THE TANGIBLE & INTANGIBLE

CULTURAL L ANDSCAPE OF
WADI BANI KHARUS

Investigations in the Sultanate of Oman

MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

Ministry of Heritage and Tourism

Sultanate of Oman
Archaeopress Publishing Ltd
Summertown Pavilion
18-24 Middle Way
Summertown
Oxford OX2 7LG
www.archaeopress.com

© Moawiyah M. Ibrahim & Laura M. Strachan 2020

The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape of Wadi Bani Kharus:

Investigations in the Sultanate of Oman

1. Arabia. 2. Sultanate of Oman 3. Wadi Bani Kharus. 4. Anthropology 5. Archaeology 6.

Cultural Heritage

This edition is published by Archaeopress Publishing Ltd in association with the Ministry
of Heritage and Culture, Sultanate of Oman.

ISBN 978-1-78969-805-3
ISBN 978-1-78969-806-0 (ebook)

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of

relevant collective agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the
written permission of the Ministry of Heritage and Culture, Sultanate of Oman.

Ministry of Heritage and Culture

Sultanate of Oman, Muscat
P.O. Box 668 P.C. 100
Khuwair, Muscat
Phone: +968 24 64 13 00
Fax: +968 24 64 13 31
Email: [email protected]
Web Site: www.mhc.gov.om

Note: The maps in this book are historical and cannot be modified as they are specifically
drawn for that period only and they do not reflect political, geographical and administrative
boundaries. The Geographical Place Names (GPN) in these maps are not written by the Arabic
Standardized Romanization System applied in the National Survey Authority of Oman (NSA).
 CONTENTS

Map of the Sultanate of Oman 6

Teams 8

Acknowledgments 9

Editorial Notes 11

Foreword 17

Preface 18

Introduction 20

1 Petroglyphs and Rock Inscriptions 44

2 Ancient Fortifications 75

3 Ancient Settlements 101

4 Ancient Cemeteries, Graves and Inscriptions 137

5 An Ancient Technology for Today’s Inhabitants 209

6 Yesterday and Today: Traditions, Customs and Adaptations 243

7 Lower-Wadi Settlements 290

8 Mid-Wadi Settlements 329

9 Upper-Wadi Settlements 376

10 Lessons for Moving Forward 416

Arabic Summary 449

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 THE TANGIBLE & INTANGIBLE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF WADI BANI KHARUS

TEAMS

Team 2003
Moawiyah M. Ibrahim
Project Leader, Archaeology
Nasser Al-Hinai
Surveying and Drafting
Yaqoub Al-Rahbi
Photographer
Zakaria Al-Kharusi & Zahir Al-Kharusi
Local Informants and Guides

Team 2012
Moawiyah M. Ibrahim
Archaeology, Jordan’s Representative to the World Heritage Committee, Co-author
Laura M. Strachan
Cultural Anthropology, Tourism Development, Environmental Protection, Local Communities, Author
William A. J. Strachan
Business Administration, Cultural Anthropology, Photographer and Videographer
Ali Dhihli
Representative of the Ministry of Heritage and Culture of Oman, Archaeologist and Translator

Team 2014
Laura M. Strachan
Cultural Anthropology, Tourism Development, Environmental Protection and Local Communities, Author
William A. Strachan
Photographer and Research Assistant

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 MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape of Wadi Bani Kharus is the sum of many parts and many
people. We, Moawiyah and Laura, would like to extend our sincerest gratitude to the individuals and
institutions noted below for their contributions and unwavering support during all phases of our
investigation.

When we began Phase 2 of our project, it was under the auspices of the Ministry of Heritage and Culture
(MHC). Since this time, there have been many changes to the Ministry including a new directive and
name in 2020, Ministry of Heritage and Tourism (MHT), in addition to the retirement and well-deserved
promotions of many of our original Ministry contacts.

We would like to begin by extending our sincerest gratitude to Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Al-Said who
before his ascension to the throne in 2020 was the Minister of Heritage and Culture. We are especially
grateful to H.E. Salim bin Mohammed Almahruqi, the current Minister of Heritage and Tourism, H.E.
Hassan bin Mohammed Al-Lawati, formerly the Adviser to the Minister of Heritage and Culture and the
Director General of Archaeology and Museums, Mr. Sultan bin Saif Al-Bakri, current Director General
of Archaeology, Ms. Sumaya Al-Busaidi and other Ministry staff for their help and first-class hospitality
over the years.

Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) contributed to the project’s success during its formative years. Special
recognition is extended to the Dean of Research, the Department of Archaeology, the Department of
History and to esteemed scholars Dr. Isam Rowas, Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Nasser Al-Hinai, surveying
and drafting, Yaqoub Al-Rahbi, photography, and Badar Al-Alawi. And to Dr. Jutta Haeser and Uergen
Schreiber of the Omani German Project on “Omani Oases Settlements” who helped in the identification
of pottery shards, many thanks.

To our 2012 and 2014 research partners, Ali Dhihli, William A. J. Strachan and William A. Strachan, our
sincerest gratitude for your indefatigable dedication and contributions to the success of this project. Ali,
our Ministry of Heritage and Tourism partner, archaeologist and translator, thanks for helping the team
navigate the Omani terrain. To William A. J., our Canadian research assistant, videographer and driver,
our sincerest gratitude and appreciation. And to William Sr., thank you for your time, effort and beautiful
photographs.

