KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION SECONDARY
DPS-212: PSYCHOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

TYPES OF LEARNING

Insight Learning
This was first proposed by Wolfgang Köhler a German psychologist. Insight learning
refers to the sudden realization of the solution of any problem without repeated trials
or continuous practices. To further elaborate on its definition, insight learning is the
type of learning, in which one draws on previous experience and also seems to
involve a new way of perceiving logical and cause and effect relationship.

Try and Error Learning

Trial and Error Learning is one of many theories of learning in Behavioural
Psychology. Some other forms of learning include; Insight Learning, Latent learning,
and Observational Learning. The first miniature Trial and Error learning system of the
method was provided by Thorndike’s research on Animal Intelligence in 1898. This
form of learning falls under S-R learning theory and also known as Connectionism.
When an organism faces a new and difficult situation or a problem, the organism
makes trials which may not be perfect to solve the problem. However with repeated
trials, errors reduce. The phenomenon is called Trial and Error learning in a simple
sense.

IMMITATION
Imitation (from Latin imitatio, "a copying, imitation" ) is an advanced behavior whereby an
[1]

individual observes and replicates another's behavior. Imitation is also a form of social
learning that leads to the "development of traditions, and ultimately our culture. It allows for
the transfer of information (behaviours, customs, etc.) between individuals and down
generations without the need for genetic inheritance."  The word imitation can be applied in
[2]

many contexts, ranging from animal training to politics.  The term generally refers to

[3][4]

conscious behavior; subconscious imitation is termed mirroring.

CONDITIONING
Conditioning in behavioral psychology is a theory that the reaction or "response" to
an object or event ("stimulus") by a person or animal can be modified by 'learning',
or conditioning. The well-known forms of conditioning are Classical Conditioning
and operant conditioning.
MEMORISATION
Memorization is the process of committing something to memory. Mental processes
undertaken in order to store in memory for later recall items such as experiences,
names, appointments, addresses, telephone numbers, lists, stories, poems, pictures,
maps, diagrams, facts, music or other visual, auditory, or tactical information.
The scientific study of memory is part of cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary
link between cognitive psychology and neuroscience.
TRAINING
Training and development involves improving the effectiveness of organizations
and the individuals and teams within them. [1] Training may be viewed as related to
immediate changes in organizational effectiveness via organized instruction, while
development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee
goals. While training and development technically have differing definitions, the two
are oftentimes used interchangeably and/or together. Training and development has
historically been a topic within applied psychology but has within the last two
decades become closely associated with human resources management, talent
management, human resources development, instructional design, human factors,
and knowledge management.[1]
FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING
1. Intellectual factor:
The term refers to the individual mental level. Success in school is generally closely related
to level of the intellect. Pupils with low intelligence often encounter serious difficulty in
mastering schoolwork. Sometimes pupils do not learn because of special intellectual
disabilities.
A low score in one subject and his scores in other subjects indicate the possible
presence of a special deficiency. Psychology reveals to use that an individual possess
different kinds to intelligence. Knowledge of the nature of the pupil’s intellect is of
considerable value in the guidance and the diagnosis of disability. The native capacity
of the individual is of prime importance in determining the effectiveness of the, learning
process.
2. Learning factors:
Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods of work or study,
and narrowness of experimental background may affect the learning process of any pupil. If
the school proceeds too rapidly and does not constantly check up on the extent to which the
pupil is mastering what is being taught, the pupil accumulates a number of deficiencies that
interfere with successful progress.
In arithmetic, for instance, knowledge of basic addition is essential to successful work in
multiplication. Weakness in addition will contribute directly to the deficiency in multiplication.
Likewise, failure in history may be due to low reading ability or weakness in English.
Similarly, because of faulty instruction, the pupil may have learned inefficient methods of study. Many
other kinds of difficulty which are directly related to learning factors may interfere with progress.
3. Physical factors:
Under this group are included such factors as health, physical development, nutrition, visual
and physical defects, and glandular abnormality. It is generally recognized that ill health
retards physical and motor development, and malnutrition interferes with learning and
physical growth.
Children suffering from visual, auditory, and other physical defects are seriously handicapped
in developing skills such as reading and spelling. It has been demonstrated that various
glands of internal secretion, such as the thyroid and pituitary glands, affect behavior. The
health of the learner will likely affect his ability to learn and his power to concentrate.
4. Mental factors:
Attitude falls under mental factors attitudes are made up of organic and kinesthetic elements.
They are not to be confused with emotions that are characterized by internal visceral
disturbances. Attitudes are more or less of definite sort. They play a large part in the mental
organization and general behavior of the individual.

Attitudes are also important in the development of personality. Among these attitudes aw
interest, cheerfulness, affection, prejudice, -open mindedness, and loyalty. Attitudes exercise
a stimulating effect upon the rate of learning and teaching and upon the progress in school.

The efficiency of the work from day to day and the rapidity with which it is achieved are
influenced by the attitude of the learner. A favorable mental attitude facilitates learning. The
factor of interest is very closely related in nature to that of symbolic drive and reward.

