CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT

2020 JC2 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)

TOPIC: PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

H2 MATHEMATICS
TOPIC PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 2020/JC2

Years ago the fast food restaurant chain Wendy’s

purported that there are 256 ways to personalize its
hamburger as part of its advertising campaign. It
attracted the attention of a lot of people - fast food
lovers to lovers of mathematics who jumped at the
opportunity to challenge the mathematical problem
behind Wendy’s claim. It turned out to be a simple
counting problem that can be solved easily using
concepts of combinatorics. To find out how, pay
attention in math class!

Mastery Learning Objectives: At the end of the chapter, students are able to
 apply the addition and multiplication principles for counting,
 differentiate between permutations  P  and combinations 
n
r
n
Cr  ,
 solve counting problems such as the number of arrangements of objects in a line or in a circle,
including cases involving repetition and restriction.
 apply strategies such as taking complement, consider cases, grouping and slotting method.

Pre-requisites:
 Factorial notation (!)
 Binomial Theorem

1 Introduction

In this topic, we attempt to formulate a general principle to help us answer some counting problems
such as:
“A teacher needs to choose 2 students out of a lecture group of 100 students to answer questions.
In how many ways can he/she do this?”

2 Basic Counting Principles

2.1 Addition Principle

Suppose that E1 and E2 are two events that are mutually exclusive (cannot occur at the same
time). If there are n1 ways for the event E1 to occur and n2 ways for event E2 to occur, then the
number of ways for E1 or E2 to occur is n1  n2 .

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Worked Example 1: One can travel from Singapore to Tokyo by air and sea. If there are 4
passenger airlines and 3 passenger shipping lines operating between the 2
cities, what is the total number of ways a man can travel from Singapore to
Tokyo?

Solution:

Number of ways by air  4

Number of ways by sea  3

Total number of ways  4  3  7

Addition Principle
In general, suppose there are n1 ways for event E1 to occur, n2 ways for event E2 to occur, … ,
nk ways for event Ek to occur, and these ways are distinct, then the number of ways for at least
one of the events E1 , E2 ,  , Ek to occur is n1  n2    nk .

2.2 Multiplication Principle

Suppose that an event E can be split into 2 events E1 and E2 that occur in sequence (one after
another). If there are n1 ways for E1 to occur and n2 ways for E2 to occur, then the number of
ways for E to occur is n1  n2 .

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Worked Example 2: There are 2 roads connecting City A and City B, and 3 roads connecting City
B and City C. There are no direct road that link City A to City C. How many
ways are there to travel from City A to City C?

Solution:

A B C

Number of ways to travel from A to B  2

Number of ways to travel from B to C  3

Total number of ways  2  3  6

Multiplication Principle
In general, suppose that an event E can be split into k events E1 , E2 ,  , Ek in ordered stages. If
there are n1 ways for E1 to occur, n2 ways for E2 to occur, … , and nk ways for Ek to occur,
then the number of ways for event E to occur is given by n1n2  nk .

3 Combinations

A combination is a selection of r objects from a set of n distinct objects, where 0  r  n , in which the
order of selection does not matter.

For example,

Let S be the set  A, B, C .

If we select 2 elements from S , then  A, C is a possible combination from S. There are 2 other possible
combinations from the set S :  A, B and  B, C .

Since the order is not taken into consideration, the following are considered the same combination:
  A, B and B, A
  A, C and C , A
 B, C and C , B

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The number of combinations (or selection) of r objects taken from n distinct objects is denoted
by n C r , where
n!
n
Cr  for 0  r  n .
r ! n  r !

Refer to Section 7 on page 26 for the proof for understanding.

 Remarks:
n
 n
C r is written as   in MF26.
r
 n
Cn  1 and n C0  1 .
 n
Cr  n C n r [Number of ways to select r objects out of n is the same as the number of ways
to “reject” n  r objects out of n]
n! n! n!
Simple proof: n C n  r     n Cr
 n  r ! n   n  r  !  n  r !r ! r ! n  r !

3.1 Forming Distinct Groups from Distinct Objects

Worked Example 3: From a group of 11 people, how many ways can one form a committee of
(i) 7 people,
(ii) 4 people?

Solution:

(i) No. of ways  11

C  330
7
select 7 people out of 11

Press Screen Display Remarks

1. Key in 11.

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2. Press MATH, select PROB Select the n Cr option from

followed by 3:nCr. the “PROB” tab.

3. Key in 7 and press ENTER.

(ii) No. of ways  11

C  330
4
select 4 people out of 11

 Remark:
Selecting 7 people out of 11 to form a committee is the same as selecting 4 people out of 11 NOT
to be in the committee.

 Self-Practice:
Find the number of ways to select 3 of the 5 people to form a community.

Answer: 10

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Worked Example 4: A class consists of 8 girls and 10 boys. How many committees of 4 can be
formed if
(i) there are no restriction,
(ii) the committee have at most 1 boy,
(iii) the committee must have at least 1 girl,
(iv) Boy A or Girl B must be in the committee.

Solution:

(i) No. of ways  18

C  3060
4
select 4 people out of 18

(ii) Case 1: No boys in the committee

No. of ways  8
C  70
4
select 4girls out of 8

Case 2: One boy in the committee

No. of ways  10
C  8
C  10  56  560
1 3
select 1 boy out of 10 select 3 girls out of 8

Total no. of ways  70  560  630

 Remarks:
 Addition Principle is used to add up the two distinct cases.
 Multiplication Principle is used in Case 2.
 For Case 2, the event can also be divided into two ordered stages: “select 3 out of 8 girls”
followed by “select 1 out of 10 boys”. No. of ways  8 C3  10 C1  56  10  560 , which is the
same. The order of division of event into stages is not important.

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TOPIC: PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

(iii) Method 1 (Complement method):

No. of ways to have at least 1 girl in the committee

No. of ways to choose 4 people No. of ways when there are no girls
 
without restriction in the committee
 18
C  10
C
4 4
select 4 students out of 18 select 4 boys out of 10 Problem Solving Tip:
 3060  210 At least 1 girl implies that we can
exclude the case whereby only
 2850 boys are chosen!

