Dilla University

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Electrical
&
Computer Engineering
Course : Power Electronics & Electric Drives
Course Code: ECEg-4222

Chapter-3
Dynamic Behaviour of Electric Drives

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 1

 Outlines

 Torques Acting in a Drives System

 Speed Torque Conventions & Multi Quadrant
Operations of Electric Motor
 Steady State Operation for Electrical Drive
 Electric Braking
 Equivalent Values of Drive Parameters
 Calculation of Time and Energy-Loss in Transient
Operations
 Starting of Electric Motors

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 2

 3.1 Torques Acting in a Drive System
3.1.1 Fundamental Torque Equations:
 A motor generally drives a load (Machines) through some
transmission system. While motor always rotates, the load may
rotate or undergo a translational motion.
 Load speed may be different from that of motor, and if the load
has many parts, their speed may be different and while some parts
rotate others may go through a translational motion.
 Equivalent rotational system of motor and load is shown in the
figure below:

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 3

 ...Cont’d
where;
J = Moment of inertia of motor-load system referred to the
motor shaft, kg / m2
ωm = Instantaneous angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/sec.
T = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque, N-m
Tl = Instantaneous value of load torque, referred to the motor
shaft, N-m
 Load torque includes friction and windage torque of motor.
 Motor-load system shown in figure 3-1 can be described by
the following fundamental torque equation:
𝒅 𝒅ꞷ𝒎 𝒅𝑱
𝑻 − 𝑻𝒍 = 𝑱ꞷ𝒎 = 𝑱( ) + ꞷ𝒎 (3.1)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 4

 …Cont’d
 Equation (3.1) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as
mine winders, reel drives, Industrial robots.
𝒅𝑱
 For drives with constant inertia, = 0. Therefore
𝒅𝒕
𝒅ꞷ𝒎
𝑻 = 𝑻𝒍 + 𝑱( ) (3-2)
𝒅𝒕
 Equation 3-2 shows that torque developed by motor 𝑻 is counter
𝒅ꞷ
balanced by a load torque 𝑻𝒍 and a dynamic torque 𝑱( 𝒎).
𝒅𝒕
𝒅ꞷ𝒎
 Torque component 𝑱( ) is called the dynamic torque
𝒅𝒕
because it is present only during the transient operations.
 Drive accelerates or decelerates depending on whether T is
greater or less than 𝑻𝒍 .
 During acceleration, motor should supply not only the load
𝒅ꞷ𝒎
torque 𝑻𝒍 but an additional torque component 𝑱( ) in order
𝒅𝒕
to over come the drive inertia.
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 …Cont’d
 in drives with large inertia, such as electric trains, motor
torque must exceed the load torque by a large amount in order
to get adequate acceleration.
𝒅ꞷ 𝒎
 Energy associated with dynamic torque 𝑱( ) is stored in the
𝒅𝒕
𝐽 ꞷ𝑚 2
form of kinetic energy given by
2
𝒅ꞷ𝒎
 During the deceleration, the dynamic torque 𝑱( )
has a
𝒅𝒕
negative sign. Thus, it assists the motor developed torque T and
maintains the drive motion by extracting energy from stored
kinetic energy.

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 …Cont’d
3.1.2 Components of Load Torques:
The load torque 𝑻𝒍 can be further divided in to following
components:
i. Friction Torque 𝑻𝑭 : Friction will be present at the motor shaft
and also in various parts of the load. 𝑻𝑭 is the equivalent value of
various friction torques referred to the motor shaft.
ii. Windage Torque 𝑻𝑾 :When motor runs, wind generates a
torque opposing the motion. This is known as windage torque.
iii. Torque required to do the useful mechanical work, 𝑻𝑳 : Nature
of this torque depends upon particular application. It may be
constant and independent of speed; it may be some function of
speed; it may be time invariant or time variant; its nature may also
change with the load’s mode of operation.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 7

 …Cont’d
 Friction at zero speed is called stiction or static friction. In
order to start the drive the motor should at least exceeds
stiction.
 Friction torque can also be resolved into 3- components:

Fig. 3-2
𝑻𝑽 Component: It varies linearly with speed & is called Viscous
friction and is given by; 𝑻𝑽 = 𝑩ꞷ𝒎 , 𝑩= Viscous friction co-
efficient.