To Abu Qusai, Mirvat and the other staff at Al-Shumoukh Rest House, we are extremely grateful for your
kindness and hospitality while staying in Ar-Rustaq during the 2012 season. To Mariam Omar, a very
special thank-you for your technical assistance post-fieldwork. And to Mohammad Al-Sarimi, without
you this project would never have come to light. Thank you for your tremendous insight.

A very special thank-you is extended to the former Canadian Ambassador to Jordan and Iraq, Mr. Mark

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 THE TANGIBLE & INTANGIBLE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF WADI BANI KHARUS

Gwozdecky, who in 2011 facilitated a meeting between Moawiyah and Laura in Amman, Jordan.

The publication of our research would not have been possible without the dedication and professionalism
of three exceptional individuals. A special thank you is extended to Ms. Biubwa bint Ali Al-Sabri, former
Director of the Department of Excavations and Archaeological Studies, for her draft recommendations
early on in the process. We would like to thank Dr. Dennys Frenez, Technical Adviser for Archaeology and
Publications, for bringing our draft to life. And to Ms. Ibtisam Al-Mamari, Head of the National Tentative
List Section, we are forever grateful for her unwavering support, persistence, and dedication over the
years. Thank you for being our “bridge.”

And lastly, we are especially appreciative to the inhabitants of Wadi Bani Kharus and the Al-Awabi district
in general. Many individuals offered assistance during the team’s numerous visits. Special appreciation
is extended to Abu Sultan from the Wilayat Al-Awabi for his approval of our research in his constituency.
Thanks to the numerous inhabitants who helped locate petroglyphs, tombstone inscriptions and other
archaeological features.

A special thank you to Mr. Salem Al-Khoziri and to the Al-Awabi resident who shared his computer-
generated images of WBK petroglyphs. To Abdul-Aziz bin Hilal Al-Kharusi, Zakaria Al-Kharusi and Dr.
Zaher Al-Kharusi of Sital Village who shared so much more than their knowledge of local sites and
personal documents, we are extremely grateful for your guidance, hospitality and deep interest in our
work. To all of the individuals who opened their homes to an ever- inquisitive team, answered the never-
ending questions and whose hospitality was unmatched, we are forever indebted.

It was our great pleasure to work with all of you.

Thank you for your contributions. You were invaluable partners!

Moawiyah & Laura

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 MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

FOREWORD

This is an exciting moment for the Ministry of Heritage and Tourism,* Moawiyah, Laura and their team.
The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape of Wadi Bani Kharus marks a turning point in heritage and
cultural investigations in the Sultanate of Oman. By combining traditional archaeological methodologies
with anthropology, a uniquely broad perspective on social change, human evolution and material culture
has emerged.

Dr. Moawiyah M. Ibrahim is one of the founding fathers of Arabian archaeology. He has carried out
excavations and other research projects in Palestine, Jordan, Germany, Bahrain, Kuwait, Yemen, and
Oman. Dr. Laura M. Strachan is a socio-cultural anthropologist and environmental scientist who has
done extensive ethnographic research in Oman, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and southern Jordan
with multiple Bedouin tribes. She has also participated in archaeological excavations in Jordan and
Oman. Together they have created something unique and exciting that will serve as a model for future
explorations.

Building upon ethno-archaeological methodologies, their distinctive positioning on contemporary

society to understand material culture from former societies greatly influenced how they interpreted the
archaeological evidence. This investigative lens allowed the team to understand the extensive artefact
assemblage of Wadi Bani Kharus as part of a continuum rather than selected moments in time and space.
It helped to expose how the past continues to impact the present.

It is their hope that The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape of Wadi Bani Kharus sparks interest in
other scholars. Laura and Moawiyah have opened the door to a rich and dynamic Omani landscape that
is ripe for future exploration. They encourage other archaeologists and anthropologists to expand upon
their preliminary findings.

*
The authors affiliation with the Ministry of Heritage and Culture began in 2011. In 2020, the Ministry of Heritage
and Tourism was established by Royal Decree as a result of merging the Ministry of Heritage and Culture with the
Ministry of Tourism. The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape of Wadi Bani Kharus was written prior to the
marrying of the two ministries. It is recognized by the authors that the Ministry of Heritage and Culture and the
Ministry of Heritage and Tourism are, for their purposes, the same Ministry as noted in this document.

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PREFACE

It is hard to believe when one looks at the magnificence of today’s Sultanate of Oman that a little over
forty years ago it only had a few paved roads and a handful of schools. The transformation from an
underdeveloped nation into an Arabian leader is a monumental task and the result of great leadership,
vision and foresight.

The people interviewed for the purpose of this investigation extolled the virtues of their leader,
Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said. The elders, in particular, lived through the country’s transformation
and expressed their appreciation and respect for the changes that occurred during their lifetime.
Many described their country under the governance of Sultan Qaboos’ father, Said bin Taimur, as an
impoverished nation unable to support its citizenry. They explained that Omani men, similar to many
of the East Asian expatriates working in Oman today, had to leave their homes and communities to find
employment outside of the Sultanate’s borders. It was not long after Sultan Qaboos’ ascension to the
throne that the situation began to shift to what it is today.

Alongside his leadership came a national pride that swept through the country empowering both its male
and female citizens. The country as a whole embarked on a new Oman while respecting its rich heritage.
Cities were developed and ministries were established. Education became a principle mechanism for this
advancement. Both genders were prioritized. Boys and girls began their formal education in the new
schools that started to dot the landscape. The role of women began to change and now extends beyond the
household and pastures moving into the business world. Sheikah Al-Rasby stands as an example of this
change. Originally from a small Bedouin community located in the southeastern corner of the Sultanate,
her education helped her to become an influential member of the Ministry of Heritage and Culture.

