormat
MutableAttributeSet DecimalFormatSymbols FieldPosition Format
MessageFormat NumberFormat ParsePosition
RuleBasedCollator SimpteDateFormat
StringCharacterIterator
java.util Collection Comparator AbstractCollection AbstractList AbstractMap
Enumeration EventListener AbstractSequentialList AbstractSet ArrayList ArrayMap
Iterator List ListIterator Map Map. ArraySet Arrays BitSet Calendar Collections Date
Entry Observer Set Dictionary EventObject GregorianCalendar HashMap
HashSet Hashtable LinkedList ListResourceBundle Locale
Observable Properties PropertyPermission
PropertyResourceBundle Random ResourceBundle
SimpleTimeZone Stack StringTokenizer TimeZone
TreeMap Vector
java.util .jar (none) Attributes Attributes. Name JarEntry JarFile
JarInputStream JarOutputStream Manifest
java.util.mime (none) MimeType MimeTypeParameterList
java.util.zip Checksum Adler32 CRC32 CheckedtnputStream
CheckedOutputStream Debater DenaterOutputStream
GZIPInputStream GZIPOutputStream Inflater
InflaterInputStream ZipEntry ZipFite ZipInputStream
ZipOutputStream
javax.servlet Servlet ServletConfig GenericServlet ServletInputStream ServletOutputStream
ServletContext ServletRequest
ServletResponse
SingleThreadModel
javax.servlet.http HttpServletRequest Cookie HttpServlet HttpSessionBindingEvent HttpUtits
HttpServletResponse HttpSession
HttpSessionBindingListener
HttpSessionContext
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org.omg.CORBA ARG-IN ARG-INOUT ARG- Any AnyHolder AttributeDescription AttributeMode
OUT AliasDef ArrayDef BooleanHolder ByteHolder CharHolder CompletionStatus
AttributeDef CTX- ConstantDescription Context ContextList Current
RESTRICT=SCOPE ConstantDef Definitionkind DoubleHolder DynamicIplementation
Contained Container EnumDef Environment ExceptionDescription ExceptionList
ExceptionDef IDLType IRObject FloatHolder IntHolder InterfaceDescription LongHolder
ImplementationDef InterfaceDef ModuleDescription NVList NamedValue ORB
ModuleDef Object OperationDef ObjectHolder OperationDescription OperationMode
PrimitiveDef Repository ParameterDescription ParameterMode PrimitiveKind
SequenceDef StringDef StructDef Principal PrincipalHolder Request ServerRequest
TypedefDef UnionDef ShortHolder StringHolder StructMember TCKind
TypeCode TypeCodeHolder TypeDescription
UnionMember
org.omg CORBA. (none) Description
ContainedPackage
org.omg.CORBA. (none) Description
ContainerPackage
org.omg CORBA. (none) (none)
ORBPackage
org.omg.CORBA. (none) (none)
TypeCodePackage
org.omg CORBA. Streamable Delegate InputStream ObjectImplOutputStream
portable
org.omg.CosNaming BindingIterator NamingContext Binding BindingHelper BindingHolder
_BindingIteratorOperations BindingIteratorHelper BindingIteratorHolder
_NamingContextOperations BindingListHelper BindingListHolder BindingType
BindingTypeHelper BindingTypeHolder IstringHelper
NameComponent NameComponentHelper
NameComponentHolder NameHelper NameHolder
NamingContextHelper NamingContextHolder
_BindingIteratorImplBase _BindingIteratorStub
_BindingIteratorTie _NamingContextImplBase
_NamingContextStub _NamingContextTie
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org.omg.CosNaming. (none) AlreadyBoundHelper AlreadyBoundHolder
NamingContextPackage CannotProceedHelper CannotProceedHolder
InvalidNameHelper InvalidNameHolder NotEmptyHelper
NotEmptyHolder NotFoundHetper NotFoundHolder
NotFoundReason NotFoundReasonHelper
NotFoundReasonHolder
Table A-16 shows the exceptions and errors relevant to specific standard Java packages.
Table A-16
Standard Java Packages: Exceptions and Errors
Package Exceptions Errors
java.awt AWTException AWTError
ItlegalComponentStateException
java.awt.color CMMException (none)
ProfileDataException
java.awt.datatransfer UnsupportedFlavorException (none)
java.awt.dnd InvalidDnDOperationException (none)
java.awt.geom ItlegalPathStateException (none)
NoninvertibleTransformException
java.awt.image ImagingOpException (none)
RasterFormatException
java.awt.swing.text BadLocationException (none)
java.awt.swing.undo CannotRedoException (none)
CannotUndoException
java.beans IntrospectionException (none)
PropertyVetoException
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java.io CharConversionException (none)
EOFException
FileNotFoundException
IOException
InterruptedIOException
InvalidClassException
InvatidObjectException
NotActiveException
NotSerializabteException
ObjectStreamException
OptionalDataException
StreamCorruptedException
SyncFailedException
UTFDataFormatException
UnsupportedEncodingException
WriteAbortedException
java.lang ArithmeticException AbstractMethodError ClassCircularityError
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException ClassFormatError Error ExceptionIntnitializerError
ArrayStoreException IllegalAccessError IncompatibleClassChangeError
ClassCastException InstantiationError InternalError LinkageError
ClassNotFoundException NoClassDefFoundError NoSuchFieldError
CloneNotSupportedException NoSuchMethodError OutOfMemoryError
Exception IllegalAccessException StackOverflowError ThreadDeath UnknownError
IllegalArgumentException UnsatisfiedLinkError VerifyError VirtualMachineError
IllegalMonitorStateException
IllegalStateException
IllegalThreadStateException
IndexOutOfBoundsException
InstantiationException
InterruptedException
NegativeArraySizeException
NoSuchFieldException
NoSuchMethodException
NullPointerException
NumberFormatException
RuntimeException
SecurityException
StringIndexOutOfBoundsException
UnsupportedOperationException
java.lang.ref EnqueuedReferenceException (none)
java.lang.reflect InvocationTargetException (none)
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java .net BindException ConnectException (none)
MalformedURLException
NoRouteToHostException
ProtocotException
SocketException
UnknownHostException
UnknownServiceException
java.rmi AccessException (none)
AlreadyBoundException
ConnectException
ConnectIOException
MarshalException
NoSuchObjectException
NotBoundException
RMISecurityException
RemoteException ServerError
ServerException
ServerRuntimeException
StubNotFoundException
UnexpectedException
UnknownHostException
UnmarshalException
java.rmi.activation ActivationException (none)
UnknownGroupException
UnknownObjectException
java.rmi.server ExportException (none)
ServerCloneException
ServerNotActiveException
SkeletonMismatchException
SkeletonNotFoundException
SocketSecurityException
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java.security AccessControlException (none)
DigestException
GeneralSecurityException
InvatidAlgorithmParameter
Exception InvalidKeyException
InvalidParameterException
KeyException
KeyManagementException
KeyStoreException
NoSuchAtgorithmException
NoSuchProviderException
ProviderException
SignatureException
UnrecoverableKeyException
java.security.acl AclNotFoundException (none)
LastOwnerException
NotOwnerException
java.security.cert CRLException (none)
CertificateEncodingException
CertificateException
CertificateExpiredException
CertificateNotYetValidException
CertificateParsingException
X509ExtensionException
java.security.spec InvalidKeySpecException (none)
InvalidParameterSpecException
java.sql DataTruncation SQLException (none)
SQLWarning
java.text ParseException (none)
java.utit ConcurrentModificationException (none)
EmptyStackException
MissingResourceException
NoSuchEtementException
TooManyListenersException
java.util.jar JarException (none)
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java. util .mime MimeTypeParseException (none)
java.util.zip DataFormatException (none)
ZipException
javax.servlt ServletException (none)
UnavailableException
org.omg. CORBA BAD_CONTEXT BAD_INV (none)
ORDER BAD_OPERATION
BAD_PARAM BAD TYPECODE
Bounds COMM FAILURE
DATA_CONVERSION
FREE_MEM IMP_LIMIT
INITIALIZE INTERNAL
tNTF_REPOS
INVALIDTRANSACTION
INV_FLAG INV_IDENT INV
OBJREF MARSHAL
NO_IMPLEMENT
NO_MEMORY NO PERMISSION
NO RESOURCES
NO_RESPONSE
OBJECT_NOT_EXIST OBJ
ADAPTER PERSIST STORE
SystemException
TRANSACTION_REQUIRED
TRANSACTION ROLLEDBACK
TRANSIENT UNKNOWN
UnknownUserException
UserException WrongTransaction
orb.omg.CORBA. IvalidName (none)
ORBPackage
orb.omg. CORBA. TypeCodePackage BadKind (none)
Bounds
orb.omg.CosNaming. AlreadyBound CannotProceed (none)
NamingContextPackage InvalidName NotEmpty NotFound
Control Flow
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Java supports several execution-control flow structures, which will be familiar to C and C++
programmers. Tables A-17 through A-19 provide examples of such structures: if statements, switch
statements, whi1e, and do- whi1e loops, and label, break, and continue statements.
Table A-17
if Statements in Java Control Flow
Syntax Example
if (boolean expression) ... code block ... } if (x < 100) { System.out.println(“x is LESS than
100”) }
if (boolean expression) { ... “if” code block ... } else if (x < 100) { System,out,println(“x is LESS than
{ ... “else” code block ...} 100”) } else { System.out.println(“x is 100 or
GREATER”) }
if (boolean expression) ... if code block ... } else if if (x < 100) { System.out.println(“x is LESS than
(boolean expression){ ... “else if” code block ... } 100”) } else if (x == 100){ System.out.println(“x is
else { ... “else” code block ... EXACTLY 100”)} } else { System.out.println(“x is
GREATER than 100”)}
Table A-18
switch Statements in Java Control Flow
Syntax Example
switch (expression) case Constant1: ... break case { switch (x) { case 25: System.out.println(“x is twenty-five.
Constant2: break ... case Constant3: ... break default: .... ”) System.out.printtn(“Twenty-five is a good number. ”)
break } break case 100: System. out.println(“x is onehundred.”)
System.out.printtn(“There are 100 pennies in a dollar.”)
break case 111: System.out.println(“x is one-hundred and
el even.”) break case 3396: System. out . pri ntt n( “x is
3,396”) System.out.print(“3,396 is a big number, ”) System.
out.println(“and important as wel I...” ) break default:
System.out.println(“x is something I didn’t anticipate!”)
break }
Table A-19
while and do-while Loops in Java Control Flow
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Syntax Example
while (boolean expression) { ... loop body ... } while (x++ < 100) { System.out.println(“x is: ”+ x) }
do { ... loop body ... } while (boolean expression) do { System.out.println(“x is: ”+ x) } while (x++ < 100)
Table A-20
for Loop
Syntax Example
for (expression boolean expression expression){._ loop for (int x=O x<lO x++) { System.out.println(“x is: ”+ x)}
body ...}
Table A-21
label, break, and continue Statements in Java Control Flow
1 Example
Syntax
1
Items in brackets are optional.
label: enterLoop:
break [label] int x:O
enterLoop:
while (x++<lO) {
System.out.println (“Inside the while loop,
iteration:” + x)
switch (x) f
case O: System.out.println (“Inside
switch, x equals: ”+ x)
break
case 1: System.out.println (“Inside
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switch, x equals: ”+ x)
break
case 2: System.out.println (“Inside
switch, x equals: ”+ x)
break
default:
if (x==5) /
System.out.println (“Break out of
switch and while loop.”)
break enterLoop /* break to
enterLoop
label */
}
break
}
System. out.println (“Out of switch, back in
while loop.”)
}
continue [label] int x=0
enterLoop:
while (x++<5) {
System.out.println (“Inside the while loop,
iteration:” + i)
for (int i=0 i<l0 i++){
System.out.println (“Inside the
for loop,
iteration:” + i)
if (i == 5) {
System.out.println
(“Transferring flow
out of for loop!”)
continue enterLoop /* jump to
enterLoop
label when i is 5 */
}
}
System.out.println (“Out of for
loop, back in
while,”)
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Java Bible:Java Language Reference
Strings and Arrays
Java strings and arrays are first-class objects with their own methods. However, the String class is
declared final in Java, and so can’t be subclassed. Arrays are instances of a special “invisible” array class
which can not be subclassed, either.
String versus StringBuffer
Two Java classes deal with strings — String and StringBuffer, which allow us to create objects containing
character data.
Unlike String and StringBuffer objects, which can contain only character data, arrays can hold any type of
data we need, even other arrays — the only restriction is that each element in the array must be of the
same type. You can’t, for example, have an int in one element of an array, and a char in another.
Unlike C and C++ strings, which are simply an array of null-terminated characters, Java strings are
actually objects. The String class is used to create String objects, which are immutable (meaning their
contents can’t be altered after characters have been stored in them). StringBuffer, on the other hand, is
specifically for strings that are mutable (meaning they can be changed even after we’ve stored characters
in them).
To declare a String object, we provide a variable name and the proper data type:
String myString
We can also initialize a String at the time it’s declared:
String myString = “There once was a woman who lived in a shoe”
We can optionally instantiate a String object, as we would any other object (although the above technique
works just fine):
String myString = new String (“There once was a woman who
lived in a shoe ”)
StringBuffer objects, on the other hand, must be instantiated using the new keyword:
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StringBuffer myBuffer = new StringBuffer() // empty //
create empty, 50 characters in length:
StringBuffer myBuff2 = new StringBuffer(50)
StringBuffer myBuff3 = new StringBuffer(“Hello”) /* using
String */
Once created, you can add items to a StringBuffer using one of a number of append() methods:
myBuffer.append(“There once was a woman who lived in a shoe”)
Since StringBuffer objects can be altered, appending to and changing their content is permitted.
Arrays
In Java, arrays are truly first-class objects. Not only are they impossible to subclass, you won’t even find
a class definition for them.
To declare an array, we need only specify a variable, through which we’ll access the array and the data
type of the elements that the array will contain. To differentiate between arrays and standard variables,
square brackets ( [ ] ) are used. Array brackets can appear either directly after the data type or following
the variable name:
dataType[] variableName;
dataType variableName[];
The following are a few array declarations:
int myIntegers[]; // declare an array of integers
char[] myCharacters; // declare an array of characters
float myFloats[]; // declare an array of floating-point numbers
String[] myStrings; // declare an array of String objects
StringBuffer myStringBuffs[]; // declare an array of
StringBuffer objects;
Before an array can be used, we must instantiate an object. In addition, a dimension for the array must
be specified:
int myIntegers[] = new int[25]; // declare and instantiate
To access the elements in an array, an index (or subscript) must be provided:
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array[index]
Array indexing begins at zero (0), meaning the first element in an array is accessed using an index value
of zero:
array[0] // access first element in an array
As a result of zero-based indexing, the last element in an array is accessed by providing the number of
dimensions minus one. For example, in the previous example we supplied a dimension of 25 to the int
array. To access the last element in this array, we’d supply an index of 24:
myIntegers[24] // access last element in array of 25 elements
So, to find out how many elements are contained in an array, access the length variable:
int len = myIntegers.length; // get length of array
Multidimensional arrays
Although Java doesn’t support truly multidimensional arrays, you can create arrays of arrays to achieve
the same functionality:
int grid[][] = new int[10][10]
Exceptions
Java features a general-purpose error processing system known as an exception mechanism. Exceptions
provide a uniform approach to signaling, and also processing errors, removing much of the burden of
traditional error processing. (See Table A-22.)
Table A-22
Throwing an Exception
Syntax Example
throw new AnyExceptionObject() public static int myDivide(int x, int y) throws
ArithmeticException { if (y==O) throw new
ArithmeticException( ) else return (x/y) }
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Table A-23 shows the provisions Java makes for catching an exception.
Table A-23
Catching an Exception
1 Example
Syntax
try { ... try body ... } catch (ThrowabteCtassName variable) try { int y = myDivide(lO,O) } catch (ArithmeticException
{ ... catch body ... / final ly { .. finally body ... e) { System. out. pri ntl n(“Ari thmeti c exception has been
caught.”) } catch (BogusException e) { System. out. pti ntl
n(“XYZ exception has been caught.”) / finally { System.out.
printl n(“cleaning up...”) // do any clean-up work here }
1
Multiple catch clauses are supported; either the catch or finally clauses can be omitted, but not
both. Both can be present, however.
Threads
In Java, threads of execution can be implemented in one of two ways:
• By extending the Thread class
• By implementing the Runnable interface.
Extending the Thread class
class AnyClass extends Thread {
...
}
Implementing the Runnable interface
public class AnyClass extends java.applet.Applet implements Runnable {
Thread myThread // a variable to hold our thread
public void start() {
if (myThread == null) {
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myThread = new Thread(this) // create Thread
object
myThread.start() // start it
}
}
public void run() {
while (myThread ! = null) {
.... // what used to be in the start() method goes here
}
}
public void stop() {
myThread.stop() // stop it
myThread = null // prepare for garbage collection
}
}
Synchronized methods
To prevent multiple threads from accessing the same method at once, the synchronized keyword may be
used to identify the body of that method as a critical section. As a result, only one thread at a time will
be allowed to invoke the method. All other threads must wait until the current thread has finished:
public synchronized int anyMethod () {
... method body (now a critical section of code that can
...
... only be accessed by one thread at a time) ...
Although any block of code may be specified as synchronized, it’s considered bad programming style to
apply this keyword to any code other than a method.
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Java Bible:What's on the CD-ROM
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
APPENDIX B
What's on the CD-ROM
The CD-ROM that accompanies this book includes a wealth of programs and files to help you become a
master Java developer.
Directory Structure
The CD-ROM is organized into the following directory structure:
• Applets
• Book
• JavaWorld
• Mantis
• UNIX
• Win95NT
Applets
The Applets directory is packed with Java applets and the source code for each. Here, you'll find a wide
range of applets, including many of the Web's top-rated, award-winning programs--over 100 in all! The
source code for every one of them is supplied to give you a wide, deep base of Java programs to choose
from as you learn Java. These applets can be used in your own Web pages "out of the box," as the basis
for your own programs, or simply as a tool to help you learn the language. They have been organized for
easy access using a Web browser. Simply open the index.html file in this directory, and away you go!
Book
The Book directory contains a selection of the Java programs that are developed in the text. Look in the
appropriate chapter's directory for the program you're looking for. Use these files to save yourself the
effort of typing in the code listings.
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Java Bible:What's on the CD-ROM
JavaWorld
The JavaWorld directory contains a collection of articles from back issues of JavaWorld, IDG's Web-
based Java magazine that serves as the premier source of online information about Java development. As
a valuable supplement to the Java 1.2 Bible, its articles contain step-by-step examples and source code;
they cover a wide range of Java topics: threads, JFC, database access, inter-applet communication,
JavaBeans, tips and tricks, and more.
The articles in this collection have been selected by the editors of JavaWorld to provide the most lasting
value to the reader--you! To access the collection, simply open the file index.html and follow the links.
Don't forget to use the Search function too. It searches the entire archive of back issues on the
JavaWorld Web site: http://www.JavaWorld.com.
Mantis
The Mantis directory contains archives for Mantis Corporation's LivingLinks, a very powerful Java
applet for enlivening Web pages with sound, animation, and multiple hyperlinks. Simply unzip each of
the two archives to your hard disk and then open the files index.html (in the LivingLinks SDK
directory) and LivingLinks.html (in the LivingLinks directory) to learn how to use this powerful Web
development tool.
UNIX
The UNIX directory contains directories for Sun's Java™ JDK, version 1.1.5 and Sun's Beans
Development Kit, version 1.0, for Solaris (both SPARC and x86). For the latest JDKs, BDKs, and info,
visit Sun's Java Web site at http://java.sun.com. The UNIX directory also contains the JDesPro
directory, which contains a JAR archive of BulletProof Corporation's JDesigner Pro, a leading
development environment for Java intranet and Internet applications.
See the README and installation files in each JDK subdirectory for notes and installation instructions.
To install JDesigner Pro, follow these steps:
1. Create a directory on your computer called JDesignerPro.
2. Copy the JAR archive into that directory.
3. Expand the JAR archive using the following command:
/jdkl.l.5./bin/jar xvf Jdp2_5.jar
4. Open the file index.htm in your Web browser and click the Installation link for instructions
on starting the software.
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Java Bible:What's on the CD-ROM
Win95NT
The Win95NT directory contains the following subdirectories:
• BDK: Sun's Beans Development Kit, version 1.0.
• Explorer: Microsoft Internet Explorer, version 4.0; simply double-click setup.exe to install.
• JDesignerPro: BulletProof Corporation's JDesigner Pro Java IDE. Simply double-click to
install.
• JDK: Sun's Java™ JDK, version 1.1.5.
• Navigator: Netscape Navigator, version 4.04 (double-click to install).
• Tools: Contains archives of GoldWave 3.24, a fully functional digital audio editor; and WinZip
6.3, the ubiquitous Windows archiving utility. To install WinZip, simply double-click the file
wz32v63.exe; then you can install GoldWave by extracting the Zip archive gwave324.zip.
