EMA 3702L

Spring 2015

Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

Page | 1 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

Attachments:

1. General Course Objective and Syllabus

2. Course elementary and fundamental knowledge
3. Report Writing and Error Analysis
4. Lab Procedures:
a. Experiment One, Tensile Stress Testing
b. Experiment Two, Beam Deflection and Bending
c. Experiment Three, Torsional Tests of Solid circular Bars
d. Experiment Four, Principal of Stress and Strains
e. Experiment Five, Elastic and Inelastic buckling of Columns
f. Experiment Number Six, Hardness Tests of Material surfaces.

Page | 2 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 I. COURSE OBJECTIVES:
To verify mechanics of materials theories on real mechanical specimens.

Student Learning Outcome: The student will demonstrate the ability to:

a. Identify when theory applies and when theory is limited by simplifying assumptions
b. Identify the reasons why actual measurements will differ from theoretical
calculations.

To learn to run an experiment

Students learning outcomes: The students will demonstrate the ability to :
a. Perform pre- laboratory calculations to estimate the experimental
parameters, outcomes and limits
b. Develop an organized and meaningful data sheets
c. Use software tools to reduce and analysis the data
d. Organize a team to share responsibilities for operating equipment ad
collecting data.
To learn to use testing equipment and measurement instrumentations
Student learning outcomes: The student will demonstrate the ability to:
a. Use laboratory equipment correctly and safely to perform all experiments.

To learn to write a laboratory Report:

Student learning outcome: The student will demonstrate the ability to:
a. Write experimental objectives and procedure for practical experiment set up
and design
b. Present results in organized and clear manner
c. Draw graphs and figures and summarize key findings
d. Put together a complete professional report including tables of content,
references and appendices.

II. Pre-Lab CALCULATIONS

For each experiment discussed in this Manual, a set of calculations that must be completed and
questions that must be answered in order to prepare the collection of data in the lab. Examples of
types of calculations you will make include:

Determination of the maximum allowable load on a specimen.

Estimation or prediction of experimental results.

Page | 3 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 Determination of simple relationships between independent and dependent variables.
A data sheet, as described in the next section of this Manual.

Your laboratory preparation work will be completed and turned in during the session that meets
prior to the session when actual lab is performed. (Usually first 15 minutes of each practical lab
session). This insures that you are prepared so that accurate and complete data is collected and
that a high quality report can be written. Incomplete or inadequate laboratory work will results in
a similarly inadequate report. [Please be advised, if the preparation has not done in advance
and sample problems were not solved, you will not be allowed to conduct the experiment at
this time and will affect your lab grades].

Late laboratory preparation work will NOT receive credits.

Pre-lab calculations may varies from semester to semester, so do your own work.
In –Lab quiz questions on the theory and set up of the lab will be conducted and graded as
part of your lab report and preparations.

If possible, calculations should be set up as a template in a spreadsheet or other computer

applications so that the changes could be easily made. This can save time and effort if the
experimental setup is found to differ from the description in this manual.

III. DATA SHEETS:

A prepared paper or spreadsheet template data sheet is required as part of each pre-lab. A copy of
your paper data sheet or a printout of the spreadsheet template must be handed in with your pre-
lab.
It is essential that you put some thought into how to plan to collect data before you come to the
laboratory session. You must design it carefully in order to help you to collect complete and
accurate data. Remember that you are very unlikely to write a good report with bad or incomplete
data. Items to consider:

Your data sheet should include a sketch of your test setup including the gauge location
and appropriate dimensions so that you can check the experiment is set up correctly
before you start. (Usually you can get this sketch from Laboratory manual).
How many columns of data you need? You will generally need to have two columns for
each data variable and sometimes three so that scale factor and/or zero offset calculations
can be made.
Each column should be labeled so that you can remember where the data came from and
what it relates to.
The units of the data you are taking should be in your column labels.
How many rows you need? The rows will needed to be labeled as well.

Page | 4 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 Is there a location to put comments that relate the test setup, procedure or the collection
of data?