The research participants also commented on other ways Sultan Qaboos empowered his people. The
team heard countless stories about their leader’s generosity with regards to housing and land ownership.
A common response pertained to families who could not afford to build a house on their own. In these
cases, the government gifted the family a building lot. In fact, land is afforded to every Omani citizen,
male and female alike. This generous offering has enabled poorer families to prosper. In some cases,
the team discovered elderly, male residents living in remote areas. These men explained that they had
respectfully declined the government’s benevolent offer of a house and land. They said that they wanted
to continue living their lives in the area of their birth following the traditions of their ancestors. Most
often this meant living in a simple, stone structure in the mountains close to their goats and sheep. This
is what made them happy.

It did not take long for the protection of the Sultanate’s historical record to become an Omani priority.
The Ministry of Heritage and Culture was established in 1976 to focus on safeguarding historical and
archaeological sites while highlighting their cultural value. According to Ministry documents, for
approximately forty years it has focused on the scientific preservation of its heritage. Its primary objectives
are research, exploration, repair, restoration and spreading awareness regarding Oman’s cultural heritage.

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 MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

It is also responsible for the scientifically supervised restoration of heritage and cultural locations. It
has successfully restored 748 historical sites including 2,660 forts, castles, towers and old houses and
25,943 historical pieces. In 2020, the Ministry of Heritage and Tourism was established by Royal Decree
by joining the Ministry of Heritage and Culture with the Ministry of Tourism.

Omani ministries collaborate in the shared goal of developing the country. The team witnessed this first
hand during their investigation when the Ministry of Highways was upgrading Wadi Bani Kharus’ main
road into a four-lane thoroughfare. It is the Ministry of Heritage and Tourism’s responsibility to ensure
that the country’s archaeological record is respected and preserved at all costs. In a number of Wadi
Bani Kharus’ locations, this proved to be a challenging endeavour. The designated location for the new
roadway outside of Sital was through the ancient village site of As-Slut. The Ministry did everything
possible to find an alternative solution, but unfortunately there were no other options due to the
narrowing of the wadi and the close proximity of the surrounding mountains. In lieu of preservation, an
exhaustive study was executed to document site particulars and collect artefacts before the construction
began. Recommendations were provided to the Ministry of Transport and Communications resulting in
a mutually beneficial outcome.

The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape of Wadi Bani Kharus: Investigations in the Sultanate of
Oman was a Ministry of Heritage and Tourism sponsored project. The research includes an extensive
archaeological-anthropological survey, ethnographic research, transcriptions and transliterations of
tombstone and rock inscriptions, photographs, videos, tape recordings, drawings and tracings.

We are honoured to have contributed to the preservation of Wadi Bani Kharus’ heritage while supporting
the Ministry’s mission to highlight the cultural value of an important Omani site. It is our hope that
future archaeologists and anthropologists will follow our example. We encourage scientists from other
disciplines to build upon our findings while enjoying the splendour that is Wadi Bani Kharus.

With much appreciation and respect,

Moawiyah & Laura

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 THE TANGIBLE & INTANGIBLE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF WADI BANI KHARUS

INTRODUCTION

The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape of Wadi Bani Kharus showcases the findings from an
innovative research project conducted in one of the Sultanate of Oman’s most noteworthy valleys - Wadi
Bani Kharus. The objective for the Ministry of Heritage and Tourism sponsored study was to gain greater
understanding of the area’s past and present through its tangible and intangible cultural heritage. An
extensive investigation was executed over three seasons to collect a diverse array of evidence from past
lifeways, contemporary life and the melding of the two.

Since the time of René Descartes, scientists have dissected objects of investigation into parts in an attempt
to understand their internal workings. In this sense, analyses were partial and the information garnered
only fractional representations of the whole. The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape of Wadi Bani
Kharus purposefully sought to move beyond this convention by offering a broader context from which to
investigate this important wadi. Traditional archaeological research was bridged with anthropological
methodologies to create a wider lens for exploration and analysis. The findings revealed an adaptive,
thriving environment that has survived over 5,000 years of human habitation.

This integrated methodology was also used in the formatting of the book. The findings from the research
project were originally slated to be an archaeological report. Traditionally, archaeological investigations
emphasize a scientific approach that situates the site and its artefact assemblage in both time and space.
Measurements, GPS coordinates and details explaining the original context in which artefacts were
discovered are the basis of this methodology. This approach requires a standardized presentation style
that is accepted and understood by archaeologists and other scholars.

Due to the multidisciplinary nature of this project, the quantity of diverse findings and the expansiveness
of the archaeological sites including those with touristic value, the authors soon realized that their
research would be of interest to a much wider audience. The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape
of Wadi Bani Kharus was written to facilitate the interests of both academic and non-academics alike. Its
scientific contributions have not been compromised in the pursuit of a more eclectic readership.

Background

In 2003, Mohammad Al-Sarimi, a student studying at Sultan Qaboos University in Muscat in the Sultanate
of Oman, approached his archaeology professor, Dr. Moawiyah Ibrahim, with details about numerous
archaeological sites located in the wadi of his birth. He described ancient tombstone inscriptions,
fortresses and early water distribution systems. Intrigued, Dr. Ibrahim investigated further and
discovered that there was a diverse scholarly and historical record supporting Mohammad’s claims. He
learned that Wadi Bani Kharus had not only played an important role in the development of what is now
recognized as the Sultanate of Oman for millennia, but was the home for many important historical and
religious figures. He discovered that numerous Omani scholars and Imams had written about the wadi.