5. Emotional and social factors:

Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as cooperation and
rivalry, are directly related to a complex psychology of motivation. It is a recognized fact that
the various responses of the individual to various kinds of stimuli are determined by a wide
variety of tendencies
Some of these innate tendencies are constructive and others are harmful. For some reason a
pupil may have developed a dislike for some subject because he may fail to see its value, or
may lack foundation. This dislike results in a bad emotional state.
Some pupils are in a continuing state of unhappiness because of their fear of being victims of
the disapproval of their teachers and classmates. This is an unwholesome attitude and affects
the learning process to a considerable degree. This is oftentimes the result of bad training.
Social discontent springs from the knowledge or delusion that one is below others in welfare.
6. Teacher’s Personality:
The teacher as an individual personality is an important element in the learning environment
or in the failures and success of the learner. The way in which his personality interacts with
the personalities of the pupils being taught helps to determine the kind of behavior which
emerges from the learning situation.
The supreme value of a teacher is not in the regular performance of routine duties, but in his
power to lead and to inspire his pupils through the influence of his moral personality and
example. Strictly speaking, personality is made up of all the factors that make the individual
what he is, the complex pattern of characteristics that distinguishes him from the others of his
kind. Personality is the product of many integrating forces.
In other words, an individual’s personality is a composite of his physical appearance, his
mental capacity, his emotional behavior, and his attitudes towards others. Effective teaching
and learning are the results of an integrated personality of the teacher.

Generally speaking, pupils do- not like a grouchy teacher who cannot control his temper
before the class. It is impossible for a teacher with a temper to create enthusiasm and to
radiate light and sunshine to those about him. Pupils love a happy, sympathetic, enthusiastic,
and cheerful teacher. Effective teaching and learning are the results of love for the pupils,
sympathy for their interests, tolerance, and a definite capacity for understanding. The teacher
must therefore recognize that in all his activities in the classroom he is directly affecting the
behavior of the growing and learning organism.
7. Environmental factor:
Physical conditions needed for learning is under environmental factor. One of the factors that
affect the efficiency of learning is the condition in which learning takes place. This includes
the classrooms, textbooks, equipment, school supplies, and other instructional materials.
In the school and at the home, the conditions for learning must be favorable and adequate if teaching
is to produce the desired results. It cannot be denied that the type and quality of instructional
materials and equipment play an important part in the instructional efficiency of the school.
It is difficult to do a good job of teaching in a poor type of building and without adequate equipment
and instructional materials. A school building or a classroom has no merit when built without due
regard to its educational objectives and functions.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE

Performance is execution, carrying out, carrying into action (noun)
The act of performing; of doing something successfully; using knowledge as distinguished
from merely possessing it.
Performance is the accomplishment of a given task measured against preset known
standards of accuracy, completeness, cost, and speed. In a contract, performance is deemed
to be the fulfilment of an obligation, in a manner that releases the performer from all
liabilities under the contract.

Theories of learning
Define theory
Behavioral theories
I’m quite fascinated by the Behaviorism Theory of Learning and I want to share it with
you. This view of learning according to according to the flow behavior, not the other is a
change in behavior as a result of the interaction between stimulus and response.
Or in other words, learning (for example for the GED social studies ) is the change
experienced by students in terms of its ability to behave in new ways as a result of interaction
between stimulus and response.

1. Thorndike According to Thorndike (1911), co-founder of the flow behavior, learning is a

process of interaction between the stimulus (which may be thought, feeling, or movement)
and response (which also can include thoughts, feelings, or movement).
Clearly, according to Thorndike, changes in behavior may be intangible something concrete
(observable), or that nonconcert (not observable). Although Thorndike did not explain how to
measure a variety of behaviors that non-concrete (measurement is one thing that became an
obsession of all adherents of the flow behavior), but Thorndike’s theory has much to inspire
the other experts who come afterward.

Thorndike theory referred to as “flow connectionist” (connectionism). The experimental

procedure was to make in order to escape the cage of each animal to the place of food. In this
case, if a caged animal, then these animals often perform a variety of behavior, such as biting,
rubbing his body to the sides of the box, and sooner or later the animal was tripped on the bar
so that the box open and the animal will escape into the food.

Behaviorism Theory of Learning 

2. Watson In contrast to Thorndike, according to Watson, a pioneer who came after
Thorndike, stimulus, and response should be shaped behavior “observable” (observable). In
other words, Watson ignores a variety of mental changes that may occur in learning and
regard it as a factor that does not need to know.
Not that all the mental changes that occur in the minds of students is not important. All that is
important, but these factors can not explain whether learning has occurred. Only by assuming
so, according to Watson, predictable changes what would happen to the students.

Only thus also the psychology and science of learning can be equated with other sciences
such as physics or biology is very much oriented on empirical experience. Based on this
description, adherents of the flow behavior rather choose not to think about the things that
can not be measured, although they continue to recognize that all that’s important.

Three other experts were Clark Hull, Edwin Guthrie, and BF Skinner. Like the two previous
experts, these last three people who also use the stimulus-response variables to explain their
theories. However, although all three experts were named the same, namely the founder of
the flow behavior (neo-behaviorism), they differ from each other in some ways as described
below.

3. Clark Hull Clark hull (1943) put forward his theory that the main concept is strongly
influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. For Hull, a person’s behavior serves to
maintain viability. Therefore, in theory, Hull, biological needs and satisfaction of biological
needs occupy a central position.
According to Hull (1943, 1952), concept needs a boost (drive), such as hunger, thirst, sleep,
loss of pain, and so on. The stimulus is almost always associated with these biological needs,
although the response may be many different forms. This theory, especially after Skinner
introduced his theory, it is not widely used in the practical world, although often used in
various experiments in the laboratory.

4. Edwin Guthrie Edwin Guthrie contiguity a theory which holds that learning is an

associative link between a specific stimulus and specific response. Furthermore, Edwin
Guthrie held that the relationship between the stimulus with the response is a critical factor in
learning.
Therefore, the provision required frequent stimulus to be more lasting relationship. In
addition, a response will be stronger (and even become a habit) if the response is associated
with a variety of stimuli.

For example, someone who has a habit hard to break. This can occur because the act of
smoking is not only associated with one kind of stimulus (e.g. enjoyment of smoking), but
also by other stimuli such as drinking coffee, hanging out with friends, wanted to look
handsome, and others. Guthrie also noted that the “punishment” plays an important role in the
learning process.