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 …Cont’d
𝑻𝑪 Component: It is independent of speed, and known as
Coulomb friction.
𝑻𝑺 Component: It accounts for additional torque present at stand
still. Since 𝑻𝑺 is present only at stand still it is not taken in to
account in the dynamic analysis.
Windage torque, 𝑻𝑾 which is proportional to speed squared, is
given by:
𝑻𝑾 = 𝑪 ꞷ 𝒎 𝟐
where 𝑪 is a constant.
• From the above discussions, for a finite speeds,
𝑻𝒍 = 𝑻𝑳 + 𝑻𝑭 + 𝑻𝑾

= 𝑻𝑳 + (𝑻𝑽 + 𝑻𝑪 ) + 𝑻𝑾

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 …Cont’d
𝑻𝒍 = 𝑻𝑳 + 𝑩ꞷ𝒎 + 𝑻𝑪 + 𝑪 ꞷ𝒎 𝟐 (3.3)
• In many applications (𝑻𝑪 + 𝑪 ꞷ𝒎 𝟐 ) is very small compared
to 𝑩ꞷ𝒎 & negligible compared to 𝑻𝑳 . In order to simplify the
analysis , term (𝑻𝑪 + 𝑪 ꞷ𝒎 𝟐 ) is approximately accounted by
updating the value of viscous friction coefficient, 𝑩. With this
approximation, from Eq.(3-2)
𝒅ꞷ 𝒎 𝒅ꞷ𝒎
𝑻 = 𝑻𝒍 + 𝑱 =𝑱 + 𝑻𝑳 + 𝑩ꞷ𝒎 (3.4)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
• If there is a torsional elasticity in shaft coupling the load to the
motor, an additional component of load torque, known as
coupling torque, will be present. Coupling torque (𝑻𝒆 ) is given
by
𝑻𝒆 = 𝑲𝒆 𝜽𝒆
where 𝜽𝒆 is the torsion angle of coupling (radians) & 𝑲𝒆 is the
rotational stiffness of the shaft (N-m/rad).
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 10
 …Cont’d
• In most applications, shaft can be assumed to be perfectly stiff
& coupling torque 𝑻𝒆 can be neglected. Its presence in
appreciable magnitude has adverse effects on motor. There is
potential energy associated with coupling torque & kinetic
energy with the dynamic torque. Exchange of energy
between these two energy storages tends to produce
oscillations which are damped by viscous friction torque
𝑩ꞷ𝒎 . When 𝑩 is small, oscillations occur producing noise.
Further, shaft may also break when the drive is started.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 11

 …Cont’d
3.1.3 Characteristics of Different Types of Load :
 One of the essential requirements in the section of a particular
type of motor for driving a machine is the matching of speed-
torque characteristics of the given drive unit and that of the
motor.
 Therefore the knowledge of how the load torque varies with
speed of the driven machine is necessary.
 Different types of loads exhibit different speed-torque
characteristics. However, most of the industrial loads can be
classified into the following four categories:
i. Constant torque type load
ii. Torque proportional to speed (Generator Type load)
iii. Torque proportional to square of the speed (Fan type load)
iv. Torque inversely proportional to speed (Constant power type
load)
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 …Cont’d
i. Constant Torque Type Load:
 Most of the working machines that have mechanical nature of
work like shaping, cutting, grinding or shearing, require
constant torque irrespective of speed.
 Similarly cranes during the hoisting and conveyors handling
constant weight of material per unit time also exhibit this type of
characteristics.

Fig. 3-3

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 …Cont’d
ii. Torque proportional to speed:
 Separately excited dc generators connected to a constant resistance
load, eddy current brakes have speed-torque characteristics given by:

Fig. 3-4

iii. Torque proportional to square of the speed:

 Another type of load met in practice is the one in which load
torque is proportional to the square of the speed.
 Examples: funs rotary pumps, compressors, ship propellers

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 14

 …Cont’d

Fig. 3-5
iv. Torque inversely proportional to speed:
 Certain types of lathes, boring machines, milling machines,
steel mill coiler and electric traction load exhibit hyperbolic
speed-torque characteristics.

Fig. 3-6
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 …Cont’d
3.1.4 Nature & Classification of Load Torques:
 As stated in section 3.1.2 (iii) , the nature of load torque
depends on particular application. A low speed hoist is an
example of a load where the torque is constant & independent
of the speed (Fig. 3-9). At low speeds windage torque is
negligible. Therefore, net torque is mainly due to gravity
which is constant & independent of speed. There are drives
where coulomb friction dominates over other torque
components. Consequently, torque is independent of speed,
e.g. paper mill drive.
 Fans, compressors, aeroplanes, centrifugal pumps, ship-
propellors, coilers, high speed hoists, traction etc. are
examples of the case where load torque is a function of speed.
 In fans, compressors & aeroplanes, the windage dominates,
consequently, load torque is proportional to speed squared
(Fig. 3-7 (a)). Windage is the opposition offered by air to the
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 16
 …Cont’d
Motion. Similar nature of load torque can be expected when the
motion is opposed by any other fluid, e.g. by water in centrifugal
pumps & ship-propellors, giving the same characteristics as
shown in Fig. 3-7(a).
 In a high speed hoist, viscous friction & windage also have
appreciable magnitude, in addition to gravity, thus giving the
speed- torque curve of Fig. 3-7 (b).
 Nature of speed-torque characteristic of a traction load when
moving on a levelled ground is shown in Fig. 3-7 (c). Because
of its heavy mass, the stiction is large. Near zero speed, net
torque is mainly due to stiction. The stiction however
disappears at a finite speed & then windage & viscous friction
dominate. Because of large stiction & need for accelerating a
heavy mass, the motor torque required for a starting a train is
much larger than what is required to run it at full speed.
 Torque in a coiler drive is also a function of speed. It is
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 17
 …Cont’d
approximately hyperbolic in nature as shown in Fig. 3-7 (d). The
developed power is nearly constant at all speed.