Method 2:

Case 1: One girl in the committee

No. of ways  8
C  10
C  8  120  960
1 3
select 1 girl out of 8 select 3 boys out of 10

Case 2: Two girls in the committee

No. of ways  8
C  10
C  28  45  1260
2 2
select 2 girls out of 8 select 2 boys out of 10

Case 3: Three girls in the committee

No. of ways  8
C  10
C  56  10  560
3 1
select 3 girls out of 8 select 1 boy out of 10

Case 4: Four girls in the committee

No. of ways  8
C  70
4
select 4 girls out of 8

Total no. of ways  960  1260  560  70  2850

 Remarks:
 Use Method 1: “Total – complement” when there are too many cases to be considered.
 You can do both Method 1 and 2 to check your answer.

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(iv) Method 1:

No. of ways Boy A or Girl B must be in the committee

No. of ways Boy A No. of ways Girl B No. of ways Boy A & Girl B
  
is in the committee is in the committee is in the committee
 17
C  17
C  16
 C2
3 3
select 3 students out of 17 select 3 students out of 17 select 2 students out of 16

 680  680  120

 1240

Method 2:

Case 1: Boy A is in the committee but Girl B is not in the committee

No. of ways  16
C  560
3
select 3 students out of 16

Case 2: Girl B is in the committee but Boy A is not in the committee

No. of ways  16
C  560
3
select 3 students out of 16

Case 3: Boy A and Girl B are in the committee

No. of ways  16
C2  120

select 2 students out of 16

Total no. of ways  560  560  120  1240

 Remarks:
 The Addition Principle cannot be used in Method 1 since there are overlaps between Case 1
and 2.
 The Addition Principle can be used in Method 2 as there are no overlaps between the three
cases.

Method 3 (Complement method):

No. of ways Boy A or Girl B must be in the committee

No. of ways to choose 4 people No. of ways when Boy A and Girl B are
 
without restriction both not in the committee
 18
C  16
C
4 4
select 4 students out of 18 select 4 students out of 16
(excluding Boy A and Girl B )

 3060  1820
 1240

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Worked Example 5: A committee of 3 people is to be chosen from 4 married couples. Find the
number of ways in which this committee can be chosen if
(i) all are equally eligible,
(ii) the committee must consist of 1 woman and 2 men,
(iii) all are equally eligible except that any husband and wife cannot both
serve in the committee.

Solution:

(i) No. of ways  8

C  56
3
select 3 people out of 8

(ii) No. of ways the committee must consist of 1 woman and 2 men
 4
C  4
C
1 2
select 1 woman out of 4 select 2 men out of 4

 46
 24

(iii) Method 1:

No. of ways in which any husband and wife cannot both serve in the committee
 4
C  2
 C1  2
 C1  2
 C1
3
select 3 couples out of 4 select husband or wife select husband or wife select husband or wife
from the first couple from the second couple from the third couple

 4 2 2 2
 32

Method 2 (Complement method):

No. of ways in which any husband and wife cannot both serve in the committee
No. of ways to choose 3 people No. of ways in which 1 couple
 
without restriction in the committee
 
 C8
 4
C1  6
C1 
3    
select 3 people out of 8  select 1 couple out of 4 select 1 person out of 6 
 56   4  6 
 32

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3.2 Forming Distinct Groups from Non-Distinct (Indistinguishable) Objects

The formula n C r cannot be used on a set of n objects that contains non-distinct objects. For such
problems, we will need to identify all the possible cases.

Worked Example 6: A box contains 7 beads which are indistinguishable except for their colour, of
which 3 are red, 2 are blue, 1 is white and 1 is green. Given that the order in
which they are selected does not matter, how many ways can 3 beads be
selected?

Solution:

Case 1: 3 beads of different colours are selected

No. of ways  4
C 4
3
select 3 colors out of 4

Case 2: 2 beads of the same colours and one bead of a different colour are selected
No. of ways  2
C  3
C  23  6
1 1
select colour to repeat: red or blue select a different colour
(3 colours to choose from)

Case 3: All 3 beads of the same colour

No. of ways  1
select all 3 red beads

Total no. of ways  4  6  1  11

 Self-Practice:
Given that the order in which the letters of the word “ELEVEN” are selected does not matter,
how many ways can 3 letters be selected?

Answer: 8

3.3 Forming Non-Distinct Groups from Distinct Objects

Worked Example 7: In how many ways can a party of 10 children be divided into
(i) one group of 2 and one group of 8,
(ii) two groups of 5,
(iii) three groups of sizes 2, 4 and 4?

Solution:

(i) No. of ways  10

C  8
C  45  1  45
2 8
select 2 children out of 10 select 8 children from remaining 8

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(ii) In this case, as both groupings are non-distinct (of size 5), there is double counting.

An example is shown below:

C1, C2, C3, C6, C7, C8, C6, C7, C8, C1, C2, C3,
C4, C5 C9, C10 VS C9, C10 C4, C5
Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2

In both situations, the same groups of 5 were formed. We will need to divide by 2! to get rid of
the double counting.


select 5 children out of 10 
select 5 children from remaining 5
10
C5  5
C5 252  1
No. of ways    126
2!
 2!
2 groups of size 5


select 2 children out of 10 
select 4 children from remaining 8

select 4 children from remaining 4
10
C2  8
C4  4
C4
(iii) No. of ways 
2!

2 groups of size 4

45  70  1

2!
 1575

 Remark:
In general, when there are r groups of the same size and the groups are non-distinct, we will need
to divide by r ! .
Proof: Assuming that the r groups are distinct, there are r Pr  r ! ways to arrange them. Hence we
divide by r ! to get rid of the order of the groups.

 Self-Practice:
Find the number of ways in which 10 people may be divided into groups of 1,1,1,2,2,3.

Answer: 12600

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4 Permutations

A permutation is an arrangement of r objects from a set of n distinct objects, where 0  r  n , in which

the order of arrangement is important.

For example,

Let S be the set 1, 2,3 .

If we arrange all 3 elements from S, then 3,1,2 is a permutation of S. The arrangement 2,3,1 is
another permutation of S.

The number of permutations of r objects from the set S with n distinct objects is denoted by n Pr .
n
Pr  n  n  1 n  2   n  r  1
n!
 for 0  r  n
  r !
n

Refer to Section 7 on page 27 for the proof for understanding.