If you plan to use a spreadsheet and enter data directly into a computer, you need to design
the spreadsheet with the same consideration as above. You want to design different sheets for
different part of experiment.

A sample data sheet is included in the section of this manual for laboratory #1.

IV. ACCURACY AND ERROR ANALYSIS:

The number of significant digits displayed is an indication of the accuracy of the number. With
digital calculators or computer spreadsheets, it is easy to overstate the accuracy of a number.
When taking measurements, the least reliable digit relative to decimal point determines the
precision of your measurement. Data should not be recorded more precisely than warranted. For
example, assume you are reading load of the analog dial where are tick marks every 10 pounds.
If the needle is between 50 and 60 pound tick mark you could guess that the load is 54 pounds,
but the 4 is not very reliable. Certainly you would not want to write down 54.3 pounds. It is
somehow harder to determine a reliable with digital machines, and one would have to read the
testing machine manual to determine the reliability of each range, but normally two or three
significant digits is all that can be expected for the equipment used in this lab.

Finally when doing calculations, the answer cannot be more precise than the data and constants
you begin with. For example if you know that the dimensions of a rectangular bar are 25.5 mm (
3 significant figure) by 30.01 mm ( 4 significant figure) the area of specimen would be:

25.5 x 30.01 = 765.255 mm2 = 765 mm2 (3 significant figure).

From time to time you may want your spreadsheet computer or calculator to have more
significant figure to avoid round-off and truncation error, but your final answer should be more
precise than the original data.

Error analysis and error propagation as results of experimental data and mathematical relations
shall be established and calculated. [There will be a lecture class, normally the first session, a
discussions of error analysis and propagations and method of calculations will be discussed]

V. LABORATORY REPORTS:
The format and requirements for your laboratory reports will be set forth either in each laboratory
handout or by guidelines listed below:

1. Objective of Lab Reports:

Page | 5 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 The primary objective for a lab report is to convey to the client (general public, other engineers,
the professors, etc...) the information that the experimenter has collected. The report should be
organized so that someone who is not familiar with the particular experiment or test set-up can
understand:
What assumptions were made,
What procedures were followed,
What data collected,
What analysis was completed, and
Which conclusions were made.

The fundamental purpose of your report is to clearly demonstrate to the professor and the
instructor that you fully understand the theories, methods, variable, accuracy, data analysis
involved in the particular lab.

Furthermore, engineering reports, shall be organized such that one clearly could follow your
methods and procedures step by step to come to same data, calculations, and conclusions under
the same circumstances.

2. Report Organization:

In general each individual lab may have its own requirements, but in general a complete report
shall have at least the following:

TITLE PAGE, listing the experiment number and title, laboratory professor and
instructor, laboratory sessions identification (date and time of the week), date of
submittal, and report author(s).

TABLE OF CONTENT, indicating sections, sub-sections and page numbers

MAIN BODY
Objective of the experiment (or introduction to problem statements)
Procedure
Theoretical Estimation of Experimental Results (pre-lab description)
Experimental set-up and apparatus arrangements
Presentation of data, in a clean format (not raw data)
Method of analysis and sample calculations
Results of experiments and final analyzed data presentations
Conclusions (how the objective were satisfied? Was the accuracy adequate? Does
the theory work? In detail explanations, etc...)

REFERENCES (if needed, but will usually at least contain this lab manual as reference)

Page | 6 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 TABULATED DATA, and detail calculations, on a clearly labeled data sheet

GRAPHS AND FUGUERS (properly labeled and numbered)

APENDICES

Appendix A- Raw Data (including the actual data sheet used in the lab)
Appendix B. – Supporting Calculations
Appendix C. –Data reduction
Al pages should be numbered. Often numbering starts over in the appendices and
numbering such as A-1, A-2,…, B-1, B-2, etc. is used.

3. Objective of Experiment and procedures

The objective of the Experiment and the procedure may be adapted from the objective of the
experiment manual, be sure the manual is cited in the text, and listed in the references
section of your report. Procedures should explain in the text configuration as well as
the steps to follow to complete the experiment. Use of bullets or numbering system in
this section is acceptable and often makes for clearer, more concise organization. Be
sure and clearly describe if and how your procedure or the setup varied from that
provided in the experiment manual.