According to a punishment that is given at the right moment, will be able to change one’s
habits. For example, a girl who each time came home from school, always discard clothes
and hat on the floor. Then his mother told to dress and re-used topics by his son, then back
out, and returned home with hat and shirt as he hung on the hangers.
After doing that several times, hung up his hat and shirt responses become associated with the
stimulus entered the house. However, this penalty will not the dominant factor in theories of
behavior. Especially after Skinner increasingly popularized the idea of ??”strengthening”
(reinforcement).

5. Skinner Skinner (1968) which comes later is Saxon neo behaviorism that diverts from the
lab to classroom practice. Skinner has another opinion, which was able to beat the prestige of
the theory of Hull and Guthrie. This may be due to the ability of Skinner in “simplifying”
complexity theory and explains the concepts that exist in these theories.
According to Skinner, a description of the relationship between stimulus and response to
explain changes in behavior (in relation to the environment) according to Watson’s version is
an incomplete description.

The response given by students is not as simple as that, because basically any given stimulus
interact with one another, and this interaction ultimately affects the resulting response.

While the responses given will result in various consequences, which in turn will affect
student behaviour. Therefore, to understand students’ behaviour completely, it takes an
understanding of the response itself, and the consequences caused by that response.

Skinner also explained that using mental changes as a tool to explain the behaviour will only
make things became more complicated, because the “tool” is finally demanding needs
explained “what it is frustrating”. An explanation of this frustration will likely require another
explanation. And so on.

Of all the supporters of theories of behaviour, Skinner’s theory was perhaps the greatest
influence on the development of learning theory. Some learning programs such as the
Teaching Machine, Mathematics, or other programs that use the concept of stimulus,
response, and reinforcing factors (reinforcement), are examples of programs that take
advantage of Skinner’s theory.
Search for:

Associative theories according to Hull, Thorndike, Skinner, Watson, Pavlov and Guthrie,
Associative learning didn’t hit its stride until the work of Ivan Pavlov, which spurred the
subsequent rise of the behaviorist movement in psychology. Pavlov introduced the concept of
classical conditioning as a modernized version of associative learning. For Pavlov, classical
conditioning was in part an experimental paradigm for teaching animals to learn new
associations between stimuli.

The general method of learning was to pair an unconditioned stimulus (US) with a novel
stimulus. An unconditioned stimulus is just a stimulus that instinctively, without training,
provokes a response in an organism. Since this response is not itself learned, the response is
referred to as an “unconditioned response” (UR).

In Pavlov’s canonical experiment, the US was a meat powder, as the smell of meat
automatically brought about salivation (UR) in his canine subjects. The US is then paired
with a neutral stimulus, such as a bell. Over time, the contiguity between the US and the
neutral stimulus causes the neutral stimulus to provoke the same response as the US.

Once the bell starts to provoke salivation, the bell has become a “conditioned stimulus” (CS)
and the salivating, when prompted by the bell alone, a “conditioned response” (CR). The
associative learning here is learning to form new stimulus-response pairs between the bell
and the salivation.[8]

The difference between the behavioral and Associative theories.

Cognitive or Field theories according to Gestalt Learning Theory

The Gestalt theory placed its main emphasis on cognitive processes of a higher order, causing
the learner to use higher problem solving skills. They must look at the concepts presented to
them and search for the underlying similarities that link them together into a cohesive whole.
In this way, learners are able to determine specific relationships amongst the ideas and
perceptions presented.
The Gestalt theory of learning purports the importance of presenting information or images
that contain gaps and elements that don’t exactly fit into the picture. This type of learning
requires the learner to use critical thinking and problem solving skills. Rather than putting out
answers by rote memory, the learner must examine and deliberate in order to find the answers
they are seeking.
Kurt Lewin

Lewin’s theory is called field theory as to a psychologist field means the total psychological
world in which a person lives at a certain time. It includes matters and events of past, present
and future, concrete and abstract, actual and imaginary – all interpreted as simultaneous
aspects of a situation. Lewin states that each person exists within a field of forces. The field
of forces to which the individual is responding or reacting is called his life-space.
Lewin’s theory regards learning as a relativistic process by which a learner develops new
insight or changes old ones. According to the theory, learning is not a mechanistic process of
connecting stimuli and responses within a biological organism. Field psychology explains
development of insight as a change in cognitive structure of life-space.

Lewin has classified learning into the following categories:

(i) Learning is a change in cognitive structure.

(ii) Learning is a change in motivation, i.e., in valences and values.

(iii) Learning is acquisition of skills.

(iv) Learning is a change in group belonging.

Learning of all types involves change in perception.

Changes in cognitive structure are caused by the forces in the psychological field – needs,
aspirations and valences.

Perception and perceptual learning

Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both recognizing
environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual
process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are
critical to our survival. Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us; it
allows us to act within our environment.
Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, sound, smell, and taste. It also includes what
is known as proprioception, a set of senses involving the ability to detect changes in body
positions and movements. It also involves the cognitive processes required to process
information, such as recognizing the face of a friend or detecting a familiar scent.
Steps in the Perceptual Process
The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment and leads to
our perception of a stimulus and action in response to the stimulus. This process is continual,
but you do not spend a great deal of time thinking about the actual process that occurs when
you perceive the many stimuli that surround you at any given moment.
The process of transforming the light that falls on your retinas into an actual visual image
happens unconsciously and automatically. The subtle changes in pressure against your skin
that allow you to feel object occur without a single thought.
In order to fully understand how the perception process works, we'll start by breaking down
each step.