In particular,
n
Pn  n !

i.e. The total number of permutations of the set S is n Pn  n! .

 Remark:
n!
By definition, n Pn   n ! , since we have the definition that 0!  1 .
 n  n !

4.1 Arrangement of n distinct objects

1st object 2nd object 3rd object ………  n  1 th object nth object
No. of ways n n 1 n2 …….. 2 1

Number of permutations or arrangements of n distinct objects is given by

n  n  1 n  2  3 2 1  n!

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Worked Example 8: There are 10 vacant seats in a bus. In how many ways can 10 people seat
themselves?

Solution:
1st person 2nd person ……………………………………………………………………. 10th person
No. of ways to
select a seat 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

No. of ways  10  9  8    1  10!  3628800

A graphing calculator (G.C.) can be used to evaluate n! . For example, to evaluate 10! :

Press Screen Display Remarks

1. Key in 10.

2. Press MATH, select PROB Select the ! option from the

followed by 4:!. “PROB” tab.

3. Press ENTER.

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4.2 Arrangement of r objects taken from n distinct objects (without replacement/repetition)

1st object 2nd object 3rd object …….  r  1 th object rth object
No. of ways n n 1 n2 …….. n   r  2 n   r  1

Number of permutations  n  n  1 n  2   n   r  1 

n  n  1 n  2   n   r  1   n  r   n   r  1 1
 
1  n  r   n   r  1 1
n!

 n  r !

Number of permutations or arrangements of r objects taken from the n distinct objects is denoted
by n Pr .
n!
n
Pr  n  n  1 n  2   n   r  1  
 n  r !

Worked Example 9: There are 10 vacant seats in a bus. In how many ways can 3 people seat
themselves?

Solution:

Method 1:
1st person 2nd person 3rd person
No. of ways to select a seat 10 9 8

No. of ways  10  9  8  10 P3  720

A graphing calculator (G.C.) can be used to evaluate n Pr . For example, to evaluate 10

P3 :

Press Screen Display Remarks

1. Key in 10.

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2. Press MATH, select PROB Select the n Pr option from

followed by 2:nPr. the “PROB” tab.

3. Key in 7 and press ENTER.

Method 2:

Stage 1: Number of ways to select 3 seats out of 10  10 C3  120

Stage 2: Number of ways to assign the 3 seats to the 3 persons (same as arranging the 3 seats in a row
where the first seat goes to the first person and so on)  3!  6

Total number of ways  120  6  720

 Remark:
In Method 2, we approach the problem by first selecting 3 seats out of the 10 for the 3 people which
10
is C3 , then consider the arrangement for the selected seats which is 3!.
Thus, the total number of ways  10 C3  3! .

In general, the number of ways to arrange r objects from n distinct objects  r  n  in a row could
be done in two stages:
Stage 1: Number of ways to select r objects out of n  n C r
Stage 2: Number of ways to arrange the r objects  r !  r
Pr  r !

Total number of arrangements  n C r  r !

We can see that n Pr  n C r  r ! .

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 Self-Practice:
Find the number of ways to
(a) seat 5 people in a row,
(b) select a HTC, AHTC and PCC from the 5 people.

Answers:
(a) 120 (b) 60

4.3 Arrangement of r objects taken from n distinct objects (with replacement/repetition)

Suppose we want to paint each of three rooms with one of the five colors: red, green, yellow,
blue and purple, given the colors may be repeated. We can consider each of the room in sequence.

1st room 2nd room 3rd room

No. of colors 5 5 5

Thus the total number of ways  5  5  5  53  125

The number of arrangements of r objects taken from n distinct objects, with replacement
or repetition, is given by n r .

Worked Example 10: How many different license plates are available if each plate contains a
sequence of three letters followed by three digits given that the letters and
digits may be repeated?

Solution:

We can use 6 boxes to represent a license plate. The number in each box indicates the number of choices
available. There are 26 ways for each of the three letters and 10 ways for each of the three digits.

26 26 26 10 10 10

Hence, there are a total of 26  26  26  10  10  10  17,576, 000 possible license plates.

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4.4 Arrangement of Indistinguishable (Non-distinct) Objects

What is the total number of ways to arrange the letters A, B and B?

First, let’s consider the two letters B to be distinct i.e. B1 and B2 . The number of ways to arrange
3 distinct objects is 3!  6 .

The 6 possible arrangements are: AB1B2 , AB2 B1 , B1AB2 , B2 AB1 , B1B2 A, B2 B1A .

However, since B1  B2 , the following arrangements are the same:

AB1B2  AB2 B1 ,
B1AB2 =B2 AB1 ,
B1B2 A  B2 B1A .
3!
Therefore the number of unique arrangement of the letters A, B and B is  3.
2!

In general, the number of ways to arrange n objects where n1 objects are non-distinct of type 1,
n2 objects are non-distinct of type 2, … and nk objects are non-distinct of type k, is
n!
n1 ! n2 ! nk !

Refer to Section 7 on page 27 for the proof for understanding.

Worked Example 11: In how many ways can the letters of the word STATISTICS be arranged?

Solution:

10 letter: 3S, 3T, 2I, 1A, 1C

10!
No. of ways   50400
3!3!2!

 Self-Practice:
In how many ways can the letters of the word MATHEMATICS be arranged?

Answer: 4989600

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5 Arrangement with Restriction

5.1 Arrangement with Objects Combined

Worked Example 12: If the letters of the word MINIMUM are arranged in a line at random, in how
many ways can this be done such that all the consonants are together?

Solution:

Vowels: I,I,U
Consonants: M,M,M,N
Since the consonants are to be together, we grouped them into a single object. So now we have
effectively 4 objects. I, I, U and M,M,M,N.

4! 4!
No. of ways    12  4  48
2!
 3!

arrange 4 objects (I, I, U and MMMN); arrange grouped MMMN;
divide by 2!  there are 2 I's divide by 3! there are 3 M's

 Problem Solving Tip:

A useful approach is to first group the items according to the restriction in the question. Then
consider the arrangement of the objects (groups or individual items).

5.2 Arrangement with Objects Separated

Worked Example 13: In how many ways can the letters of the word ORANGE be arranged such
that all the 3 vowels are separated?