4. Theoretical Estimation of Experiment Results:

Each lab has a theoretical component, usually summarized and performed as part of Pre-Lab
assignment. The theory should be clearly explained, including the key components of the theory,
equations used, and any assumptions there were made and used. You should include sample of all
calculations and then a table to summarize estimates of key experimental results completed
during the Pre-Lab assignment. For example a table such as bellow may be useful:

Table1: Estimated Strains on Beam #2

Gauge Number Load ( lbs.) Estimated Strains

(µinch/inch)
1 P 0.02P
2 P 0.04P
3 P -0.03P

Equations should be written using appropriate software (such as Microsoft word, or Microsoft
Equation maker, or similar software). Simple equation may be created using a traditional
keyboard. Al equations should be indented and numbered. Equation numbers should occur at the
same tab stop for all equations. As an example:

𝟏/𝜽 +𝟓
β= −𝟐
𝒙𝒅𝒙 (Eq. 1)
𝝅

Page | 7 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 𝑷
𝝈= (Eq. 2)
𝑨

5. Results of Experiments

The experimental measurements should be summarized and explained in this section. This
section usually will not include raw data, since that will be reserved for Appendix A. Often
you will want to include tables and plots to show the summarized results. Be very careful to
present numerical results with appropriately accurate significant figures. In charts and graphs,
you should not curve fit a line through data points since errors (which is always present)
cause the individual data points to be offset from actual phenomena being measured. A chart
that presents a theoretical relationship may be presented by a continuous line if theory results
in a continuous equation. An example of a complete table is shown here:

Table 2: Results From Experiment 2

Actual Strain Predicated

Load (lbs) (μinch/inch) Stress (psi) Strains
(measured) (Measured) (Calculated) (μinch/inch)
0 0 0 0
1020 35 6700 32
2200 72 13700 69
2350 106 20200 105

Experiment #2 Tension of a Samll Metal Strip

25000

20000

15000
Stress (psi)

Stress (psi) (Claculated)

10000
Linear (Stress (psi)
Calcualted Slop E= 24.9x106 psi (Claculated))

5000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Strains (10-4 inche/inch

Figure 1. Stress –Strain relationship calculated from data taken in Experiment #2 on January 15,
2015 the curve was calculated using the least square function in Excel.

Page | 8 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 Note: If possible, you should present your data and prediction as plot for comparison. All plots
for comparison should be the same scale. Present numerical comparisons in tables.

6. Conclusions

This section is for student to discuss the objective (found in the Manual) of the experiment
were achieved and make observations and draw conclusions based on the comparison of the
experimental data and the theoretical predictions Here are few examples of points that could
be included:

A qualification of difference between theoretical prediction and measured results.

If the data and theoretical predictions are not the same, a discussion of reasons why this
may have happened;
Whether the theoretical model is appropriate for the real world specimen;
Whether the test procedure is an appropriate method of validation of the theory;
Difficulties that occurred in completing the experiment or data analysis.

In addition the conclusion should include at least one technical aspect of the experiment that the author
understands clearly. This technical item could be related to the theory, or the assumptions that were made
that would prevent the experiment from matching theory, or some functional aspects of the
instrumentation, etc. If the report is a group report, the conclusion should contain one item clearly
understood by each student in the group.

7. References
Any material, that is not written or derived by the lab report author(s), need to be referenced.
The purpose of the citation is to provide the reader with information necessary to find item in
library or internet.

8. Tables
Tables must include a table number, a title above the table, and labels at the top of each
column that completely describes the content of the column, In some cases you may also
need labels for the rows or subsections of the table. Al labels should include units where
appropriate. Since tables must be readable, you should not use a font smaller than 10 point.
Tables may be presented in portrait or landscape mode.

9. Graphs
It is likely that you may use either excel or Matlab for drawing the graphs. It is very
important that you understand the assumptions being made and limitations of the software

Page | 9 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 when you draw a graph. For example you should know that the difference between scatter
graph and line graph in Excel.