 Figure 3-7 (c) shows the traction load torque to be function of only
speed, because we have assumed a levelled ground. In actual
practice the train has to negotiate upward & downward slopes.
Consequently, a torque due to gravity, which varies with position is
also present. Furthermore, when a train takes a turn the frictional
force on wheels changes substantially. Thus, traction is an example
where the load torque is also depends on position or path followed.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 18
 …Cont’d
 Various load torques can be broadly classified into two categories.
1. Active load torques
2. Passive load torques
1. Active load torques: These are load torques which have the
potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions. Such load
torques usually retain their sign when the drive rotation is changed
(reversed). E.g. torque due to force of gravity, torque due to tension,
torque due to compression and torsion etc.
2. Passive load torques: These are load torques which always oppose
the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion. E.g.
torque due to friction, windage, cutting etc.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 19

 3.2 Speed Torque Conventions & Multi
Quadrant Operations of Electric Motor
 For consideration of multi quadrant operation of drives, it is
useful to establish suitable conventions about the signs of
torque and speed.
 Motor speed is considered positive when rotating in the forward
direction.
 For drives which operates only in one direction, forward speed
will be their normal speed.
 In loads involving up-and-down motions, the speed of motor
which causes upward motion is considered forward motion.
 For reversible drives, forward speed is chosen arbitrarily. Then
the rotation in opposite direction gives reverse speed which is
assigned the negative sign.
20
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G.
 …Cont’d
 Positive motor torque is defined as the torque which produces
acceleration or the positive rate of change of speed in forward
direction.
 According to Equation 3-2, positive load torque is opposite in
direction to the positive motor torque.
 Motor torque is considered negative if it produces
deceleration.
 A motor operates in two modes – motoring and braking. In
motoring, it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy,
which supports its motion. In braking, it works as a generator
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy, and thus,
opposes the motion.
 Motor can provide motoring and braking operations for both
forward and reverse directions.
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 …Cont’d
 Now consider equilibrium point B which is obtained when the
same motor drives another load as shown in the Fig. 3-7. A
decrease in speed causes the load torque to become greater
than the motor torque, electric drive decelerates and operating
point moves away from point B.
 Similarly when working at point B and increase in speed will
make motor torque greater than the load torque, which will
move the operating point away from point B.

Fig. 3-7
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 …Cont’d
 Fig. 3-8 below shows the torque and speed co-ordinates for
both forward and reverse motions.
 Power developed by a motor is given by the product of speed
and torque. For motoring operations Power developed is
positive and for braking operations power developed is
negative.

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 …Cont’d
 In quadrant-I, developed power is positive. Hence, machine
works as a motor supplying a mechanical energy. Operation in
quadrant-I is, therefore, called Forward Motoring.
 In quadrant-II, power is negative. Hence, machine works
under braking opposing the motion. Therefore operation in
quadrant-II is known as Forward Braking.
 Similarly, operations in quadrant-III and IV can be identified
as Reverse Motoring & Reverse Braking respectively since
speed in these quadrants is negative.
 For better understanding of the above notations, let us consider
operation of hoist (or lift) in four quadrants as shown in the
Fig.3-9. Direction of motor and load torques and direction of
speed are marked by arrows.

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 …Cont’d

 A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the

motor shaft one end of the rope is tied to a cage which is used
to transport man or material from one level to another level .
Other end of the rope has a counter weight.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 25
 …Cont’d
 Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than the
weight of empty cage but lower than of a fully loaded cage.
 Forward direction of motor speed will be one which gives
upward motion of the cage.
 Load torque has been shown to be constant & independent of
speed. This is nearly true with a low speed hoist where forces
due to friction & windage can be considered to be negligible
compared to those due to gravity. Gravitational torque does not
change its sign even when the direction of driving motor is
reversed.
 Load torque line 𝑻𝒍𝟏 in quadrants-I and IV represents speed-
torque characteristics of the loaded hoist. This torque is the
difference of torques due to loaded hoist and counter weight.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 26