Steps in the Perceptual Process

1. The Environmental Stimulus
2. The Attended Stimulus
3. The Image on the Retina
4. Transduction
5. Neural Processing
6. Perception
7. Recognition
8. Action

The Environmental Stimulus

The world is full of stimuli that can attract our attention through various senses. The
environmental stimulus is everything in our environment that has the potential to be
perceived.

This might include anything that can be seen, touched, tasted, smelled, or heard. It might also
involve the sense of proprioception, such as the movements of the arms and legs or the
change in position of the body in relation to objects in the environment.

For example, imagine that you are out on a morning jog at your local park. As you perform
your workout, there are a wide variety of environmental stimuli that might capture your
attention. The tree branches are swaying in the slight breeze; a man is out on the grass
playing fetch with his Golden Retriever; a car drives past with the windows rolled down and
the music blaring; a duck splashes in a nearby pond. All of these things represent
environmental stimuli and serve as a starting point for the perceptual process.

The Attended Stimulus

The attended stimulus is the specific object in the environment on which our attention is
focused. In many cases, we might focus on stimuli that are familiar to us, such as the face of a
friend in a crowd of strangers at the local coffee shop. In other instances, we are likely to
attend to stimuli that have some degree of novelty.
From our earlier example, let's imagine that during your morning jog you focus your attention
on the duck floating in the nearby pond. The duck represents the attended stimulus. During
the next step of the perceptual process, the visual process will progress.

The Image on the Retina

Next, the attended stimulus is formed as an image on the retina. The first part of this process
involves the light actually passing through the cornea and pupil and onto the lens of the eye.
The cornea helps focus the light as it enters the eye, and the iris of the eye controls the size of
the pupils in order to determine how much light to let in. The cornea and lens act together to
project an inverted image onto the retina.

As you might already be aware, the image on the retina is actually upside down from the
actual image in the environment. At this stage of the perceptual process, this is not terribly
important. The image has still not been perceived, and this visual information will be changed
even more dramatically in the next step of the process.

Transduction
The image on the retina is then transformed into electrical signals in a process known as
transduction. This allows the visual messages to be transmitted to the brain to be interpreted.
The retina contains many photoreceptor cells. These cells contain proteins known as rods and
cones. Rods are primarily for seeing things in low light, while cones are associated
with detecting color and shapes at normal light levels.

The rods and cones contain a molecule called retinal, which is responsible for transducing the
light into visual signals that are then transmitted via nerve impulses.

Neural Processing

The electrical signals then undergo neural processing. The path followed by a particular
signal depends on what type of signal it is (i.e. an auditory signal or a visual signal).

Through the series of interconnecting neurons located throughout the body, electrical signals

are propagated from the receptors cells to the brain. In our previous example, the image of
a duck floating in the pond is received as light on the retina, which is then transduced into an
electrical signal and then processed through the neurons in the visual network.

In the next step of the perceptual process, you will actually perceive the stimuli and become
aware of its presence in the environment.

Perception
In the next step of the perception process, we actually perceive the stimulus object in the
environment. It is at this point that we become consciously aware of the stimulus.

Let's consider our previous example, in which we imagined that you were out for a morning
jog in the park. At the perception stage, you have become aware that there is something out
on the pond to perceive.
Now, it is one thing to be aware of stimuli in the environment, and quite another to actually
become fully consciously aware of what we have perceived. In the next stage of the
perceptual process, we will sort the perceived information into meaningful categories.
Recognition
Perception doesn't just involve becoming consciously aware of the stimuli. It is also
necessary for our brain to categorize and interpret what it is we are sensing. Our ability to
interpret and give meaning to the object is the next step, known as recognition.

Continuing our example, it is at the recognition stage of the perceptual process that you
realize that there is a duck floating on the water. The recognition stage is an essential part of
perception since it allows us to make sense of the world around us. By placing objects in
meaningful categories, we are able to understand and react to the world around us.

Action
The final step of the perceptual process involves some sort of action in response to the
environmental stimulus. This could involve a variety of actions, such as turning your head for
a closer look or turning away to look at something else.

The action phase of perceptual development involves some type of motor activity that occurs
in response to the perceived and recognized stimulus. This might involve a major action, like
running toward a person in distress, or something as subtle as blinking your eyes in response
to a puff of dust blowing through the air.
Perceptual learning
Perceptual learning refers to how experience can change the way we
perceive sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touch. Examples abound: music
training improves our ability to discern tones; experience with food and
wines can refine our pallet (and unfortunately more quickly empty our wallet), and with years
of training radiologists learn to save lives by discerning subtle details of images that escape
the notice of untrained viewers. We often take perceptual learning for granted, but it has a
profound impact on how we perceive the world. In this Primer, I will explain how perceptual
learning is transformative in guiding our perceptual processes, how research into perceptual
learning provides insight into fundamental mechanisms of learning and brainprocesses, and
how knowledge of perceptual learning can be used to develop more effective training
approaches for those requiring expert perceptual skills or those in need of perceptual
rehabilitation (such as individuals with poor vision). I will make a case that perceptual
learning is ubiquitous, scientifically interesting, and has substantial practical utility to us all.
A practical example: radiology
One of the most often given and easily understandable examples of the practical utility
of perceptual learning can be understood in the case of a radiologist, where years of
experience and training, with exposure to many thousands of images, is required to achieve
expert performance. Radiologists must learn to recognize known anatomy as it is transformed
by measurement devices. For example, an x-ray image is the consequence of projecting x-
rays through tissue and measuring the relative intensity of the x-rays that emerge. Absorption
is essentially a function of tissue density, such that bones absorb more x-rays (showing as
light) and soft tissues absorb less (showing as dark). Thus, a possible cancer may show up as
lighter than surrounding tissue if it results in an abnormal tissue density or as darker than
surrounding bone if it reduces that bone density. But radiologists cannot simply base their
diagnoses upon image regions that are lighter or darker than the surround; as each part of the
image represents the combined absorption of all tissues along the x-ray path — skin, bones,
blood vessels, major airways and possibly organs such as lungs, heart, stomach, liver, and so
on — and the contributions of these must all be estimated to make sense of the resultant
image.
A first aspect of perceptual learning for radiologists is to develop a vocabulary of image
features that relate to normal, benign and malignant properties of the anatomy. Differentiating
these image features is crucial to evaluating the health of the patient. To accomplish this,
radiologists must estimate the summed absorption of different tissue types and compare this
to their knowledge of healthy tissue, while searching for abnormal image features
representative of damage or disease. Furthermore, once an abnormality is detected, the
radiologist must distinguish between those that are benign (image properties not associated
with negative health outcomes) from those that are malignant (image properties associated
with negative health outcomes).
Another key aspect of perceptual learning relates to the fact that interpreting an x-ray requires
the discrimination of subtle differences of light and dark that allow extraction of meaningful
image features. Radiologists must learn to refine their most basic perceptual skills to quickly
and accurately recognize image properties that many individuals can barely recognize even
when pointed out. Take a look at Figure 1, showing the x-ray of a femur bone in a cancer
patient: can you consistently differentiate healthy from unhealthy tissue in this image? Even
with the circled regions it is difficult to see how these differ from other, non-cancerous,
regions in the x-ray. Radiology is a good example of the practical utility of perceptual
learning, whereby experience can tune our most basic perceptual processes, and is a topic of
intense scientific study.