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Java Bible:Index
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Index
SYMBOLS AND NUMBERS
<> (angle brackets), 186
* (asterisk), 29, 82, 123, 137, 332
@ (at sign), 29, 137
\ (backslash), 94, 243-244, 425
, (comma), 379
: (colon), 100
{} (curly braces), 31, 114, 119, 245, 282, 330, 355, 380
- (dash), 175
$ (dollar sign), 237
/ (forward slash), 29, 94, 425
() (parentheses), 245, 273-274
? (question mark), 244
(quotation marks), 181-182, 244, 245, 368
> (right-arrow symbol), 102 ; (semicolon), 31, 100, 199 ’ (single quote), 243-244
[] (square brackets), 155, 177, 185, 232, 300, 377, 491 _ (underscore), 236, 237
<!> (comment) tag, 224
16-color models, 73
16MB limit, 105
24-bit color models, 69, 72
256-color palette, 69, 71, 73
3D rectangles, 550-551
A
absolute value operator, 274
abstract classes, 301, 324-325, 329
abstract keyword, 231-233
abstract modifier, 301-302
AbstractButton class, 763, 778-781
abstraction, 37-39. See also abstract classes
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Accept button, 97
accept() method, 426
access control. See also security
with access modifiers, 115-118, 302
with access specifiers, 82, 232
basic description of, 53, 495
friendly access control, 53, 115-118, 308-309
for variables/methods, 308-309
Accessibility API, 758
AccessibleObject class, 328
accessor methods, 83, 351-355
action() method, 407, 523, 526, 527-528, 609, 697
ActionEvent class, 530
ActionHandler class, 743
ActionListener interface, 530-521, 533
actionPerformed() method, 785
Activation Framework specification, 868
actlveCount() method, 462, 478
activeGroupCount() method, 478
add() method, 397, 539, 610, 620, 625, 654-655, 686, 688
addAccessibleSelection() method, 778, 787
AddActionLlstener() method, 529, 614, 644, 628, 692, 778, 785
addAdjustmentListener() method, 637
addChangeListener() method, 778
addComponentLlstener() method, 603, 659
addElement() method, 388
addEventListener() method, 529
addFocusListener() method, 604
addItem() method, 620, 625, 785
addItemListener() method, 618, 621, 628, 693, 778, 785
additive operators, 249, 252, 274
addKeyLlstener() method, 604
addLayoutComponent() method, 708, 710, 714, 715, 720, 721, 724
addMouseListener() method, 604
addMouseMotionListener() method, 604
addNotify() method, 609, 614, 617, 625, 620, 632, 638, 643, 646, 650, 662, 663, 678, 682, 685,
687, 693, 690, 699
addPoint() method, 552
addresses
finding, 886-887
stacking data with, 871-874
addSeparator() method, 688, 695
AddTextLlstener() method, 641
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Java Bible:Index
addWindowListener() method, 679
Adjustable interface, 515
AdjustForGravity() method, 716
AdjustmentEvent class, 530
AdjustmentListener interface, 530
AdjustmentListener() method, 637
advance() method, 964-965, 967, 973
aewcode directory, 112-113
AFC (Application Foundation Classes), 769-773
After() method, 393, 397 Alarm variable, 56
AlarmAudioClip variable, 56
ALIGN attribute, 187, 188, 189, 493, 498-499
allowMultipleSelections() method, 627
ALT attribute, 187, 493
Alta Vista Web site, 207, 218-220
alternate applet context, 193-194
AM constant, 396
AM_PM constant, 396
AncestorEvent listener, 836
Andersen Consulting, 19
angle brackets (<>), 186
animations, 65, 74-77, 503, 509, 576-580, 958-959, 972-977
Animator applet, 503, 509
anonymous classes, 327-328, 531, 532-533 ANSI C, 16
AnyClass applet, 500
AnyJar2.jar, 500
append() method, 371-372, 373, 375, 647
appendText() method, 647
applet(s)
activity, stopping, 66-67, 150
applications versus, 111-112 basic description of, 4-5
dual-purpose, 506-507
naming, 496-497
sketching out, on paper, 62-64
tag syntax for, 491-492
applet attributes
basic description of, 168, 186-194
“parameter” attributes (applet parameters), 190-193, 202-204
similarity of, to command-line arguments, 190
using, 194-204
Applet class, 114, 115, 124-125, 137, 139, 160, 190, 304-305, 470-471, 495, 527, 611, 772
applet design
bandwidth considerations for, 67-73
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basics, 61-86
bottlenecks and, 77
color and, 69-76
inter-applet communications and, 80
keyboard control and, 66
managing source code and, 80-84
mouse control and, 65-66
webber system considerations for, 73-78
<APPLET> tag, 4-5, 67, 94, 107, 125-127, 138, 159-160, 186-194, 218-219, 224, 491-510, 579
AppletContext interface, 505-506
AppletContext class, 222
AppletViewer (appletviewer) tool, 96, 97, 98, 497
basic description of, 90, 98-99
debugging and, 147, 151, 157, 162-163
executing applets with, 106-107, 127-128, 143
applications
applets versus, 111-112
basic description of, 5
executing, with the java interpreter, 102-106
APRIL constant, 396
arcAngle parameter, 553-554
arcHeight parameter, 549
architecture-neutrality, 5-6, 14-16
ARCHIVE attribute, 188, 493, 500
<ARCHIVE> tag, 128, 337-338
arcs, 553-555
arcWidth parameter, 549
argc variable, 26-27, 170
argCount variable, 177, 178
args array, 171, 178
args parameter, 27
argument variables, 170-172
argv parameter, 27
argv variable, 26-27, 170
AritheticException exception, 291, 296
arithmetic data types, 248-252
ArrangeGrid() method, 716
array(s). See also vectors
anonymous, 380
arrays of, 382-383
basic description of, 254, 341-342, 377-405
data types, 246-247
elements, setting/retrieving, 380-382
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initialization, 266-267
instantlation, 378-379
operators, 278-279
Array class, 185, 378-379
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException exception, 171,
180-181, 278, 381, 383 ArrayStoreException exception, 383
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange), 98-99, 113, 122, 126, 132, 143
char values and, 348
tokens and, 230, 231
Unicode characters and, 230
asleep variable, 42-43
associated modifier, 302
associativity, 273
asterisk (*), 29, 82, 123, 137, 332
attr parameter, 503
au (audio) format, 68, 134, 975-977
audio, 62-66, 198-203
applet design and, 68-69, 80-84
bandwidth issues and, 68
disabling, 158
enhancements, 135
event models, 978-980
file formats, 68, 134, 975-977
files, converting, 134
loops, 68-69, 140-141
MedlaHelloWorld.java and, 134-136
multithreading and, 17
audio directory, 134, 159-161
AudioClip class, 140, 975-977
audioString variable, 198-199
AUGUST constant, 396
authLast variable, 23
auto-initialization, 379
autoexec.bat, 93
automatic coercion, extensive, 8
automatic documentation generation, 28
available() method, 410, 412, 420, 428-429, 446
awake variable, 42-43
AWT (Abstract Windowing Toolkit), 331, 470-471, 591-620
basic description of, 513-540
JFC and, 758
local classes and, 326
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Java Bible:Index
organization of, 514-515
Swing classes and, differences between, 761-764
AWTEvent interface, 515, 529-533
AWTEventMulticaster interface, 515
B
backslash (\), 94, 243-244, 425
backspace (\b) character, 243
backward compatibility, 20
bad variable, 322-323
bandwidth, 67-73
BASIC, 7
basic equality operators, 252
.bat file extension, 93
BDK (Beans Development Kit), 841, 852-856
BeanBox, 841, 852-856
BeanMachine, 852
Before() method, 393, 397
behavior
basic description of, 37, 39-41
state and, combining, 39-41
bin directory, 96
binary compatibility, 816-818
binary operators, 270-271, 274, 276-277
BitSet class, 384, 392
bitwise AND operator, 24, 272
bltwise complement operator, 274
bitwise logical operator, 249
bitwise OR operator, 24, 272
BlinkItem class, 476
BlinkItem.java, 456-457
bllt() method, 965-966, 967, 973
Blue variable, 570
Bogus class, 309-313
BOLD variable, 558
Booch, Grady, 58
Book class, 22-24, 30
bookmarks, 208
boolean data type, 30, 243, 248-251, 253, 260, 277, 319, 357-358
boolean keyword, 231
boolean literals, 243
boolean operators, 276-277
booleanValue() method, 357
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Java Bible:Index
BorderLayout interface, 515
BorderLayout layout manager, 613, 704-706, 720-724
Borland, 16, 19
bottlenecks, 76, 77
bounding boxes, 535-536
Bounds() method, 596
bounds-checking facilities, 180
BoxLayout layout manager, 834-835
<BR> (line break) tag, 499
brackets ([]), 155, 177, 185, 232, 300, 377, 491
break keyword, 231
break statement, 282, 285-287, 295
breakpoints
clearing, 153-154, 158-159
line breakpoints, 152
method breakpoints, 152
setting, 154
brighter() method, 566, 568
browsers
<APPLET> tag and, 491
file caching features for, 143
Hot Java browser, 3-5, 10, 146, 453, 908
Internet Explorer browser, 4, 6, 16, 19, 112, 491
Netscape Communicator browser, 6, 19
Netscape Navigator browser, 4, 16, 112, 143, 453, 491
non-Java, communicating with, 501
JIT compiler technology and, 16
threads and, 453
using bookmarks with, 208
Brushes interface, 306
BruteForce.java, 457, 577-578
buffered ciasa, 434-435.
See also streams BufferedinputStream class, 435
BufferedOutputStream class, 435
Button class, 149, 516, 527, 612-615, 762-763
Button component, 525
Button object, 387, 476
ButtonModel interface, 760
byte data type, 248-250, 260
byte keyword, 231
ByteArrayinputStream class, 428-431
bytecode
architecture-neutrality and, 14-15
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Java Bible:Index
basic description of, 11
javac compiler and, 102
verification, 13, 105
bytesWidth() method, 565
byvalue keyword, 231
C
cable modems, 67
Calendar class, 342, 384, 392, 395-399
call stacks, 288-290
canRead() method, 424
Canvas class, 516, 650-652
Canvas constructor, 650-652
canvases, 536, 650-652
canWrite() method, 424
Capacity() method, 372, 388
capacityIncrement() method, 390
CardLayout class, 516
CardLayout layout manager, 613, 704-706, 724-730
CardTest.java, 728-730
carriage return (\r) character, 243, 370
case keyword, 231
case sensitivity
class names and, 31, 120
HTML and, 126, 127
identifiers and, 236
importance of, 30-31
package names and, 572, 519
case statement, 282
cast keyword, 231
casts, for data types, 231, 248-249, 250-251, 253
catch blocks, 292-295
catch clauses, 290, 440-442, 464
catch keyword, 231
CENTER variable, 637-638, 709
ChangeEvent listener, 836
changeStation message, 48
char data type, 248-250, 253, 260, 277, 348, 357-360, 377
character constants, 370
character literals, 243-244
CharArrayReader class, 431
CharArrayWriter class, 431
charAt method, 352, 372
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chars keyword, 231
charValue() method, 358
CharWidth() method, 564, 565
Check Box component, 525
check boxes, 516, 525, 615-623, 762-763
checkAccess() method, 463, 479
CheckAlarm() method, 56
Checkbox class, 516, 615-623, 762-763
CheckboxGroup class, 516
CheckboxMenuItem class, 516, 693
CheckboxMenuItem constructor, 693
checkError() method, 444
checkHorizontalKey() method, 778
checkImage () method, 601-602
checksource option, 104
checksum, 96
checkVerticalKey() method, 778
Choice class, 516, 527
Choice component, 525
Choice object, 619-623
choice (pop-up) menus, 619-623
Circle class, 301
circles, 301, 549
class, See also classes (listed by name)
abstract classes, 301, 324-325, 329
anonymous classes, 327-328, 531, 532-533
basic description of, 23-24, 51-52, 299-300
body of, 300-325
comments and, 28
declarations, 114, 123-124, 137, 300-307, 317
extending versus enhancing, 131-135
hierarchy (inheritance tree), 57-58, 123-124, 517-518
instances versus, 117
names, 31, 120
of an object, determining, 257-260
separating, into their own source files, 81
Class class, 328, 259-260
class data types, 246-247
.class file extension, 102, 103, 126
class keyword, 53, 231, 300, 302
class variables, 117, 321-322
basic description of, 307-310
declaring constants with, 311
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setting/retrieving, 312
streams and, 442
in the System class, 406-408
classes (listed by name). See also classes
AbstractButton class, 763, 778-781
AccessibleObject class, 328
ActionEvent class, 530
ActionHandler class, 743
AdjustmentEvent class, 530
Applet class, 114, 115, 124-125, 137, 139, 160, 190, 304-305, 470-471, 495, 527, 611,
772
AppletContext class, 222
Array class, 185, 378-379
AudioClip class, 140, 975-977
BitSet class, 384, 392
BlinkItem class, 476
Bogus class, 309-313
Book class, 22-24, 30
BufferedinputStream class, 435
BufferedOutputStream class, 435
Button class, 149, 516, 527, 612-615, 762-763
ByteArrayInputStream class, 428-431
Calendar class, 342, 384, 392, 395-399
Canvas class, 516, 650-652
CardLayout class, 516
CharArrayReader class, 431
CharArrayWriter class, 431
Checkbox class, 516, 615-623, 762-763
CheckboxGroup class, 516
CheckboxMenuItem class, 516, 693
Choice class, 516, 527
Circle class, 301
Class class, 328, 259-260
Color class, 516, 565-572
Component class, 141, 516, 521-523, 526, 537,
591-611, 675, 763-764
ComponentEvent class, 530
Constructor class, 328
Container class, 516, 537-539, 611, 653-663, 665
ContainerEvent class, 530
Counter class, 483
Cursor class, 516
DataInputStream class, 438-442
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DataOutputStream class, 429, 438-442
Date class, 342, 384, 392-395
Dialog class, 516
Dictionary class, 384
Dimension class, 516, 536-537
DuneBuggy class, 506-507
Event class, 142, 516, 524
EventQueue class, 516
EventSetDescriptor class, 849-850
Exception class, 291
FeatureDescriptor class, 860-863
Field class, 328
File class, 423-426
FileDescriptor class, 419
FileDialog class, 516, 677-678, 700
FileInputStream class, 418-420, 436
FileOutputStream class, 418-423
FileReader class, 426-430
FileWriter class, 426-430
FilterInputStream class, 434-437
FilterOutputStream class, 434-435
FlowLayout class, 516
FocusEvent class, 530
FontMetrics class, 516, 563-565
Fonts class, 516, 520, 556
Frame class, 516, 772
GoodbyeWorld class, 102
Graphics class, 123, 125, 136, 516, 518-519, 542-555, 581, 585
GridBagConstraints class, 516
GridBagLayout class, 516
GridLayout class, 517
Hashtable class, 384, 385, 503
HelloWorld class, 102, 113, 114
HelloWorldApplet class, 123, 124, 234-235, 305
HighNoon class, 313-319, 322-323, 336
Image class, 517
InputEvent class, 530
InputStream class, 408-418
InputStreamReader class, 414-415
InputStreamWriter class, 414-415
Insets class, 517
Integer class, 192, 193, 355-356
Introspector class, 847-848
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ItemEvent class, 530
Japplet class, 504, 765
JAppletBeanInfo class, 765
JavaDrawFrame class, 755
JButton class, 760, 763, 765, 782-783
JButtonBeanInfo class, 765
JCheckBox class, 763, 765, 783-784
JCheckBoxBeanInfo class, 765
JCheckBoxMenuItem class, 765
JCheckBoxMenuItemBeaninto class, 765
JColorChooser class, 765
JColorChooserBeanInfo class, 765
JComboBox class, 765
JComboBoxBeanInfo class, 765
JComponent class, 760-761, 763-764, 765
JComponentBeanInfo class, 766
JDialog class, 766
JDiaiogBeanInfo class, 766
JFileChooser class, 766
JFileChooserBeanInfo class, 766
JFrame class, 766, 786-788
JFrameBeanInfo class, 766
JInternalFrame class, 766
JInternalFrameBeanInfo class, 766
JLabel class, 759, 766, 788-790
JLabelBeanInfo class, 766
JLayeredPane class, 766
JLayeredPaneBeanInfo class, 766
JList class, 766, 791-794
JListBeanInfo class, 766
JMenu class, 763, 766, 794-796
JMenuBar class, 767
JMenuBarBeanInfo class, 767
JMenuBeanInfo class, 766
JMenuItem class, 767
JMenuItemBeanInfo class, 767
JOptionPane class, 767
JOptionPaneBeanInfo class, 767
JPanel class, 767, 796-797
JPanelBeanInfo class, 767
JPasswordField class, 767
JPasswordFieldBeanInfo class, 767
JPopupMenu class, 767, 797-798
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JPopupMenuBeanInfo class, 767
JProgressBar class, 767, 798-801
JProgressBarBeanInfo class, 767
JRadioButton class, 763, 767, 801-802
JRadioButtonBeanInfo class, 767
JRadioButtonMenuItem class, 767
JRadioButtonMenuItemBeanInfo class, 767
JRootPane class, 767
JRootPaneBeanInfo class, 767
JScrollbar class, 767, 802-804
JScrollbarBeanInfo class, 768
JScrollPane class, 768
JScrollPaneBeanInfo class, 768
JSeparator class, 768
JSeparatorBeanInfo class, 768
JSlider class, 768, 804-805
JSliderBeanInfo class, 768
JSplitPane class, 768, 805-808
JSplitPaneBeanInfo class, 768
JTabbedPane class, 768, 808-810
JTabbedPaneBeanInfo class, 768
JTable class, 768, 828-834
JTableBeanInfo class, 768
JTextArea class, 768, 810-814
JTextAreaBeanInfo class, 768
JTextField class, 810-814
JTextPane class, 768
JTextPaneBeanInfo class, 768
JToggleButton class, 768, 813-814
JToggleButtonBeanInfo class, 768
JToolbar class, 768, 819-820
JToolbarBeanInfo class, 768
JToolTip class, 768, 818-819
JToolTipBeanInfo class, 768
JTree class, 768, 820-827
JTreeBeanInfo class, 768
JViewport class, 768
JViewportBeanInfo class, 768
JWindow class, 768
JWindowBeanInfo class, 768
KeyEvent class, 530
Label class, 517, 638-639, 759
LineNumberInputStream class, 436, 437
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LineNumberReaders class, 437
List class, 517, 527
ListResourceBundle class, 384, 391-392
LocalClass class, 327
MalformedURLException class, 333
Math class, 402
MediaHelloWorld class, 135, 137, 143, 159, 161-163,
186
MediaTracker class, 517, 576, 950-954. 960, 976, 981
Menu class, 517
MenuBar class, 517, 685
MenuComponent class, 517
MenuItem class, 517, 527, 690
MenuShortcut class, 517, 695-696
Method class, 328
MethodDescriptor class, 862-863
MouseAdapter class, 532
MouseEvent class, 530
MyGraphies class, 306
Object class, 114, 257-260, 277, 303-306, 533, 763-764
ObjectInput class, 446-448
ObjectOutput class, 446-448
Observable class, 384
OutputStream class, 415-418
OutputStreamWriter class, 417-418
PaintEvent class, 530
Peer class, 331, 333, 514, 583-584
PieChartCanvas class, 652
PingPong class, 484-489
PipedInputStream class, 432
PipedOutputStream class, 432
PipedReader class, 433
PipedWriter class, 433
Point class, 54, 117
Polygon class, 517
PopupMenu class, 517
Print Job class, 517, 582-589
PrintStream class, 442-445, 446
PrintWriter class, 446
Properties class, 384, 392
PropertyDescriptor class, 857-858
PropertyResourceBundle class, 384, 391-392
PushbaekInputStream class, 438
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PushbackReader class, 438
Random class, 342, 384, 392, 401-402
RandomAccessFiles class, 448
Rectangle class, 301, 517
ResourceBundle class, 384, 391-392
RuntimeException class, 291
Scrollbar class, 517
ScrollPane class, 517
SecurityManager class, 482
SequenceinputStream class, 431-432