 …Cont’d
 The load torque 𝑻𝒍𝟐 in quadrants II & III is the speed torque
characteristics for an empty hoist. This torque is the difference
of torques due to counter weight and the empty hoist. Its sign
is negative because the weight of the counter weight is always
higher than that of an empty cage.
 The quadrant-I operation of a hoist requires movement of
cage upward, which corresponds to the positive motor speed
which is in counter clockwise (CCW) direction here. This
motion will be obtained if the motor produces positive torque
in CCW direction equal to the magnitude of load torque Tl1.
Since developed power is positive, this is forward motoring
operation.
 Quadrant-IV is obtained when a loaded cage is lowered. Since
the weight of the loaded cage is higher than that of the counter
weight, it is able to come down due to the gravity itself. In
order to limit the cage within a safe value, motor must produce
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 27
 …Cont’d
a positive torque T equal to Tl2 in CCW direction. As both power and
speed are negative, drive is operating in reverse braking operation.
 Operation in quadrant-II is obtained when an empty cage is
moved up. Since a counter weight is heavier than an empty cage,
its able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed within a safe
value, motor must produce a braking torque equal to Tl2 in
clockwise, CW (negative) direction. Since speed is positive and
developed power is negative, it’s forward braking operation.
 Operation in quadrant-III is obtained when an empty cage is
lowered. Since an empty cage has a lesser weight than a counter
weight, the motor should produce a torque in CW direction. Since
speed is negative and developed power is positive, this is reverse
motoring operation.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 28

 3.3 Steady State Operation of Electrical Drive
 An electrical drive operates in three modes:
i. Steady state
ii. Acceleration including Starting
iii. Deceleration including Stopping
Steady State Stability:
 Equilibrium speed of motor-load system can be obtained when
motor torque (T) equals the load torque (Tl). Electric drive
system will operate in steady state at this speed, provided it is
the speed of stable state equilibrium.
 Concept of steady state stability has been developed to readily
evaluate the stability of an equilibrium point from the steady
state speed-torque curves of the motor and load system.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 29

 …Cont’d
 In most of the electrical drives, the electrical time constant of
the motor is negligible compared with the mechanical time
constant. During transient condition, electrical motor can be
assumed to be in electrical equilibrium implying that steady
state speed-torque curves are also applicable to the transient
state operation. Now, consider the steady state equilibrium
point-A shown in Fig.3-10 below:

Fig.3-10

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 …Cont’d
 Now consider equilibrium point-B which is obtained when the
same motor drives another load as shown in the Fig.3-11

Fig.3-11

 A decrease in speed (ꞷ𝒎 ) causes the load-torque (Tl) to become

greater than the motor-torque (T), electric drive decelerates and
operating point moves away from point B.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 31
 …Cont’d
 Similarly when working at point B and increase in speed (ꞷ𝒎 )
will make motor-torque (T) greater than the load-torque (Tl),
which will move the operating point away from point B.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 32

 3.4 Electric Braking
 Electric braking is usually employed in applications to stop a
unit driven by motors in an exact position or to suitably
control the speed of the driven unit during its deceleration.
 Braking can also be provided by mechanical means.
 Advantages of electric braking over mechanical braking:-
i. Littles maintenance is required
ii. No dirty is produced
iii. It is smooth without snatching
 Based on the purpose for which braking is employed, there are
two forms of braking. These are:
i. Braking while bringing the drive to rest:- Here, the device
used for braking absorbs the kinetic energy of the moving parts.
ii. Braking while lowering loads:- In this, it absorbs, in
addition to kinetic energy, potential energy, usually gravitational
, which can drive the system at an excessively high speed.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 33
 …Cont’d
 Braking, while stopping, may be employed for any one of the
following purposes:
• Reducing the time taken to stop
• Stopping exactly at specified points, for example, in lifts.
• Feeding back, at least a portion of the power, to the supply
network.
 Braking, while lowering loads enables us to achieve any one of
the following objectives:
• Controlling the speed at which the load comes down and limiting
it to a safe value.
• Feeding power back to the supply.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 34