Solution:

Vowels: O, A, E C C C
Consonants: R, N, G

No. of ways  
3!  4
C  
3!  6  4  6  144
arrange 3 consonants
3 arrange 3 vowels
select 3 positions
out of 4 for vowels in the 3 chosen positions

 Problem Solving Tip:

A useful approach is to first arrange the objects that need not be separated, followed by slotting
the objects that need to be separated into spaces between the placed objects.

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Worked Example 14: [2008/IJC/II/6]

(a) Find the number of different arrangements of the nine letters in the word CELEBRATE in which
the two letters A and T are next to each other.
(b) Find the number of 3-letter code-words that can be formed from the letters of the word
CELEBRATE.

Solution:

There are 1 “C”, 3 “E”, 1 “L”, 1 “B”, 1 “R”, 1 “A” and 1 “T”.

(a) The “A” and “T” are grouped together. We now have 1 “C”, 3 “E”, 1 “L”, 1 “B”, 1 “R” and one
grouped “AT”.

8!
No. of ways   2!
  13440
3!
 arrange A,T
divide by 3!  3 E's

(b) Case 1: 3 letter selected are 3 “E”

No. of ways  1

Case 2: 3 letter selected are 2 “E” and one of 1 “C”, 1 “L”, 1 “B”, 1 “R”, 1 “A” and 1 “T”
3!
No. of ways  6
C   18
1 2!
select 1 letter from C,L,B,R,A,T 
arrange 3 letters;
divide by 2!  2 E's

Case 3: All letters are distinct

No. of ways  7
C  3!
  210
3 arrange 3 letters
select 1 letter from C,E,L,B,R,A,T

Total no. of ways  1  18  210  229

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5.3 More Examples on Arrangements with restrictions

Worked Example 15: How many numbers between 3000 and 5000 can be formed using only the
digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 if
(i) no digit is repeated,
(ii) the digits can be repeated,
(iii) no repetition is allowed and the numbers are even?

Solution:

(i) 2 4 3 2

Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Stage 4:

2 cases: 4 possible ways since 3 possible ways since 2 possible ways since
“3” or “4” 4 numbers left 3 numbers left 2 numbers left

No. of ways  2  4  3  2  48

(ii) 2 5 5 5

Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Stage 4:

2 cases: 5 possible ways since 5 possible ways since 5 possible ways since
“3” or “4” numbers can be numbers can be numbers can be
repeated repeated repeated

No. of ways  2  5  5  5  250

(iii) Let’s fix the first digit. There are only 2 possible ways: “3” or “4”. However, selection of “3” or
“4” will affect the choices for the last position which must be even. Therefore we need consider
two cases.

Case 1: The first digit is “3”

1 2 3 2

Stage 3: Stage 2: Stage 1:

2 possible ways 3 possible ways 2 possible ways:
since 2 numbers left since 3 numbers left “2” or “4”

No. of ways  2  3  2  12

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Case 2: The first digit is “4”

1 2 3 1

Stage 3: Stage 2: Stage 1:

2 possible ways 3 possible ways Only 1 way: “2”
since 2 numbers left since 3 numbers left

No. of ways  2  3  6

 Total no. of ways  12  6  18

Worked Example 16: In how many ways can 3 men and 3 women be arranged in a row so that
(i) the women are always together,
(ii) the men and women occupy alternate places,
(iii) the two particular women are always separated by two men?

Solution:

(i) By grouping the 3 women together, we have 4 objects: W,W,W , M, M, M

No. of ways  4!
  3!
  24  6  144
arrange 4 objects arranged 3 women

(ii) There are two ways to arrange the men and women in alternating position
M W M W M W

W M W M W M

No. of ways  2  3!
  3!
  72
2 cases arrange 3 men arrange 3 women

(iii) By grouping the two men and two women, we have 3 objects: W M M W , M, W

No. of ways  3!
  3
2
C  
2!  2!
 
 6  3  4  72
arrange 3 objects select 2 men to be in the arrange the 2 men and 2 women
group of 2 men and 2 women

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Worked Example 17: There are 5 different rides in a fun fair. How many different combinations the
child can make if the child has to take at least one ride?

Solution:

Method 1 (Complement method):

Consider the outcomes of each ride: take or don’t take

Ride 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
take or don’t take take or don’t take take or don’t take take or don’t take take or don’t take

 
No. of ways   2  2  2  2  2  1
 2 outcomes for 2 outcomes for 2 outcomes for 2 outcomes for 2 outcomes for  exclude the case where
 1st ride 2nd ride 3rd ride 4th ride 5th ride  the child doesn't take any ride
 31

Method 2:

Case 1: The child takes 1 ride

No. of ways  5 C1  5

Case 2: The child takes 2 rides

No. of ways  5 C 2  10

Case 3: The child takes 3 rides

No. of ways  5 C3  10

Case 4: The child takes 4 rides

No. of ways  5 C4  5

Case 5: The child takes 5 rides

No. of ways  5 C5  1

Total no. of ways  5  10  10  5  1  31

 Self-Practice:
Find the number of ways to arrange the six letters of the word PETALS when
(i) there is no restriction,
(ii) P is the first letter and E is the last letter,
(iii) P and E are together,
(iv) P and E are separated.

Answers:
(i) 720 (ii) 24 (iii) 240 (iv) 480

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6 Arrangement in a Circle

6.1 Arrangement in a Circle with n Non-Distinct Positions

The arrangement of objects in a row is different from arrangement of objects in a circle. For
example, 3 men A, B and C can be seated in a row in 3!  6 ways, i.e. ABC, CAB, BCA, ACB,
BAC, CBA.
However, if we consider arranging 3 men A, B and C in 3 positions (numbered 1,2,3) in a circle.
Then the possible arrangements are shown below.

Case 1:
A C B

1 1 1

3 2 3 2 3 2
C B B A A C

If the positions (1), (2), (3) are disregarded, the above arrangements are essentially the same.

Case 2:
A B C

1 1 1

3 2 3 2 3 2
B C C A A B

Likewise, if the positions (1), (2), (3) are disregarded, the above arrangements are essentially the
same.