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 MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

Among those were Sarhan bin Said Al-Uzkawi who wrote “Kashf Al-Ghimmah”, Mohammad bin Ruzayq
penned “As Sahifah Al-Qahtaniyyah”, Nour Ad-Din As-Salimi’s “Tuhfat Al-Ayan” and Khalifah bin Ahmad
As-Sarimi who authored “Tarikh Wilayat Al-Awäbi” (unpublished). He was also introduced to a unique
piece of literature written by a group of local men in 1997. “A Brief History of Al-Awabi through the Ages”
offers a local perspective of Wadi Bani Kharus from the neighbouring community of Al-Awabi.

Dr. Ibrahim also came to learn that several Western scholars and travelers had written about this
important area. One of the earliest accounts dated back to 1876 when Colonel Miles visited Al-Awabi
and Wadi Bani Kharus. He recorded local conditions including some of the tribes living in the area at
that time. He made special notation of the Bani Kharusi, Al-Abriyyeen and the Harrasi tribes. He also
commented on the tribal fighting associated with the Hinais tribe. Almost a century later, Christopher
Clark and Rudi Jackli conducted a preliminary survey of rock drawings in the valley. Paolo Costa and T.
J. Wilkinson later explored regional agriculture and water systems of San’a, an important historical site
located in the upper wadi. Philip Ward’s research followed in the footsteps of Miles over 110 years later.
In 2001, Birgit Mershen conducted an ethno-archaeological investigation of the famous San’a Estate.

After Dr. Ibrahim’s preliminary review, he visited Wadi Bani Kharus with Mohammad, Nasser Al-Hinai
and Yaqoub Al-Rahbi, both from Sultan Qaboos University’s Department of Archaeology. Once at the site,
contact was made with Mahmoud Al-Mamari, the Deputy Governor, or wali as it is known in Arabic, of the
Al-Awabi district. Mr. Al-Mamari, a former SQU archaeology student, helped the team locate a number of
local tribesmen he felt would be willing to assist Dr. Ibrahim. Abdul-Aziz bin Hilal Al-Kharusi from Sital
Village was one of those knowledgeable individuals. He guided the team to numerous archaeological sites
including locations rich in rock inscriptions and petroglyphs in addition to some of Sital’s tombstone
inscriptions. Dr. Badar Al-Alawi from the Department of History joined the team at a later date.

These early visits in combination with the scholarly accounts provided substantial evidence of a long and
well-established human presence in Wadi Bani Kharus. This intrigued Dr. Ibrahim, but he felt that more
needed to be known about the historical and contemporary connections between today’s populace,
the archaeological sites, ancient systems and the environment. He was compelled to execute a more
systematic, comprehensive analytical survey that looked at the integration of all of these elements to
understand the wadi as a whole. This realization was the catalyst for another investigative season.

The next phase of the research was designed from the outset to be different from the first. A few years
had passed and the focus had shifted to a multidisciplinary approach. In February 2012, Laura Strachan,
a socio-cultural anthropologist, William Strachan and Ali Dhihli joined Dr. Ibrahim to identify and study
the plethora of archaeological evidence, to learn more about how the past and the present meet in
addition to how today’s inhabitants embrace historical technologies within their contemporary lives
and modern comforts. By combining archaeological and anthropological methods with local knowledge
and experiences a clearer picture of the area’s evolution emerged.

Following the fruitful 2012 investigation, Dr. Strachan moved to Oman with her husband William
Strachan Sr. While there the pair returned to Wadi Bani Kharus to update many of the photographs taken
during Dr. Ibrahim’s first tour of the area. Over the next four months, they were able to explore new sites
in addition to revisiting many of the earlier locations to expand upon their findings.

The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape of Wadi Bani Kharus is the result of these many phases.
It highlights the findings from all of the stages of investigation with a focus on the assimilation of
archaeological evidence with ethnographic data.

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While in the Field

Examining the ancient and the historical with the new and the modern necessitated a unique analytical
strategy. Each phase benefited from an interdisciplinary approach with expertise in archaeology, social
and cultural anthropology, ethnography, geography, environmental protection, business administration,
marketing and tourism development. The integrated approach during all of the investigations was
collaborative.

The brunt of the investigation occurred during Phases 2 and 3. Each team member contributed in various
ways based on their area of expertise. Moawiyah was in charge of the archaeological research during
Phases 1 and 2. Laura, William and Ali assisted Moawiyah in various capacities. William was primarily
responsible for the photography and videotaping of both the tangible and intangible evidence. Laura was
the lead socio-cultural anthropologist. Laura and William conducted interviews with random residents
from all of the wadi’s twenty-nine communities. Ali was the principle interpreter while facilitating
the project on behalf of the Ministry of Heritage and Culture. Local inhabitants assisted the team by
identifying ancient sites and assisting in the transcription of tombstones and rock drawings. In 2014,
William Sr. was the principle photographer for Phase 3. Participant observation was encouraged during
all of the visits and at every opportunity. It was the keystone to the project’s success.

Phase 2 was executed over an intense four-week period beginning in February 2012. The first week
focused on establishing permission through the Sultanate of Oman’s Ministry of Heritage and Culture
and the Wilayat Al-Awabi or the district of Al-Awabi in which Wadi Bani Kharus belongs. Having received
official consent, Ali, William and Laura began to collect preliminary data using key-informant interviews
from randomly selected individuals.