 …Cont’d
3.4.1 Types of Electric Braking
 There are three types of electric braking, all of which are
applicable to the usual types of electric motor:
1. Regenerative braking
2. Rheostatic or dynamic braking
3. Plugging or reverse current braking
1. Regenerative braking:
• It implies operating the motor as a generator, while it is still
connected to the supply network.
• Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy, part of
which is returned to the supply. Rest of the energy is lost as heat
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 35
 …Cont’d
in the windings & the bearings of the electrical machine.
• Most electrical machines pass smoothly from motoring to
generating regime, when over driven by the load.
OR
• In Regenerative Braking, the power or energy of the driven
machinery which is in kinetic form is returned back to the
power supply mains. This type of braking is possible when the
driven load or machinery forces the motor to run at a speed
higher than no load speed with a constant excitation.
• Under this condition, the back emf Eb of the motor is greater
than the supply voltage V, which reverses the direction of
motor armature current, IA .The machine now begins to
operate as a generator and the energy generated is supplied to
the source.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 36
 …Cont’d
Applications of Regenerative Braking:
• Regenerative braking is used especially where frequent braking
and slowing of drives is required.
• It is most useful in holding a descending load of high potential
energy at a constant speed.
• It is used to control the speed of motors driving loads such as in
electric locomotives, elevators, cranes and hoists.
• It cannot be used for stopping the motor. It is used for controlling
the speed above the no-load speed of the motor driving.
2. Rheostatic or dynamic braking:
• It implies operating the motor as a generator so that the
mechanical energy is converted in to electrical energy, which is
dissipated as heat in the resistance of the machine winding or in
March , 2020 37
Prepared By Instructor Aron G.
 …Cont’d
resistors connected to them as an electrical load.
OR
• In Dynamic Braking, a braking resistor Rb is connected across
the armature as soon as the motor (say dc-motor) is
disconnected from the supply mains. The motor now works as a
generator, producing the braking torque.
• For the braking operation in dynamic braking, the motor is
connected in two ways. These are:
i. Firstly the separately excited or shunt motor can be connected
either as a separately excited generator, where the flux is kept
constant.
ii. The second way is that it can be connected to a self-excited shunt
generator, with the field winding in parallel with the armature.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 38
 …Cont’d
 The connection diagram of dynamic braking of separately
excited DC motor is shown in Fig. 3-13 & Fig. 3-14:

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 39

 …Cont’d
 The connection diagram of dynamic braking of DC shunt
motor is shown in Fig. 3-16 & Fig. 3-17:

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 40

 …Cont’d
 The connection diagram of dynamic braking of DC Series
motor is shown in Fig. 3-19:

 For dynamic braking, the series motor is disconnected from

the supply. A variable resistance Rb as shown in the Fig.3-19
above is connected in series, and the connections of the field
windings are reversed.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 41
 …Cont’d
 The field connections are reversed so that the current through
the field winding flows in the same direction as before i.e.
from S1 to S2 so that the back EMF produces the residual flux.
The machine now starts working as a self-excited series
generator.
 The method is called Rheostatic Braking because an external
braking resistance Rb is connected across the armature
terminals for electric braking. During an electric braking, the
kinetic energy stored in the rotating parts of the machine and
the connected load is converted into electric energy, when the
motor is working as a generator. The energy is dissipated as
heat in the braking resistance Rb and armature circuit
resistance Ra .

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 42

 …Cont’d
 The Dynamic or Rheostatic braking is an insufficient method of
braking because all the energy which is generated is dissipated in
the form of heat in the resistance.
3. Plugging or reverse current braking:
• It involves reconnecting the power supply to the motor so that it
tends to drive in the opposite direction.
• It is obvious that the system will come to rest and then accelerate in
the reverse direction.
• In plugging or reverse current braking the armature terminals or
the supply polarity of a (separately excited or shunt) motor when
running are reversed. Therefore, in Plugging the supply voltage V
and the induced voltage Eb which is also called back EMF will act
in the same direction.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 43

 …Cont’d
• Thus, during plugging the effective voltage across the armature
will be ( V + Eb ) which is almost twice the supply voltage. The
armature current is reversed, and a high braking torque is
produced. An external current limiting resistor is connected in
series with the armature to limit the armature current to a safe
value. The connection diagram of DC separately excited motor
and its characteristics is shown in the Fig. 3-20 below:

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 44

 …Cont’d
• Similarly, the connection diagram and the characteristic of the
series motor in plugging mode is shown in the Fig. 3-21 below:

• For braking, a series motor either the armature terminals or field

terminals are reversed. But both armature and field terminals are
not reversed together. Reversing of both the terminals will give
only normal working operation.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 45
 …Cont’d
• At the zero speed, the braking torque is not zero. The motor must
be disconnected from the supply at or near zero speed when the
motor is used for stopping a load. If the motor is not disconnected
from the supply mains, the motor will speed up in the reverse
direction. For disconnecting the supply centrifugal switches
(relay) are used.
• This method of braking is a highly inefficient method since, in
addition to dissipating the electrical energy converted from the
mechanical energy, in the resistance of the circuit, the electrical
energy drawn from the supply is wasted.
• The Plugging method is commonly used (application) :- In
controlling elevators, rolling mills, printing presses, machine tools,
etc.

