Chapter 07 Road and The Environment Factors

Transportation Safety ENCV802503
Part 2 - Lecture 7
Road and the environment
Tri Tjahjono
Universitas Indonesia
Introduction
Content of this Chapter
Sub Chapter 7.1. Sight distance Sub Chapter 7.3. Safety at
requirements intersection
• To review sight distance (highway • To discuss relative impact speeds,
link) parameters and aspects to conflict points, the dangers of Y
improve road safety junctions, roundabouts and traffic
Sub Chapter 7.2. Safety on signals, sight distance and other
horizontal and vertical alignments safety aspects
Sub Chapter 7.4. Roadside
• To review the horizontal and
environment.
vertical alignments and to
• To provide an introduction to
comprehend how to combine
roadside hazard and the
horizontal and vertical alignment in
environment. the topic that is
order to provide high standard
covered in more detail in lecture 12
road safety.
on road side hazard and the
environment.
Sub Chapter 7.1
Sight Distance Requirements
Introduction
• The hazard is assumed to be an
object of sufficient size to cause a
• The principal aim in road design is to driver to take evasive action,
ensure that the driver is able to see intruding into the driver’s field of
any possible road hazards in view.
sufficient time to take action to • Specific values are assumed for the
avoid mishap. driver’s reaction time and the
dimensions determining the
• To provide a calculable parameter geometry of the sight line.
that can be related to the geometry
of the road, the concept of Sight • When determining sight distance in
Distance is used. This concept is urban road environment,
based on a number of somewhat assumptions must be made about
the following elements:
stylised assumptions of particular • Object height;
hazards and corresponding driver • Driver eye height, and
behaviour. • Driver reaction time
Ausroads (2002). Urban Road Design: A Guide to the Geometric Design of Major Urban Roads.
Ausroads (2003). Rural Road Design: A Guide to the Geometric Design of Rural Roads
Introduction Sight distance parameters
• Adequate sight distance is Object height
essential for safe and efficient • The object height to be used in
traffic operation. The designer the calculation of stopping sight
should consider the length of distance is a compromise
vertical curves, the radius of between the length of sight
horizontal curves and the terrain distance and the cost of
on the inside of horizontal curves construction. Stopping is
in providing adequate sight generally in response to another
distance. vehicle or large hazard in the
roadway.
• When determining sight distance,
• To recognise a vehicle as a hazard
assumptions must be made about at night, a line of sight to its head
the following elements: lights or taillights would be
• Object height; necessary. Larger objects
• Driver eye height, and • would be visible sooner and
• Driver reaction time provide longer stopping distances
Sight distance parameters markings, and at locations such as
• To perceive a very small hazard, causeways, flood-ways and
cuttings, kerb and channel noses,
such as a surface defect, a zero where there is a high probability of
object height would be necessary. water, rocks or other debris being
However, at the required stopping on the road.
sight distances for high speeds,
small pavement variations and
small objects (especially at night)
may not be visible to most drivers.
Thus, most drivers travelling at high
speeds would have difficulty in
stopping before such a small
obstruction.
• Lower object heights, even zero, • The value of 0.15 m is the only
can be used at intersections, where value to be used in Indonesia
it is necessary to see road standard for object height.
Driver eye height
• Driver eye height is a combination of • Based on Ausroads (2003) for
the height of driver stature and general geometric design a truck
driver seat height. A number of driver eye height of 2.4m is also to
studies have investigated car driver
be used. The 2.4m value for sag
eye height trends and found that
they have progressively reduced curves is particularly important for
over time, consistent with the checking the effect of overhead
changing vehicle fleet. structures on sight distance.
• Based upon recent research and
consideration of the characteristics
of the vehicle fleet and the ageing of
drivers, a car driver eye height of
1.05 m is to be used for the
geometric design. The same value
applies in Indonesia geometric
standard
Driver reaction time • One reason for the large variability
• Reaction time is the time for a is that reaction time depends on a
driver to perceive and react to a driver’s level of alertness at the
particular stimulus and take time. Similarly, anticipation or pre-
appropriate action. This time signalling of an event, the absence
depends on the complexity of the of uncertainty on multiple choices,
decision or task involved. and the familiarity with the task
can each lower reaction time.