Figure 0.3. Moawiyah (second left), William (third from right) and Ali (second from right) collecting
information from young males in Wadi Al-Hijayr.

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 MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

Figure 0.4. William (left), Moawiyah (right) and a local resident (rear left) transcribing a tomb
inscription.

Week 2 consisted of gaining familiarity with the area and the archaeological sites studied by Moawiyah
during Phase 1. Time was spent building upon the findings from Sital and As-Sleihi cemeteries. Four Iron
Age fortresses located in As- Slut near Misfah Al-Hatatlah were explored. The team also surveyed many
of the ancient sites located in Wadi Al-Hijayr and Al-Hijayr Al-Qadeemah more specifically.

During the third week the team focused primarily on the acquisition of local knowledge from the area’s
inhabitants. This was done by systematically establishing contact with every community or area of human
habitation beginning with the first village after Hisn Al-Awabi or Al-Awabi Fort, Wadi Safwon. Extensive
interview sessions were conducted with randomly selected villagers who agreed to be interviewed for
the purpose of gaining greater knowledge of Wadi Bani Kharus and their area in particular. Informants
were both male and female and ranged in age from teenagers to the elderly.

Research conducted during the fourth week focused on the accumulation of data from both archaeological
sites and interview sessions in communities not yet contacted. It was imperative to speak to someone
from every community even if that meant interviewing a single family or a lone individual. By focussing
on areas not previously visited or surveyed, the investigation expanded accordingly providing the team
with a broader and more extensive context from which to conduct their analyses.

Ali, William, Moawiyah and Laura often worked together at a site or in a family home. At other times,
particularly during weeks two and four, it was important for the team to separate into pairs to expedite
data collection. In these cases, Moawiyah and Ali worked together documenting and surveying the
tangible archaeological data while William and Laura concentrated their efforts on acquiring local
knowledge and experiences from as many individuals and groups as possible.

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Figure 0.5. William videotaping the team scrambling over large boulders near Al-Alya.

Figure 0.6. William Sr. photographing in Wadi Al-Hijayr.

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 MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

Figure 0.7. Laura and Ali learning about Wadi Bani Kharus life from Mohammed.

In the spring of 2014, Laura returned to Wadi Bani Kharus with her husband William. The pair explored
Wadi Al-Hijayr extensively including Hisn Al-Furs and the upper wadi region. They surveyed four distinct
phases of human habitation in addition to new petroglyphs and inscriptions. They also visited Sital and
Misfah Al-Hatatlah to photograph the tangible evidence discovered at the ancient site of As-Sleihi and
the surrounding area. Later, the old village of Al-Hijayr was investigated including the terraced gardens
located behind the village.

During every phase of the project, photographs and videotaping were carried out to capture the dynamic
elements of the wadi. As previously noted, William Jr. was in charge of this facet of the investigation
during Phase 2. Laura and Moawiyah also photographed according to their research specialities and
personal interests. William Sr. was responsible for the majority of the photography during Phase 3.

The team did not break ground to conduct their archaeological examinations. Rather, they surveyed and
studied the expansive archaeological assemblage discovered in-situ, including surface finds and standing
structures. Details were extracted from these artefacts and when combined with the ethnographic data
and other scholarly research provided a more expansive overview from which to analyze the valley’s
diverse periods of occupation, cause and effect relationships and any transformations that may have
occurred. This is an area of research that may be of interest to future scientists.

Ethnographic research methods were used to gain information about the intangible aspects of today and
yesterday. Key-informant interviews were conducted in each of the twenty-nine communities situated
along the wadi’s length. People proudly shared their recollections and knowledge about their ancestors
including oral histories, customs, traditions and the changes they have witnessed in their lifetime.

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Every household treated the team with great kindness and respect even providing fresh fruit, delicious
dates and Omani tea and coffee to their guests. The team was often invited to stay for dinner.

At the end of Phase 2 the team presented their findings to the representatives of the Ministry of Heritage
and Culture. Moawiyah discussed the tangible evidence found from one end of the wadi to the other. Laura
spoke about the intangible data based on the interview sessions. William Jr. examined the contemporary
context outlining a number of recommendations for future development of the area as a tourism site.
He also presented a video he had prepared highlighting the team’s investigative approach, collaboration
and the spectacle of Wadi Bani Kharus in general. Moawiyah, William and Laura spent the following
fifteen months organizing and analyzing the data, and writing reports. Laura and Moawiyah co-authored
the first draft for this publication. Laura later updated the draft with the newly acquired data she had
collected with William Sr. during Phase 3.

The Physical Landscape

Wadi Bani Kharus is a spectacular valley located in the Wilayat Al-Awabi. It is part of the Western Al-
Hajar Al-Gharbi mountain range in the Al-Batinah region. The English translation of Al-Hajar is stone
mountains. The valley is twenty-six km long with a southwestern orientation. At its end is Al-Jabal Al-
Akhdar or Green Mountain, one of the highest summits in Oman at 9,834 feet or 2,980 m. From its unique
geology and geomorphology to its plentiful floral and faunal species, it is an inimitable landscape that
has provided refuge, protection and sustenance to its inhabitants for thousands of years.

Figure 0.8. Boulder showing ancient fish remains from the land formation processes.

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 MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

Figures 0.9 to 0.11. Evidence of land formation processes in the lower-wadi.