3!
Hence, the number of ways =  2!
3

Generally, in arranging n distinct objects in a circle, we can think of it as fixing one object at a particular
place in a circle to facilitate the arrangement of the remaining objects. For the above example, we fix
A, and arrange B and C.
Hence, the number of ways   3  1!  2!

The number of permutations of n distinct objects in a circle is

n!
  n  1!
n

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Worked Example 18: In how many ways can 4 boys and 4 girls be seated at a round table if
(i) there is no restriction,
(ii) the boys and the girls must be separated,
(iii) one particular girl must be seated between 2 particular boys.

Solution:

(i) No. of ways  

8  1!

 5040
arrange 8 people in round table

(ii)
B

B B

No. of ways  
4  1!
 
 4!
  144
4 slots to arrange 4 girls
arrange 4 boys in round table

(iii)
B1 G1 B2

No. of ways  
6  1!
 
 
2!  240
B1 and B2 can switch places
arrange 6 objects in round table

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6.2 Arrangement in a Circle with n Distinct Positions

How many ways can three men seat in a round table if the chairs are of different colours?

We first make one of the men  M1  as the reference and then arrange the rest of the men.
No. of ways   3  1!  2! .

However, M1 has a choice of 3 distinct seats to choose from hence the total number of ways to
arrange them is 2!  3  6 .

In general, the number of permutations of n distinct objects in a labelled circle with n distinct
positions is
 n  1!  n

Worked Example 19:

A student wishes to re-arrange the letters and asterisks on the icon as shown.
Given that the letters of the word ‘ACE’ must be together in the clockwise
manner, find the number of possible arrangements if
(i) the asterisks must be separated,
(ii) the positions of the letters and asterisks are labelled.

Solution:

There are 1 “A”, 1 “C”, 1 “E”, 1 “S”, 1 “D”, 2 “F”s, 2 “G”s and 2 “*”.

(i) No. of ways

ACE

 7  1!  7
C
2!2! 2

  select 2 positions
arrange 7 objects in round table out of 7 for asterisks
divide by 2!2!  there are 2F's and 2G's

 3780

Problem Solving Tip:

Finding the number of arrangements in
a circle is the same as fixing an object
first and then arranging the rest of the
objects.

(ii) ACE No. of ways


 9  1!  11

2!2!2!

  no. of seats
arrange 9 objects in round table;
divide by 2!2!2!  there are 2F's, 2G's and 2*'s

 55440

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 Self-Practice:
A group of ten people consists of four single women, two single men and 2 couples. The ten
people are seated randomly in a circle. Find the number of arrangements if
(i) there is no restriction,
(ii) the couples must seat together,
(iii) the seats are of different colours

Answer:
(i) 362880 (ii) 20160 (iii) 3628800

7 Proofs for understanding

1. The number of combinations (or selection) of r objects taken from n distinct objects is denoted
n!
by n C r , where n C r  for 0  r  n .
r ! n  r !

Proof for understanding:

The permutations  P  of
n
r S can be obtained from the combinations  n
C r  of S by selecting each
specific combination and then ordering the elements in the selected
r
combination, which can be done in Pr ways for every possible combination. Therefore, by considering
the formation of the combinations as stage 1 and the ordering of the elements in each
combination as stage 2, we can apply the multiplication principle to have

n
Pr  n Cr  r Pr
n
Pr  n C r  r !
n!
 n Cr  r !
 n  r  !
n!
n
Cr 
 n  r !r !

We can also consider that in counting the permutations, each combination is actually repeated for r !
times exactly, as that is the number of possible ways to arrange the r distinct objects in a particular
combination. Hence, we can get the number of combinations by dividing the number of
permutations by the uniform amount of repetitions present in the counting process.

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n
2. The number of permutations of r objects the set S with n distinct objects is denoted by Pr .
n
Pr  n  n  1 n  2   n  r  1
n!
 for 0  r  n
 n  r !

Proof for understanding:

The first element of the permutation can be chosen in n ways, since there are n elements in the set.
There are n  1 ways to choose the second element of the permutation, since there are n  1 elements
left in the set after using the element picked for the first position. Similarly, there are n  2 ways to
choose the third element, and so on, until there are exactly n  r  1 ways to choose the r th element.

Consequently, by the multiplication principle, there are

n  n  1 n  2   n  r  1
 n  n  1 n  2   n  r  1   n  r  n  r  11

 n  r  n  r  11
n!

 n  r !
permutations of the set.

3. The number of ways to arrange n objects where n1 objects are non-distinct of type 1, n2 objects
are non-distinct of type 2, … and nk objects are non-distinct of type k, is
n!
n1 ! n2 ! nk !

Proof for understanding:

We can consider n “boxes” to indicate the position of the objects and we want to fill the “boxes” with
exactly one object.

Stage 1: Select n1 “boxes” out of n for n1 objects of type 1  n Cn1

n  n1
Stage 2: Select n2 “boxes” out of remaining n  n1 for n2 objects of type 2  Cn2

Stage k: Select nk “boxes” out of remaining n  n1  n2    nk 1 for nk objects of type
n  n1  n2  nk 1
k Cnk
Stage k  1 : Arrange the remaining n  n1  n2    nk distinct objects
  n  n1  n2    nk !

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No. of ways
 n Cn1  n  n1 Cn2    n  n1  n2  nk 1 Cnk   n  n1  n2    nk !
n!  n  n1 !  n  n1  n2    nk 1 !
      n  n1  n2    nk !
n1 ! n  n1 ! n2 ! n  n1  n2 ! nk ! n  n1  n2    nk !
n!

n1 ! n2 ! nk !

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SUMMARY Permutations and Combinations

Counting Principles
Suppose there are n1 ways for event E1 to occur, n2 ways for event E2 to
occur, … , nk ways for event Ek to occur, and these ways are distinct, then the
Addition Principle
number of ways for at least one of the events E1 , E2 ,  , Ek to occur is
n1  n2    nk .
Suppose that an event E can be spilt into k events E1 , E2 ,  , Ek in ordered
Multiplication stages. If there are n1 ways for E1 to occur, n2 ways for E2 to occur, …, and
Principle nk ways for Ek to occur, then the number of ways for event E to occur is
given by n1n2  nk .

