Power System Planning

Lecture No. 2
Muhammad Kamran, PhD
[email protected]
 Lecture Contents
• Definitions for power planning parameters
• Diversity factor
• Tariff
• Load forecasting
• Structure of power system
 Diversity Factor
• This is defined as the sum of individual maximum demands on the
consumers divided by the maximum load on the system
• This factor gives the diversification of the load and is used to decide
the installation of sufficient generating and transmission plants
• If all demands came at the same time i.e., unity diversity factor, the
total installed capacity required would be much more
• Luckily, the factor is much higher than unity, especially for domestic
loads
• High diversity factors may be provided if;
• The diversity factor recognizes that the whole load does not equal the
sum of its parts due to this time interdependence or "diversity.“
• The diversity factor is usually greater than 1; its value also can
be 1 which indicates the maximum demand of the individual sub-
system occurs simultaneously
• Diversity is the relationship between the rated full loads of the
equipment downstream of a connection point, and the rated load of
the connection point
• Giving incentives to farmers and/or some industries to
use electricity in the night or light load period
• Using day light saving as in many other countries
• Staggering the office timings
• Having different time zones in the country like USA,
Australia, etc.
• Having two-part tariff in which consumer has to pay
an amount dependent on the maximum demand he
makes, plus a charge of each unit energy consumed
•
• Some times consumer is charged on the basis of KVA demand instead
used frequently of kW to penalize loads of low power factor
• Two other frequently used factors are;
• plant capacity factor = Actual Energy Produced/Max possible energy
which could be produced
• =Average Demand/ Installed Capacity
• Plant use factor = Actual Energy Produced/ Plant Capacity (KW) X
Time (hrs) the plant has been in operation
Tariffs
• The cost of electric power is normally given by the expression; 𝑎 +
𝑏 𝑋 𝐾𝑤 + 𝐶 𝑋 𝐾𝑊ℎ per annum, where “a” is fixed charges “b” depends
upon maximum demand on the system hence on the interest and
depreciation on the installed power stations and “C” depends on the units
produced and therefore, on fuel charges and the wages of the station staff
• Tariff structures may be such as to influence the load curve and to improve
the load factor
• Tariff should consider the pf of the load of the consumer
• If it is low, it takes more current for the same KWs and hence T and D
(Transmission and Distribution) losses are correspondingly increased
• The power station has to install either pf improvement devices such
as synchronous capacitors, SVC or voltage regulating equipment to
maintain the voltages with in allowed limits and thus total cost
increases
• One of the following alternatives may be used to avoid low pf;
• (i) to charge the consumers based on KVA rather than KW
• (ii) a pf penalty clause may be imposed on the consumer
• (iii) the consumer may be asked to use shunt capacitors for improving
the power factor of his installation
Problems…..
• Problem 1 …Tariff Calculation , problem 2 Load curve
Load Forecasting
• As power plant planning and construction require a gestation period of
four to eight years or even longer for the present day superpower stations,
energy and load demand forecasting plays a crucial role in power system
studies
• For long range forecasting, simple extrapolation techniques are adopted
• Weather has more effect on residential forecasting as compare to industrial
• Both power and energy forecasts are made
• In short-term load forecasting, hour-by-hour predictions are made for the
particular day under consideration
• A minor forecast error on low side might indicate the use of
inefficient, oil fired turbine generators
• On the other hand, a high side forecast error would keep excessive
generation in hot reserve
• Accuracy of 1% is desirable
• A temperature difference of 2 degree C can vary the total load by 1%
• This indicates the importance of reliable weather forecast to a good
load forecast
Structure of Power systems
• Generating stations, transmission lines and the distribution systems
are the main components of an electric power system
• Generating stations and distribution systems are connected through
transmission lines which also connect one power system to another
• Distribution system connects all the loads in a particular area to the
transmission lines
• The siting of hydro stations is determined by the natural water power
sources.
• The choice of site for coal fired thermal stations is more flexible.
• The following two alternatives are possible;
• 1- power stations may be built close to coal mines (called pit head stations)
and electric energy is evacuated over transmission lines to the load
centres.