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Of great interest to the team was the diversity that existed from one end of the wadi to the other. Some
natural elements that were in great abundance near Wadi Safwon were found to be in limited supply
near Al-Alya at the other end. This stemmed in part to the geological processes that helped to shape
what is now recognized as the Sultanate of Oman and the Arabian Peninsula in general. Although the
team did not focus on regional geomorphology, it was important for them to understand how land
formation processes contributed to the unique physical features and the natural resources that the area’s
inhabitants have exploited since first arriving in Wadi Bani Kharus.

Upon entering the lower wadi at Al-Awabi Fort, the physical effects of Oman’s mountain building processes
are obvious to even an untrained eye. The area underwent tremendous pressure from the colliding of
the Arabian and the Eurasian tectonic plates millions of years ago as is evident in the upheaval of the
local terrain. The treeless mountains bordering both sides of the wadi bear witness to the intensive
uplifting, folding, denudation and other types of formation and weathering processes that shaped the
area long before humans occupied the lands (Figures 0.7 to 0.9). These processes are still active today
and continue to influence the landscape and the local people.

Mountain shaping and valley formation were evident in other ways. One example was discovered at
the San’a Estate in the upper-wadi. While the team was investigating the footings of a large aqueduct
(Chapter 9), they hiked to the lower level of an offshoot wadi. While scrambling over large boulders
located at the base of the ravine they noticed that many had grey and white markings. These colourations
stood out from the others.

When the team returned to their hotel in Ar-Rustaq later that day, they shared their photographs with
two German geologists who were studying the surrounding valleys including Wadi Bani Kharus. The
men identified the white markings on the boulders as belonging to a species of fish that had once thrived
in large numbers in local waters before becoming part of the landscape. Their presence many kilometers
away from the Omani Sea is a testament to the dramatic transformations that have occurred over the
millennia.

Water is life and it is water that has contributed to the area’s floral and faunal diversity. Geological
processes are responsible for the life’s elixir that to this day percolates underground and emerges as
springs in many wadi locations. The local inhabitants stated that the natural springs are scarce in the
lower-wadi where many of the smaller villages are located. Vegetation in these areas is noticeably sparse
in comparison to the lush hillsides and terraced agricultural lands found in mid and upper-wadi locations.
This is a critical observation when understanding resource extraction, settlement patterns, livelihood
strategies and agriculture, all of which will be discussed in greater detail in the following chapters.

The recognizable differences in vegetation are also due to the efforts of the early settlers who manipulated
spring water for their personal usage. Adaptive strategies such as the creation of a mechanism for resource
extraction and distribution enabled ancient visitors to stay for longer periods of time in one location.
Controlling the flow of the mountain springs was instrumental to this evolution and to their survival. By
tapping into water located at higher elevations or below the wadi floor and channeling it to populated areas,
the visitors were able to implement adaptive strategies to sustain their presence thereby transforming
them from nomads to residents. Today’s iconic terraced gardens and orchards that flourish primarily in
mid and upper-wadi locations are tangible evidence of this ingenuity and adaptability. It was discovered
that many of the methods used by the ancestors have not been abandoned, but have been ingeniously
integrated, renovated or have taken on new, adaptive forms that will be discussed in greater detail.

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Figure 0.12. Sparse vegetation in the lower-wadi due to the lack of soil and water.

Figure 0.13. A view of the fertile upper-wadi close to Al-Alya village.

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Figures 0.14 to 0.17. Examples of Wadi Bani Kharus’ floral and faunal species.

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 MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

Figure 0.18. A rock panel with rock drawings and an inscription discovered mid-
wadi.

The wadi is biologically rich and has great diversity in the organisms that thrive in its mountains, valleys,
villages and water systems. From lizards and snakes to hummingbirds and frogs, numerous vertebrate
and invertebrate species depend upon reliable water and vegetative sources for their survival. Local
knowledge stated that large carnivores such as wolves and wild cats continue to roam the mountains
although not in the abundance that they once had. Fish and tadpoles were discovered in community
water systems demonstrating the purity and cleanliness of the spring water today.

The tangible evidence of Wadi Bani Kharus’ past and present was prolific. The team discovered an extensive
array of artefacts from various phases of the area’s human development. Dating as far back as the late
Bronze Age to the Iron Age into the Islamic Period and finally to present day, cemeteries, fortresses, houses
and abandoned villages revealed important details about yesterday’s inhabitants and their ways of life.
The various investigations exposed that the former residents of the area and migrating tribes capitalized
on the wadi’s strategic location, natural resources and diverse landscape features for over 5,000 years.

Figure 0.19. An example of a beautiful rock inscription.

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A prime example of the extensive archaeological assemblage was the collection of petroglyphs or rock
drawings discovered throughout the wadi. Incised illustrations on rock faces, boulders and smaller
rock outcrops dotted the landscape depicting scenes and representations of people and animals from
prehistoric and historic times. These images portrayed individuals and groups that either visited or lived
in the area. Diverse methods of transportation were also popular drawings.

Human figures were illustrated riding camels and horses sometimes holding weapons in combative
stances. Some of the drawings portrayed feral and domesticated animals. Mountain goats, horses and
camels were common representations. Many of the drawings have succumbed to hundreds or even
thousands of years of weathering leaving them faded and indecipherable. Fortunately, many were
scientifically recorded during the 1970s.

A large number of Arabic inscriptions were also discovered incised on rock faces and boulders close to
important water distribution systems. Several panels were dated between the 9-14th centuries AH or
15-20th centuries CE.