Transfer of learning
The word transfer is used to describe the effects of past learning upon present acquisition. In
the laboratory and in the outside world, how well and how rapidly we learn anything depends
to a large extent upon the kinds and amount of things we have learned previously.
In simple way transfer may be defined as “the partial or total application or carryover of
knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes from one situation to another situation”.

Types (positive and negative, Nil or zero transfer)

Hence, carryover of skills of one learning to other learning is transfer of training or learning.
Such transfer occurs when learning of one set of material influences the learning of another
set of material later. For example, a person who knows to drive a moped can easily learn to
drive a scooter.
Types of Transfer of Learning:
There are three types of transfer of learning:
1. Positive transfer:
When learning in one situation facilitates learning in another situation, it is known as positive
transfer. For example, skills in playing violin facilitate learning to play piano. Knowledge of
mathematics facilitates to learn physics in a better way. Driving a scooter facilitates driving a
motorbike.
2. Negative transfer:
When learning of one task makes the learning of another task harder- it is known as negative
transfer. For example, speaking Telugu hindering the learning of Malayalam.

Left hand drive vehicles hindering the learning of right hand drive.

3. Neutral transfer:
When learning of one activity neither facilitates nor hinders the learning of another task, it is
a case of neutral transfer. It is also called as zero transfer.
For example, knowledge of history in no way affects learning of driving a car or a scooter.
Factors facilitating transfer, theories of transfer

Memory
Memory is the faculty by which the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information. It is a

record of experience for guiding future action. Memory helps make individuals who they are.

Without the help of memories, someone would struggle to learn new information, form

lasting relationships, or function in daily life.

Humans process stimuli first with their sensory memory; that information is typically held in
the brain for less than a second, which may explain why most people report that when shown
an object quickly, they feel like they take in more details than they're able to recall later.
Next, the information is transferred to short-term memory or working memory, which allows
someone to mull things over and hold key information in their mind. Finally, people store
past events and patterns in their long-term memory, also known as episodic or semantic
memory.

Stages in memory/The Memory Process

1. Encoding (or registration): the process of receiving, processing, and combining

information. Encoding allows information from the outside world to reach our senses
in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first stage we must change the
information so that we may put the memory into the encoding process.
2. Storage: the creation of a permanent record of the encoded information. Storage is the
second memory stage or process in which we maintain information over periods of
time.
3. Retrieval (or recall, or recognition): the calling back of stored information in response
to some cue for use in a process or activity. The third process is the retrieval of
 information that we have stored. We must locate it and return it to our consciousness.
Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information.

Problems can occur at any stage of the process, leading to anything from forgetfulness to
amnesia. Distraction can prevent us from encoding information initially; information might
not be stored properly, or might not move from short-term to long-term storage; and/or we
might not be able to retrieve the information once it’s stored.

Types of memory

Sensory Memory
Sensory memory allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information after the
original stimulus has ceased. One of the most common examples of sensory memory is fast-
moving lights in darkness: if you’ve ever lit a sparkler on the Fourth of July or watched
traffic rush by at night, the light appears to leave a trail. This is because of “iconic memory,”
the visual sensory store. Two other types of sensory memory have been extensively studied:
echoic memory (the auditory sensory store) and haptic memory (the tactile sensory store).
Sensory memory is not involved in higher cognitive functions like short- and long-term
memory; it is not consciously controlled. The role of sensory memory is to provide a detailed
representation of our entire sensory experience for which relevant pieces of information are
extracted by short-term memory and processed by working memory.
Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory is also known as working memory. It holds only a few items (research
shows a range of 7 +/- 2 items) and only lasts for about 20 seconds. However, items can be
moved from short-term memory to long-term memory via processes like rehearsal. An
example of rehearsal is when someone gives you a phone number verbally and you say it to
yourself repeatedly until you can write it down. If someone interrupts your rehearsal by
asking a question, you can easily forget the number, since it is only being held in your short-
term memory.
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memories are all the memories we hold for periods of time longer than a few
seconds; long-term memory encompasses everything from what we learned in first grade to
our old addresses to what we wore to work yesterday. Long-term memory has an incredibly
vast storage capacity, and some memories can last from the time they are created until we die.
There are many types of long-term memory. Explicit or declarative memory requires
conscious recall; it consists of information that is consciously stored or retrieved. Explicit
memory can be further subdivided into semantic memory (facts taken out of context, such as
“Paris is the capital of France”) and episodic memory (personal experiences, such as “When I
was in Paris, I saw the Mona Lisa“).