Selection of Objects
n!
Distinct Groups To select r objects out of n distinct objects, n C r  for 0  r  n .
r ! n  r !
Non-distinct When there are r groups of the same size and the groups are not distinct, we
Groups need to divide by r ! .
Selection from
Non-distinct List down cases.
Objects

Arrangement of Objects
In general, the number of ways to arrange r objects from n distinct objects
 r  n  in a row could be done in two stages:
Distinct Objects Stage 1: Number of ways to select r objects out of n  n Cr
Stage 2: Number of ways to arrange the r objects  r !  r
Pr  r !
Total no. of ways  n C r  r !
In general, the number of ways to arrange n objects where n1 objects are non-
Non-distinct distinct of type 1, n2 objects are non-distinct of type 2, … and nk objects are
Objects n!
non-distinct of type k , is .
n1 ! n2 ! nk !
With Objects Stage 1: Combine the objects
Combined Stage 2: Arrange the non-combined objects and the combined objects
(Grouping) Stage 3: Arrange the combined objects
Stage 1: Arrange the objects  n  r  excluding those  r  that need to be
With Objects
Separated (Slot-in separated
approach) Stage 2: Insert into “spaces”.

In a Circle with
The number of permutations of n distinct objects in a circle is  n  1!
Non-distinct Labels
(Fixing one object) An object is taken to be the reference point.
Permutations in a The number of permutations of n distinct objects in a labelled circle is
Circle with Distinct
Labels
 n  1!  n i.e. the reference object has n C1  n position to choose from.

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H2 MATHEMATICS TUTORIAL
TOPIC PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 2020/JC2

DISCUSSION

BASIC LEVEL

1. Given the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8, and using each digit at most once, determine how many
numbers can be formed if the number has to be
(i) less than 100,
(ii) between 100 and 1000,
(iii) between 1000 and 10000.

2. [N2002/I/17(b)]
A girl wishes to phone a friend but cannot remember the exact number. She knows that it is a
five-digit number, that it is even, and that it consists of the digits 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in some order.
Using this information, find the largest number of different wrong telephone numbers she could
try.

3. Find the number of ways in which 6 people may be divided into groups of
(i) 1, 2 and 3,
(ii) 2, 2 and 2,
(iii) 3, 1, 1 and 1.

INTERMEDIATE LEVEL

4. A four-letter word can be formed from any of the 26 letters in the alphabet. Determine the number
of such words with
(i) repetitions of the letters allowed,
(ii) different letters and containing exactly one vowel,
(iii) repetitions allowed and containing at least one vowel.

5. [J1986/I/10]
Find the number of arrangements of the 6 letters in the word ELEVEN in which
(i) there are no restrictions,
(ii) all the 3 letters E are consecutive,
(iii) the first letter is E and the last letter is N,
(iv) the first letter is E or the last letter is N or both.

6. 4 distinct green books, 4 distinct blue books and 2 distinct red books are arranged on a shelf.
The green books are always placed together in the same order, but the red books are always
separated. Calculate the number of ways in which this can be done.

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7. Naval signals are made by arranging coloured flags in a vertical line and the flags are read from
top to bottom. How many different signals can be made from 1 green, 3 red and 2 blue flags if
(i) all 6 of the flags are used,
(ii) at least 5 of them are used?

8. [2007/HCI/II/5]
Three single men, two single women and two families take their places at a round table. Each of
the two families consists of two parents and one child. Find the number of possible seating
arrangements if
(i) members of the same family are seated together and the two single women are separated,
(ii) the seats are numbered and each child sits between their parents.

9. [N2006/I/4]
A box contains 8 balls, of which 3 are identical (and so are indistinguishable from one another)
and the other 5 are different from each other. 3 balls are to be picked out of the box; the order in
which they are picked out does not matter. Find the number of different possible selections of 3
balls.

10. [2011/AJC/II/6(modified)]
Using the letters of the word “CORRELATION”, find the number of
(i) arrangements such that the two letters A and T are next to each other.
(ii) 6-letter code words that can be formed.

11. [N1999/I/18]
(a) Eight people go to the theatre and sit in a particular group of eight reserved seats in the
front row. Three of the eight belong to one family and sit together.
(i) If the other five people do not mind where they sit, find the number of possible
seating arrangements for all eight people.
(ii) If the other five people do not mind where they sit, except that two of them refuse
to sit together, find the number of possible seating arrangements for all eight people.
(b) The salad bar at a restaurant has 6 separate bowls containing lettuce, tomatoes, cucumber,
radishes, spring onions and beetroot respectively. John decides to visit the salad bar and
make a selection. At each bowl, he can choose to take some of the contents or not.
(i) Assuming that John takes some of the contents from at least one bowl, find how
many different selections he can make.
(ii) John decides he is going to have 4 salad items, and one of them will be tomatoes.
How many different selections can he make?

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12. [2009/CJC/II/8(modified)]
A group of 10 people consists of 3 married couples and 4 single men.
(a) A committee of 4 is to be formed from the 10 people.
(i) How many different committees can be formed?
(ii) How many different committees can be formed if the committee can consist of at
most 1 married couple?
(iii) How many different committees can be formed if the committee consist of at least
one man and at least one woman?
(b) The group sits at a round table with 10 seats.
(i) If each man sits next to his wife, how many ways can they be seated?
(ii) If one particular man is absent and the rest are allowed to sit without any restrictions,
how many ways can they be seated?
(iii) If a particular couple is absent and the rest are allowed to sit without any restrictions,
how many ways can they be seated?