• 2- power stations may be built close to the load centres and coal is
transported to them from the mines by rail road
• In practice, however, power stations siting will depend upon many factors
like technical, economical and environmental
• As it is considerably cheaper to transport bulk electric energy over extra
high voltage transmission lines than to transport equivalent quantities of
coal over rail road
Nuclear stations
• As nuclear stations are not constrained by the problems of fuel
transport and air pollution, a greater flexibility exists in their siting, so
that these stations are located close to load centres while avoiding
high density pollution areas to reduce the risks, however remote, of
radioactivity leakage
• Electric power is generated at a voltage of 11 to 25 kV which then is
stepped up to the transmission levels in the range of 66 to 765 kV
• Voltages are expected to rise above 1000 kV in the near future
• The first stepdown of voltage from transmission level is at the bulk
power substation, where the reduction is to range of 33 to 132 KV
depending on transmission line voltage
• Next step down voltage is at distribution substation
• 11 KV/440V three phase and 230 volts single phase
Conventional Sources of Electric Energy
• Thermal and hydro generations are the main conventional sources of
Electric energy
• The necessity to conserve fossil fuels has forced scientists and
technologists across the world to search for unconventional sources
of electric energy
• Some of the sources being explored are solar, wind and tidal
• The conventional and some of the unconventional sources and
techniques of energy generation are briefly surveyed here with a
stress on future trends
Thermal Power Stations
• The heat released during the combustion of coal, oil or gases used in a boiler to
raise steam
• Heat generation is mostly coal based except in small sizes, because of limited
indigenous production of oil
• Therefore, coal-fired boilers for raising steam to be used in a turbine for electric
generation
• The chemical energy stored in coal is transformed into electric energy in
thermal power plants
• The heat released by the combustion of coal produces steam in a boiler at high
pressure and temperature, which when passed through a steam turbine gives off
some of its internal energy as mechanical energy
• The axial-flow type of turbine is normally used with several cylinders
on the same shaft
• The steam turbine acts as a prime mover and drives the electric
generator (alternator)
• A simple schematic diagram of a coal fired thermal plant is shown
in Fig. in next slide;
• Coal-fired plants produce electricity by burning coal in a boiler to produce
steam
• The steam produced, under tremendous pressure, flows into a turbine,
which spins a generator to create electricity
• The steam is then cooled, condensed back into water and returned to the
boiler to start the process over.
• A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to
the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower
temperature
• Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process
heat and cool the working fluid
• The efficiency of the overall conversion process is poor and its
maximum value is about 40% because of the high heat losses in the
combustion gases and the large quantity of heat rejected to the
condenser which has to be given off in cooling towers or into a
stream/lake in the case of direct condenser cooling
• The steam power station operates on the Rankine cycle modified to
include superheating, feed water heating, and steam reheating
• Thermal efficiency can be increased by using steam at highest
possible pressure and temperature
Rankine Cycle
• The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle of a heat
engine that converts heat into mechanical work while undergoing
phase change
• Very simply, a heat engine extracts heat QH from a high-temperature
source, such as a boiler, converts part of that heat into work W,
usually in the form of a rotating shaft, and rejects the remaining heat
QC into a low-temperature sink such as the atmosphere or a local
body of water.
• Figure in next slide provides a general model describing such engines
• With steam turbines , additional increase in efficiency is obtained by reheating
the steam after it has been partially expanded by an external heater
• The reheated steam is then returned to turbine where it is expanded through
final state
• Air and thermal pollution is always present in a coal fired steam plant
• The air polluting agents are emitted via exhaust gases and thermal pollution is
due rejected heat transferred from condenser to cooling towers
• A cooling tower is a heat rejection device, which extracts waste heat to the
atmosphere though the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature.
• The problem of air pollution can be minimized through scrubbers and electro-
static precipitators and by resorting to minimum emission
Gas Turbine
• The gas turbine is the engine at the heart of the power plant that
produces electric current
• A gas turbine is a combustion engine that can convert natural gas or
other liquid fuels to mechanical energy
• This energy then drives a generator that produces electrical energy
• With increasing availability of natural gas, prime movers based on gas
turbines have been developed on the lines similar to those used in
aircraft
• Gas combustion generates high temperature and pressure so that the
efficiency of gas turbine is comparable to that of steam turbine
• Additional advantage is that the exhaust gas from the turbine still has
sufficient heat contents, which is used to raise steam to run a
conventional steam turbine coupled to a generator.
• This is called combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) as shown in fig in
next slide;
• The CCGT plant has a fast start of 2-3 min for the gas turbine and
about 20 min for the steam turbine
• Local storage tanks of gas can be used in case of gas supply
interruption
• The unit can take up to 10% over load for short periods of time to
take care of any emergency
• CCGT unit produces 55% of CO2 produced by a coal/oil fired plant
Hydro electric power generation
• The oldest and cheapest method of power generation is that of
utilizing the potential energy of water
• The energy is obtained almost free of running cost and is completely
pollution free
• But it involves high capital cost due to heavy civil engineering work
• It involves long gestation period of about five to eight years as
compared to four to six years for steam plants
• Such plants are multipurpose such as river flood control, storage of
irrigation and drinking water etc.
• A simple block diagram of hydro plant is shown in next slide
• The vertical difference between upper reservoir and tail race is called the
head
• Hydro plants are of different types such as run-of-river (use of water as it
comes), pondage (medium head) type, and reservoir (high head) type.