ShowDown class, 313-316, 317, 324-235, 329-330, 336
SimpleBeanlInfo class, 846-847
Sort class, 335
SpinWorld class, 102
Sprite class, 959-970
SprlteShadow class, 971-972
Stack class, 341, 384, 390
StreamTokenizer class, 448
String class, 27-28, 115, 185, 302, 342-383, 385, 387
StringBufier class, 27-28, 173-174, 341. 342, 347-349, 370-377, 385
StringBufferInputStream class, 428
StringTokenlzer class, 341, 384, 391, 503
Swing classes, 757-769, 775-815, 818-834, 836-838
System class, 185, 406-408
SystemColor class, 517
TextArea class, 517, 639, 645-650
TextComponent class, 517, 639-649
TextEvent class, 530
TextField class, 517, 527, 639, 642-646
Thread class, 454-470, 466
ThreadDeath class, 460-461, 474
Throwable class, 290-291, 294
TimeAlarmPiece class, 57
TimePiece class, 55-58
TlmeZone class, 342, 384, 392, 399-400
Toolkit class, 517
TopClass class, 327
Triangle class, 301, 306
UIApplet class, 772
UIFrame class, 772
UitraBogus class, 313
URL class, 333-334, 877-878
URLConnection class, 881-884
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Vector class, 384, 390, 503
VetoableChangeSupport class, 859-860
WidgetPanel class, 743-744
Window class, 517, 677-702
WindowAdapter class, 700
WindowEvent class, 530
classes.zip archive, 91, 92, 135
classification, 51-55
CLASSPATH environment variable, 91-94, 96, 97, 100, 103-104, 134-135. 890
CLASSPATH option, 103-104
CLEAR attribute, 499
clear command, 148, 154
clear() method, 386, 397, 625
clearAccesslbleSelection() method, 778, 787
clearRect() method, 543, 571, 576-577
clipping, 972
ClipRect() method, 543
clone() method, 256, 258, 386, 388, 397, 400
close() method, 411, 413-418, 444, 446, 447
CODE attribute, 186-189, 190, 492-493
CODEBASE attribute, 160, 187, 188, 198, 202, 493, 494
colon (:). 100 color(s), 541, 565-572
applet design and, 69-76
AWT and, 518-519
background, 571-572
dithered color, 73
foreground, 571-572
matching, 74
RGB (red, green, blue) color model, 566, 568, 569
specifying, with the PARAM attribute. 502
transparency and, 71-72
Color class, 516, 565-572
Color() constructor, 566, 567
colorChoice widget, 743-744
columnWeights variable. 717
columnWidths variable, 717
comma (,), 379
command(s)
clear command, 148, 154
cont command, 148, 153, 156, 158
down command, 149, 155
echo command, 98, 96
exit command, 149, 157, 158
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javaw command, 103
javaw_g command, 103
load command, 149
locals command, 149, 154, 156
Is command, 182
Math command, 321-322
memory command, 149
next command, 149
quit command, 157, 158
resume command, 149
Shape command, 753
step command, 150
stepi command, 150
String command, 169-170, 173-174
suspend command, 150
thread command, 150
threadgroup groupname command, 150
Toolkit command, 583-584
unsetenv command, 96
use command, 150, 153
where command, 150, 155
command-line argument(s)
basic description of, 26-27, 167-204
conventions, 174-175
executing with, 178-191
parsing, 182-185
similarity of applet attributes to, 190
supporting, 169
using, in the HelloWorld Application, 176-185
command-line options, for the JAR tool, 338
comments, 81-82, 136-137
basic description of, 28-29, 30
HTML tags for, 223-224
importance of, 81-82
com.ms.fx package, 769
com.ms.resource package, 769
com.ms.ui package, 769
compareTo constructor, 344
compatibility
backward, 20
binary, 816-818
compilers. See also compiling; javac compiler basic description of, 100-102
comments and, 28
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final variables and, 310
importing packages and, 332
in-line initialization and, 379
JIT (Just In Time) compilers, 16, 983
compiling. See also compilers errors, 311, 329
the HelloWorld applet, 125
the HelloWorld application, 118-119
component(s)
drawing and updating, 730-732
grouping, with panels, 664
software, 842-851
use of the term, 521-522
Component class, 141, 516, 521-523, 526, 537, 591-611, 675, 763-764
Component component, 525
ComponentEvent class, 530
ComponentEventprocess() method, 606
ComponentListener interface, 530
composite (reference) data types, 247, 319
compression, 70, 71, 72-73
corn.sun.java.swing package, 764, 776
com.sun.java.swing.basic package, 764, 776, 837
com.sun.java.swing.beanInfo package, 764, 776
corn.sun.java.swing.border package, 764, 776, 837
corn.sun.java.swing.event package, 764, 776, 837
com.sun.java.swing.multi package, 764, 776, 837
com.sun.java.swing.plaf package, 764, 837
corn.sun.java.swing.table package, 764, 776, 837
com.sun.java.swing.target package, 765, 776
corn.sun.java.swing.text package, 765, 776, 837
com.sun.java.swing.text.html package, 765, 776
com.sun.java.swing.undo package, 765, 776, 837
concatenation operator, 24, 244, 368-369
conflicts, naming, 335
consistency, 27 const keyword, 231
constant (final)variables, 310-311
constants, 395-396
constructor(s)
basic description of, 24, 54, 322
instance initializers and, 328
methods, 322-323
Constructor class, 328
cont command, 148, 153, 156, 158
Container class, 516, 537-539, 611, 653-663, 665
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ContainerEvent class, 530
ContainerListener interface, 530
Contains() method, 386, 388, 602
ContainsKey() method, 386
content handlers, 5
contentsChanged() method, 785
continue keyword, 231
continue statements, 285-287, 295
Control Panel, 93
control-flow statements, 279-287
coordinate systems, 533-537
applet design and, 79
for panels, 665-675
x,y coordinates and, 533-535, 551-555, 560, 579, 665-675
copy() method, 256 CopyArea() method, 543
copying
in the DOS box, 158
objects, 256-257
CopyInto() method, 388
copyValueOf constructor, 346
“Could not read properties file” error message, 96, 98
CountComponents() method, 653
Counter class, 483
CountItems() method, 620, 625, 687
countMenus() method, 686
countStackFrames() method, 462
CPUs (central processing units), 14-15, 44
bottlenecks and, 76, 77
debugging and, 158
threads and, 453, 468, 472, 476-477, 483
Create() method, 543
createChangeLIstener() method, 778
createImage () method, 600
createRootPanel() method, 787
credit, applet-based, 221-223
CROSSHAIR CURSOR variable, 683
crunch, 26-27
Ctrl key, 66
culturally insensitive language, 79
curly braces ({}), 31, 114, 119, 245, 282, 330, 355, 380
currentThread() method, 459
Cursor class, 516
customerLastName identifier, 236
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Cyan variable, 570
D
daemon threads, 477
darker() method, 566, 568
DarkGray variable, 570
dash character (-), 175
data streams
basic description of, 405-450
buffered, 434-435
file output with, 420-423
file input with, 418-420
filtered, 434-435
java.io, 08-434
java. lang, 406-408
joining, 431-432
line-number input, 435-437
object serialization and, 446-448
piped, 432
reading, 405-406
referencing disk files and, 423-426
sequences of, 431-432
special-purpose, 418-434
typed, 438-442
writing, 405-406
data types. See also data types 01sted by name)
basic description of, 20-23, 229, 246-260
four categories of, 246-247
variable declarations and, 264-265
data types (listed by name). See also data types
arithmetic data types, 248-252
boolean data type, 30, 243, 248-251,253, 260, 277, 319, 357-358
byte data type, 248-250, 260
char data type, 248-250, 253, 260, 277, 348, 357-360, 377
class data types, 246-247
composite (reference) data types, 247, 319
double data type, 192, 242-243, 248, 250-252, 260, 357
float data type, 192, 239, 242-243, 248, 250-252, 260, 319, 357,362-363
int data type, 192, 193, 239-241, 248-250, 260, 275, 319, 355-357, 361
long data type, 192,240, 241, 248-250, 260, 275, 357, 367
primitive data types, 246-253, 254, 265, 319
short data type, 248-250, 260
string data type, 319
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struct data type, 20, 21-23, 51, 117
union data type, 20, 21-23
databases, 895-948
DataInputStream class, 438-442
DataOutputStream class, 429, 438-442
DataOutputStream constructor, 429
Date class, 342, 384, 392-395
DATE constant, 395
DAY_OF_MONTH constant, 395
DAY_OF_WEEK constant, 395
DAY_OF_WEEK_IN_MONTH constant, 396
DAY_OF_YEAR constant, 395
Dead state, 471, 473
deadlock, 485
debug option, 104
debugging, 104, 504-506
Information, adding, to class files, 101
with the Jdb debugger tool, 90, 99, 146-159
MedlaHelloWorld.java, 144-147
stages of, 146-157
tips/warnings, 157-159
DECEMBER constant, 396
decimal literals, 239-240
decrement() method, 327
decrement operators, 249, 252, 274
default keyword, 231
default values, standard, 260
DEFAULT_CURSOR variable, 683
defaultConstraints variable, 717
#define statements, 30, 310
DejaNews Web site, 207, 213, 218
delegates, 760
delegation model, for events, 523, 529-533, 670
delete() method, 424
deleteShortcut() method, 686, 691
delItem() method, 626
deliverEvent() method, 603, 660
depend option, 100
descriptors, 860-863
deselect() method, 627
design
bandwidth considerations for, 67-73
basics, 61-86
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bottlenecks and, 77
color and, 69-76
inter-applet communications and, 80
keyboard control and, 66
managing source code and, 80-84
mouse control and, 65-66
webber system considerations for, 73-78
destroy() method, 164-165, 461, 479
developer resources, on the Web, 205-226
Dialog class, 516
Dialog constructor, 698-699
dialogs, creating, 698-700
Dictionary class, 384
digit() method, 358
Digital Espresso Web site, 205, 212-213
dimension, for arrays, 378
Dimension class, 516, 536-537
dir program, 182
directory option, 100
directory structure, 112-113, 121, 159-160
disable() method, 593, 691, 692
disableEvents() method, 605, 691
DisplayTime() method, 55-56
Dispose() method, 543, 585, 678, 683
distributed computing, 10
dithered color, 73
division operator, 274
Do Comments, 82
do keyword, 231
do statement, 253
doAccessibleAction() method, 778, 787
Doc Comments, 28-29
Doc Tags, 29
doClick() method, 778
Document interface, 827-828
DocumentEvent listener, 836
documenting programs, importance of, 81-82.
See also comments
doLayout() method, 598
dollar identifier, 236
dollar sign ($), 237
DOS (Disk Operating System), 26, 146, 182
Applet Viewer and, 97
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box, copy/paste actions in, 158
end-of-line characters, 407
filename restrictions, 161
path names in, 419, 325
streams and, 419
dot notation, 43-44
double data type, 192, 242-243, 248, 250-252, 260, 357
double keyword, 231
double-buffering, 958-959
double-clicking, 65
doubleToLongBits() method, 364
doubleValue() method, 360, 362, 366
do-while loops, 283-284
down command, 149, 155
downloading
graphics, 69, 71
the JDK, 88-89
recommended amount of material for, per Web page, 72
drag-and-drop, 758, 868
DragEvent listener, 836
draw() method, 289, 301, 753
draw3DRect() method, 519, 543, 550
drawArc() method, 519, 544
drawBytes() method, 519, 544
drawChars() method, 519, 544, 559-562, 637
drawCircle() method, 288-289
drawImage () method, 140, 153, 316, 535, 542, 544, 580-581
drawLine() method, 519, 545, 548
drawOval() method, 519, 535, 545, 550-551
drawPolygon() method, 519, 545, 552-553
drawRect() method, 519, 545, 548-549
drawRoundRect() method, 519, 545, 549
drawShape() method, 288
drawstring() method, 125, 519, 542, 545, 559-560, 562, 637
drivers, 903-905, 907-908, 923
dual-purpose programs, 80
dump object, 149
DumpLayoutInfo() method, 716
dumpStack() method, 463
DuneBuggy class, 506-507
dynamic computing environments, 18
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eat() method, 43-44
echo command, 98, 96
EchoCharlsSet() method, 643
electrical wiring, 49-50
ElementAt() method, 388
ElementCount() method, 390
ElementDataO method, 390
Elements() method, 386, 388
else keyword, 231
else-if statement, 281
address, for the author of this book, 219, 984
to the creators of source code, 221
embedding applets. 772-773
empty() method, 390
EmptyStackException exception, 384
enable() method, 593, 691
enableEvents() method, 605, 691
encapsulation (Information hiding). 44-45, 53
encoding, 100
Encounter() method, 315-316, 322-323, 325
End() method, 583
end-of-line characters, 407
EnsureCapacity() method, 372, 388
Enterprise JavaBeans specification, 868
enumerate() method, 462, 479-480
Enumeration interface, 384, 432
EOFException exception. 441, 449
equality
operators, 249, 252
testing for, 257
equals constructor, 344
equals() method, 258, 354, 357, 358. 360, 362, 364, 366, 384, 393, 397, 424, 557, 568, 696
equalsignoreCase constructor, 344
ERA constant, 395
errors, 27, 98. See also debugging
access modifiers and, 116
class declarations and, 301, 302
compiling, 311, 329
forbidden numbers and, 240
variables and, 268
escape codes/sequences, 243-244, 370
evaluation, order of, 273-274
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event(s)
action, 527-528
adapters, 521-522
basic description of, 522-523
delegation model for, 523, 529-533, 670
handling, 522-533, 848-850
hierarchical model for, 523-528, 670
IDs, 524-525
inside panels, 670
JavaBeans and, 856-860
listeners, 836
menu, 696-697
non-action, 528
physical, 523
semantic, 523
trapping, 522
window, 700-701
Event class, 142, 516, 524
EventListener interlace, 529
EventprocessFocus() method, 606
EventQueue class, 516
EventSetDescriptor class, 849-850
exception(s)
basic description of, 287-288
catching, 292
handlers, 199-200
method. 324 streams and, 449
throwing, 290-291
URLs and, 197-198
Exception class, 291
“Exception in thread NULL” error message, 96, 97
executable content, 112
execution contexts, 453
exists() method, 424
exit command, 149, 157, 158
expressions, 269-270
extending classes, 131-135
extends keyword, 114, 231, 304
Extensible Runtime Containment and Services protocol, 867-868
e-zines (electronic magazines), 205-206, 215. See also JavaWorid Web site
F
fade in/fade out sound effects, 68
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fail-through condition, 282
FALSE variable, 358
FeatureDescriptor class, 860-863
FEBRUARY constant, 396
Field class, 328
field modifier keywords, 233-235
file caching, 143
File class, 423-426
File constructor, 424
FlleDescriptor class, 419
FileDialog class, 516, 677-678, 700
FileInputStream class, 418-420, 436
filename(s)
character restrictions for, 161
command-line arguments and, 175
source, examples of, 98
FlleNotFoundException exception, 449
fileone argument, 27
FileOutputStream class, 418-423
FileReader class, 426-430
filetwo argument, 27
FileWriter class, 426-430
Fill option, 737
fill3DRect() method, 519, 545
fillArc() method, 519, 545
fillOval() method, 519, 546, 550-551
fillPolygon() method, 519, 546, 552-553
fillRect() method, 519, 546, 548-549
fillRoundRect() method, 519, 546, 549
filtered streams, 434-435
FilterInputStream class, 434-437
FilterOutputStream class, 434-435
final keyword, 231, 232, 234, 322
final methods, 322
final modifier, 301, 302
final variables, 329-330
finalize() method, 258, 323-324, 546, 583
finally block, 294-295
finally keyword, 231
finite non-zero values, 251
first() method, 726
FirstElement() method, 388
flags, 175
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FlexibleHelloWorld.java, 176-177, 195-204
FlexibleMediaHello.java, 202-204, 289, 321, 572-575
Flip.java, 429-430
float data type, 192, 239, 242-243, 248, 250-252, 260, 319, 357, 362-363
float keyword, 231
floating-point literals, 242-243
floating-point operators, 275-276
floatToIntBits() method, 362
floatValue() method, 360, 362, 364, 366
FlowLayout class, 516
FlowLayout layout manager, 613, 703-709, 712
flush() method, 416-417, 418, 439, 443, 447
FocusEvent class, 530
font(s), 520, 541
creating/using, 555-556
selecting, 78
Font object, 555-565
font variable, 565
FontMetrics class, 516, 563-565
FontMetrics() constructor, 564
Fonts class, 516, 520, 556
footnotes, Web page, 221
for keyword, 231
for loops, 25, 245, 266, 284-285, 287, 457
for statement, 253
form feed (\f) character, 243, 370
forName() method, 259
forward slash (/), 29, 94, 425
Frame class, 516, 772
Frame constructor, 682, 684
Frame object, 680-681
frameInit() method, 787
frames, 681-697, 958-959
FRIDAY constant, 396
friendly access control, 53, 115-118, 308-309
friendly access modifier, 115-118
FTP (File Transfer Protocol), 10, 160-161
Fuji, 19
future keyword, 231
G
Game.java, 488-489
Gamelan Web site, 33, 205, 209-210, 214, 223
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garbage collection, 8, 105, 323-324, 468-369
generic keyword, 231
get() method, 386, 397
getAccessibleActionCount() method, 778, 787
getAccessibleActionDeseription() method, 778, 784, 787
getAccessibleChild() method, 787
getAccessibleChildrenCount() method, 787
getAccessibleCount() method, 787
getAccessibleDescription() method, 787
getAccessibleName() method, 778, 787
getAccessibleParent() method, 787
getAccessibleRole() method, 784, 787
getAccessibleSelection() method, 778
getAccessibleSelectionCount() method, 779
getAccessibleStateSet() method, 779, 787
getAccessibleText() method, 787
getAceessibleValue() method, 779, 788
getActionCommand() method, 779, 785, 614, 692
getAlignment() method, 638, 707
getAlignmentX() method, 597, 657
getAlignmenty() method, 598, 658
getApplet() method, 505
getAppletContext() method, 222, 497, 504, 506, 507
getAppletInfo() method, 220, 507-509
getApplets() method, 505
getAscent() method, 563
getAudioClip() method, 139, 200, 505, 976
getAvailablelDs() method, 399
getAvailableLocals() method, 397
getBackground() method, 594, 572
getBlue() method, 567
getBoolean() method, 357
getBounds() method, 596
getCaretPosition() method, 641
getCheckboxGroup() method, 617
getClass() method, 257-259, 372
getClassLoader() method, 259
getClipBounds() method, 546
getClipRect() method, 546
getCodeBase() method, 139, 160, 190, 495-496
getColor() method, 547, 568-569
getColorModel() method, 595
getColumns() method, 643, 647, 710
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getComponent() method, 653
getComponentAt() method, 602-603, 661
getComponentCount() method, 653
getConstraints() method, 714
getCurrent() method, 619
getCursor() method, 598
getCursorType() method, 683
getDate() method, 393
getDay() method, 393
getDefault() method, 400
getDefaultCloseOperation() method, 768
getDefauitToolkit() method, 584, 589
getDescent() method, 564
getDisabledIcon() method, 779
getDisabledSeleetedIcon() method, 779
getDocumentBase() method, 139, 160, 961
getEchoChar() method, 643
getEneoding() method, 415