Answers:
1. (i) 36 (ii) 120 (iii) 360
2. 71
3. (i) 60 (ii) 15 (iii) 20
4. (i) 456976 (ii) 159600 (iii) 262495
5. (i) 120 (ii) 24 (iii) 12 (iv) 68
6. 3600
7. (i) 60 (ii) 120
8. (i) 17280 (ii) 31680
9. 26
10. (i) 1814400 (ii) 114660
11. (a)(i) 4320 (ii) 2880 (b)(i) 63 (ii) 10
12. (a)(i) 210 (ii) 207 (a)(iii) 175 (b)(i) 5760 (ii) 362880 (iii) 181440

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REVIEW PROBLEMS

1. [2011/NYJC/II/7]
In each of the following cases, find the number of ways of forming a group of 10 people from 15
couples if each group contains
(i) exactly 5 couples, [1]
(ii) no couples, [2]
(iii) exactly 2 couples. [3]

2. [2017/PJC/II/9]
A student working on a coding project studies 11-digit quaternary sequences. A quaternary
sequence is a sequence formed using the digits 0, 1, 2 or 3. Examples of such sequences are
12030201131, 01122211100, 12321232123 and 00000000000. Find the number of ways that 11-
digit quaternary sequences can be formed with
(i) no restriction, [1]
(ii) exactly four 0s and four 2s, [3]
(iii) at least two consecutive digits that are the same. [3]

3. [2011/PJC/II/10]
Joshua tries to recall the 6-digit pin number for his ATM card.
(Assuming that the number 000 000 is even and valid.)
How many possible numbers can there be if he remembers that:
(i) the number starts and ends with the digit 5? [1]
(ii) the number is odd and the digits do not repeat? [2]
(iii) the digits do not repeat and there are exactly 3 odd digits? [2]

4. [2011/SRJC/II/6]
From the 6 letters of the word “SALOON”, find the
(i) number of possible arrangements if no two vowels are next to each other, [2]
(ii) number of possible arrangements if two ‘O’s are separated. [2]
(iii) number of 3-letter code-words that can be formed. [2]

5. [2011/TPJC/II/6]
(a) How many different nine-digit numbers can be formed from five “0”s and four “1”s such
that no three “0”s are together? [4]
(b) Six people sit at a round table with eight identical chairs. Find the number of seating
arrangements if
(i) there are no restrictions, [2]
(ii) the seats are numbered. [1]

6. [2011/RVHS/II/8]
(a) Find the number of ways of arranging the word PRELIMINARY if the first and last letter
is a vowel. [4]
(b) A group of 10 students comprising of 3 males and 7 females attended their graduation
dinner. Find the number of ways of seating them at a round table with 10 chairs of different
colours and no two male students are seated next to each other. [3]

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2020 JC2 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

7. [2011/CJC/II/6(a)]
There are 9 people including John, Mary and Gary. They are to arrange themselves into a row of
4 people and a circle of 5 people. Find the number of ways they can arrange themselves if
(i) there are no restrictions. [2]
(ii) John and Mary are beside each other. [3]
(iii) John, Mary and Gary are part of the group that form a circle and John and Mary are
separated from each other. [2]

8. [2011/HCI/II/6]
A developer has recently completed a condominium project in HCI Valley. There are 5 blocks of
buildings A, B, C, D and E as shown in the diagram below.

E B

D C

The developer has 4 colours available to paint the buildings. Each block can only be painted using
a single colour. Find the number of ways to paint all the 5 blocks if
(i) there are no restrictions, [1]
(ii) block A and block B cannot be painted with the same colour, [2]
(iii) all 4 colours must be used. [2]

9. [2011/JJC/II/5]
An office has 8 staff consisting of 5 employees, 1 translator, 1 secretary and 1 manager.
(i) The group stands in a line.
(a) Find the number of different possible arrangements. [1]
(b) Find the number of different possible arrangements if the secretary and the manager
do not stand together. [2]
(ii) The group sits in a circle where the seats are indistinguishable.
(a) Find the number of different possible arrangements. [1]
(b) Find the number of different possible arrangements if the secretary sits beside the
manager, and the translator sits opposite the manager. [2]

10. [2017/YJC/II/6]
(a) Find the number of ways to arrange the letters of the word TOTORO such that
(i) all the ‘O’s are together, [1]
(ii) all the ‘O’s are separated, [2]
(iii) the last letter is a consonant. [3]
(b) Tontoro soft toys are sold in four different colours, of which each varies in three sizes,
small, medium and large. Each set of Tontoro soft toys consists of a small,
a medium and a large sized soft toy and exactly two are of the same colour. Find the
number of different possible sets of Tontoro soft toys. [2]

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2020 JC2 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

11. [2015/ACJC/II/7]
(a) A teacher wants to set a class test for her class of 25 students. She plans to give each student
the same questions, but have each student's questions appear in a different order. Find the
least number of questions she must set. [2]
(b) Sally has 12 bars of chocolates in four different flavours as summarised in the table below.
flavour white milk dark hazelnut
number 4 3 4 1
Sally intends to give one bar of chocolate each to three of her best friends in school.
(i) Find the number of ways she can do it. [3]
(ii) Sally remembers that one particular friend amongst the three has a nut allergy, and
should not be given the hazelnut chocolate bar. Find the number of ways she can
now give her friends the chocolates. [2]

12. [2011/MI/II/8]
(a) Find the number of ways which the letters of the word POSITIVE can be arranged if
(i) all vowels must be next to each other, [2]
(ii) the vowels are separated and the arrangement begins and ends with the letter I. [2]
(b) The Mathematics Department of M Institute consists of 11 teachers which includes Mr.
Tan and Mr. Lin. At a meeting, all 11 teachers sit at a round table with numbered seats.
How many ways are there of arranging the department if Mr. Tan and Mr. Lin must sit
next to each other? [3]

After the meeting, the department heads to a nearby food court for lunch. Due to the lunch
crowd they only manage to find a circular table for 6 and a long table with a row of 5 seats
as shown below.
X
X X X X X X X

X X
X
Find the number of arrangements of seating all 11 teachers at the two tables such that Mr.
Tan is seated next to Mr. Lin. [4]

13. [2011/MJC/II/7]
(a) Five couples are to be seated at a round table with numbered seats. Find the number of
ways such that each wife must sit next to her husband. [3]
(b) Mr Lin wants to repaint his four bedrooms. Each room can only be painted with one
colour. From a selection of six different colours, find the number of ways in which the four
rooms can be painted if
(i) there is no restriction on the colours used, [1]
(ii) there is no repetition of colours used, [1]
(iii) he chooses exactly two colours. [3]

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2020 JC2 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