The team investigated and surveyed numerous ancient burial sites located throughout the valley. Each
one showcased funerary practices belonging to a particular group of inhabitants and/or visitors during
a specific period of occupation. In some cases, associated religious beliefs were identified. An important
find was a Hafit-type tomb from As-Sleihi Cemetery, mid-wadi. It identified local burial practices as
far back as the fourth millennium BCE. Many Early Islamic cemeteries were explored at great length.
Individual burials and family plots revealed much about the past and the wadi’s inhabitants.

Many of the burials had incised tombstones. In total over seventy inscriptions were surveyed and later
transcribed then translated from Arabic into English by Moawiyah and his team. Each deceased individual
was identified according to an epitaph in addition to information about tribal relations, settlement
patterns and former traditions (see Chapter 4). These artefacts are not only a rare occurrence in Wadi
Bani Kharus, but in the Sultanate of Oman in general providing the team with yet another unique lens
for analysis.

Tombstone inscriptions were also an efficient method for dating. In most cases, the author or scribe
chiseled the date of the deceased’s passing using the Islamic calendar. This was also a means for
identifying the religion of the person. In some cases, the day, month and year were noted.

The team also surveyed numerous standing structures located in many of the cemeteries. Moawiyah
identified them as “little mosques” (Figure 0.20). Their purpose will be discussed in greater detail in the
following chapters.

One of the most important revelations to be gleaned from the artefacts and the interviews was the
wadi’s rich geopolitical history. Evidence revealed that Wadi Bani Kharus served as an important trade
and communication route for thousands of years. It connected local residents to other areas in the Al-
Batinah, Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar and locations in the Ad-Dhahirah of western Oman (Figure 0.21) .

Remnants of numerous fortresses suggest that they were built during different occupational phases. The
team surveyed an extensive fortification system located mid-wadi that was built to guard and monitor
the area’s traffic in addition to protecting the local water systems. One system dated to the 3rd and
2nd millennia BCE suggesting that it could have been built during Wadi Bani Kharus’ earliest period of
occupation.

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Figure 0.20. William (left), Moawiyah (center) and Ali (right) investigating a family tomb in Sital.

Figure 0.21. One of the many tomb inscriptions transcribed by the team.

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Figure 0.22. “Little Mosque” in Sital.

The blending of the old with the new was a theme that was experienced from one end of the wadi to the
other. This was especially the case in the majority of the villages when newer construction was viewed
next to older and at times ancient structures. Rather then tear down the harbingers of yesterday to rebuild
modern structures in their place, the descendants of the original homeowners expanded their villages
in other directions leaving the ancestral homes in-situ making for today’s museum-like atmosphere. A
prime example of this ideology was revealed in Misfah Al-Hatatlah. Today’s villagers live in cinderblock
homes that are in close proximity to one of the oldest cemeteries discovered in the wadi, three ancestral
mosques and an extensive fortification system.

With so many standing structures to investigate, clues to ancient architectural designs, building materials
and methods were revealed. Structures from different periods enabled the team to examine changing
styles in relation to shifting ideologies. The majority of the buildings were in various stages of decay
allowing the team to look beyond the facade to study the internal organization.

Tangible and intangible evidence also supports the existence of an early approach to sustainable
resource management. The data indicates that natural water sources or springs have been tapped into
for hundreds of years or even longer. Remnants of these antiquated systems were still in use at the time
of the investigation.

The ancient falaj system as it is known in Arabic continues to irrigate the terraced gardens located in
many of the wadi communities and in other locations throughout the Sultanate of Oman. This unique,
sustainable system will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5.

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 MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

Figure 0.23. Ad-Dhahira, Al-Batinah and Al-Awabi.

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Figure 0.24.
Al-Awabi Fort
at the entrance
to the wadi.

Figure 0.25.
Misfah Al-Hatatlah
from the ancient
village of As-Sleihi.

Figure 0.26.
New Al-Hijar
structures built
around the old
settlement.

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 MOAWIYAH M. IBRAHIM & LAURA M. STRACHAN

Figure 0.27.
Ancestral buildings in
Al-Hijayr Al-Qadeemah.

Figure 0.28.
The old fortress in
Misfah Ash Shirayqiyyin.

Figure 0.29.
An aqueduct
still in use today.

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The Intangible Cultural Heritage

At the heart of the discipline of anthropology is the quest to understand the human species. Customs,
religious beliefs, politics, livelihood strategies, familial relations and structures, relationships,
technologies and even what people eat and wear are some of the areas anthropologists explore to gain a
greater understanding of people both past and present. The mission for The Tangible & Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Wadi Bani Kharus was to learn more about both the former and present-day inhabitants and
how their material culture and ideologies have influenced the lives of today’s 10,000 residents. Learning
about these connections was fundamental to understanding the area’s development over the years.

The inhabitants of Wadi Bani Kharus could not have been more supportive in providing detailed answers
to the team’s never-ending questions about local lives, relatives and ancestors. The discussions did not
focus on the past or the present as separate entities. Rather, the encounters with the local inhabitants
were about the melding of the past and the present to understand yesterday and today. Learning directly
from the inhabitants offered strong evidence that each community was and continues to be part of a
larger social, economic, political and religious network that extended beyond the wadi reaching into
surrounding areas both inside and outside of Oman. Traditions and adaptations helped to elucidate what
the tangible artefacts could not disclose.