getFamily() method, 556
getFirstDayOfWeek() method, 398
getFocusOwner() method, 680
getFont() method, 547, 557, 563, 594
getFontMetrics() method, 547, 598
getForeground() method, 572, 594
getFortuneString() method, 440
getGraphics() method, 582, 584-585, 588, 598
getGreatestMinimum() method, 398
getGreen() method, 567
getH() method, 53
getHeight() method, 564, 572-573, 575
getHelpMenu() method, 685
getHgap() method, 707, 710, 720, 724
getHorizontalAllgnment() method, 779
getHorizontalTextPosition() method, 779
GetHours() method, 393
getHSBColor() method, 569
getIcon() method, 779
getIconimage() method, 682
getID() method, 400
getImage() method, 200, 496, 505
getInsets() method, 653
getInstance() method, 397
getInteger() method, 360
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getInterfaces() method, 259
getIt() method, 311
getItem() method, 620, 625, 688
getItemCount() method, 620, 625, 687, 785
getKeyAccelerator() method, 779
getKeys() method, 392
getLabel() method, 614, 617, 690, 779
GetLayout() method, 656
getLayoutAlignmentX() method, 715, 721, 725
getLayoutAlignmentY() method, 716, 721, 726
getLayoutDlmensions() method, 714
GetLayoutInfo() method, 716
getLayoutOrigin() method, 714
getLeading() method, 563
getLeastMinimum() method, 398
getLineIncrement() method, 634
getLineNumber() method, 435
getLocale() method, 594,679
getLocation() method, 595
getLocationOnSereen() method, 595
getLong() method, 366
getMargin() method, 779
GetMaxAdvance() method, 564
GetMaxAscent() method, 564
GetMaxDescent() method, 564
GetMaximum() method, 398, 633
getMaxtmumAccessibleValue() method, 779, 788
getMaxtmumSize() method, 597, 657
getMaxPriority() method, 480
getMenu() method, 686
getMenuBar() method, 682
getMenuCount() method, 686
getMessage() method, 294
GetMinimalDaysInFirstWeek() method, 398
GetMinimum() method, 633
getMinimumAccessibleValue() method, 779, 788
getMinimumSize() method, 597, 628, 644, 648, 657
GetMinSize() method, 716
GetMinutes() method, 393, 398
getModel() method, 779
GetMonth() method, 393
getName() method, 257. 259, 424, 462,465, 480, 482, 556, 592
getNextAccessibleSibling() method, 788
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getOffset() method, 400
GetOrientation() method, 632
GetPageDimension() method, 582
GetPageIncrement() method, 634
GetPageResolution() method, 582
getParameter() method, 190-192, 755
getParameterInfo() method, 220, 507-509
getParent() method, 424, 480, 592
getPath() method, 424
getPreferredSize() method, 597, 628, 644, 648, 657
getPressedIcon() method, 779
getPrevlousAecessibleSibling() method, 788
getPrintJob() method, 583
getPriority() method, 462
getRawOffset() method, 400
getRed() method, 567
GeTreeLock() method, 592
GetRGB() method, 568
getRolloverSelectedIcon() method, 779
getRows() method, 627, 647, 710
getScreenResolution() method, 589
GetScrollbarVisibility() method, 648
GetSeconds() method, 393
getSelectedCheckbox() method, 619
getSelectedIcon() method, 779
GetSelectedIndex() method, 621, 626
getSelectedIndexes() method, 626
GetSelectedItem() method, 621
getSelectedItemsIndex() method, 626
getSelectedObjects() method, 617, 621, 626, 693, 785
GetSelectedText() method, 640
getSelectionEnd() method, 640
getSelectionStart() method, 640
getShortcut() method, 686, 691
getSize() method, 557, 595
getState() method, 617,693
getStyle() method, 557
getSuperclass() method, 259
GetText() method, 639, 640, 779
getThreadGroup() method, 462, 482
GetTime() method, 393, 398
GetTimeZone() method, 398, 400
GetTimeZoneOffset() method, 394
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getTitle() method, 682, 699
getToolkit() method, 589, 679
getUI() method, 779
GetURL.java, 421-422
getV() method, 53
getValue() method, 633, 637
getVerticalAlignment() method, 779
getVerticalTextPosition() method, 779
getVgap() method, 707, 710, 720, 724
GetVisible() method, 633
getVisibleAmount() method, 633
getVisibleIndex() method, 627
getWarningString() method, 679
getWidth() method, 565, 572-573, 575
GetYear() method, 394
GIF (graphics interchange format), 69-73, 134, 203, 520, 535, 536, 579
GoldWave, 68, 134
good variable, 322-323
GoodbyeWorld class, 102
gotFocus() method, 609
goto keyword, 231
graphics, 66, 541-555. See also images
coordinate systems and, 533-537
disabling, 158
primitive, 518-519
Graphics class, 123, 125, 136, 516, 518-519, 542-555, 581, 585
Graphics object, 542, 588-589
Gray variable, 570
Green variable, 570
Grid layout manager, 613, 704-706
GridBag layout manager, 613, 704-706
GridBagConstraints class, 516
GridBagLayout class, 516
GridBagLayout layout manager, 709-719
GridLayout class, 517
Grunt applet, 497
GUI (Graphical User Interface), 142, 521-522
AWT and, 513, 514, 515
basic description of, 62
widgets and, 631, 649-650, 591
H
HAND_CURSOR variable, 684
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handleEvent() method, 407, 524, 526, 528, 608
HandleGetObject() method, 392
hash tables, 384-386
hashCode constructor, 345
hashCode() method, 258, 357-358, 360, 362, 364, 366, 384,394, 424, 557, 568
Hashtable class, 384, 385, 503
Hashtable object, 341, 503
HashTable constructors, 385-386
HEIGHT attribute, 126-127, 138, 186-189, 492-493, 497, 535
height parameter, 553
hello applet parameter, 198, 200
Hello directory, 119, 121
hello parameter, 190-191, 203
HelloApplet directory, 121, 122
helloStr variable, 191
helloString variable, 198
HelloWorld applet, 99, 100, 107, 113, 121-129, 198-204, 289
HelloWorld application, 98-99, 112-121, 176-185
HelloWorld class, 102, 113, 114
HelloWorldApplet class, 123, 124, 234-235, 305
HelloWorldApplet.java, 113, 118-119, 122, 125, 135
HelloWorldStuff.java, 122
HelloWorldTest.html, 107
HelloWorldTest.java, 99, 102
help, 104, 149
helper applications, 70
hexadecimal digits, 236
hexadecimal literals, 240-242
hide() method, 594
hidePopup() method, 785
hierarchical model, for events. 523-528. 670
hierarchy, class, 57-58, 123-124. 517-518
HighNoon class, 313-319, 322-323. 336
high-performance, 16
hit() method, 484-485, 486
Hoare, C. A. R., 17
horizontal object, 137
horizontal tab (\t) character, 243, 370
horizontal variable, 235, 264-265, 267-269, 636
host hostname option, 148
HotJava browser, 3-5, 10, 146, 453, 908. See also browsers
HotSpot VM (Virtual Machine), 16
hourglass animation, 77
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HOUROF_DAY constant, 396
HSBtoRGB() method, 569
HSPACE attribute, 187, 493, 499-500
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) <!> (comment) tag, 224
applet parameters and, 200-203
<APPLET. tag, 4-5, 67, 94, 107, 125-127, 138, 159-160, 186-194, 218-219, 224, 491-510, 579
<ARCHIVE> tag, 128, 337-338
<BR> tag, 499
case sensitivity and, 126, 127
comments, 27, 81, 82, 223-224
file, creating, for MediaHelloWorld, 143
<PARAM> tag, 350, 501-503
required to embed an AFT applet, 772-773
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), 10, 76
I
Icons, 782-783
identifiers basic description of, 82, 230, 235-238
legal/illegal, 236
variable declarations and, 264-265
if clause, 355
if statement, 253, 279-281, 355
if-then-else statements, 280-281
if-then statements, 280
IFC (Internet Foundation Classes), 769 IllegalArguementException() method, 461
IllegalThreadStateException exception, 460, 462, 463, 472, 475
image(s), 69-76. 572-281. See also graphics
HelloWorld applet and, 198-203
palette reduction, 69-70
scaling, 580-581
storage size of, 69-70, 76
as a universal language, 79
Image class, 517
image parameter, 199, 203
ImageObserver object, 140, 316, 575
images directory, 134, 159-161, 496
imageString variable, 198-199
imageUpdate() method, 600
IMG tag, 194
implementation phase, 738-755
implements clause, 306
implements keyword, 231, 329
import keyword, 231
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import statement, 122-123, 198, 333, 334, 335
importing classes, 136, 197-198
packages, 332-334
IN parameters, 936-937, 939-940
#include statements, 30, 123
increment() method, 327
increment operator, 274
inDayLightTime() method, 400
IndexOf constructor, 345
IndexOf() method, 388
Information hiding (encapsulation), 44-45, 53
inheritance, 55-58, 303-306
InInfinite() method, 363
init() method, 124-125, 128, 138-139, 140, 164-165, 188, 198, 199, 493, 502, 506, 537, 952, 973
initialization, 54, 266-267,379
inNaN() method, 363
inner classes, 325-330, 532
inner keyword, 231
InputEvent class, 530
InputStream class, 408-418
InputStreamReader class, 414-415
InputStreamReader constructor, 414-415
InputStreamWriter class, 414-415
Insert() method, 372-373, 620, 646, 688
InsertElementAt() method, 389
InsertItemAt() method, 785
InsertSeparator() method, 688
InsertText() method, 647
Insets class, 517
Insets() method, 654, 730
inside() method, 602
instance initializer, 327-328
instance methods, 321-322
instance variables, 23, 307-310
instanceof keyword, 231
Instanceof operator, 24, 260, 299
instances, 117, 254
instantiation, 51, 54, 299-300
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 15, 250, 252
int data type, 192, 193, 239-241, 248-250, 260, 275, 319, 355-357, 361
int keyword, 231
intBitsToFIoat() method, 362
Integer class, 192, 193, 355-356
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Integer constructor, 356
integer literals, 239
Integer object, 355-356, 368, 385
integer values, for coordinates, 535-537
integral type wrappers, 356. See also type wrappers
inter-applet communications, 80
interface(s),
basic description of, 44, 46-58, 305, 329-330
classes and, 305-307
data types, 246-247
designing, 734-737
discovery, 845-848
-driven development, 734-737
keyword, 231
nested, 325-326
publishing, 845
interfaces (listed by name)
ActionListener interface. 530-521, 533
Adjustable interface, 515
AdjustmentListener interface, 530
AppletContext interface, 505-506
AWTEvent interface. 515, 529-533
AWTEventMulticaster interface, 515
BorderLayout interface, 515
Brushes interface, 306
ButtonModel interface, 760
ComponentListener interface, 530
ContainerListener interface, 530
Document interface, 827-828
Enumeration interface, 384, 432
EventListener interface, 529
ItemListener interface, 530
ItemSelectable interface. 515
KeyListener interface, 530
LayoutManager interface, 515
LayoutManager2 interface, 515
MenuContainer interface, 515
MouseListener interface, 529, 530, 532
MouseMotionListener interface, 530
Observer interface, 384
Paints interface, 306
PrintGraphics interface, 515
Runnable interface, 454-455, 466, 467-472, 478, 973
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Serializable interface, 446-448, 851
Shape interface, 515
Surfaces interface, 306
TextListener listener interface, 530
WindowListener interface, 530
interlacing, 71-73
intern constructor, 346
Internet Explorer browser, 4, 6, 16, 19, 112, 491. See also browsers
Internet Search Web site, 207
internetworking, 874
interpreted computing, 11
interrupt() method, 461
interrupted() method, 461
InterruptedException exception, 449, 460, 462, 463
introspection, 845-848
Introspector class, 847-848
intValue() method, 192, 360, 362, 364, 366
“Invalid JAVA_HOME” error message, 96
invalidate() method, 598, 656
invalidateLayout() method, 716,721, 726
inValue() method, 356
IOException exception, 405, 442,446-447,449
I/O streams
basic description of, 405-450
buffered, 434-435
file output with, 420-423
file input with, 418-420
filtered, 434-435
java.io, 08-434
java.lang, 406-408
joining. 431-432 line-number input, 435-437
object serialization and, 446-448
piped, 432
reading, 405-406
referencing disk files and, 423-426
sequences of, 431-432
special-purpose, 418-434
typed, 438-442
writing, 405-406
IP addresses, 872, 876
isAbsolute() method, 424
isAlive() method, 461, 474
IsAncestorOe() method, 662
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isbnCocle variable, 23
isBold() method, 557
isBorderPainted() method, 780
isDaemon() method, 463.477, 480
isDiglt() method, 359
isDirectory() method, 424
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), 67
IsEdltable() method, 640, 650
IsEmpty() method, 386, 389
IsEnahled() method, 593, 690
isFile() method, 424
isFocusPainted() method, 780
isFocusTraversable() method, 610, 785
IsIndexSelected() method, 627
isInfinite() method, 364
isInteriace() method, 259
Isinterrupted0 method, 461
Isltalic() method, 557
Is() method, 398
isLowerCase() method, 359
isModal() method, 699
IsMultipleMode() method, 627
isNaN() method, 364-365
ISO character sets, 445
isOpaque() method, 785
IsPlain() method, 557
IsResizable() method, 682, 683, 699
isRolloverEnabled() method, 780
IsSelected() method, 627, 780
IsSet() method, 398
isShowing() method, 593, 680
isSpace() method, 359
isTearOfe() method, 687
isUpperCase() method, 359
isValid() method, 592
isVisible() method, 593
it keyword, 231
ITALIC variable, 558
ItemEvent class, 530
ItemListener interface, 530
ItemSelectable interface, 515
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JANUARY constant, 396
Japplet class, 504, 765
JAppletBeanInfo class, 765
JAR (Java archive) files, 90, 128, 337-338, 500, 867
jar.exe tool, 338
JARS (Java Applet Rating Service) Web site, 33, 205, 210-211, 214
Java APl (Application Program Interface), 68-69
Java FAQ Archives, 205, 214
.java file extension, 98, 99, 103, 113, 122, 232
Java interpreter tool, 90, 96-99, 101-106
Java language
basic description of, 3-4, 6-7
compatibility issues, 816-817
fundamentals, 263-298
Specification document, 230
Tutorial, 291, 296, 308
Java Protected Domains, 10
Java Sandbox, 10
Java Web site, 14
java.applet package, 123, 331, 335
java.awt package, 331, 470-471, 591-620
basic description of, 513-540
JFC and, 758
local classes and, 326
organization of, 514-515
Swing classes and, differences between, 761-764
java. awt.image package, 331, 333, 335, 514, 519-520, 572-581
java. awt.Image package, 572-581
java.awt.peer package, 331, 817
java.beans package, 851-870
javac compiler, 96, 97, 13. See also compilers
basic description of, 98-102
compiling HelloWorld with, 118-119
compiling MediaHelloWorld with, 133-134
debugging and, 147
Javadoc (documentation generator) tool, 29, 90, 99
JavaDraw, 733-757
JavaDrawFrame class, 755
JavaDrawFrame.java, 744-745
Javah (native method C file generator) tool, 90, 99
java.io package, 331, 406, 408-435, 448-449, 851
Javakey (Java digital key) tool, 90
Java.lang package, 290, 302, 322, 33l, 333, 357-367, 370-373, 406-468, 467-470, 478-482
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java.lang.reflect (reflection API) package, 220, 328
java. net package, 331, 333, 334
JavaOne Trade Show, 758
Javap (disassembler) tool, 90, 99
Java.rmi package, 890-894
JavaSoft Web site, 14, 33, 87, 205, 211, 220, 291, 296, 328, 844
Java.sql package, 923-934
java.util package, 332, 341, 383-405, 391, 392-402, 432, 529, 760
javaw command, 103
javaw_g command, 103
JavaWorld Web site, 65, 206, 215, 497
JButton class, 760, 763, 765, 782-783
JButtonBeanInfo class, 765
JCheckBox class, 763, 765, 783-784
JCheckBoxBeanInfo class, 765
JCheckBoxMenuItem class, 765
JCheckBoxMenuItemBeanInfo class, 765
JColorChooser class, 765
JColorChooserBeanInfo class, 765
JComboBox class, 765
JComboBox() method, 784-786
JComboBoxBeanInfo class, 765
JComponent class, 760-761, 763-764, 765
JComponentBeanInfo class, 766
Jdb debugger tool, 90, 99, 146-159. See also debugging
JDBC (Java Database Connectivity Application
Programming Interface), 895-948
JDC (Java Developer Connection) Web site, 88
JDialog class, 766
JDialogBeanInfo class, 766
JDK (Java Development Kit). See also packages
archive, expanding, 89-91
getting, 87-89
installing/configuring, 87-108
source code, studying, 83-84
JFC (Java Foundation Classes), 757-774, 775-838
JFileChooser class, 766
JFileChooserBeanInfo class, 766
JFrame class, 766, 786-788
JFrameBeanInfo class, 766
JInternalFrame class, 766
JInternalFrameBeanInfo class, 766
JIT (Just In Time) compilers, 16, 983. See alsocompilers
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JLabel class, 759, 766, 788-790
JLabelBeanInfo class, 766
JLayeredPane class, 766
JLayeredPaneBeanInfo class, 766
JList class, 766, 791-794
JListBeanInfo class, 766
JMenu class, 763, 766, 794-796
JMenuBar class, 767
JMenuBarBeanInfo class, 767
JMenuBeanInfo class, 766
JMenuItem class, 767
JMenuItemBeanfnfo class, 767
JNI (Java Native Interface), 83
join() method, 462. 463, 473
JOptionPane class, 767
JOptionPaneBeanInfo class, 767
JPanel class, 767, 796-797
JPanelBeanInfo class, 767
JPasswordField class, 767
JPasswordFieldBeanInfo class, 767
JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group), 69-73, 203, 520, 536
JPopupMenu class, 767, 797-798
JPopupMenuBeanInfo class, 767
JProgressBar class, 767, 798-801
JProgressBarBeanInfo class, 767
JRadioButton class, 763, 767, 801-802
JRadioButtonBeanInfo class, 767
JRadioButtonMenuItem class, 767
JRadioButtonMenuItemBeanInfo class, 767
Jre (runtime interpreter) tool, 90
JRootPane class, 767
JRootPaneBeanInfo class, 767
JScrollbar class, 767, 802-804
JScrollbarBeanInfo class, 768
JScrollPane class, 768
JScroliPaneBeanInfo class, 768
JSeparator class, 768
JSeparatorBeanInfo class, 768
JSlider class, 768, 804-805
JSliderBeanInfo class, 768
JSplitPane class, 768, 805-808
JSplitPaneBeanInfo class, 768
JTabbedPane class, 768, 808-810
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JTabbedPaneBeanInfo class, 768
JTable class, 768, 828-834
JTableBeanInfo class, 768
JTextArea class, 768, 810-814
JTextAreaBeanInfo class, 768
JTextField class, 810-814
JTextPane class, 768
JTextPaneBeanInfo class, 768
JToggleButton class, 768, 813-814
JToggleButtonBeanInfo class, 768
JToolbar class, 768, 819-820
JToolbarBeanInfo class, 768
JToolTip class, 768, 818-819
JToolTipBeanInfo class, 768
JTree class, 768, 820-827
JTreeBeanInfo class, 768
JULY constant, 396
JUNE constant, 396
JViewport class, 768
JViewportBeanInfo class, 768
JVM (Java Virtual Machine), 4-6, 11, 15
JWindow class, 768
JWindowBeanInfo class, 768
K
keyboard control, 66
keyDown() method, 526, 609
KeyEvent class, 530
KeyListener interface, 530
Keys() method, 386
keyUp() method, 526, 609
keywords
basic description of, 230-235
class modifier, 232
field modifier, 233-235
method modifier, 233-235
reserved, 231
search engines and, 217
Kicker object, 464
KzmFortune applet, 440-442
L
Label class, 517, 638-639, 759
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language, culturally insensitive, 79.