In contrast to explicit/declarative memory, there is also a system for procedural/implicit

memory. These memories are not based on consciously storing and retrieving information,
but on implicit learning. Often this type of memory is employed in learning new motor skills.
An example of implicit learning is learning to ride a bike: you do not need to consciously
remember how to ride a bike, you simply do. This is because of implicit memory.

Remembering (i.e imagery)

Cramming for the exam, repeating someone’s name: Some experts say they’re not that
effective at solidifying a memory.

Memories don’t just happen — they’re made. In the brain, the processinvolves converting
working memory — things we’ve just learned — into long-term memories. Scientists have
known for years that the noise of everyday life can interfere with the process of encoding
information in the mind for later retrieval. Emerging evidence even suggests that forgetting
isn’t a failure of memory, but rather the mind’s way of clearing clutter to focus on what’s
important.

Other research shows the process of imprinting memories is circular, not linear. “Every time a
memory is retrieved, that memory becomes more accessible in the future,” says Purdue
University psychologist Jeffrey Karpicke, who adds that only in recent years has it become
clear just how vital repeated retrieval is to forming solid memories. 

Theories of forgetting

Theories About Why We Forget

Of course, many factors can contribute to forgetting. Sometimes you might be distracted
when you learn new information, which might mean that you never truly retain the
information long enough to remember it later. Well-known memory researcher Elizabeth
Loftus has proposed for key explanations for why forgetting occurs.

The four major reasons for forgetting that she cites are:

 Retrieval failure
 Interference
 Failure to store
 Motivated forgetting

A few of the major theories of forgetting include:

The Interference Theory

What did you have for dinner Tuesday night of last week? Is that difficult to recall? If
someone had asked you that question Wednesday morning you probably would have had no
problem recalling what you had for dinner the night before. But as intervening days pass, the
memories of all the other meals you have eaten since then start to interfere with your memory
of that one particular meal. This is a good example of what psychologists call the interference
theory of forgetting.

According to interference theory, forgetting is the result of different memories interfering

with one another. The more similar two or more events are to one another, the more likely
interference will occur.

It is difficult to remember what happened on an average school day two months ago because
so many other days have occurred since then.
Unique and distinctive events, however, are less likely to suffer from interference. Your 12th-
grade prom, high school graduation, wedding, and the birth of your first child are much more
likely to be recalled because they are singular events—days like no other.

Interference also plays a role in what is known as the serial position effect, or the tendency
to recall the first and last items of a list.

For example, imagine that you wrote down a shopping list but forgot to take it with you to the
store. In all likelihood, you will probably be able to easily recall the first and last items on
your list, but you might forget many of the items that were in the middle. The first thing you
wrote down and the last thing you wrote down stand out as being more distinct, while the
fourth item and seventh item might seem so similar that they interfere with each other.

There are two basic types of interference that can occur:

 Retroactive interference happens when newly acquired information interferes with

old memories. For example, a teacher learning the names of her new class of students
at the start of a school year might find it more difficult to recall the names of the
students in her class last year. The new information interferes with the old
information.
 Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information makes it more
difficult to form new memories. Learning a new phone number or locker combination
might be more difficult, for example, because your memories of your old phone
number and combination interfere with the new information.

Eliminating interference altogether is impossible, but there are a few things you can do to
minimize its effects. One of the best things you can do is rehearse new information in order to
better commit it to memory. In fact, many experts recommend overlearning important
information, which involves rehearsing the material over and over again until it can be
reproduced perfectly with no errors.

Another tactic to fight interference is to switch up your routine and avoid studying similar
material back to back. For example, don't try to study vocabulary terms for your Spanish
language class right after studying terms for your German class. Break up the material and
switch to a completely different subject each study session.

Sleep also plays an essential role in memory formation. Researchers suggest that sleeping
after you learn something new is one of the best ways to turn new memories into lasting ones.

The Decay Theory of Forgetting

According to the trace theory of memory, the formation of new memories results in physical
and chemical changes in the brain that results in a memory 'trace.' Information in short-term
memory lasts approximately 15 to 30 seconds and if it is not rehearsed, the neurochemical
memory trace quickly fades. According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, the events that
happen between the formation of a memory and the recall of the memory have no impact on
recall.
Trace theory proposes that the length of time between the memory and recalling that
information determines whether the information will be retained or forgotten. If the time
interval is short, more information will be recalled. If a longer period of time passes, more
information will be forgotten and memory will be poorer. The idea that memories fade over
time is hardly new. The Greek philosopher Plato suggested such a thing more than 2,500
years ago. Later, experimental research by psychologists such as Ebbinghaus bolstered this
theory.

One of the problems with this theory is that it is difficult to demonstrate that time alone is
responsible for declines in the recall. In real-world situations, many things are bound to
happen between the formation of a memory and the recall of that information. A student who
learns something in class, for example, might have hundreds of unique and individual
experiences between learning that information and having to recall it on an exam.

Was forgetting the date that the American Revolutionary War began due to the length of time
between learning the date in your American History class and being tested on it, or did the
multitude of information acquired during that interval of time play a role? Testing this can be
exceedingly difficult since it is nearly impossible to eliminate all the information that might
have an influence on the creation of the memory and the recall of the memory.

Another problem with decay theory is it does not account for why some memories fade so
quickly while others linger. Novelty is one factor that plays a role in why some things are
remembered while others are forgotten. For example, you are more likely to remember your
very first day of college than all of the intervening days between it and graduation. That first
day was new and exciting, but all the following days probably seem quite similar to each
other.