In general data should be shown on the graph as markers without connecting lines.
Theoretical predictions, or estimates of relationships developed from analysis of the data,
should be shown as lines without markers. Generally a graph should be at least one half of a
page so that you could fit all the relevant information on it and still use the a font that is 10
points or larger. A full page for each graph is normally recommended.

Do not fit curves to your data unless the curve being fitted is part of the theory being tested. If
there is a theory being tested, the theory will provide an appropriate equation.

Graphs shall include a figure number with caption that give information about the data such
as experiment number and date collected, a title at the top of the graph, the axis names and
units, and an indication of which is the experiment data. You may use legend or may label
points and lines. Example of a graph was given in preceding section.

10. Figures
Figures are any types of graphics that serve to support the laboratory report. Drawings of the
test apparatus or specimens, as well as the graphs developed to display data are al figures.
Drawings of the test apparatus and specimens are simple way to show dimensions,
orientations, and loading configuration of each experiment. Figures of test set may be copied
from laboratory manual if manual is properly cited, both in the figure and Appendices.
Digital cameras are excellent way to acquire images to be used as figures in your report.
Figures must include a figure number and a caption below the figure. The caption should
clearly explain what is in the figure. If a figure is not drawn by the authors, but instead taken
from another source, it must contain a citation to the reference.

Page | 10 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 Theories

A. The Stress - Strain Relationship for Solids

This report first gives the definition of stress and strain, and then gives their relationship in elastic
region. The relationship between stress and strain includes uni-axial stress state, pure shear stress state,
bi-axial stress state (plane stress), biaxial strain (plane strain) state and tri-axial stress state cases. For
uni-axial case, the general stress – strain curve for ductile materials and brittle materials are provided.
About ductile materials, some important terms are also introduced.

Some definitions

Normal stress (axial stress)

Normal stress (axial stress) results when a member is subject to an axial load applied through the
centric of the cross section. It can be defined in terms of forces applied to a uniform rod [1], numerically
it is the ratio of the perpendicular force applied to a specimen divided by its original cross sectional area
[2]
:

F
A

Figure 1& 2 show the diagram.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Normal stress includes tensile and compressive stress, the conventional sign for normal stresses
are: tensile stresses are positive (+), compressive stresses are negative (-). The unit of stress is pascals
(Pa) (1Pa=1N/m2). Because in practice 1Pa is too small, Mpa, N/mm2 are usually used. In America,
English unit psi (or ksi or Msi) is often used: 1 psi ~= 7000 Pa.

Page | 11 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

Normal strain
Normal strain is defined as the ratio of change in length due to deformation to the original
length of the specimen [2]:

L
L0

Figure 3 shows the diagram.

Figure 3

Strain is unitless, but often units of m/m (or mm/mm) are used. In America, inch/inch is often
used.

Shear stress
Shear stress is defined in terms of a couple that tends to deform a joining member (Figure
4) [1]. It is used in cases where purely sheer force is applied to a specimen, the formula for
calculation and units remain the same as tensile stress (Figure 5):

F
A0

A0

Figure 4

Figure 5

Page | 12 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 The unit of shear stress is same as normal stress.

Shear strain
Shear strain is defined as the tangent of the angle theta, and, in essence, determines to what
extent the plane was displaced (Figure 5) [2]:
x
tan
l

Same as normal strain, shear strain is unitless.

True stress and true strain

In practical, true stress and true strain are sometime used. Similar to the definitions of
stress and strain mentioned above, but instead of original cross sectional area, true stress and true
strain are based upon instantaneous values of cross sectional
area and gage length.

Poisson’s ratio
Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of the lateral to axial strains [2] (Figure 6):

Figure 6

Theoretically, isotropic materials will have a value for Poisson’s ratio of 0.25. The maximum value
of n is 0.5. Most metals exhibit value between 0.25 and 0.35.

Stress-strain Curves

In practice, through the tension or compress testing of a material, we can get the stress-strain
curves of the material. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the general stress-strain curves of general ductile
material and brittle material.