See also Java language
last() method, 726
LastEiement() method, 389
LastIndexOf() method, 389
lastModlfied() method, 424
LastPageFirst() method, 583
layout managers
basic description of, 79-80, 539, 663, 703-732
BorderLayout layout manager, 613, 704-706, 720-724
BoxLayout layout manager, 834-835
CardLayout layout manager, 613, 704-706, 724-730
FlowLayout layout manager, 613, 703-709, 712
Grid layout manager, 613, 704-706
GridBag layout manager, 613, 704-706
GridBagLayout layout manager, 709-719
OverlayLayout layout manager, 834
ScrollPaneLayout layout manager, 834-835
SpringLayout layout manager, 834
ViewportLayout layout manager, 834, 835
layout() method, 598
layoutContainer() method, 709, 711, 716, 721, 726
layoutInfo variable, 717
LayoutManager interface, 515
LayoutManager2 interface, 515
leapYear identifier, 236
left shift operator, 275
LEFT variable, 637-638, 709
length() method, 352, 373, 424
length variable, 170, 178
lib directory, 91, 96
LightGray variable, 570
lighweight processes, 453
LINE constant, 753
LineByLine.java 436-437
linefeed (\n) character, 243
LineNumberInputStream class, 436, 437
line-number input streams, 435-437
LineNumberReaders class, 437
lines, creating, 548
List class, 517, 527
List component, 525
list() method, 424, 425, 426, 481, 610, 611, 662
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List object, 624-629
ListDataEvent listener, 836
listeners, 523, 529, 530, 531, 848
ListResourceBundle class, 384, 391-392
ListSelectionEvent listener, 836
literals, 230, 238-245
LivingLinks applet, 218, 307
LivingLinks SDK, 218, 307
load command, 149
IoadAndShow() method, 956-957
local classes, 326-327
LocalClass class, 327
localization, of text, 27
locals command, 149, 154, 156
locate() method, 603. 661
location() method, 595, 714
logical operators, 253
long data type, 192, 240, 241, 248-250, 260, 275, 357, 367
long keyword, 231
longBitsToDouble() method, 365
iongValue() method, 360, 363, 365, 366
IookupConstraints() method, 714
loop() method, 140
loop parameter, 192
loops
do-while loops, 283-284
for loops, 25, 245, 266, 284-285, 287, 457
sound loops, 68-69, 140-141
while loops, 178-180, 192, 283-287
loosely typed language, 246
lostFocus() method, 609
Is command, 182
Lycos Web site, 207
M
Macintosh
classes and, 15
color palettes, 74
components and, 731
path names in, 419
Macromedia, 19
Magenta variable, 570
main() method, 114-116, 120, 125, 169, 177, 506-507, 755
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makeVisible() method, 627
MalformedURLException class, 333
Mantis Java Links Web site, 206, 208-209, 214, 224, 494, 984
MARCH constant, 396
mark() method, 41 I, 413, 434-435, 438
markSupported() method, 411
Math class, 402
Math command, 321-322
maximum value of range operator, 275
MAX_PRIORITY variable, 461, 463, 476
MAX_RADIX variable, 359
MAX_VALUE variable, 248, 358, 361, 363, 365, 367
MAY constant, 396
MediaHelloWorld applet, 133-143, 144-147, 160-163, 194-204, 267-269
MediaHelloWorld application, 572
MediaHelloWorld class, 135, 137, 143, 159, 161-163, 186
MediaTracker class, 517, 576, 950-954, 960, 976, 981
member classes, 326
member variables, 307-312
memory. See also RAM (random-access memory)
animation and, 76
allocation pools, 105
illegal access to, 12-13
memory command, 149
menu(s)
-bars, 517, 685-695
choice (pop-up) menus, 619-623
creating, 619-623
events, 696-697
shortcuts, 695-696
Swing classes and, 763-764
Menu class, 517
Menu constructor, 687
MenuBar class, 517, 685
MenuBar constructor, 685
MenuComponent class, 517
MenuContainer interface, 515
MenuItem class, 517,527, 690
MenuItem component, 525
MenuItem constructor, 690
MenuShortcut class, 517, 695-696
MenuShortcut constructor, 695-696
messages, 47-49
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method(s), methods (listed by name)
accessor methods, 83, 351-355
basic description of, 23-24, 41-44, 317-324
body of, 318-320
declaring, 114-115, 124-125, 318-320
modifier keywords, 233-235
names, 82, 318-320
object-oriented programming and, 41-44
overloading, 8, 200, 320-321
return type of, 318-320
Method class, 328
MethodDescriptor class, 862-863
methods (listed by name). See also methods
accept() method, 426
action() method, 407, 523, 526, 527-528, 609, 697
actionPerformed() method, 785
activeCount() method, 462, 478
activeGroupCount() method, 478
add() method, 397, 539, 610, 620, 625, 654-655, 686, 688
addAceessibleSelection()
method, 778, 787
AddActionListener() method, 529,614, 644, 628, 692, 778, 785
addAdjustmentListener() method, 637
addChangeListener() method, 778
addComponentListener() method, 603, 659
addElement() method, 388
addEventListener() method, 529
addFocusListener() method, 604
addItem() method, 620, 625, 785
addItemListener() method, 618, 621, 628, 693, 778, 785
addKeyListener() method, 604
addLayoutComponent() method, 708, 710, 714, 715, 720, 721, 724
addMouseListener() method, 604
addMouseMotionListener() method, 604
addNotify() method, 609, 614, 617, 625, 620, 632, 638, 643, 646, 650, 662,663, 678, 682,
685,687, 693, 690, 699
addPoint() method, 552
addSeparator() method, 688, 695
AddTextListener() method, 641
addWindowListener() method, 679
AdjustForGravity() method, 716
AdjustmentListener() method, 637
advance() method, 964-965, 967, 973
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After() method, 393, 397
append() method, 371-372, 373, 375, 647
appendText() method, 647
ArrangeGrid() method, 716
available() method, 410, 412, 420, 428-429, 446
Before() method, 393, 397
blit() method, 965-966, 967, 973
booleanValue() method, 357
Bounds() method, 596
brighter() method, 566, 568
bytesWidth() method, 565
canRead() method, 424
canWrite() method, 424
Capacity() method, 372, 388
capacityIncrement() method, 390
charAt method, 352, 372
charValue() method, 358
CharWldth() method, 564, 565
checkAccess() method, 463, 479
CheckAlarm() method, 56
checkError() method, 444
checkHorizontalKey() method, 778
checkImage () method, 601-602
checkVerticalKey() method, 778
clear() method, 386, 397, 625
clearAccessibleSelection() method, 778, 787
clearRect() method, 543, 571, 576-577
ClipRect() method, 543
clone() method, 256, 258, 386, 388, 397, 400
close() method, 411, 413-418, 444, 446, 447
ComponentEventprocess() method, 606
Contains() method, 386, 388, 602
ContainsKey() method, 386
contentsChanged() method, 785
copy() method, 256
CopyAreaO method, 543
CopyInto() method, 388
CountComponents() method, 653
CountItems() method, 620,625, 687
countMenus() method, 686
countStackFrames() method, 462
Create() method, 543
createChangeListener() method, 778
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createImage () method, 600
createRootPanel() method, 787
currentThread() method, 459
darker() method, 566, 568
decrement() method, 327
delete() method, 424
deleteShortcut() method, 686, 691
delftem() method, 626
deliverEvent() method, 603, 660
deselect() method, 627
destroy() method, 164-165, 461, 479
digit() method, 358
disable() method, 593, 691, 692
disableEvents() method, 605, 691
DisplayTlme() method, 55-56
Dispose() method, 543, 585, 678, 683
doAccesslbleAction() method, 778, 787
doClick() method, 778
doLayout() method, 598
doubleToLongBlts() method, 364
doubleValue() method, 360, 362, 366
draw() method, 289, 301, 753
draw3DRect() method, 519, 543, 550
drawArc() method, 519, 544
drawBytes() method, 519, 544
drawChars() method, 519, 544, 559-562, 637
drawCircle() method, 288-289
drawImage () method, 140, 153, 316, 535, 542,544, 580-581
drawLine() method, 519, 545, 548
drawOval() method, 519, 535, 545, 550-551
drawPolygon() method, 519, 545, 552-553
drawRect() method, 519, 545, 548-549
drawRoundRect() method, 519, 545, 549
drawShape() method, 288
drawstring() method, 125, 519, 542, 545, 559-560, 562, 637
DumpLayoutInfo() method, 716
dumpStack() method, 463
eat() method, 43-44
EchoCharlsSet() method, 643
ElementAt() method, 388
ElementCount() method, 390
ElementData() method, 390
Elements() method, 386, 388
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empty() method, 390
enable() method, 593, 691
enableEvents() method, 605, 691
Encounter() method, 315-316, 322-323, 325
End() method, 583
EnsureCapaclty() method, 372,388
enumerate() method, 462, 479-480
equals() method, 258, 354, 357, 358, 360, 362, 364, 366, 384, 393, 397, 424, 557, 568,
696
EventprocessFocus() method, 606
exists() method, 424
fill3DRect() method, 519, 545
fillArc() method, 519, 545
fiilOval() method, 519, 546, 550-551
fillPolygon() method, 519, 546, 552-553
fillRect() method, 519, 546, 548-549
fillRoundRect() method, 519, 546,549
finalize() method, 258, 323-324, 546, 583
first() method, 726
FirstElement() method, 388
floatToIntBits() method, 362
floatValue() method, 360, 362, 364, 366
flush() method, 416-417, 418, 439, 443, 447
forName() method, 259
frameInit() method, 787
get() method, 386, 397
getAccessibleActionCount() method, 778, 787
getAccessibleActionDescription() method, 778, 784, 787
getAccessibleChild() method, 787
getAccessibteChildrenCount() method, 787
getAccesslbleCount() method, 787
getAccessibleDescription() method, 787
getAccessibleName() method, 778, 787
getAccessibleParent() method, 787
getAccessibleRole() method, 784, 787
getAccessibleSelection() method, 778
getAccessibleSelectionCount() method, 779
getAccessibleStateSet() method, 779, 787
getAccessibleText() method, 787
getAccessibleValue() method, 779, 788
getActionCommand() method, 779, 785, 614, 692
getAlignment() method, 638, 707
getAlignmentX() method, 597,657
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getAlignmenty() method, 598, 658
getApplet() method, 505
getAppletContext() method, 222, 497, 504, 506, 507
getAppletInfo() method, 220, 507-509
getApplets() method, 505
getAscent() method, 563
getAudioClip() method, 139, 200, 505, 976
getAvailablelDs() method, 399
getAvailableLocals() method, 397
getBackground() method, 594, 572
getBlue() method, 567
getBoolean() method, 357
getBounds() method, 596
getCaretPosition() method, 641
getCheckboxGroup() method, 617
getClass() method, 257-259, 372
getClassLoader() method, 259
getClipBounds() method, 546
getClipRect() method, 546
getCodeBase() method, 139, 160, 190, 495-496
getColor() method, 547, 568-569
getColorModel() method, 595
getColumns() method, 643, 647, 710
getComponent() method, 653
getComponentAt() method, 602-603, 661
getComponentCount() method, 653
getConstraints() method, 714
getCurrent() method, 619
getCursor() method, 598
getCursorType() method, 683
getDate() method, 393
getDay() method, 393
getDefault() method, 400
getDefaultCloseOperation() method, 788
getDefaultToolkit() method, 584, 589
getDescent() method, 564
getDisabledIcon() method, 779
getDisabledSelectedIcon() method, 779
getDocumentBase() method, 139, 160, 961
getEchoChar() method, 643
getEncoding() method, 415
getFamily() method, 556
getFirstDayOfWeek() method, 398
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getFocusOwner() method, 680
getFont() method, 547, 557, 563, 594
getFontMetrics() method, 547, 598
getForeground() method, 572, 594
getFortuneString() method, 440
getGraphics() method, 582, 584-585, 588, 598
getGreatestMinimum() method, 398
getGreen() method, 567
getH() method, 53
getHeight() method, 564, 572-573, 575
getHelpMenu() method, 685
getHgap() method, 707, 710, 720, 724
getHorizontalAlignment() method, 779
getHorizontalTextPosition() method, 779
GetHours() method, 393
getHSBColor() method, 569
getIcon() method, 779
getIconImage () method, 682
getID() method, 400
getImage () method, 200, 496, 505
getInsets() method, 653
getInstance() method, 397
getInteger() method, 360
getInterfaces() method, 259
getIt() method, 311
getItem() method, 620, 625, 688
getItemCount() method, 620, 625, 687, 785
getKeyAccelerator() method, 779
getKeys() method, 392
getLabel() method, 614, 617, 690, 779
GetLayout() method, 656
getLayoutAlignmentX() method, 715, 721, 725
getLayoutAlignmenty() method, 716, 721, 726
getLayoutDimensions() method, 714
GetLayoutInfo() method, 716
getLayoutOrigin() method, 714
getLeading() method, 563
getLeastMinimum() method, 398
getLineIncrement() method, 634
getLineNumber() method, 435
getLocale() method, 594, 679
getLocation() method, 595
getLocationOnScreen() method, 595
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getLong() method, 366
getMargin() method, 779
GetMaxAdvanee() method, 564
GetMaxAseent() method, 564
GetMaxDescent() method, 564
GetMaximum() method, 398, 633
getMaximumAecessibleValue() method, 779, 788
getMaximumSize() method, 597, 657
getMaxPriority() method, 480
getMenu() method, 686
getMenuBar() method, 682
getMenuCount() method, 686
getMessage() method, 294
GetMinimalDaysInFirstWeek() method, 398
GetMinimum() method, 633
getMinimumAccessibleValue() method, 779, 788
getMinimumSize() method, 597, 628, 644, 648, 657
GetMinSize() method, 716
GetMinutes() method, 393, 398
getModel() method, 779
GetMonth() method, 393
getName() method, 257, 259, 424, 462, 465, 480, 482, 556, 592
getNextAccessibleSibling() method, 788
getOffset() method, 400
GetOrientation() method, 632
GetPageDimension() method, 582
GetPageIncrement() method, 634
GetPageResolution() method, 582
getParameter() method, 190-192, 755
getParameterInfo() method, 220, 507-509
getParent() method, 424, 480, 592
getPath() method, 424
getPrelerredSize() method, 597, 628, 644, 648, 657
getPressedIcon() method, 779
getPreviousAccesslbleSibling() method, 788
getPrintJob() method, 583
getPriority() method, 462
getRawOffset() method, 400
getRed() method, 567
GeTreeLock() method, 592
GetRGB() method, 568
getRolloverSelectedIcon() method, 779
getRows() method, 627, 647, 710
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getScreenResolution() method, 589
GetScrollbarVisibility() method, 648
GetSeconds() method, 393
getSelectedCheckbox() method, 619
getSelectedIcon() method, 779
GetSelectedIndex() method, 621, 626
getSelectedIndexes() method, 626
GetSelectedItem() method, 621
getSelectedItemsIndex() method, 626
getSelectedObjects() method, 617, 621, 626, 693, 785
GetSelectedText() method, 640
getSelectionEnd() method, 640
getSelectionStart() method, 640
getShortcut() method, 686, 691
getSize() method, 557, 595
getState() method, 617, 693
getStyle() method, 557
getSuperclass() method, 259
GetText() method, 639, 640, 779
getThreadGroup() method, 462, 482
GetTime() method, 393, 398
GetTimeZone() method, 398, 400
GetTlmeZoneOffset() method, 394
getTItle() method, 682, 699
getToolkit() method, 589, 679
getUI() method, 779
getVO method, 53
getValue() method, 633, 637
getVerticalAllgnment() method, 779
getVerticalTextPosition() method, 779
getVgap() method, 707, 710, 720, 724
GetVisible() method, 633
getVisibleAmount() method, 633
getVisibleIndex() method, 627
getWarningString() method, 679
getWidth() method, 565, 572-573, 575
GetYear() method, 394
gotFocus() method, 609
handleEvent() method, 407, 524, 526, 528, 608
HandleGetObject() method, 392
hashCode() method, 258, 357-358, 360, 362, 364, 366, 384, 394, 424, 557, 568
hide() method, 594
hidePopup() method, 785
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hit() method, 484-485, 486
HSBtoRGB() method, 569
IllegalArguementException() method, 461
imageUpdate() method, 600
increment() method, 327
InDayLightTtme() method, 400
IndexOe() method, 388
InInfinite() method, 363
init() method, 124-125, 128, 138-139, 140, 164-165, 188, 198, 199, 493, 502, 506,537,
952,973
inNaN() method, 363
Insert() method, 372-373, 620, 646, 688
InsertElementAt() method, 389
InsertItemAt() method, 785
InsertSeparator() method, 688
InsertText() method, 647
Insets() method, 654, 730
inside() method, 602
instance methods, 321-322
IntBitsToFloat() method, 362
interrupt() method, 461
interrupted() method, 461
intValue() method, 192, 360, 362, 364, 366
Invalidate() method, 598, 656
InvalidateLayout() method, 716, 721, 726
inValue() method, 356
isAbsolute() method, 424
isAlive() method, 461, 474
IsAncestorOe() method, 662
IsBold() method, 557
isBorderPainted() method, 780
isDaemon() method, 463, 477, 480
isDigit() method, 359
isDirectory() method, 424
IsEditable() method, 640, 650
IsEmpty() method, 386, 389
isEnabled() method, 593, 690
isFile() method, 424
isFocusPainted() method, 780
isFocusTraversable() method, 610, 785
isIndexSelected() method, 627
isInfinite() method, 364
isInterface() method, 259
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isInterrupted() method, 461
Isltalic() method, 557
IsLenient() method, 398
isLowerCase() method, 359
isModal() method, 699
isMultipleMode() method, 627
isNaN() method, 364-365
isOpaque() method, 785
IsPlain() method, 557
isResizable() method, 682, 683, 699
isRolloverEnabled() method, 780
isSelected() method, 627, 780
lsSet() method, 398
isShowing() method, 593, 680
isSpace() method, 359
isTearOfe() method, 687
isUpperCase() method, 359
isValid() method, 592
isVisihle() method, 593
JComboBox() method, 784-786
join() method, 462, 463, 473
keyDown() method, 526, 609
Keys() method, 386
keyUp() method, 526, 609
last() method, 726
LastElement() method, 389
LastIndexOe() method, 389
lastModified() method, 424
LastPageFirst() method, 583
layout() method, 598
layoutContainer() method, 709, 711, 716, 721, 726
length() method, 352, 373, 424
list() method, 424, 425, 426, 481, 610, 611, 662
loadAndShow() method, 956-957
locate() method, 603, 661
location() method, 595, 714
IongBitsToDouble() method, 365
IongValue() method, 360, 363, 365, 366
lookupConstraints() method, 714
loop() method, 140
IostFocus() method, 609
main() method, 114-116, 120, 125, 169, 177, 506-507, 755
makeVisible() method, 627
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mark() method, 411, 413, 434-435, 438
markSupported() method, 411
minimumLayoutSize0 method, 708, 711, 715, 721, 725
minimumSize() method, 628, 644, 648, 657
mkdir() method, 424, 426
mkdirs() method, 424, 426
mouseClicked() method, 529
mouseDown() method, 141-143, 526, 608
mouseDrag() method, 526
mouseEnter() method, 526, 609
mouseEntered() method, 529
mouseExit() method, 526, 609
mouseExited() method, 529
mouseMove() method, 140-143, 145, 147, 154, 200, 526, 608
mousePressed() method, 529
mouseReleased() method, 529
mouseUp() method, 526, 608
move() method, 595, 675
myDivide() method, 291, 292-295
next() method, 726
nextDouble() method, 401
nextFloat() method, 401
nextGaussian() method, 401-402
nextInt() method, 401
nextLong() method, 401
notation method, 59
notify() method, 258, 473, 485-486
notifyAll() method, 258, 473
Object() method, 258
pack() method, 678
paint() method, 124-125, 138, 140, 142, 151-152, 164-165, 197, 200, 234-235, 268-269,
289, 321, 539, 542, 565-566, 575-578, 588, 599, 658, 731-732, 952
paintAll() method, 599
paintBorder() method, 780
paintComponents() method, 659
paramString() method, 610, 615, 618, 622, 629, 636, 639, 642, 649, 662, 683, 689, 692,
694, 696, 699
parentOe() method, 481
Parse() method, 394
parseInt() method, 193, 361
parseLong() method, 366-367
parseSounds() method, 503
Peek() method, 390
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Pop() method, 390
postEvent() method, 603, 680
preierredLayoutSize() method, 708, 711,715, 721, 725
preferredSize() method, 628, 644, 648, 657
prepareImage () method, 601
previous() method, 726
printInt method, 406-407, 442, 444, 588, 600, 659
Int() method, 588, 600
printComponents() method, 659
printIn() method, 118, 120, 310, 406-407, 442, 445
processActionEvent() method, 615, 629, 645, 692
processAdjustementEvent() method, 636
processContaInerEvent() method, 660
processEvent() method, 605, 615, 618, 622, 629, 635, 642, 645, 660, 679, 692, 694
processItemEvent() method, 618, 622, 629, 694
processKeyEvent() method, 607, 785
proceasMouseEvent() method, 607
processMouseMotionEvent() method, 608
processTextEvent() method, 642
processWindowEvent() method, 680
push() method, 390
Put() method, 386
raddlmpl() method, 655
read() method, 407, 410, 412, 415, 438, 446, 447
readBoolean() method, 438
readByte() method, 438
readChar() method, 438
readDouble() method, 439
readFloato() method, 439
readFuily() method, 439
ReadInt() method, 439
readLine() method, 435, 439
readLong() method, 439
readObject() method, 446, 447
readSort() method, 439
readUnslgnedByte() method, 439
readUnslgnedShort() method, 439
readUTF() method, 439
ready() method, 415
Rehash() method, 386
Remove() method, 386, 610, 621, 626, 655-656, 683, 686, 689
removeAccesslbleSelection() method, 780, 788
removeActionListener() method, 614, 629, 645, 692, 780, 785
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removeAdjustmentLlstener() method, 635
RemoveAll() method, 621, 625, 656, 689
RemoveAllElements() method, 389
removeAllItems() method, 785
removeChangeListener() method, 780
removeComponentListener() method, 603, 659
RemoveElementAt() method, 389
removeEventListener() method, 529
removeFocusListener() method, 604
removeItem() method, 785
removeItemLlstener() method, 618, 622,628, 694, 780, 785
removeKeyListener() method, 604