The Retrieval Failure Theory

Sometimes the memories are there, we just can't seem to access them. Two of the basic
reasons for this failure in memory retrieval are related to encoding failures and lack of
retrieval cues. A common reason why we don't remember information is because it never
made it into long-term memory in the first place.

Try this well-known demonstration first used by researchers Nickerson and Adams. From
memory, try to draw the back side of a penny. Once you are done, compare your drawing to
an actual penny.

Are you surprised by how poorly you recalled what the back of a penny looks like? While
you probably had a good idea about the overall shape and color, the actual details were
probably pretty fuzzy. Why?

Since you don't actually need to know what the back of a penny looks like to differentiate it
from other coins, you only really focus on the information you do need—the overall size,
shape, and color of the coin. You aren't able to recall what the back of a penny really looks
like because that information was never really encoded into memory in the first place.

The Cue-Dependent Theory of Forgetting

Other researchers have suggested that sometimes information is actually present in memory,
but that it cannot be recalled unless retrieval cues are present. These cues are elements that
were present at the time that the actual memory was encoded.

For example, remembering the details of your first date with your spouse might be easier if
you smell the same scent that your partner was wearing on that first date. The retrieval cue
(the perfume) was present when that memory was created, so smelling it again can trigger the
retrieval of those memories.

Final Thoughts
Numerous theories exist to explain how and why we forget. In many situations, several of
these explanations might account for why we cannot remember. The passage of time can
make memories more difficult to access (decay theory), while the abundance of information
vying for our attention can create competition between old and new memories (interference
theory).

While forgetting is simply a part of life, there are a number of things that we can do to
improve our memories and become better at recalling information. Next, take a closer look at
some of the different things you can do now to improve your memory.
Factors facilitating memory,
Application of remembering and forgetting in a teaching/learning situation

Thinking and concept formation

So what has thinking got to do with our personalities? Well, would you describe yourself as a
logical or a creative person? Are you rational or do you prefer to think in abstract terms? We
use different types of thinking skills every second of the day, whether it is something as
important as contemplating the end of a relationship or reaching for the last biscuit.
It stands to reason that thinking in a certain way has an effect on our personalities.
Furthermore, research shows there are different types of thinking, and each one influences the
kind of person we are. So which one are you?
Different types of thinking
Abstract
Abstract thinkers are able to relate seemingly random things with each other. This is
because they can see the bigger picture. They make the connections that others find difficult
to see.
They have the ability to look beyond what is obvious and search for hidden meanings. They
can read between the lines and enjoy solving cryptic puzzles. They don’t like routine and get
bored easily.
Analytical
Analytical thinkers like to separate a whole into its basic parts in order to examine these
parts and their relationships. They are great problem-solvers and have a structured and
methodical way of approaching tasks.
This type of thinker will seek answers and use logic rather than emotional thinking in life.
However, they have a tendency to over think things and can ruminate on the same subject for
months.
Creative
Creative thinkers think outside the box and will come up with ingenious solutions to solve
their dilemmas in life. They like to break away from the traditions and norms of society when
it comes to new ideas and ways of thinking.
They can sometimes be ridiculed as society prefers to keep the status quo. Creative thinkers
can also court jealously if they manage to follow their dreams and work in a creative field.
Concrete thinking
Concrete thinking focuses on the physical world, rather than the abstract one. It is all about
thinking of objects or ideas as specific items, rather than as a theoretical representation of a
more general idea.
Concrete thinkers like hard facts, figures and statistics. For example, you will not get any
philosophers who think in concrete terms. Children think in concrete terms as it is a very
basic and literal form of understanding.
Critical thinking
Critical thinking takes analytical thinking up a level. Critical thinkers exercise careful
evaluation or judgment in order to determine the authenticity, accuracy, worth, validity, or
value of something. And rather than strictly breaking down the information, critical thinking
explores other elements that could have an influence on conclusions.
Convergent thinking
Convergent thinking is a process of combining a finite number of perspectives or ideas to
find a single solution. Convergent thinkers will target these possibilities, or converge them
inwards, to come up with a solution.
One example is a multiple choice question in an exam. You have four possible answers but
only one is right. In order to solve the problem, you would use convergent thinking.
Divergent thinking
By contrast, divergent thinking is the opposite of convergent thinking. It is a way
of exploring an infinite number of solutions to find one that is effective. So, instead of
starting off with a set number of possibilities and converging on an answer, it goes as far and
wide as necessary and moves outwards in search of the solution.
Concept formation/Conceptualization
Concept formation, process by which a person learns to sort specific experiences into
general rules or classes. With regard to action, a person picks up a particular stone or drives a
specific car. With regard to thought, however, a person appears to deal with classes. For
instance, one knows that stones (in general) sink and automobiles (as a class) are powered by
engines. In other words, these things are considered in a general sense beyond any particular
stone or automobile. Awareness of such classes can help guide behaviour in new situations.
Thus two people in a bakery may never have met before, but, if one can be classified as
customer and the other as clerk, they tend to behave appropriately. Similarly, many people
are able to drive almost any automobile by knowing how to drive a specific automobile.

The term concept formation describes how a person learns to form classes, whereas the
term conceptual thinking refers to an individual’s subjective manipulation of those abstract
classes. A concept is a rule that may be applied to decide if a particular object falls into a
certain class. The concept “citizen of the Uganda” refers to such a decision rule, meaning any
person who was born in Ugandan territory or who is a child of a Ugandan citizen or who has
been legally naturalized. The rule suggests questions to ask in checking the citizenship of any
particular individual.
Stages of Creative thinking

4 Stages of Creativity Thinking

Some of the stages of creativity thinking are: Preparation, Incubation, Illumination and

Verification. This is also a controlled thinking in which the creative thinker whether artist,
writer or a scientist is trying to create something new. It involves characteristics of both
reasoning and imagination. Creative thinking is a process in which the individual generates
an original, unusual and productive solution to a problem.