14. [2011/NJC/II/6]
A committee of eight people is to be chosen from 9 men and 10 women. Find the number of ways
in which the committee can be chosen if it consists of at least 3 men and 3 women. [2]
In the end, 4 couples (Mr/Mrs Akira, Mr/Mrs Balthus, Mr/Mrs Chan and Mr/Mrs Ravi) are
selected to form the committee and they are seated around a table for a meal.
(i) Find the number of different possible arrangements if all the women are seated
together. [2]
(ii) Find the number of different possible arrangements if Mr Akira, Mr Chan and Mr Ravi
refuse to sit next to each other. [2]
(iii) At the end of the meal, each diner has the choice to order at most one dessert from a
selection of chocolate fudge pie, lemon cake, tiramisu martini and baked Alaska. Find the
number of different possible selections of dessert for the table, given that at least one diner
orders a dessert and the sequence of ordering is not important. [2]

15. [2011/RJC/II/5]
Three families comprising of six adults and three children go on an outing to a theme park. The
three families decide to travel together for the day.
(i) There are a total of 15 amusement rides in the theme park. A child insists on trying out at
least 2 of the 15 amusement rides. Calculate the number of ways in which this can be done.
[2]
(ii) One of the highlights in the theme park is the “Mummy Surprise” rollercoaster ride, where
the passengers are seated in a passenger car with seats arranged in 3 rows and 3 columns
as shown in the diagram.

(a) Calculate the number of ways in which the three families can be seated if there are
no restrictions. [1]
(b) Tom, the youngest child in the group is fearful of the ride and insists on sitting next
to his mother before he agrees to get onto the passenger car. Calculate the number
of ways in which this can be done. [2]
(iii) The three families proceed to a restaurant for lunch. They are allocated a circular table
with 9 seats. Calculate the number of possible seating arrangements for the group if none
of the children sit together. [2]

16. [2010/NJC/II/7]
Four married couples attend a wedding dinner. One of the couples brought along two children.
Find the number of ways in which these ten people can be seated round a table if
(i) there are no restrictions, [1]
(ii) each couple must sit together. [3]

They are to take a photo with the bride and bridegroom. The twelve people are to arrange in two
rows of six and the bride and bridegroom must be together in the middle of the front row. How
many ways can the photographer arrange the twelve people such that the two children must also
be in the front row? [3]

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2020 JC2 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

17. [2011/SAJC/II/6]
Mr and Mrs Tan have a son named David. They invite 6 guests to their home for dinner.
Before the dinner, they plan to take a group photo together with the guests. They are to stand in
a straight row for the photo-taking.
Find the number of arrangements for the photo-taking if:
(i) all the 9 diners can stand in any position, [1]
(ii) the Tan family members must be separated. [2]

The Tan family decides to seat the diners at two round tables – a five-seater and a smaller four-
seater. Find the number of arrangements this can be done if:
(iii) anyone can be seated at either table; [2]
(iv) David must be seated between his parents at either table. [3]

18. [2018/MI/II/6]
In the 2018 FIFA World Cup, the Morocco football team started the opening match against Iran
with 1 goalkeeper, 3 defenders, 4 midfielders and 3 forwards.
(i) Before the match, the 11 selected players, together with their coach stand in a line for a
photo shoot. In how many ways can this be done if the coach and the goalkeeper must
stand at either ends and one particular defender and one particular forward must not stand
together? [2]
(ii) During half-time, the coach gathered the 11 players at a round table with 12 numbered
seats to discuss strategies for the second half of the match. In how many ways can this be
done if the 3 defenders must be seated together, the 4 midfielders must be seated together
and the 3 forwards must be seated together? [3]
(iii) After the match, the coach decides to construct four-lettered code-words from the 7 letters
of the word MOROCCO. How many such code-words are there? [3]

19. [2018/NJC/II/7]
Ten circular stickers for temperature taking purposes, each of them indistinguishable apart from
their colours, are placed in an opaque box.
(a) It is given that four of the stickers are purple, two are blue and the remaining stickers are
pink, orange, yellow and green. Suppose four stickers are given to 4 people, such that each
person receives exactly one sticker. Find the number of ways this can be done if
(i) all four stickers are of different colours, [1]
(ii) there are no restrictions on the colours of the stickers. [3]
(b) The 10 stickers labelled with distinct alphabets “A” to “J” are to be packed into zip-lock
bags, which may come in different sizes. Bags of the same size are considered to be
indistinguishable.
(i) Suppose five zip-lock bags of different sizes are used to contain 2 stickers each.
How many ways can this be done? [1]
(ii) Suppose instead that a large-sized bag is used to contain 4 stickers, two medium-
sized bags are used to contain 2 stickers each and a small-sized bag is used to contain
the remaining 2 stickers. How many ways can this be done? [2]

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 CJC MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT
2020 JC2 H2 MATHEMATICS (9758)
TOPIC: PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

20. [2018/HCI/II/6(i),(ii)]
Six married couples are to be seated in a row at a concert. Find the number of ways they can sit
if
(i) each couple is to sit together, [2]
(ii) all women are next to one another and all men are next to one another, such that no man
can sit next to his wife. [3]

Answers:
1. (i) 3003 (ii) 3075072 (iii) 11531520
2. (i) 4194304 (ii) 92400 (iii) 3958108
3. (i) 10000 (ii) 75600 (iii) 72000
4. (i) 72 (ii) 240 (iii) 72
5. (a) 51 (b)(i) 2520 (ii) 20160
6. (a) 1088640 (b) 1512000
7. (i) 72576 (ii) 16128 (iii) 4320
8. (i) 1024 (ii) 768 (iii) 240
9. (i)(a) 40320 (b) 30240 (ii)(a) 5040 (b) 240
10. (a)(i) 12 (ii) 12 (iii) 30 (b) 36
11. (a) 5 (b)(i) 54 (ii) 45
12. (a)(i) 1440 (ii) 144 (b) 7983360 ; 1209600
13 (a) 7680 (b)(i) 1296 (ii) 360 (iii) 210
14. 62748 (i) 576 (ii) 1440 (iii) 390624
15. (i) 32752 (ii)(a) 362880 (b) 60480 (iii) 14400
16. (i) 362880 (ii) 1920 ; 967680
17. (i) 362880 (ii) 151200 (iii) 18144 (iv) 648
18. (i) 5806080 (ii) 248832 (iii) 114
19. (a)(i) 360 (ii) 627 (b)(i) 113400 (ii) 9450
20. (i) 46080 (ii) 864000

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