removeLayoutComponent() method, 708, 711, 715, 721, 725
removeMouseListener() method, 604
removeMouseMotionListener() method, 605
RemoveNotify() method, 609, 625, 640, 662, 685, 687
removeTextListener() method, 641
removeWindowListener() method, 679
renameTo() method, 424
repaint() method, 142, 571, 576-578, 599-600, 731
replace() method, 352
replaceItem() method, 625
ReplaceRange() method, 647
replaceText() method, 647
requestFocus() method, 610
reset() method, 411, 413, 428-429, 434-435, 438
reshape() method, 597
reslze() method, 124, 126-127, 138, 165, 188, 497, 596, 675
resume() method, 461, 466, 473, 481
RGBtoHSB() method, 569
Roll() method, 398
run() method, 454-460, 464, 466, 467, 469-471, 473, 474, 477, 964, 973
Search() method, 390
Select() method, 621, 627, 641
selectAll() method, 641
selectAllAccessibleSelection() method, 780
selectedItemChanged() method, 785
Set() method, 398
setAccessibleDescription() method, 788
setAccessibleName() method, 788
setAccessibleValue() method, 780, 788
setActionCommand() method, 614. 691, 780, 786
setAlarm() method, 56
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methods (continued) setAlignment() method, 638, 707
setBackground() method, 571, 572, 594
SetBlockIncrement() method, 634
setBorderPainted() method, 780
setBounds() method, 597
SetCaretPosition() method, 641
setCharAt() method, 348-349, 373, 376
setCheckboxGroup() method, 618
SetClip() method, 547
SetColor() method, 547, 566
SetColumns() method, 643, 647, 710
setConstraints() method, 713-714
setCurrent() method, 619
setCursor() method, 598, 683
setDaemon() method, 463, 477, 481
SetDate() method, 394
setDefault() method, 400
setDefaultCloseOperation() method, 788
setDisabledIcon() method, 780-781
setDisabledSelectedIcon() method, 780-781
SEtEchoChar() method, 643
setEditable() method, 640
SetElementAt() method, 389
setEnabled() method, 593, 690, 780
SetFirstDayOfWeek() method, 399
setFocusPainted() method, 780
SetFont() method, 547, 559-560, 594
setForeground() method, 594, 571, 572
setHelpMenu() method, 686
setHgap() method, 707, 710, 720, 724
setHorizontalAlignment() method, 780
setHorizontalTextPosition() method, 780
SetHours() method, 394
setIcon() method, 780
setIconImage () method, 682
setID() method, 400
setIt() method, 311
setKeyAccelerator() method, 780
SetLabel() method, 614, 617, 690, 781
SetLayout() method, 656, 706, 724
SetLength() method, 373
SetLenient() method, 399
SetLineIncrement() method, 634
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setLocale() method, 595
setLocation() method, 595, 680, 681
setMargin() method, 781
setMaximum() method, 633
setMaxPriority() method, 481
setMenuBar() method, 682, 689
SetMinimalDaysInFirstWeek() method, 399
setMinimum() method, 633
SetMinutes() method, 394
setModal() method, 699, 781
SetMonth() method, 394
setMultipleMode() method, 627
setMultipleSelections0 method, 627
setName() method, 462, 592
setOpaque() method, 781
setOrientation() method, 633
SetPageIncrement() method, 634
SetPaintMode() method, 547
setPoint() method, 53
setPressedIcon() method, 781-781
setPriority() method, 461, 476
setRawOffset() method, 400
setResizable() method, 682, 683, 699
setRolloverEnabled() method, 781
setRolloverIcon() method, 781
setRolloverSelectedIcon() method, 781
SetRows() method, 647, 710
SetSeconds() method, 394
setSeed() method, 401
setSelected() method, 781
SetSelectedCheckbox() method, 619
setSelectedIcon() method, 781
setSelectedItem() method, 786
SetSelectionEnd() method, 641
SetSelectionStart() method, 640
setShortcut() method, 691
SetSize() method, 389, 596, 680, 681
setState() method, 617, 693
SetText() method, 639, 640, 781
SetTime() method, 55-56, 394, 399
SetTimeZone() method, 399
setTitle() method, 682,699
setUnitIncrement() method, 634
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setVerticalAlignment() method, 781
setVerticalTextPosition() method, 781
setVgap() method, 708, 710, 720, 724
setVisible() method, 681, 593
SetVisibleAmount() method, 634
SetXORMode() method, 547
SetYear() method, 394
shortcuts() method, 686
show() method, 593, 594, 678, 680, 699, 727
showDocument() method, 504, 505
showPopup() method, 786
showStatus() method, 222-223, 504, 505, 506
Size() method, 386, 389,439, 537,596
SizeUp() method, 318-321, 325
SizeUpArray() method, 320-321
SizeUpCompare() method, 320-321
skip() method, 411-413, 447
skipBytes() method, 439
sleep() method, 459-460, 464, 472
SoundAlarm() method, 56
start() method, 140-141, 164-165, 454-457, 460, 466, 467, 471, 472, 493, 506
stop() method, 140-141, 164-165, 460, 461, 465-466, 474, 481
stringWidth() method, 564
suspend() method, 461, 466, 472-473, 475, 481
System() method, 324
TextField() method, 649
ThreadDeath() method, 461
TimeZone() method, 399
toBack() method, 679
toFront() method, 678
ToGMTString() method, 394
ToLocaleString() method, 394
toLowerCase() method, 359
toString() method, 258, 259, 277, 357, 359, 361, 363, 365, 367, 371, 373, 424, 429, 463,
481, 547, 558, 565, 568, 610, 619, 696, 709, 711, 716, 721, 727
toUpperCase() method, 359
transferFocus() method, 610
Translate() method, 547
trim() method, 353, 354
TrimToSize() method, 389
uncaughtException() method, 481
unread() method, 438
update() method, 571, 599, 731-732
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updateUI() method, 781, 786
URL() method, 289
useDaylightTime() method, 400
UTC() method, 393
validate() method, 598, 656
ValidateTree() method, 657
valueOe() method, 193, 353, 357, 361, 363, 365, 367
voidupdateUI() method, 783
wait() method, 258, 485-486
windowActivated() method, 701
windowClosed() method, 700
windowCIosing() method, 700
windowDeactivated() method, 701
windowDeiconified() method, 701
windowIconifled() method, 701
WindowOpened() method, 700
write() method, 415-417, 418, 439-440, 443, 447-448
writeBoolean() method, 440
writeByte() method, 440
writeBytes() method, 440
writeChar() method, 440
writeChars() method, 440
writeDouble() method, 440
writeFloat() method, 440
writeint() method, 440
writeLong() method, 440
writeObject() method, 446, 448
writeShort() method, 440
writeUTF() method, 440
yield() method, 459, 476
Metrowerks, 16, 19
MFC (Microsoft Foundation Classes), 770-772
microphones, 17
Microsoft Corporation, 16, 19
MILLISECOND constant, 396
MIME (Multipurpose internet Mail Extensions), 868
minimum value of range operator, 275
minimumLayoutSize() method, 708, 711, 715, 721, 725
minimumSize() method, 628, 644, 648, 657
MIN_PRIORITY variable, 463, 476
MIN_RADIX variable, 359
MINSIZE variable, 717
MINUTE constant, 396
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minutes In_365_Days identifier, 236
MIN_VALUE variable, 248, 358
Mitsubishi Electric, 19
MfX_VALUE variable, 361, 363, 365, 367
mkdir() method, 424, 426
mkdirs() method, 424, 426
modem speeds, 67-73
modularity, 49-50
modulo operator, 275
MONDAY constant, 396
monitors, 484
MONTH constant, 395
monthlyIncome identifier, 236
mouse
control, 65-66
events, playing sounds with, 979-980
single-button, support for, 66
MouseAdapter class, 532
mouseClicked() method, 529
mouseDown() method, 141-143, 526, 608
mouseDrag() method, 526
mouseEnter() method, 526, 609
mouseEntered() method, 529
MouseEvent class, 530
mouseExit() method, 526, 609
mouseExited() method, 529
MouseListener interface, 529, 530, 532
MouseMotionListener interface, 530
mouseMove() method, 140-143, 145, 147, 154, 200, 526, 608
mousePressed() method, 529
mouseReleased() method, 529
mouseUp() method, 526, 608
move() method, 595, 675
MOVE_CURSOR variable, 684
ms size option, 105
msrp instance variable, 23-24
multiple inheritance, 8
multiplicative operators, 249, 252, 274
multitasking, 17
multithreading. See also threads
basic description of, 1 I, 17-18, 452-453
multithreaded programs and, 483-485
synchronization and, 483-484
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MVC (model-view-controller) architecture, 760
myAudio variable, 137, 267-268
myBuff variable, 375
myChars array, 349
myClassVar variable, 309-310
myDivide() method, 291, 292-295
MyGraphics class, 306
myImage variable, 137, 267-268
myInstanceVar variable, 311, 313
myPt variable, 54
N
NAME attribute, 187, 493, 496-497
Name variable, 558
NaN (Not-a-Number) value, 251, 252, 276, 363, 364
NaN variable, 363, 365
native code, avoiding, 83
native keyword, 231, 234
negation operator, 274
NEGATIVE_INFINITY variable, 363, 365
nested
classes, 325-326
interfaces, 325-326
Netscape Communicator browser, 6, 19. See also browsers
Netscape Navigator browser, 4, 112. See also browsers
<APPLET> tag and, 491
file caching feature, 143
JIT compiler technology and, 16
threads and, 453
networking. 78-79, 871-894
new expression, 532
new keyword, 231, 254
new operator, 54
New Thread state, 471
newPoint() constructor, 54
newsgroups, 205, 211-212
next command, 149
next() method, 726
nextDouble() method, 401
nextFloat() method, 401
nextGaussian() method, 401-402
nextint() method, 401
nextLong() method, 401
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noasyncgc option, 105
noclassgc option, 105
non-member variables, 307
NORMPRIORITY variable, 463
NoSuchElement exception, 384
Not Runnable state, 464, 471, 472-473, 476
notation method, 59
notify() method, 258, 473, 485-486
notifyAll() method, 258, 473
NotSoBrutish.java, 579
Novell, 19
NOVEMBER constant, 396
noverify option, 105
nowarn option, 101
null keyword, 231
null references, 257
NullPointerException exception, 426
numbers, forbidden, 240
numeric literals, 239
NW_RESIZE_CURSOR variable, 683
O
object(s)
basic description of, 36-37, 39-41, 843
copying, 256-257
creating, 254-255, 374, 467-470, 712-713
designing, 737-738
determining the class of, 257-260
interfaces and, 46-58
messages and, 47-49
modifying, 374-375
operators, 279
-oriented analysis (OOA), 34, 57-59
-oriented design (OOD), 34, 57-59
-oriented programming (OOP), 3, 8-10, 20, 23, 33-60, 62, 114, 131-135
references, 254-260
serialization, 446-448, 85l
OBJECT attribute, 188, 493
Object class, 114, 257-260, 277, 303-306, 533, 763-764
Object() method, 258
Object parameter, 527-528
ObjectInput class, 446-448
ObjectInput constructor, 446
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Object()utput class, 446-448
Observable class, 384
Observer interface, 384
octal literals, 242
OCTOBER constant, 396
operator(s)
basic description of, 24-25, 230, 245-246, 270
for boolean operations, 253
for floating-point operations, 251-252
for integral operations, 249
overloading, 8
precedence, 271-273
types of, 274-275
operator keyword, 231
Oracle, 19
Orange variable, 570
out keyword, 231
OUT parameters, 940
out variable, 118
outer keyword, 231
OutputStream class, 415-418
OutputStreamWriter class, 417-418
ovals, creating, 550-551
OverlayLayout layout manager, 834
P
pack() method, 678
package keyword, 231
packages. See also specific packages
basic description of, 83, 331-337
creating, 336-337
importing, 332-334
list of standard, 331-333
paint() method, 124-125, 138, 140, 142, 151-152, 164-165, 197, 200, 234-235,268-269, 289, 321,
539, 542,565-566, 575-578, 588, 599, 658, 731-732,952
paintAII() method, 599
paintBorder() method, 780
paintComponents() method, 659
PaintEvent class, 530
Paints interface, 306
panels, 663-675
paper, putting ideas down on, 62-64
parallax scrolling, 972
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PARAM attribute, 67, 194
<PARAM> tag, 350, 501-503
parameters
basic description o[, 501-503
flexibility through, 67
paramString() method, 610, 615, 618, 622, 629, 636,
639, 642, 649, 662, 683, 689, 692, 694, 696, 699
parentheses, 245, 273-274
parentOf() method, 481
Parse() method, 394
parseInt() method, 193, 361
parseLong() method, 366-367
ParseSkeleton.java, 183-184
parseSounds() method, 503
parsing, command-line arguments, 182-185
Pascal, 7
passwords, 148. See also security
pasting, in the DOS box, 158
PATH environment variable, 91-94
PDF (Portable Document Format), 89
Peek() method, 390
Peer class, 331, 333, 514, 583-584
peers, 331, 333, 514, 583-584, 592
permissions, 495. See also access control;
security persistence, 851
photographs, 71
PieChart applet, 652
PieChartCanvas class, 652
PingPong class, 484-489
Pink variable, 570
PipedInputStream class, 432
PipedOutputStream class, 432
PipedReader class, 433
PipedWriter class, 433
pixels, 588, 589, 731
PLAIN variable, 558
platform independence, 5-6, 14-16
Player.java, 488
PM constant, 396
Point class, 54, 117
Point() constructor, 54
Point object, 51-54
pointers, 12, 20-21, 170
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Polaroid photographs, 71
POLY constant, 753
Polygon class, 517
polygons, 517, 551-553
Pop() method, 390
PopupMenu class, 517
portability, 4, 15-16
ports, stacking data with, 871-874
POSITIVE_INFINITY variable, 363, 365
Postal Service, 19
postEvent() method, 603, 680
postfix increment operators, 249, 252
predictability, 27
preferredLayoutSize() method, 708, 711, 715, 721, 725
preferredSize() method, 628, 644, 648, 657
PREFERREDSIZE variable, 717
prefix operators, 249, 252
prepared statements, 935-936
prepareImage() method, 601
previous() method, 726
primitive data types, 246-253, 254, 265, 319
Princeton University, 14
principal, 10
print() method, 406-407,442,444,588, 600,659
printAll() method, 588, 600
printComponents() method, 659
PrintGraphics interface, 515
Print Java.java, 586-587
Print Job class, 517, 582-589
PrintJob() constructor, 582
printIn() method, 118, 120, 310, 406-407, 442, 445
PrintStream class, 442-445, 446
PrintStream object, 310
PrintWriter class, 446
private protected access control, 308-309
private access control, 53, 115-118, 308-309
private access modifier, 115-118
private keyword, 53, 115, 116, 231, 233, 234
procedural programmers, 7
processActionEvent() method, 615, 629, 645, 692
processAdjustementEvent() method, 636
processContainerEvent() method, 660
processEvent() method, 605, 615, 618, 622, 629, 635,
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642, 645, 660, 679, 692,694
processItemEvent() method, 618, 622, 629, 694
processKeyEvent() method, 607, 785
processMouseEvent() method, 607
processMouseMotionEvent() method, 608
processTextEvent() method, 642
processWindowEvent() method, 680
profile Information, 105
properties, 384, 392,844, 856-860
Properties class, 384, 392
property manipulation, 844
PropertyDescriptor class, 857-858
PropertyResourceBundle class, 384, 391-392
PropertyResourceBundle constructor, 392
protected access control, 53, 115-118, 308-309
protected access modifier, 115-118
protected keyword, 115, 116, 231, 233-234
protocol(s)
Extensible Runtime Containment and Services
protocol, 867-868
FTP (File Transfer Protocol), 10, 160-161
handlers, 5
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), 10, 76
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), 10, 97, 871, 872-876
UDP (User Datagram Protocol), 872-873, 875-876
PS (Postscript) format, 89
pubCode variable, 23
public access control, 53, 115-118, 308-309
public access modifier, 115-118, 302-303
public classes, importing, 333
public keyword, 53, 115-116, 231, 233
public variables, 329-330
push() method, 390
PushbackInputStream class, 438
PushbackReader class, 438
Put() method, 386
Q
quantity variable, 23
question mark (?), 244
quit command, 157, 158
quitting programs, before debugging, 158
quotation marks (”), 181-182, 244, 245, 368
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R
racism, 79
raddImpl() method, 655
radio buttons, 616
RAM (random-access memory), 44. See also memory
Random class, 342, 384, 302, 401-402
RandomAccessFiles class, 448
ranges, 248-251
read() method, 407, 410, 412, 415, 438, 446, 447
readBoolean() method, 438
readByte() method, 438
readChar() method, 438
readDouble() method, 439
readFloat() method, 439
readFully() method, 439
ReadInt() method, 439
readLine() method, 435, 439
readLong() method, 439
readObject() method, 446, 447
readSort() method, 439
readUnsignedByte() method, 439
readUnsignedShort() method, 439
readUTF() method, 439
ready() method, 415
Rectangle class, 301, 517
rectangles, 301, 548, 517, 550-551
Red variable, 570
reference(s)
basic description of, 247
data type, 254-260, 265-266
null, 257
variables, 265-266
regionMatches constructor, 344
Registry, 892-893
Rehash() method, 386
Reject button, 97
relational operators, 249, 252, 253
reliability, 11-12, 27
Remove() method, 386, 610, 621, 626, 655-656, 683, 686, 689
removeAccessibleSelection() method, 780, 788 removeActionListener() method, 614, 629, 645,
692, 780, 785
removeAdjustmentListener() method, 635
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RemoveAll() method, 621, 625, 656, 689
RemoveAllElements() method, 389
removeAllItems() method, 785
removeChangeListener() method, 780
removeComponentListener() method, 603, 659
RemoveElementAt() method, 389
removeEventListener() method, 529
removeFocusListener() method, 604
removeItem() method, 785
removeItemListener() method, 618, 622, 628, 694, 780, 785
removeKeyListener() method, 604
removeLayoutComponent() method, 708, 711, 715, 721, 725
removeMouseListener() method, 604
removeMouseMotionListener() method, 605
RemoveNotify() method, 609, 625, 640, 662, 685, 687
removeTextListener() method, 641
removeWindowListener() method, 679
renameTo() method, 424
repaint() method, 142, 571, 576-578, 599-600, 731
replace() method, 352
replaceItem() method, 625
ReplaceRange() method, 647
replaceText() method, 647
requestFocus() method, 610
reset() method, 411, 413, 428-429, 434-435, 438
reshape() method, 597
resize() method, 124, 126-127, 138, 165, 188, 497, 596, 675
resource bundles, 391-392
ResourceBundle class, 384, 391-392
rest keyword, 231
resume command, 149
resume() method, 461, 466, 473, 481
return keyword, 231
return statements, 287, 295, 319-320
reusable code, 57
RGB (red, green, blue) color model, 566, 568, 569
RGBtoHSB() method, 569
right shift operator, 275
RIGHT variable, 637-638, 709
right-arrow symbol (>), 102
RMI (Remote Method Invocation) operations, 91, 890-894
Panic (remote method invocation compiler) tool, 91
RMiregistry (remote object registry) tool, 91
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robust programs, 11-12
Roll() method, 398
rounding, 252
rowHeights variable, 717
rowWeights variable, 717
Rumbaugh, James, 58
run() method, 454-460, 464, 466, 467, 469-471, 473, 474, 477, 964, 973
Runnable interface, 454-455, 466, 467-472, 478, 973
Runnable state, 471, 472
runtime environment, 4, 6-7, 15, 257-260, 817
runtime types, determining, 257-260
RuntlmeException class, 291
S
SATURDAY constant, 396
Scrollbar class, 517
Scrollbar component, 525
scrolling
lists, creating, 624-629
parallax, 972
with scroll bars, 631-637
ScrollPane class, 517
ScrollPaneLayout layout manager, 834-835
SE_RESIZE_CURSOR variable, 683
search engines, 207, 216-220
Search() method, 390
SEARCH.COM Web site, 207
SECOND constant, 396
security, 10, 12-14. See also access control
passwords, 148
permissions, 495
SecurityManager class, 482
Select() method, 621, 627, 641
selectAll() method, 641
selectAllAccessibleSelection() method, 780
selectedItemChanged() method, 785
self-contained objects, 40
self-extracting archives, 89-91
semicolon (;), 31, 100, 199
separators, 230, 245
SEPTEMBER constant, 396
SequenceInputStream class, 431-432
sequences, of streams, 431-432
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Java Bible:Index
Serializable interface, 446-448, 851
serialization, 446-448, 851
Serialver (serial version) tool, 91
servers, 159-162
Set() method, 398
setAccessibleDescription() method, 788
setAccessibleName() method, 788
setAccessibleValue() method, 780, 788
setActionCommand() method, 614, 691, 780, 786
setAlarm() method, 56
setAlignment() method, 638, 707
setBackground() method, 571, 572, 594
SetBIockIncrement() method, 634
setBorderPainted() method, 780
setBounds() method, 597
SetCaretPosition() method, 641
setCharAt() method, 348-349, 373, 376
setCheckboxGroup() method, 618
SetClip() method, 547
SetColor() method, 547, 566
SetColumns() method, 643,647, 710
setConstraints() method, 713-714
setCurrent() method, 619
setCursor() method, 598, 683
setDaemon() method, 463, 477, 481
SetDate() method, 394
setDefault() method, 400
setDefaultCloseOperation() method, 788
setDisabledIcon() method, 780-781
setDisabledSelectedIcon() method, 780-781
SEtEchoChar() method, 643
setEditable() method, 640
SetElementAt() method, 389
setEnabled() method, 593, 690, 780
SetFirstDayOfWeek() method, 399
setFocusPainted() method, 780
SetFont() method, 547, 559-560, 594
setForeground() method, 594, 571, 572
setHelpMenu() method, 686
setHgap() method, 707, 710, 720, 724
setHorizontalAlignment() method, 780 setHorizontalTextPosition() method, 780
SetHours() method, 394
setIcon() method, 780
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setIconImage () method, 682
setlD() method, 400
setlt() method, 311
setKeyAccelerator() method, 780
SetLabel() method, 614, 617, 690, 781
SetLayout() method, 656, 706, 724
SetLength() method, 373