Page | 13 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 Figure 8

Figure 7

As examples, Figure 9, 10, and 11 show stress-Strain curves of low-carbon steel, Aluminum and
glass, respectively [3]. Low-carbon steel and Aluminum belong to ductile material, whereas glass is a kind
of typical brittle material.

Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11

Yield strength is a very important parameter for a material. For any material, yield strength is
defined the maximum stress that can be applied without exceeding a specified value of permanent
strain (typically 0.2% = .002 in/in). Precision elastic limit or micro-yield strength is another parameter to
define the property of a material; it is defined as the maximum stress that can be applied without
exceeding a permanent strain of 1 ppm or 0.0001% [3].

For general ductile material, there are two regions in the stress-Strain curve: elastic region and
plastic region (Figure 12). Within the elastic region, there exists a linear relationship between stress and
strain, but in plastic region, their relationship is non-linear.

Page | 14 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 Stress Strain Curve

Volume
Volume

Pressure

• Similar to Pressure-Volume Curve

• Area = Work

Figure 12

Uni-axial Stress State Elastic analysis

Figure 13 shows uni-axial stress state:

σ σ Figure 13

Stresses on inclined planes

Stresses on inclined planes (Figure 14) are expressed in following [4]:

Figure 14

Stress-strain relationship

Page | 15 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 For materials at relatively low levels, normal stress and strain are proportional through:

The constant E is called Young’s modulus.

Thermal strain

Strain caused by temperature changes is called thermal strain (Figure 15).

Figure 15

It can be calculated by the following formula:

α is a material characteristic called the coefficient of thermal expansion. Strain caused by

temperature changes and strain caused by applied loads are essentially independent. Therefore,
the total amount of strain may be expressed as follows:

Pure shear stress state elastic analysis

As a special case of biaxial stress state, pure shear stress state is shown in Figure 16.

τ τ

Figure 16
τ

Stress-strain relationship
Shear stress and strain are related in a similar manner as normal stress and strain,
but with a different constant of proportionality:

Page | 16 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 G

The constant G is called the shear modulus and relates the shear stress and strain in the elastic
region. For linear, isotropic materials, E and G are related as [3]:

Bi-axial stress state elastic analysis

(1) Plane stress state

Figure 17

For linear, isotropic material, plane stress state assumes that [5]:

State of plane stress occurs in a thin plate subjected to forces acting in the mid-plane of
the plate. State of plane stress also occurs on the free surface of a structural element or machine
component, i.e., at any point of the surface not subjected to an external force (Figure 17).

Transformation of stresses

Figure 18 schematically shows two elements with angle θ between them.

Figure 18

The transformation of stresses between the two planes is [6]:

Page | 17 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

Mohr’s circle for plane stress state

Figure 19

Figure 19 is the Mohr’s circle for plane stress state. From the Mohr’s circle, any inclined
plane’s stresses can be numerically obtained. For example, the coordinates of the two points H,
V are the stresses of an inclined plane with inclined angle θ. The instruction to make the Mohr’s
circle is [4]:
1. Determine the point on the body in which the principal stresses are to be determined.

2. Treating the load cases independently and calculated the stresses for the point chosen.

3. Choose a set of x-y reference axes and draw a square element centered on the axes.

4. Identify the stresses σx, σy, and τxy = τyx and list them with the proper sign.

5. Draw a set of σ - τ coordinate axes with σ being positive to the right and τ being positive in the upward
direction. Choose an appropriate scale for the each axis.

6. Using the rules on the previous page, plot the stresses on the x face of the element in this coordinate
system (point V). Repeat the process for the y face (point H).

7. Draw a line between the two point V and H. The point where this line crosses the σ axis establishes the
center of the circle.

8. Draw the complete circle.

9. The line from the center of the circle to point V identifies the x axis or reference axis for angle
measurements (i.e. θ = 0).

Page | 18 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 Note: The angle between the reference axis and the σ axis is equal to 2θp.