It is defined as personal, imaginative thinking which produces a new, novel and useful
solution. Unlike ordinary solution to problems, creative solutions are the new one to the
effect that other people have not thought before.

The product of creative thinking may be a new and unique way of conceptualizing the world
around us. The emphasis in creative thinking is on the word ‘new’. In human beings we find
two kinds of productive abilities – the convergent and divergent abilities. Convergent abilities
are used to bring together otherwise divergent things. Divergent production abilities are those
which are not guided by rules or conventions, but capable of generating new solutions to a
problem. Divergent production abilities are particularly important in creative thinking.
Creative thinking involves four stages:
1. Preparation:
In this stage the thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials
considered necessary for finding new solutions. Many times the problem cannot be solved
even after days, weeks or months of concentrated efforts. Failing to solve the problem, the
thinker turns away from it initiating next stage.

2. Incubation:
During this period some of the ideas that were interfering with the solution will tend to fade.
The overt activity and sometimes even thinking about the problem is absent in this stage. But
the unconscious thought process involved in creative thinking is at work during this period.
Apparently the thinker will be busy in other activities like reading literature or playing
games, etc. Inspite of these activities the contemplation about finding a solution to problem
will be going on in the mind.
3. Illumination:
Following the period of incubation the creative ideas occur suddenly. Consequently the
obscure thing becomes clear. This sudden flash of solution is known as illumination and is
similar to ‘aha (eureka)’ experience. For example, Archimedes found solution to the crown
problem.
4. Verification:
Though the solution is found in illumination stage, it is necessary to verify whether that
solution is correct or not. Hence in this last stage evaluation of the solution is done. If the
solution is not satisfactory the thinker will go back to creative process from the beginning. If
it is satisfactory, the same will be accepted and if necessary, minor modification may also be
made in solution.

Nature of thinking i.e. concept formation, creativity

Early philosophical psychologists tended to look upon thinking as a faculty or a primary

mental ability. Subsequently the structuralistic school of psychology tended to look upon
thinking as a combination of images. As psychology advanced as an experimental science,
these views came to be questioned seriously.

John Watson, the leader of the school of behaviourism struck out on a totally different path.
According to him thought or thinking was essentially motor in nature involving the
movement of very fine muscles in the throat and laryngeal region.

Watson said that thinking is nothing but silent talking or implicit speech. Thus, he more or
less equated thought and language. He conducted a series of experiments to show that
thinking activity involved movements of the same muscles as those involved in speech or
language.

However, these experiments were not conclusive and Watson’s attempt to explain thinking as
implicit muscular activity failed as miserably as the attempt of structural psychologists to
explain thought as a combination of images.

The Relevance of thinking in the Classroom/learning situation- 6 WA Y S T O U S E

CRITICAL THINKING PRACTICES IN CLASSROOM
TEACHING
As a teacher, its vital to know that traditional teaching methods work with some students but
have become less effective in recent years because of changes in society. If you wish to be a
different kind of teacher, one who helps students improve their critical thinking skills so that
they are more quick to succeed in your class, school, community and in life, consider
different teaching methods such as these below.

1. FORMULATE DIFFERENT RULES

You should still go over the classroom rules in your first class before you begin teaching.
However, the rules should not be authoritative commands from you to the students.
Discussing the rules of the class and letting the students have a say in them is more effective
than setting mandates. Students are more apt to behave if they feel they have ownership in the
rules.
2. CREATE A DIFFERENT RELATIONSHIP
The teacher's role in achieving more engaging classroom teaching has moved to being
classroom’s facilitator of learning, not its lecturer. Don’t just talk about History or Science
while students struggle to pay attention; their critical thinking skills will improve if they’re
more active learners. Encourage them to talk about the day’s topic, ask questions about its
importance, challenge you, and perhaps talk about something that’s relevant to the topic and
that is interesting to them, but was not on your agenda.

3.ASK DIFFERENT KINDS OF QUESTIONS

Teachers should ask simple factual questions in class with relevance to the learners “How
might youth engagement in politics be good for Uganda?” might help a teacher learn more
about students, but not memorizing information so simple questions can be answered doesn’t
improve critical thinking. "Why/how" is instantly a better questioning practice, as is asking
follow-up questions that makes the topic more interesting. The questions should get students
to think critically about people’s behaviour and how similar behaviour affects the world.

4. GET STUDENTS TO DEVELOP DIFFERENT SKILLS

Avoiding so many assignments like “read pages 50 to 60?” A better approach is to work on
students’ critical thinking skills by giving them different assignments based on what skills
they need to improve. Assign some students to write about one topic and others to prepare an
oral presentation on a different topic.

5. GIVE STUDENTS DIFFERENT KINDS OF ASSIGNMENTS

Assigning everyone to analyze Shakespeare’s sensational works might not improve students’
critical thinking if their boredom spurs lousy work. How about having students analyze via
writing and speaking books and articles they are interested in? A sports biography a student is
interested in might be trash as literature, but the goal is to improve a student’s critical
thinking by, among other things, improving his or her ability to make arguments in a logical,
organized, and academically sophisticated way.

6. GET DIFFERENT STUDENTS TO WORK TOGETHER

Assigning more group projects is important because people work together on projects in the
“real world.” Having friends work together isn’t unimportant, but it’s also crucial to help
students improve their problem-solving skills by assigning them to work with students with
different personalities and abilities. Explaining to students that successful joint efforts are a
building block to helping them work with others on future work assignments is important.