SetLenient() method, 399
SetLineIncrement() method, 634
setLocale() method, 595
setLocation() method, 595, 680, 681
setMargin() method, 781
setMaximum() method, 633
setMaxPriority() method, 481
setMenuBar() method, 682,689
SetMinimalDaysInFirstWeek() method, 399
setMinimum() method, 633
SetMinutes() method, 394
setModal() method, 699, 781
SetMonth() method, 394
setMultipleMode() method, 627
setMultipleSelections() method, 627
setName() method, 462, 592
setOpaque() method, 781
setOrientation() method, 633
SetPageIncrement() method, 634
SetPaintMode() method, 547
setPoint() method, 53
setPressedIcon() method, 781-781
setPriority() method, 461, 476
setRawOffset() method, 400
setResizable() method, 682, 683, 699
setRolloverEnabled() method, 781
setRolloverIcon() method, 781
setRolloverSelectedIcon() method, 781
SetRows() method, 647, 710
SetSeconds() method, 394
setSeed() method, 401
setSelected() method, 781
SetSelectedCheckbox() method, 619
setSelectedIcon() method, 781
setSelectedItem() method, 786
SetSelectionEnd() method, 641
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SetSeleetionStart() method, 640
setShortcut() method, 691
SetSize() method, 389, 596, 680, 681
setState() method, 617, 693
SetText() method, 639, 640, 781
SetTime() method, 55-56, 394, 399
SetTimeZone() method, 399
setTitle() method, 682, 699
setUnitIncrement() method, 634
setVerticalAlignment() method, 781
setVerticalTextPosition() method, 781
setVgap() method, 708, 710, 720, 724
setVisible() method, 681, 593
SetVisibleAmount() method, 634
SetXORMode() method, 547
SetYear() method, 394
sexism, 79
shadowed variables, 312-313
Shape command, 753
Shape interface, 515
shapeChoice widget, 744
Shape.java, 753
shell AFC applets, 772-773
SHERIFF variable, 316-317, 329-330
Shift key, 66
short data type, 248-250, 260
short keyword, 231
short-circuit logical operators, 253
shortcuts() method, 686
show() method, 593, 594, 678, 680, 699, 727
showDocument() method, 504, 505
ShowDown class, 313-316, 317, 324-235, 329-330, 336
showPopup() method, 786
showStatus() method, 222-223, 504, 505, 506
signatures, generating, for JAR files, 90
signed shift operators, 249
SimpleBeanInfo class, 846-847
simplicity, 7-8
Simula67 programming language, 33
single quote (’), 243-244
single-button mouse, support for, 66
Size() method, 386, 389, 439, 537, 596
Size variable, 558
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SizeUp() method, 318-321, 325
SizeUpArray() method, 320-321
SizeUpCompare() method, 320-321
skip() method, 411-413, 447
skipBytes() method, 439
sleep() method, 459-460, 464, 472
sockets, 885-889
Solaris, 15, 87-92, 96
Sort class, 335
sound, 62-66, 198-203
applet design and,68-69, 80-84
bandwidth issues and, 68
disabling, 158
enhancements, 135
event models, 978-980
file formats, 68, 134, 975-977
files, converting, 134
loops, 68-69, 140-141
MediaHelloWorld.java and, 134-136
multithreading and, 17
sound parameter, 203
SoundAlarm() method, 56
SoundOn object, 137
SoundOn variable, 142, 267-268
spaces, command-line arguments and, 181-182
speed identifier, 236
spelling, checking, 119
spiders, 216-217. See also search engines
SpinWorld class, 102
splash screens, 955-958
SpringLayout layout manager, 834
Sprite class, 959-970
sprite engines, 959-972
SpriteShadow class, 971-972
SQL (Structured Query Language), 895-948
square brackets ([]), 155, 177, 185, 232, 300,377, 491
src.zip archive, 91
S_RESIZE_CURSOR variable, 684
ss size option, 106
Stack class, 341, 384, 390
Stack constructor, 390
Stack object, 390
stacks, 341, 384, 390
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start() method, 140-141, 164-165, 454-457, 460, 466, 467, 471, 472, 493, 506
startAngle parameter, 553-554
startWith constructor, 345
stastic key-word, 308
state
basic description of, 37, 3941
behavior and, combining, 3941
statements, expressions as, 269-270
static keyword, 115, 116, 231, 234, 255, 309, 311, 321, 322
static variables, 329-330
STDOUT, 120
step command, 150
stepi command, 150
stop action, 66-67, 150
stop() method, 140-141, 164-165, 460, 461, 465-466, 474, 481
stored procedures, 938-941
streams
basic description of, 405-450
buffered, 434-435
file output with, 420-423
file input with, 418-420
filtered, 434-435
java.io, 08-434
java.lang, 406-408
joining, 431-432
line-number input, 435-437
object serialization and, 446-448
piped, 432
reading, 405-406
referencing disk files and, 423-426
sequences of, 431-432
special-purpose, 418-434
typed, 438-442
writing, 405-406
StreamTokenlzer class, 448
string(s)
applet parameters as, 192-193
basic description of, 27-28, 341-405
command-line arguments and, 172-173
concatenation, 24, 244, 368-369
converting, into URLs, 289
creating, 349-357
as first-class objects, 342-347
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literals, 244-245, 368, 369
String class, 27-28, 115, 185, 302, 342-383, 385, 387
String command, 169-170, 173-174
string data type, 319
String object, 391
string operators, 277
StringBuffer class, 27-28, 173-174, 341, 342, 347-349, 370-377, 385
StringBufferInputStream class, 428
StringTokenizer object, 503
StringTokenizer class, 341, 384, 391, 503
stringWidth() method, 564
strongly typed language, 12, 246
struct data type, 20, 21-23, 51, 117
stuff directory, 421
Style variable, 558
subclasses
basic description of, 114, 303
creating, 56, 131-135
preventing, 232-233
subscripts (array indexes), 12, 171, 380-381
substring constructor, 345
subtraction operator, 274
sun.tools.debug package, 332
SUNDAY constant, 396
super keyword, 231, 313, 316-317
super variables, 164, 316-317
superclasses
basic description of, 56, 303-305
extending classes and, 131-135
variable shadowing and, 312
Surfaces interface, 306
suspend() method, 461, 466, 472-473, 475, 481
suspend command, 150
SW_RESIZE_CURSOR variable, 683
Swing classes, 757-769, 775-815, 818-834, 836-838
switch keyword, 231
switch statement, 281-282, 286
Sybase, 19 Symantec, 16, 19
synchronized keyword, 231, 234, 484
System class, 185, 406-408
System() method, 324
System program, in the Control Panel, 93-94
System.err variable, 406, 408, 442
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System.in variable, 406-408
SystemColor class, 517
T
TableColumnModelEvent listener, 836
TableModelEvent listener, 836
TaskMaster applet, 497
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), 10, 97, 871, 872-876
Television object, 48-49
television set-top boxes, 4
TestApplet.html, 126, 127
testing, 162-163, 504-506
for equality, 257
file access and, 78-79
JDK installation, 94-98
locally, 78-79
TestMediaHello.html, 143, 147
text
animated, 560-562
components, 517, 639-649
framework, 827-828
minimizing, in applet design, 79
TEXT constant, 753
TextArea class, 517,639, 645-650
TextComponent class, 517, 639-649
TextComponent constructor, 639-640
TEXT_CURSOR variable, 683
TextEvent class, 530
TextFieid class, 517, 527, 639, 642-646
TextField() method, 649
TextListener listener interface, 530
“The download file appears to be corrupted” error message, 96
theHorizontal variable, 54
theVertleai variable, 54
thirsty variable, 42-43
this keyword, 139, 140, 231, 313.316
this parameter, 140
this variable, 164, 313.316
thread(s). See also multithreading
attributes, 470-471
basic description of, 76, 451-490
body, 470-471
daemon, 477
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green, 18
groups, 478-482
objects, creating, 467-470
options for, 105, 106
preventing bottlebecks with, 76
priority, 475-477
stacks and, 105
state, 471-475
synchronization and, 48.3-484
using, in applets, 454-466
Thread class, 454-470. 466
thread command, 150
Thread() constructor, 466
ThreadDeath class, 460-461, 474
ThreadDeath() method, 461
threadgroup groupname command, 150
three-tiered architecture. 944-946
throw keyword, 231 throw statements, 287, 290-291
Throwable class, 290-291, 294
throws keyword, 231
THURSDAY constant, 396
ticker tape applets, 222
Tic-Tac-Toe applet, 94-98, 107
TicTacToe directory, 94
Time variable, 55
TimeAlarmPiece class, 57
TimePiece class, 55-58
TimeZone class, 342, 384, 392, 399-400
TimeZone() method, 399
title variable, 23
toBack() method, 679
toCharArray constructor, 346
toFront() method, 678
ToGMTString() method, 394
tokens. 229, 230-246
ToLocaleString() method, 394
toLowerCase constructor, 345
toLowerCase() method, 359
Toolkit class, 517
Toolkit command, 583-584
Toolkit object, 589
Tooltlps, 818-819
TopClass class, 327
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toString() method. 258, 259, 277, 357, 359, 361, 363. 365,367, 371, 373, 424, 429, 463,481, 547,
558, 565, 568, 610, 619, 696, 709,711, 716, 721, 727
toString constructor, 346
toUpperCase constructor, 346
toUpperCase() method, 359
tracing, of instructions, 106
transactions, 941-944
transferFocus() method, 610
transient keyword, 231, 308
Translate() method, 547
transparency, 71
TreeExpansionF. vent listener, 836
TreeModelEvent listener, 836
TreeSelectionEvent listener, 836
Triangle class, 301, 306
trim constructor, 346
trim() method, 353, 354
trimmedString variable, 356
TrimToSize() method, 389
troubleshooting, 96-98
TRUE variable, 358
true/false boolean literals, 231, 238-245
trusted applets, 14
try keyword, 231
try statement, 295
try-catch clauses, 199, 292-295, 405, 440-442, 448, 464, 475
TUESDAY constant, 396
Tutorial, Java Language, 291, 296, 308
type checking, 12
type wrappers, 192, 355-368
typefaces, generic, 556. See also fonts
U
UDP (User Datagram Protocol), 872-873, 875-876
ugly variable, 322-323
UIApplet class, 772
UlFrame class, 772
UltraBogus class, 313
Ultracolor.java, 753-544
unary operators, 249, 252, 270, 271-272, 274-277
uncaughtException() method, 481
underscore character (_), 236, 237
Unicode character set, 27, 90, 230, 235-238, 244, 288, 445
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Unicode Consortium, 288
Uniform Data Transfer Mechanism, 868
union data type, 20, 21-23
UNIX, 100, 103-104
debugging and, 146, 147
end-of-line characters, 407
Is command, 182
path names in, 419, 425
starting the Registry on, 892
unread() method, 438
unsetenv command, 96
unsigned shift operators, 249
“Unsupported version of Windows Socket API” error message, 97
untrusted applets, 906
update() method, 571, 599, 731-732
updateUI() method, 781, 786
updating components, 730-732
uploading files, to Web server directories, 160-16l
upper keyword, 139
URL class, 333-334, 877-878
URL() method, 289
URLConnection class, 881-884
URLs (Uniform Resource Locators)
absolute, 493
<APPLET> tag and, 494-496
base, finding out, 495-496
converting strings into, 289
exceptions and, 197-198
file access and, 78
file output and, 421
for images and sound, 199-203
JDBC and, 910-911
networking and, 877-885
relative, 493
use command, 150, 153
useDaylightTime() method, 400
U.S. Postal Service, 19
UTC() method, 393
UTFDataFormatException exception, 449
V
validate() method, 598, 656
ValidateTree() method, 657
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valueOf constructor, 346-347, 353-355
valueOf() method, 193, 353, 357, 361, 363, 365, 367
values
basic description of, 229, 246-260
finite non-zero, 251
initializing, 266
primitive, 247
standard default, 260
storing, in variables, 266
var keyword, 231
varargs mechanism, 30
variables. See also arrays; variables (listed by name)
access control for, 308-309
accessing, 116-117
altering, 82-83
basic description of, 41-44, 263-266, 307-313
comments and, 28
data types for, 254-266
declaring, 264-265
global, 82, 117
hidden, 268
initializing and storing values in, 266
inspecting, 154, 155
names, 82
non-member, 307
object-oriented programming and, 41-44
scope of, 267-269
variables (listed by name). See also variables
Alarm variable, 56
AlarmAudioClip variable, 56
argc variable, 26-27, 170
argCount variable, 177, 178
argument variables, 170-172
argv variable, 26-27, 170
asleep variable, 42-43
audioString variable, 198-199
authLast variable, 23
awake variable, 42-43
bad variable, 322-323
Blue variable, 570
BOLD variable, 558
CENTER variable, 637-638, 709
CLASSPATH variable, 91-94, 96, 97, 100, 103-104, 134-135, 890
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columnWeights variable, 717
columnWidths variable, 717
constant (final) variables, 310-311
CROSSHAIR_CURSOR variable, 683
Cyan variable, 570
DarkGray variable, 570
DEFAULT_CURSOR variable, 683
defauitConstraints variable, 717
FALSE variable, 358
final variables, 329-330
font variable, 565
good variable, 322-323
Gray variable, 570
Green variable, 570
HAND_CURSOR variable, 684
helloStr variable, 191
helloString variable, 198
horizontal variable, 235, 264-265, 267-269, 636
imageString variable, 198-199
instance variables, 23, 307-310
isbnCode variable, 23
ITALIC variable, 558
layoutInfo variable, 717
LEFT variable, 637-638, 709
length variable, 170, 178
LightGray variable, 570
Magenta variable, 570
MAX_PRIORITY variable, 461, 463, 476
MAX_RADIX variable, 359
MAX_VALUE variable, 248, 358, 361, 363, 365, 367
member variables, 307-312
MIN_PRIORITY variable, 463, 476
MIN_RADIX variable, 359
MINSIZE variable, 717
MIN_VALUE variable, 248, 358
MIX_VALUE variable, 361, 363, 365, 367
MOVE_CURSOR variable, 684
msrp instance variable, 23-24
myAudio variable, 137, 267-268
myBuff variable, 375
myClassVar variable, 309-310
myImage variable, 137, 267-268
myInstanceVar variable, 31 l, 313
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myPt variable, 54
Name variable, 558
NaN variable, 363, 365
NEGATIVE_INFINITY variable, 363, 365
non-member variables, 307
NORMPRIORITY variable, 463
NW RESIZE_CURSOR variable, 683
Orange variable, 570
out variable, 118
PATH variable, 91-94
Pink variable, 570
PLAIN variable, 558
POSITIVE_INFINITY variable, 363, 365
PREFERREDSIZE variable, 717
pubCode variable, 23
public variables, 329-330
quantity variable, 23
Red variable, 570
RIGHT variable, 637-638, 709
rowHeights variable, 717
rowWelghts variable, 717
SE_RESIZE_CURSOR variable, 683
shadowed variables, 312-313
SHERIFF variable, 316-317, 329-330
Size variable, 558
SoundOn variable, 142, 267-268
S_RESIZE_CURSOR variable, 684
static variables, 329-330
Style variable, 558
super variables, 164, 316-317
SW_RESIZE_CURSOR variable, 683
System.err variable, 406, 408, 442
System.in variable, 406-408
TEXT_CURSOR variable, 683
theHorizontal variable, 54
theVertical variable, 54
thirsty variable, 42-43
this variable, 164, 313-316
Time variable, 55
title variable, 23
trimmedString variable, 356
TRUE variable, 358
ugly variable, 322-323
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vertical variable, 145, 147, 235, 264-269
WAIT_CURSOR variable, 683
WINDOW DEICONIFY variable, 701
WINDOW_DESTROY variable, 701
WINDOWEXPOSE variable, 701
WINDOW_ICONIFY variable, 701
WINDOW_MOVED variable, 701
W_RESIZE CURSOR variable, 684
Yellow variable, 570
Vector class, 384, 390, 503
Vector object, 341, 503
vectors, 341, 587-390, 503
verbose option, 101
vertical object, 137
vertical variable, 145, 147, 235, 264-269
VetoableChangeSupport class, 859-860
ViewportLayout layout manager, 834, 835
void keyword, 115, 231
voidupdateUI() method, 783
voiatile keyword, 231, 308
VSPACE attribute, 188, 499-500
W
wait() method, 258, 485-486
WAIT_CURSOR variable, 683
warning messages, 684
Wave (.wav) sound format, 975
Web browsers
<APPLET> tag and, 491
file caching features for, 143
Hot Java browser, 3-5, 10, 146, 453, 908
Internet Explorer browser, 4, 6, 16, 19, 112, 491
Netscape Communicator browser, 6, 19
Netscape Navigator browser, 4, 16, 112, 143, 453, 491
non-Java, communicating with, 501
JIT compiler technology and, 16
threads and, 453
using bookmarks with, 208
Web servers, 159-162
Web sites
Alta Vista Web site, 207, 218-220
DejaNews Web site, 207, 213, 218
Digital Espresso Web site, 205, 212-213
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Gamelan Web site, 33, 205, 209-210, 214, 223
Internet Search Web site, 207
JARS (Java Applet Rating Service) Web site, 33, 205, 210-211, 214
Java Web site, 14
JavaSott Web site, 14, 33, 87, 205,211, 220, 291, 296, 328, 844
JavaWorld Web site, 65, 206, 215, 497
JDC(Java Developer Connection) Web site, 88
Lycos Web site, 207
Mantis .lava Links Web site, 206, 208-209, 214, 224, 494, 984
SEARCH.COM Web site, 207
WebCrawler Web site, 207
World Wide Web Worm Web site, 207
Yahoo! Web site, 207
WebCrawler Web site, 207
Webmasters, contacting, 224
WEDNESDAY constant, 396
WEEK_OF_MONTH constant, 395
WEEK_OF_YEAR constant, 395
where command, 150, 155
wherei command, 150
while key’word, 231
while loops, 178-180, 192, 283-287
while statement, 253
whitespace, 30
widening, 249-250
WidgetPanel class, 743-744
WidgetPanel constructor, 743-744
WidgetPanel.java, 738-744
widgets. See also menus
basic description of, 521-522, 591-620
buttons, 612-615
canvases, 650-652
check boxes, 516, 525, 615-623, 762-763
JavaDraw and, 738-755
labels, 517, 638-639, 759
panels, 663-675
scroll bars, 631-637
scrolling lists, 624-629
WIDTH attribute, 126-127, 138, 186-189, 492-493, 497, 535
width parameter, 553
wlldcards, 123
WildWorlds.java, 560-562
window(s)
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dialogs as, 698-700
events, 700-701
frames and, 680-697
Window class, 517, 677-702
Window component, 525
Window constructor, 678, 680, 685
windowActivated() method, 701
WindowAdapter class, 700
windowClosed() method, 700
windowClosing() method, 700
windowDeactivated() method, 701
windowDeiconified() method, 701
WINDOW_DEICONIFY variable, 701
WINDOW_DESTROY variable, 701
WindowEvent class, 530
WINDOW_EXPOSE variable, 701
windowIconified() method, 701
WINDOW_ICONIFY variable, 701
WindowListener interface, 530
WINDOW_MOVED variable, 701
WindowOpened() method, 700
Windows (Microsoft), 15, 93
color palettes, 74
end-of-line characters, 407
JDK for, 87-88, 89-91, 97-98
path names and, 325, 419
setting CLASSPATH for, 93-84
starting the Registry on, 892
WinHelp format, 89
WinZIP, 91
word arguments, 174
World Wide Web Worm Web site, 207
world.gif, 160, 161, 203, 496
W_RESIZE_CURSOR variable, 684
write() method, 415-417, 418, 439-440, 443, 447-448
writeBoolean() method, 440
writeByte() method, 440
writeBytes() method, 440
writeChar() method, 440
writeChars() method, 440
writeDouble() method, 440
writeFloat() method, 440
writeInt() method, 440
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writeLong() method, 440
writeObject() method, 446, 448
writeShort() method, 440
writeUTF() method, 440
X
Xerox, 19
x,y coordinates, 533-535, 551-555, 560, 579, 665-675.
See also coordinate systems
Y
Yahoo! Web site, 207
YEAR constant, 395
Yellow variable, 570
yield() method, 459, 476
Z
zero-fill right shift operator, 275
ZIP archives, 91, 100, 103-104
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Java Bible:Classes, Interfaces, and Packages
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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While all other variables in Java should begin with a lowercase letter, final variables are different. By
convention, constant names in Java are spelled in all capital letters. Thus, you might declare the value of
pi using a constant as follows:
final double PI = 3.14159265359;
Class variables are often used to declare constants that all objects of that class will share. It’s
more efficient to use a static (class) variable than an instance variable in this case; memory is
only allocated once. To declare a class variable as a constant, simply precede the static keyword
with final (by convention, Java constant names are uppercase):
final static double PI = 3.14159265359;E
Before the JDK 1.1, whenever a final was declared it was immediately required to be
initialized—otherwise a compilation error would result. Now finals can be declared without
being initialized. Once they are assigned a value though, they cannot be changed. This allows
you to now create calculated constants, which cannot be changed once they have been
assigned a value. This is a subtle, but useful, change to the Java programming language.
Retrieving and setting member variables
As you know, your member variables can be retrieved and set directly, using the dot notation:
Bogus freshBogus = new Bogus(); // create an instance of Bogus
freshBogus.myInstanceVar = 1827; /* set variable using dot
notation */
int i : freshBogus.myInstanceVar; // retrieve using dot notation
Or set using methods defined for doing just that:
Bogus freshBogus = new Bogus(); // create an instance of Bogus
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Java Bible:Classes, Interfaces, and Packages
freshBogus.setIt(1827); // set variable using setIt() method
int i = freshBogus.getIt(); // retrieve using getIt() method
Of course, the preceding example assumes that the two methods, setIt() and getIt(), are defined in the body
of the Bogus class, for the purpose of setting and retrieving the myInstanceVar variable. The only way to
know if a method exists for setting or retrieving an object’s value is to read the documentation or source
code of the class.