Principal Stresses and principal planes

Figure 20

Principal Stresses σ1, σ2 (shown in Figure 20) are the stresses that act on an inclined
planes where shear stresses = 0. From Mohr’s circle, principal Stresses can be obtained [4]:

The inclined planes on which principal stresses act are called principal planes. The angle
between principal planes and reference plane is:

Maximum Shearing Stress:

Figure 21

Page | 19 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 From the Mohr’s circle, we can get the maximum shear stress (Figure 21), which will be:

The angle of the plane where maximum shear stress occurs is:

Note: On Mohr’s circle, the planes of maximum shearing stress (points D and E) are at
900 to the principal planes (points A and B), but on the element, the planes of maximum shearing
stress are at 450 to the principal planes.

Stress-strain relationship

With plane stress assumption, for isotropic material, in elastic region, the stress-strain
relationship should be [5]:

x 1 0 x
E
y 2
1 0 y
1 1
xy 0 0 xy
2
1
Note: z ( )( x y )
E
Where, E and ν are the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the material.
(2) Plane strain state

Figure 22

For linear, isotropic material, plane stress state assumes that [7] (Figure 22):

Page | 20 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

Coordinate Transformation

Figure 23

The transformation of strains with respect to the reference {x,y,z} coordinates to the
strains with respect to {x',y',z'} (Figure 23) is performed via the equations [7]:

Mohr’s circle for plane strain state

Figure 24

Figure 24 is the Mohr’s circle for plane strain state. The method to construct the circle is
similar to that construct Mohr’s circle for plane stress state.

Principal Strains and the directions

Page | 21 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 Figure 25

Same as principal stresses, principal strains ε1, ε2 (shown in Figure 25) are the strains that
occur on an inclined planes where shear strains = 0. From the Mohr’s circle for plain strain, we
can get [7]:

The direction of ε1, ε2 are shown in Figure 24, too. The angle can be calculated by:

Maximum shear strain and the directions

Figure 26

Page | 22 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 The maximum shear strain is [7]:

The angle between the plane that maximum shear strain occurs and reference plane is:

Stress-strain relationship

With plane stress assumption, for isotropic material, in elastic region, the stress-strain
relationship should be [5]:

1 0
x
1 x
E (1 )
y 1 0 y
(1 )(1 2 ) 1
z 1 2 z
0 0
2(1 )

E
Note: z ( x y )
1 1 2

Tri-axial stress state elastic analysis

In general, at a point, 3 normal stresses may act on faces of the cube, as well as, 6
components of shear stress (Figure 27). For the 6 shear stresses, only 3 of them are independent,
because:

Page | 23 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 Figure 27

The stain components are shown in Figure 27, too.

The stress on an inclined plane

To simplify the case, choose a set of reference coordinates (Figure 28) coincident to the
principle stresses, and then the stresses σn and τn in any inclined plane with normal direction (l,
m, and n) can be calculated by following equations [9]:

(l, m, n)
z

Figure 28

( n
2 3
)2 2
n ( 2 3
)2 l2( 1 2 )( 1 3 )
2 2
( n
3 1
)2 2
n ( 3 1
)2 m2 ( 2 3 )( 2 1 )
2 2
( n
1 2
)2 2
n ( 1 2
)2 n2 ( 3 1 )( 3 2 )
2 2

Mohr’s circle

Page | 24 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 Figure 29 is the Mohr’s circle for general tri-axial stress state. The 3 equations shown
above that calculate the stresses on an inclined plane express 3 circles. The 3 circles intersect in
point D, which should be located within the 3 reference circles. The value of coordinates of D is
the stresses of the inclined plane.

D
τn

σn

Figure 29

Stress-strain relationship

In general tri-axial stress state, for isotropic material and in elastic region, if taking into
account thermal effect, the stress-strain relationship should be [10]:

1 0 0 0
x 1 0 0 0 x 1
y 1 0 0 0 y 1
E 1 2 E T 1
z 0 0 0 0 0 z

(1 )(1 2 ) 2 1 2 0
xy
1 2 xy
0 0 0 0 0 0
yz
2 yz

1 2 0
zx
0 0 0 0 0 zx
2

Page | 25 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE

 1. Bending of a Beam

Page | 26 Mecahncis of Material Lab. Dr. S. E. Beladi, PE