March , 2020 46
prepared By Instructor Aron G.
 3.5 Equivalent Values of Drive Parameters
 Different parts of a load may be coupled through different
mechanisms, such as gears, V-belts and crankshaft. These
parts may have different speeds and different types of motions
such as rotational and translational.
 Let’s see the methods of finding the equivalent moment of
inertia ( 𝑱 ) of motor-load system and equivalent torque
components (Tl), all referred to motor shaft.
3.5.1 Loads with Rotational Motion:
• Let us consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled
directly to its shaft & other through a gear with 𝒏 & 𝒏𝟏 teeth
as shown in Fig. 3-22. Let the moment of inertia of motor &
load directly coupled to its shaft be 𝑱𝟎 , motor speed & torque
of the directly coupled load be ꞷ𝒎 & 𝑻𝒍𝟎 respectively.
• Let the moment of inertia, speed & torque of the load coupled
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 47
 …Cont’d
through a gear be 𝑱𝟏 , ꞷ𝒎𝟏 & 𝑻𝒍𝟏 respectively.

Now,
ꞷ𝒎𝟏 𝒏
= = 𝒂𝟏 (3.5)
ꞷ𝒎 𝒏𝟏
Where 𝒂𝟏 is the gear teeth ratio.
• If the losses in the transmission are neglected, then the kinetic
energy due to equivalent inertia must be the same as kinetic
energy of various moving parts. Thus
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 48
 𝟏 𝟏
…Cont’d
𝟏
𝟐
𝑱 ꞷ𝒎 = 𝑱 ꞷ𝒎 𝟐 + 𝑱𝟏 ꞷ𝒎𝟏 𝟐
(3.6)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟎 𝟐

From Eqs. (3.3) & (3.4)

𝑱 = 𝑱𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝟐 𝑱𝟏 (3.7)

• Power at the loads & motor must be the same. If

transmission efficiency of the gears be η1 , then

𝑻𝒍𝟏 ꞷ𝒎𝟏
𝑻𝒍 ꞷ𝒎 = 𝑻𝒍𝟎 ꞷ𝒎 + (3.8)
𝜼𝟏
Where 𝑇𝑙 is the total equivalent torque referred to motor
shaft.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 49
 …Cont’d
From Eqs. (3.3) & (3.6)
𝒂𝟏 𝑻𝒍𝟏
𝑻𝒍 = 𝑻𝒍𝟎 + (3.9)
𝜼𝟏
• If in addition to load directly coupled to the motor with inertia
𝐽0 there are 𝑚 other loads with moment of inertias 𝐽1 , 𝐽2 ,…, 𝐽𝑚
& gear teeth ratios of 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ,…, 𝑎𝑚 then
𝑱 = 𝑱𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝟐 𝑱𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝟐 𝑱𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒎 𝟐 𝑱𝒎 (3.10)
• If 𝑚 loads with torques 𝑇𝑙1 , 𝑇𝑙2 ,…, 𝑇𝑙𝑚 are coupled through
gears with teeth ratios 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ,…, 𝑎𝑚 & transmission
efficiencies η1 , η2 ,…, η𝑚 , in addition to one directly coupled,
then
𝒂𝟏 𝑻𝒍𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝑻𝒍𝟐 𝒂𝒎 𝑻𝒍𝒎
𝑻𝒍 = 𝑻𝒍𝟎 + + + ⋯+ (3.11)
𝜼𝟏 𝜼𝟐 𝜼𝐦
• If loads are driven through a belt drive instead of gears , then
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 50
 …Cont’d
, neglecting slippage, the equivalent inertia & torque can be obtained
from Eqs. (3.8) & (3.9) by considering 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ,…, 𝑎𝑚 each to be the
ratios of diameters of wheels driven by motor to the diameters of
wheels mounted on the load shaft.
3.5.2 Loads with Translational Motion:
• Les us consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to
its shaft & other through a transmission system converting
rotational motion to linear motion as shown in Fig.3-23 below.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 51

 …Cont’d
• Let moment of inertia of the motor & load directly coupled to it
be 𝑱𝟎 , load torque directly coupled to motor be 𝑻𝒍𝟎 , & the mass,
velocity & force of load with translational motion be 𝑴𝟏 (𝒌. 𝒈),
𝒎
𝑽𝟏 ( ), & 𝑭𝟏 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 , respectively.
𝒔𝒆𝒄
• If the transmission losses are neglected, then kinetic energy due
to equivalent inertia 𝑱 must be the same as kinetic energy of
various moving parts. Thus,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑱 ꞷ𝒎 = 𝑱𝟎 ꞷ𝒎 𝟐 + 𝑴𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
or
𝑽𝟏 𝟐
𝑱 = 𝑱𝟎 + 𝑴𝟏 (3.12)
ꞷ𝒎
• Similarly, power at the motor & load should be the same, thus if
efficiency of transmission be 𝜂1
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 52
 …Cont’d
𝑭𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑻𝒍 ꞷ𝒎 = 𝑻𝒍𝟎 . ꞷ𝒎 +
𝜼𝟏
𝑭𝟏 𝑽𝟏
or 𝑻𝒍 = 𝑻𝒍𝟎 + (3.13)
ꞷ𝒎 𝜼𝟏
• If, in addition to one load directly coupled to the motor shaft,
there are 𝑚 other loads with translational motion with
velocities 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 ,…, 𝑉𝑚 & masses 𝑀1 , 𝑀2 ,…, 𝑀𝑚 ,
respectively, then
𝑽𝟏 𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝟐 𝑽𝒎 𝟐
𝑱 = 𝑱𝟎 + 𝑴𝟏 + 𝑴𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑴𝒎 (3.14)
ꞷ𝒎 ꞷ𝒎 ꞷ𝒎
and
𝑭𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑭𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑭𝒎 𝑽𝒎
𝑻𝒍 = 𝑻𝒍𝟎 + + + ⋯+ (3.15)
𝜼𝟏 ꞷ𝒎 𝜼𝟐 ꞷ𝒎 𝜼𝒎 ꞷ𝒎