Setting and retrieving class variables
In the previous examples, the class’s instance variable was accessed, This is apparent by looking at the
name of the variable (myInstance), and, more importantly, by the fact that we had to instantiate a Bogus
object in order to get to the instance variable. In the case of class variables, however, we don’t have to
bother creating an object:
Bogus.myClassVar = 111791; // set class variable w/o
instantiation
int i = Bogus.myClassVar; // retrieve w/o instantiation
As you can see, we can get and set a class variable without bothering to instantiate an object. However,
we can also access class variables through objects, just as we do instance variables:
Bogus freshBogus = new Bogus(); // create an instance of Bogus
// set class variable using dot notation:
freshBogus.myClassVar = 111791;
int i = freshBogus.myClassVar; // retrieve using dot notation
// set variable using setClassVar() method:
freshBogus.setClassVar(111791);
// retrieve using getClassVar() method:
int i = freshBogus.getClassVar();
If you access class variables through an object, as shown here, you’ll get the same results as if
you accessed them directly with the class name and dot notation, as illustrated in the first
example. To make your programs easier to read, and less confusing (“Am I dealing with a
class or instance variable here?”), it’s a good idea to avoid accessing class variables through
objects.
Member variable scope
Member variables can be referenced anywhere in the body of your class, even inside methods, as
discussed in Chapter 10. As you may remember, however, a member variable is “hidden” when a
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Java Bible:Classes, Interfaces, and Packages
variable of the same name is declared inside a method. For details on variable scope, refer to Chapter 10.
Shadowed variables
An interesting situation, known as variable shadowing, occurs when a subclass declares a member
variable having the same name as a member variable in its superclass. As you might recall, this situation
is known as overriding if methods are involved; when we’re dealing with variables, it’s called
shadowing.
Consider, if you will, the following class declaration, which subclasses the Bogus class we’ve been
dealing with so far:
class UltraBogus extends Bogus {
double mylnstanceVar; /* shadows myInstanceVar in
class Bogus */
int good, bad, ugly; /* UltraBogus instance variables */
}
As you can see, although a myInstanceVar variable is declared in UltraBogus, it is not of the same data type
as the one in Bogus (this is a double, whereas Bogus declared an int). Nonetheless, it shadows the
myInstanceVar variable declared in Bogus.
Any reference to myInstanceVar in the context of UltraBogus (whether in the class body or through an
object) refers to the one declared in UltraBogus. After all, how would Java know which one you’re talking
about unless it automatically uses one or the other? It wouldn’t, so it chooses the variable declared in the
subclass over the one in the superclass. In order to access the Bogus variable of the same name, you have
to use the super keyword (see the next section).
this and super variables
In Java, two special keywords, this and super, are used to refer to an object and its superclass. Although
we’ll see more about this and super later when we talk about methods, they are worth getting to know
now.
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Java Bible:Strings and Arrays
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
Previous Table of Contents Next
Table 12-7
java.lang. Character Variables
Variables Signature Description
*
public final static int The maximum radix available for conversion to and
MAX_RADIX
MAX_RADIX from strings.
*
MIN_RADIX public final static int MIN_RADIX The minimum radix available for conversion to and
from strings.
*
A positive integer, where the weight of the digit place is multiplied to obtain the weight of the
digit place with the next higher weight.
Table 12-8
java.lang.lnteger Constructors
Signature Description
Integer(int value) Constructs an Integer object initialized to the specified int value.
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public Integer(String Constructs an Integer object initialized to the value specified by the String
s) parameter.
Table 12-9
java.lang.lnteger Methods
Method Signature Description
doubleValue public double doubleVatue() Returns the value of this integer as a double.
equals public boolean equals(Object obj) Compares this object to the specified object.
floatValue public float floatValue() Returns the value of this integer as a float.
public static Integer getInteger
getInteger Gets an Integer property.
(String nm)
public static Integer getInteger Gets an Integer property. If the property does not exist, it
getInteger
(String nm, int val) returns a val. Deals with hexadecimal and octal numbers.
Gets an Integer property. If the property does not exist, it
getInteger getInteger (String nm, Integer val)
returns a val. Deals with hexadecimal and octal numbers.
hashCode public int hashCode() Returns a hash code for this integer.
intValue public int intValue() Returns the value of this integer as an int.
longValue public tong longVatue() Returns the value of this integer as a long.
Assuming the specified string represents an integer, returns
parseInt public static int parseInt (String s) that integer’s value. Throws NumberFormatException if the
string does not contain a parsable integer.
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Assuming the specified string represents an integer, returns
public static parseInt(String s, int
parseInt that integer’s value. Throws Number Format Exception if the
radix)
string does not contain a parsable integer.
toString public String toString() Returns a String object representing this integer’s value.
Returns a new String object representing the specified
toString public static String toString (int i)
integer.
public static toString(int i, int Returns a new String object representing the specified integer
toString
radix) in the specified radix.
Assuming the specified string represents an integer, returns
public static Integer valueOf a new Integer object initialized to that value. Throws
valueOf
(String s, int radix) Number Format Exception if the string cannot be parsed as
an integer.
Assuming the specified string represents an integer, returns
public static Integer valueOf
valueOf a new Integer object initialized to that value. Throws Number
(String s)
Format Exception if the string cannot be parsed as an integer.
Table 12-10
java.lang.lnteger Variables
Variable Signature Description
MAX_VALUE MAX_VALUE The maximum value an integer can have.
MIN_VALUE MIN_VALUE The minimum value an integer can have.
Table 12-11
java.lang. Float Constructor
Signature Description
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public Float(double
Constructs a Float wrapper for the specified double value.
value)
public Float(float value) Constructs a Float wrapper for the specified float value.
Constructs a Float object initialized to the value specified by the string
public Float (String s)
parameter.
Throws NumberFormatException if the string does not contain a parsable number.
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Java Bible:Strings and Arrays
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Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 12-12
java.lang. Float Methods
Method Signature Description
doubleValue public double doubleValue() Returns the double value of this float.
public boolean object. equals (Object
equals Compares this object against some other object.
obj)
public static int floatToIntBits float
floatToIntBits Returns the bit representation of a single float value.
value)
floatValue public float floatValue() Returns the float value of this Float object.
hashCode public int hashCode() Returns a hash code for this float.
Returns the single float value corresponding to a given
intBitsToFloat public static intBitsToFloat (int bits)
bit representation.
Returns the integer value of this float (by casting to an
intValue public int intValue()
int).
isInfinite public boolean isInfinite() Returns true if this float value is infinite in magnitude.
public static boolean isInfinite(float Returns true if the specified number is infinite in
isInfinite
v) magnitude.
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isNaN public boolean isNaN() Returns true if this float value is Not-aNumber (NaN).
Returns true if the specified number is the special Not-a-
isNaN public static boolean isNaN(float v)
Number (NaN) value.
longValue public long longValue() Returns the long value of this float (by casting to a long).
toString public String toString() Returns a string representation of this Float object.
Returns a string representation for the specified float
toString public static String toString (float f)
value.
Returns the floating-point value represented by the
valueOf public static Float valueOf (String s) specified string. Throws NumberFormatException if the
string does not contain a parsable float.
Table 12-13
java.lang. Float Variables
Variable Signature Description
MAX_VALUE public final static float MAX_VALUE The maximum value a float can have.
MIN_VALUE public final static float MIN_VALUE The minimum value a float can have.
NaN public final static float NaN Not-a-Number (NaN).
NEGATIVE_INFINITY public final static float NEGATIVE_ INFINITY Negative infinity.
POSITIVE_INFINITY public final static float POSITIVE_ INFINITY Positive infinity.
Table 12-14
java.lang.Double Constructor
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Signature Description
public Double(double
Constructs a Double wrapper for the specified double value.
value)
Constructs a Double object initialized to the value specified by the string
public Double(String s)
parameter.
Throws NumberFormatException if the string does not contain a parsable
number.
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Java Bible:Strings and Arrays
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 12-34
java.util.Calendar Constants
Constant Signature Description
ERA final int ERA Era field constant.
YEAR final int YEAR Year field constant.
MONTH final int MONTH Month field constant.
The week number of the date in the
WEEK_OF_ YEAR final int WEEK_OF_ YEAR
year field constant.
The week number of the date in the
WEEK_OF_ MONTH final int WEEK OF MONTH
month field constant.
DATE final int DATE The date field constant.
DAY_OF_ MONTH final int DAY_OF_ MONTH The day of the month field constant.
DAY_OF_YEAR final int DAY_OF_YEAR The day of the year field constant.
DAY_OF_WEEK final int DAY_OF_WEEK The day of the week field constant
DAY_OF_WEEK IN final int DAY_OF_WEEK The day of the week in the month field
MONTH _IN_MONTH constant.
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ZONE_OFFSET final int ZONE_OFFSET The time zone offset field constant.
The daylight savings time field
DST_OFFSET final int DST_OFFSET
constant.
AM_ PM final int AM_PM The AM/PM field constant.
HOUR final int HOUR The hour field constant.
HOUR_OF_DAY final int HOUR_OF_DAY The hour of the day field constant.
MINUTE final int MINUTE The minute field constant.
SECOND final int SECOND The second field constant.
MILLISECOND final int MILLSECOND The millisecond field constant.
JANUARY final int JANUARY January month field constant.
FEBURARY final int FEBRUARY February month field constant.
MARCH final int MARCH March month field constant.
APRIL final int APRIL April month field constant.
MAY final int MAY May month field constant.
JUNE final int JUNE June month field constant.
JULY final int JULY July month field constant.
AUGUST final int AUGUST August month field constant.
SEPTEMBER final int SEPTEMBER September month field constant.
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OCTOBER final int OCTOBER October month field constant.
NOVEMBER final int NOVEMBER November month field constant.
DECEMBER final int DECEMBER December month field constant.
SUNDAY final int SUNDAY Sunday day field constant.
MONDAY final int MONDAY Monday day field constant.
TUESDAY final int TUESDAY Tuesday day field constant.
WEDNESDAY final int WEDNESDAY Wednesday day field constant.
THURSDAY final int THURSDAY Thursday day field constant.
FRIDAY final intFRIDAY Friday day field constant.
SATURDAY final int SATURDAY Saturday day field constant.
AM final int AM AM field constant.
PM final int PM PM field constant.
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Java Bible:Strings and Arrays
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Table 12-35
java.util.Calendar Methods
Methods Signature Description
Gets the set of locales for which
getAvailable Locales Local[] getAvailable Locales()
Calendars are installed.
Gets a Calendar using the default
GetInstance Calendar getInstance ()
time zone and locale.
Gets a Calendar using the time zone
GetInstance Calendar getInstance (TimeZone zone)
specified.
Gets a Calendar using the locale
GetInstance Calendar getInstance (Locale aLocale)
specified.
Calendar getInstance (TimeZone zone, Locale Gets a Calendar using the time zone
GetInstance
aLocale) and locale specified.
Adds the specified amount to the
Add void add(int field, int amount)
given time field.
Compares the time fields and
After boolean after(Object when) returns true if the Calendar field is
after the current Calendar field.
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Compares the time fields and
Before boolean before (Object when) returns true if the Calendar field is
before the current Calendar field.
Clears the values of all time and
Clear void clear()
date fields.
Clears the value of the specified
Clear void clear(int field)
field.
Clone Object clone() Clones the Calendar object.
Compares the time fields and
Equals boolean equals (Object when) returns true if the Calendar field is
equal to the current Calendar field.
Gets the value of the specified
Get int get(int field)
field.
Gets the first day of the week for
the specified local (for example,
GetFirstDay Of Week int getFirstDayOf Week()
returns Sunday in the U.S. and
Monday in France).
Gets the highest minimum value
GetGreatest Minimum int getGreatest Minimum(int field)
for the field specified.
Gets the lowest maximum value for
GetLeastMaximum int getLeastMaximum (int field)
the specified field.
Gets the maximum value of the
GetMaximum int getMaximum(int field)
field specified.
Gets what the minimal days
GetMinimalDays
int getMinimal DatsIn FirstWeek() required in the first week of the
InFirstWeek
year are.
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Gets the minimum value of the
GetMinimum int getMinimum(int field)
field specified.
Gets the Calendar’s current time as a
GetTime Date getTime()
Date object.
GetTimeZone TimeZone getTime Zone() Gets the current time zone.
Determines whether date/time
IsLenient boolean isLenient()
interpretations are lenient.
Determines whether a field has
IsSet boolean isSet(int field)
been set.
Adds or subtracts one unit to the
Roll void roll(int field, boolean up)
specified field.
Sets the field with the specified
Set void set(int field, int value)
value.
Sets the specified year, month, and
Set void set(int year, int month, int date)
date fields.
void set(int year, int month, int date, int hour, Sets the specified year, month,
Set
int minute) date, hour, and minute fields.
Sets the specified year, month,
void set(int year, int month, int date, int hour,
Set date, hour, minute, and second
int minute, int second)
fields.
Sets what the first day of the week
SetFirstDayOf Week void setFirstDayOf Week(int value)
is.
Specifies whether date/time
SetLenient void setLenient (boolean lenient)
interpretations will be lenient.
SetMinimalDays Sets the minimal days required in
void setMinimal Days InFirstWeek(int value)
InFirstWeek the first week of the year.
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Sets the Calendar’s date and time
SetTime void setTime(Date date)
with the value of the Date field.
SetTimeZone void setTimeZone (TimeZone value) Sets the current time zone.
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Java Bible:Input/Output: Java Streams
Java Bible
Java by Aaron Walsh, John Fronckowiak
Bible IDG Books, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc.
ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Files and Directories
The java.io.File class supports objects that reference disk files. With this class, you can create files,
rename them, and delete them. Typically, you would use it to create a file object, and then pass it to a
FileInputStream or FileOutputStream constructor to create a stream linked to the file. Using the stream to
perform I/O, you would use the File class methods to rename the file as needed, or delete it altogether
when it is no longer required.
The File class offers three constructors, and a number of methods for dealing with files, as shown in
Table 13-7.
Table 13-7
The File Class
Constructor Description
File(String) Creates a File object using the directory path passed to it.
File(String, String) Creates a File object using the directory path and filename passed to it.
File(File, String) Creates a File object using a directory File object (File) and filename.
Method Description
canRead() Returns boolean indicating whether or not a readable file exists.
canWrite() Returns boolean indicating whether or not a writeable file exists.
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delete() Deletes specified file.
equals(Object) Compares this object against the specified object.
exists() Returns boolean indicating whether or not a file exists.
getAbsolutePath() Gets absolute path of file.
getName() Gets name of file.
getParent() Gets name of parent directory.
getPath() Gets path of file.
hashCode() Computes hash code for file.
isAbsolute() Returns boolean indicating whether filename is absolute.
isDirectory() Returns boolean indicating whether a directory file exists.
isFile() Returns boolean indicating whether a normal file exists.
lastModified() Returns the last modification time.
length() Returns the length of the file.
list() Lists the files in a directory.
list(FitenameFilter) Uses the specified filter to list files in a directory.
mkdir() Creates a directory and returns a boolean indicating the success of the creation.
mkdirs() Creates all directories in this path.
renameTo(File) Attempts to rename the file and returns a boolean indicating if successful.
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toString() Returns a String object representing the file’s path.
In Java, a directory is simply treated as a File object that has additional information—a list of names that
may be examined with the list() method. The following code creates a file, in the java/aewcode directory,
and then queries it using several of the File class methods:
import java.io. File;
class FileQuery {
public static void main(String args[]) {
String dirname = “/java/aewcode”; // directory must exist!
String filename = “readme.txt”;
File myFile = new File(dirname, filename);
System.out.println(“File Name:” + myFile.getName()):
System.out.println(“Is it a directory? ” +
myFile. isDirectory());
System.out.println(“Is it a real file? ” + myFile.isFile());
System.out.println(“File Path:” + myFile.getPath());
System.out.println(“Absolute Path:” +
myFile.getAbsolutePath());
System.out.println(“Is file Readable? ” + myFile.canRead());
System.out.println(“Is file Writeable? ” + myFile.canWrite());
System.out.println(“Modified on: ”+ myFile.lastModified());
System.out.println(“Size (in bytes):” + myFile.length());
System. out. println();
System.out.println(“ —- Directory Listing —-”);
File dir = new File(dirname);
if (dir.isDirectory() == false) {
System.out.println(dirname + “ is not a directory”);
}
else {
System.out.println(“Directory of ” + dirname);
String d[] = dir.list();
for (int i=0; i < d.length; i++) {
System.out.println(d[i]);
}
}
}
}
When it comes to path separators, you can use whatever is most convenient for you. Java converts
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between the Windows and UNIX path separators automatically, so you don’t have to worry about how
to enter them. Of course, if you choose to use the Windows (DOS) convention of backslashes, you’ll
have to enter them as escape codes, since the compiler can’t handle them in strings directly. For this
reason, the preceding code uses UNIX-style path separators (forward slashes) even though it was written
on a Windows machine; using a backslash with escape codes (“\\”) isn’t quite as clean when it comes to
reading the source. However, the following would have been fine:
String dirname = “\\java\\aewcode”;
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ISBN: 0764580302 Pub
Date: 05/01/98
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Keep in mind that the directory must exist for this code to work properly. However, you can always
augment the code to include the File class mkdir() or mkdirs() methods if you want the directory (or
directories) to be created on the fly, if they don’t already exist. Unfortunately, your program won’t be
able to remove any directories it creates, because the File class only allows you to create directories.
Deletion isn’t supported.
A runtime Null PointerException is thrown if you call list() on an object that isn’t actually a
directory.
At times, you may want to exclude certain files from a directory listing. For instance, suppose you only
wanted to view .TXT files. To do this, you’d implement the FilenameFilter interface found in java.io,
which can be completed by creating an object that implements the interface and the abstract accept()
method it defines. In this method you define what files will be accepted. By passing the resulting object
to the list() method, only those items that match the criteria are returned.
For example, here’s a class that allows you to filter files based on the extension of the filename:
public class ExtensionFilter implements FilenameFilter {
private String extension;
public ExtensionFilter (String e) {
this.extension =“ ” + e; // tack on constructor param
}
public boolean accept(File dir, String fileName) {
return fileName.endsWith(extension); /* accept only these
files */
}
}
To use this filter in our earlier example, we’d first create an object with it, passing in the extension we’d
like all files to have in order to be listed. By passing the resulting object to list(), only files that are
accepted by the filter (that is, files that cause the accept method to return a boolean value of true) are listed:
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Java Bible:Input/Output: Java Streams
FilenameFilter textFiles = new ExtensionFilter(“txt”);
// create filter object
String d[] = dir.list(textFiles): // use it in list()
FileWriter and FileReader
JDK 1.1 has introduced a new classes, FileReader (see Table 13-8) and FileWriter (see Table 13-
9), which process text files more efficiently than the FileInputStream and FileOutputStream classes.
Both the FileReader and FileWriter classes operate in the same manner as their FileInputStream and
FileOutputStream counterparts.
Table 13-8
java.io.FileReader Constructors
Signature Description
public FileReader(String name) throws Creates input file with the specified name (name
FileNotFoundException is system-dependent).
Parameter: name-a system-dependent filename.
Throws IOException if the file is not found.
public FileReader(File fileObj) throws Creates an input file from the specified file
FileNotFoundException object.
Parameter: fileObj - file to be opened for
reading.
Throws IOException if the file is not found.
public FileReader (File Descriptor fdescObj) Creates input file from the specified file
descriptor object.
Parameter: fdescObj - valid file descriptor object.
Table 13-9
java.io.FileWriter Constructors
Signature Description
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Java Bible:Input/Output: Java Streams
public FileWriter(String name) throws IOException Creates an output file with the filename (filename is
system-dependent).
Parameters: name - system-dependent filename.
Throws IOException if the file is not found.
public FileWriter(String name, boolean append) throws Creates an output file with the filename (filename is
IOException system-dependent).
Parameters:
name - system-dependent filename.
append - if true file is open for append.
Throws IOException if the file is not found.
public FileWriter(File file) throws IOException Creates an output file using the File object passed to
it.
Parameter: file - file to be opened for reading.
Throws IOException if the file is not found.
public FileWriter(File Descriptor fdescObj) Creates an output file from the specified FileDescriptor
object.
Parameter: fdescObj - A valid file descriptor object.
Strings
At times, you may wish to create a stream using strings. This is simple enough, using the
StringBufferInputStream class. You provide a String object as the parameter, and as you might expect, you’ll
be given a stream containing its contents:
String myString = “If a chicken and a half lays an egg and a
half in a day in a half, how much time does it take a one-eyed
grasshopper to poke a hole through a donut?”
InputStream riddle = new StringBufferInputStream(myString);
Since all String objects have a length (they aren’t infinite!), available() works perfectly on it. However, reset
() sets the buffer back to the beginning, not to a previously set mark as you might expect. Win some, lose
some.
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