Local knowledge exposed diverse cultural traditions and habits shared by many of the inhabitants. The
interviews revealed many similarities in hospitality, religious practices, family size, tribal affiliations,
housing styles and old village and falaj usage. Interviews also identified emerging differences associated
with locality, livelihood choices and educational pursuits. It was apparent that as elsewhere in the world
lives are changing and people are adapting to new and alternative ways while holding onto chosen
local traditions and customs. This is something that stood out time and again during the team’s many
interview sessions.

Figure 0.30. Al-Alya’s terraced gardens and orchards that are fed by the local falaj.

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Figure 0.31. A warm Al-Alya greeting.

The investigation revealed a consistent integration of tangible and intangible aspects of the cultural
landscape. It became evident that old or former knowledge was foundational to many of the working
systems used presently with adjustments made to facilitate contemporary circumstances. The ancient
falaj’s communal maintenance practices were deemed to have contributed to a village’s social, political
and economic cohesion and viability just as they are today. Ancient sundials and star watching practices
continue to govern the distribution of the falaj water. Spatial distribution patterns appear to follow older
models often building next to the ruins of ancient villages with historical and familial connections.

Change and adaptation are integral to Wadi Bani Kharus’ evolution. With the recent completion of a
new roadway, ease of travel out of the wadi has facilitated increased educational pursuits along with
employment opportunities in areas of the Sultanate that were previously out of reach for the villagers.
Conversely, the new road now provides ease of access into the wadi and is the basis for an emerging
tourism industry. It is because of these and other findings that The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Heritage
of Wadi Bani Kharus serves as a baseline survey for developing Wadi Bani Kharus’ tourism industry. This
will be discussed in the final chapter.

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Figure 0.32. Ali, third from the left, and William, second from the right, interviewing a family from Al-
Alya Village.

Figure 0.33. An antiquated water system or falaj that is still in use today.

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Book Organization

The Tangible & Intangible Cultural Landscape of Wadi Bani Kharus offers a rare opportunity to witness the
blending of the ancient and the historical with the new and the modern through the lenses of archaeology
and anthropology. It has been organized to provide a virtual tour of sorts. The book has been divided
into ten sections including an introduction, eight chapters focussed on specific areas of the research
and a concluding chapter that highlights possibilities for the next phase in the wadi’s development. This
method of presentation emphasizes the nuanced and innovative methods used in the field and provided
by the inhabitants.

Chapter 1 offers a general overview of tangible evidence from Wadi Bani Kharus’ earliest periods of
human occupation. Petroglyphs provide various depictions of people and animals from prehistoric to
more contemporary times. Rock inscriptions reveal details about former inhabitants, local events, dates,
religion and relationships.

Deserted fortresses are reviewed in Chapter 2. Ruins from various valley locations are investigated
to expose numerous defensive networks built by early residents. These systems helped to protect the
people and their aflaj while controlling the wadi’s traffic.

Chapter 3 showcases some of the ancient abandoned settlements located throughout the wadi. The
discussion reveals a long history of human occupation dating back to the Early Bronze Age, Iron Age
and early Islamic periods. Architectural styles, building materials, locations and defensive strategies are
some of the highlights.

Figure 0.34. Ali (blue hat) and William (black shirt) talking to local Al-Alya residents.

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Figure 0.35. Research Zones: White-Lower-wadi; Yellow-Mid-wadi; Red-Upper-wadi.

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The focus for Chapter 4 is a review of the area’s early cemeteries. It includes an in-depth overview of Sital
and As-Sleihi graveyards. It highlights a large number of tombstone inscriptions and what they reveal
about the area’s former inhabitants and burial practices.

The ancient falaj irrigation system is the focus for Chapter 5. A thorough review of the system’s mechanics
including social nuances is highlighted. Agriculture and the ancient sundial and star watching systems
are profiled as compliments to this ingenious system that continues to be used today.

Chapter 6 is an ethnographic compilation of the inhabitants’ oral histories and contemporary lives. It
details informants’ responses to their livelihood strategies, gardening techniques, food and architecture,
among other cultural features. It includes changes the participants have personally witnessed and those
for the Sultanate of Oman as a whole.

Chapters 7-10 provide insight into the twenty-nine wadi communities. Each residential area is reviewed
with attention given to the major archaeological finds located at these sites in combination with a
contemporary review of the inhabitants and their surroundings. For ease in comprehension, the wadi
has been divided into three zones - lower, middle and upper - to facilitate greater understanding of the
communities, inhabitants and their landscapes (Figure 0.33).

The lower-wadi is the focus for Chapter 7. Communities from Al-Awabi Fort to Aradeideh including those
located along Wadi Al-Hijayr reveal details about the inhabitants’ lives and the archaeological sites that
exist in these lower communities.

The villages and residents living in the mid-wadi zone are highlighted in Chapter 8. From Man’a to Misfah
Ash Shirayqiyyin, local knowledge and experiences are shared regarding each community’s special
attributes. Differences between the zones begin to emerge especially with regards to availability of
natural resources, livelihood strategies, education and female roles.

Chapter 9 focuses on the upper-wadi communities. This area is examined from Hadas to Al-Alya Village
including gardens and the various water systems. Unique architecture, an iconic structure, an historic
estate and extensive agricultural lands are highlighted.

The concluding chapter confirms that the wadi that once served as an important communication route, a
nexus for religion, education and innovation continues to serve all of these important cultural elements
today. It also highlights recent changes and some of the challenges facing today’s inhabitants with
recommendations for the future. The creation of a successful tourism industry is highlighted. Suggestions
based on the research support its implementation as a compliment to the Ministry of Heritage and
Tourism’s efforts to protect and promote the region’s tangible and intangible cultural landscape.

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