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 53

 3.6 Calculation of Time and Energy-Loss in
Transient Operations
• Starting, braking, speed change & speed reversal are transient
operations. Time taken & energy dissipation in motor during
the transient operations can be evaluated by solving Eq.(3.4)
along with motor circuit equations.
• When 𝑻 & 𝑻𝑳 are constants or proportional to speed, Eq.(3.4)
will be a first order linear differential equation. Then it can
be solved analytically. When 𝑻 & 𝑻𝑳 is neither constant nor
proportional to speed, Eq.(3.4) will be non-linear differential
equation. It could then be solved numerically by Runga-Kutta
method.
• For any of the above mentioned transients, final speed is an
equilibrium speed. Theoretically, transients are over in infinite
time, which is not so in practice. In order to solve this
anomaly, transient operation is considered to be over when
95% change in speed has taken place. For example, when speed

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 54

 …Cont’d
changes from ꞷ𝒎𝟏 to equilibrium speed ꞷ𝒎𝒆 , time taken for the
speed to change from ꞷ𝒎𝟏 to [ ꞷ𝒎𝟏 + 0.95( ꞷ𝒎𝒆 − ꞷ𝒎𝟏 )] is
considered to be equal to the transient time.
• Transient time & energy loss can also be computed with
satisfactory accuracy using steady-state speed-torque & speed-
current curves of motor & speed-torque curve of load. This is
because mechanical time constant of a drive is usually very
large compared to electrical time constant of motor.
Consequently, electrical transients die down very fast &
motor operation can be considered to take place along the
steady- state speed-torque & speed-current curves.
• From Eq.(3-2)
𝑱𝒅ꞷ𝒎
𝒅𝒕 = (3.16)
𝑻 ꞷ𝒎 − 𝑻𝒍 ꞷ𝒎

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 55

 …Cont’d
where 𝑻 ꞷ𝒎 & 𝑻𝒍 ꞷ𝒎 indicate that the motor & load torques are
functions of drive speed ꞷ𝒎 .
• Time taken for drive speed to change from ꞷ𝒎𝟏 to ꞷ𝒎𝟐 is obtained
by integrating Eq.(3.14)
ꞷ 𝒅ꞷ𝒎
𝒕 = 𝑱 ‫׬‬ꞷ 𝒎𝟐 (3.17)
𝒎𝟏 𝑻 ꞷ 𝒎 − 𝑻𝒍 ꞷ 𝒎

• Equation (3.15) can be integrated only if functions 𝑻 ꞷ𝒎 and

𝑻𝒍 ꞷ𝒎 are known & are of integral form. Otherwise the integral
is evaluated graphically. Expression on the right of Eq.(3.15) is the
area between the reciprocal of the acceleration
𝑱Τ 𝑻 ꞷ𝒎 − 𝑻𝒍 ꞷ𝒎 vs ꞷ𝒎 curve & ꞷ𝒎 axis (Fig. 3-24 ).
The transient time can be evaluated by measuring this area.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 56