• The reservoir type plants are the ones which are employed for bulk power
generation
• Often, cascaded plants are also constructed, i.e., on the same water
stream where the discharge of one plant becomes the in flow of a down
stream plant
• Different types of turbines such as Pelton, Francis and Kaplan are used for
storage, pondage and run-of-river plants, respectively
• Hydroelectric plants are capable of starting very fast like in five min
• The rate of taking up the load on machines is of order of 20 MW/min
• Hydro plants are ideal for meeting peak loads
• The power available from hydro plant is;
• 𝑃 = 𝑔ρ𝑊𝐻 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠;
• Where W= discharge m3/s through turbine; ρ= density 1000 kg/m3
• H= Head in meter and g= 9.81 m/sec2
• Problems peculiar to hydro plant which inhibit expansion are:
• 1. Silting-It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments,
and to the increased accumulation (temporary or permanent) of fine sediments
on bottoms where they are undesirable.

2. Seepage-Seepage Through Earthen Dams( Wet areas downstream

3. Displacement of human habitation from areas behind the dam which will fill up
and become a lake.
Problem -3
• Consider a 40% efficient heat engine operating between a large, high-
temperature reservoir at 1000 K (727◦C) and a large, cold reservoir at
300 K (27◦C).
• a. If it withdraws 106 J/s from the high-temperature reservoir, what
would be the rate of loss of entropy from that reservoir and what
would be the rate of gain by the low-temperature reservoir?
• b. Express the work done by the engine in watts.
• c. What would be the total entropy gain of the system?
Entropy
• A thermodynamic quantity representing the unavailability of a system's
thermal energy for conversion into mechanical work, often interpreted as
the degree of disorder or randomness in the system
• By the definition, if an amount of heat Q flows into a large heat reservoir at
temperature T above absolute zero, then the entropy increase is ΔS = Q/T
• This equation effectively gives an alternate definition of temperature that
agrees with the usual definition
• Assume that there are two heat reservoirs R1 and R2 at
temperatures T1 and T2
• If an amount of heat Q flows from R1 to R2, then the net entropy change for
the two reservoirs is
Solution-Entropy of Heat Engine
• The loss of entropy from the high-temperature source would be
• ΔSloss = QH/TH = 106 / 1000 J/KS= 1000 J/KS
• Since 40% of the heat removed from the source is converted into
work, the remaining 60% is heat transfer into the cold-temperature
sink
• The rate of entropy gain by the sink would be;
• The heat engine converts 40% of its input energy into work, which is;
• Since there is no entropy associated with the work done by the heat
engine, the total change in entropy of the entire system is the loss
from the source plus the gain to the sink:
Problem 4
• A generating station has a maximum demand of 25 MW, a load factor
of 6O%, a plant capacity factor of 5O%, and a plant use factor of 72%,
Find;
• (a) the daily energy produced, (b) 'the reserve capacity of the plant,
and (c) the maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant,
while running as per schedule, were fully loaded.
• Daily energy produced =Avg. Demand X 24= 15 X 24= 360 MWH
• Energy corresponding to installed capacity per day
• = 2 4 x 3 0= 7 2 0 M W h
• 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦 360
• = = 500 MWH/Day
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 0.72
Problem-5
• From a load duration curve, the following data is obtained:
• Maximum demand on the system is 20 MW. The load supplied by the
two units is 14 MW and 10 MW. Unit No. 1 (base unit) works for l00%
of the time, and Unit No. 2 (peak load unit) only for 45% of the time.
The energy generated by unit 1 is 1x 108units,and that by unit 2 is 7.5
x106units
• Find ; the load factor, plant capacity factor and plant use factor of
each unit, and the load factor of the total plant.
Solution
1𝑋108 𝑋100
• Annual Load factor for unit 1 = = 81.54%
14000𝑋8760 𝑀𝑊𝐻
• The maximum demand in Unit 2 is 6 MW.
7.5𝑋106 𝑋100
• Annual Load factor for unit 2 = = 14.27%
6000𝑋8760 𝑀𝑊𝐻
• Load factor of Unit 2 for the time it takes the load;
7.5𝑋106 𝑋100
• = 31.71%
6000𝑋0.45𝑋8760 𝑀𝑊𝐻
• Since no reserve is available at Unit No. 1, its capacity factor is the
same as the load factor , i .e., 81.54 %. Also since unit 1 has been
running throughout the year, the plant use factor equals the plant
capacity factor i.e. 81.54%
7.5𝑋106 𝑋1000
• Annual plant capacity factor of Unit 2 = = 8.56%
10𝑋8760𝑋106𝑊𝐻
7.5𝑋106 𝑋1000
• Annual plant use factor of Unit 2 = = 19.02%
10𝑋0.45𝑋8760𝑋106𝑀𝑊𝐻
1.075𝑋108 𝑋100
• The annual load factor of the total plant = = 61.35%
20000𝑋8760
Next Lecture
• Discussion will be continued on renewable energy resources…