 …Cont’d

• When ꞷ𝒎𝟐 is an equilibrium speed ꞷ𝒎𝒆 , then the

reciprocal of acceleration will become infinite at ꞷ𝒎𝒆 .
Consequently, time evaluated this way will be infinite.
Therefore, in this case transient time is computed by
measuring the area between speeds ꞷ𝒎𝟏 & [ꞷ𝒎𝟏 +
0.95(ꞷ𝒎𝟐 − ꞷ𝒎𝟏 )].
• Energy dissipated in a motor winding during a transient
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 57
 …Cont’d
operation is given by:
𝒕
𝑬= ‫𝒕𝒅 𝟐𝒊 𝑹 𝟎׬‬ (3.18)
where 𝑹 is the motor winding resistance & 𝒊 is the current flowing
through it.
• In many applications, by making use of speed-torque expressions
for motor & load, it is possible to arrange Eq. (3.16) in integrable
form. However, this is not possible in applications where non-linear
impedance is present in the motor circuit. Then Eq.(3.16) is
evaluated graphically using steady-state speed-torque & speed-
current curves, as:
By graphical solution of Eq.(3.15), ꞷ𝒎 vs 𝒕 curve is obtained. From
this curve & steady-state speed-current curve , 𝒊𝟐 vs 𝒕 curve is
obtained. Area enclosed between this curve & time axis multiplied by
𝑹 gives the energy dissipated in motor winding. This approach can
also handle non-linear resistance 𝑹, which varies as a function of 𝒊
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 58
 …Cont’d
Here 𝒊𝟐 𝑹 vs time curve is plotted. Area between this curve & the time
axis gives the energy dissipated.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 59

 3.7 Starting of Electric Motors
• The most important processes associated with a controlled
electrical drive are :
i. Starting
ii. Speed control or variation of speed of rotation
iii. Braking
iv. Reversing the direction of rotation
As a rule, all these are transient processes that occur in a drive
system.
• Starting of an electrical drive involves a change in its state from
rest to a steady state speed of rotation.
• The process of starting is the most important phenomenon in the
entire operation of the drive.
• Control of the starting process essentially consists of controlling
the acceleration of the driving motor & the latter is basically a
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 60
 …Cont’d
problem of modifying the speed-torque characteristics of the
motor in such a way as to obtain the desired starting performance.
3.7.1 Effect of Starting on Power Supply, Motor & Load
• While studying starting of electric drive systems, it is
necessary to consider three factors :
i. Effect of starting up on the power supply
ii. Effect of starting up on the driving motor it self
iii. Effect of starting up on the connected mechanical load
• The supply network to which the motor is connected may
affect the selection of the starting device from the following
view point. The excessive voltage drop due to the peak
starting current may interfere with the supply in such a way
that it can not be tolerated by other equipment or other
consumers connected to the same power supply network.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 61
 …Cont’d
• Since starting is associated with the excessive currents, the effect
of starting up on the motor itself must be carefully considered.
The starting currents will add to the motor heating by an amount
that depends up on their rms values & up on the frequency of
starting. In a DC motor the limitation may be good commutation
rather than heating, as Dc machines have a certain maximum limit
for the current dictated by the commutation process.
• The equipment connected to the driving motor may impose strict
constraints up on the type of accelerating cycle & up on the
maximum permissible acceleration. Discomfort to passengers in
lifts & trains may very well set an upper limit to the rate of
acceleration. Cranes, excavators & similar material handling
equipment must be so equipped that the operator has precise
control over the load, whether it be light or heavy. In case of loads,
which, exhibit stiction, the motor must develop sufficient torque to
start the rotation, after which the torque must perhaps be reduced
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 62
 …Cont’d
for limiting the acceleration to a safe value.
3.7.2 Methods of Starting Electric Motors
• There are different methods of starting of the various types of
electric motors:
i. Full Voltage Starting:
 This involves the application of full line voltage to the motor
terminals.
 It is also called ‘direct-on-line-starting’ .
 DC motors up to 2 kW & squirrel cage induction motors as well
as certain small synchronous motors up to 4 or 5 kW are usually
line started.
ii. Reduced Voltage Starting:
 In order to avoid heavy starting current & the consequent voltage
dip in the supply lines majority of motors are started by applying
Prepared By Instructor Aron G.
March , 2020 63
 …Cont’d
a reduced voltage to their terminals & subsequently increasing to its
normal value.
 The starting of a DC motor is, often, accomplished by the addition
of suitable external resistance in the armature circuit & the
starting controller is arranged so that this resistance is short-
circuited in steps as the motor comes up to speed.
 Reduced voltage starting of induction motors is achieved by:
(1). Stator resistance starting
(2). Stator reactor starting
(3). Star-delta starting
(4). Autotransformer starting
• The above methods apply equally well to the synchronous motors.
With reduced voltage starting the transition to full voltage may be
made either before or after synchronization.
March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 64
 …Cont’d
• It may be noted that the torque at starting, in all the above
methods, gets reduced.
iii. Increased Torque Starting:
 With a wound rotor induction motor, resistance can be added
in the rotor circuit so as to decrease the starting current while
increasing the starting torque, even, up to the value of
maximum torque that can be developed by the motor.
iv. Starting by Means of Smooth Variation of Voltage or
Frequency:
 With AC motor-DC generator sets, DC motors can be started
by smooth variation of applied voltage & with variable
frequency sources both induction & synchronous motors can
be started by smooth variation of supply frequency,
simultaneously varying proportionally the applied voltage to
the motors.

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 65

 Thank you
Questions ?

March , 2020 Prepared By Instructor Aron G. 66