• Research studies have shown that
an average reaction time of 2.5 • Reaction time of 2.0 second is to
seconds is typical although the be used in Indonesia similar with a
variance of the distribution of number of European Countries.
reaction times is very high. Values • Australia norm recommends the
of up to 7 seconds have been desirable minimum reaction time
recorded at one extreme, and at of 2.5 seconds (to take into account
the other extreme, 1.0 second the elderly drivers) and an absolute
has been measured with forced minimum of 2.0 seconds for rural
stops. roads and 2.0 seconds for urban
roads.
CHAPTER 7.2
SAFETY ON HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
Safety on Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal Alignment – Super-elevation without transition curve
Tangent to Circular Curve to Tangent • However, the maximum side
• The development of super- friction developed on the tangent
elevation runoff for tangent to is equal to the rate of applied
circular curves is located with the super-elevation and is at all times
larger proportion of the runoff less than the rate of side friction
length on the approach tangent, considered comfortable.
rather than on the circular curve,
• In general, theoretical • A vehicle travelling at the design
considerations favour the practice speed on the minimum radius
of placing a large amount of the curve (with maximum rate of
super-elevation runoff on the super-elevation) develops the
approach tangent. maximum side friction considered
• The driver may have to steer in a safe and comfortable.
direction opposite to the direction
to the curve ahead to stay in line.
Rural Road Design Series. A Guide to the Geometric. Design of Rural Roads. AusRoads, 2003
Horizontal Alignment – Super elevation without transition curve
• To apply rates of super-elevation • However, some form of transition
less than maximum at any point on path of travel can be expected on
the circular curve means that the approach tangent and onto the
vehicles travelling at the design early part of the circular curve.
speed develop side friction factors What can be considered lack of
in excess of the desirable super-elevation at the beginning of
minimum. While the side friction the circular curve is compensated
developed on the approach to some extent by the vehicle
tangent is undesirable, the travelling a curvilinear path that is
development on the circular curve flatter than the roadway circular
of friction factors greatly in excess arc.
of the design basis, results in a
worse condition.
Reverse Curves • When this length cannot be
• Reverse curves are horizontal achieved, super-elevation
curves turning in opposite development length may extend up
directions. to 20 to 30% or a maximum of 25m
• Desirably, reverse curves should into the circular curves.
have sufficient distance between • The Operating Speed will have to
the curves to introduce the full be managed to suit the curve
super-elevation development for geometry.
each of the curves without
exceeding the standard rate of
change of super-elevation for the
particular operating speed.
Safety on Horizontal Alignment Marka yang tidak sesuai dengan kondisi lokasi
yang minim jarak pandang akibat tanjakan dan
turunan. Lokasi seperti ini berisiko tabrak
P
r
p
Tinggi
depan depan yang umumnya mengakibatkan p
korban fatal. d
m
Compound Curves m
• Compound curves are horizontal
curves of different radii turning in
the same direction with a
common tangent point.
• Where compound curves are
provided, the full super-elevation
on the smaller curve should be
developed on the larger radius
curve prior to the common
tangent point.
Ruas dengan tikungan berurutan yang tidak P
dilengkapi dengan rambu-rambu peringatan. c
d
Tinggi
p
b
Rural Road Design Series. A Guide to the Geometric. Design of Rural Roads. AusRoads, 2003 m
ja
Horizontal Alignment – Super elevation without transition curve
Horizontal Alignment – Super-elevation with transition curve
Typical super-elevation development profile on two lane roads

(Tangent to transition curve to circular curve)
Horizontal Alignment – Super elevation with transition curve
Tangent to Transition Curve to • A typical example of the
Circular Curve to Transition development of super-elevation on
• Curve to Tangent For circular horizontally transitioned curves on
curves with transition curves, it is two-lane roads is shown in Figure
normal practice to make the above.
lengths of super-elevation runoff • The super-elevation runoff
equal to the length of the commences at the tangent to spiral
transition curve. The super- point (flat cross fall) along the
elevation runoff is then contained straight and ends at the spiral to
solely within the transition curve circular curve point.
length.
Horizontal Alignment – Super-elevation with transition curve
Reverse Transitional Curves • However, in the case of long
• On reverse transitioned curves, the transition curves and small super-
reversal of super-elevation is elevations, it is necessary to
implemented uniformly and increase the rotation rate in the
linearly. vicinity of the point of zero super-
• The only occasion that super- elevation to promote improved
elevation runoff might encroach pavement drainage.
into the circular curve is when the • It is undesirable to use long
road alignment is in a constricted transition curves in other than
location. In this case, the shorter high-speed curvilinear alignments
than normal transition curves with because of the potential to mislead
large super-elevations, may be drivers as to the radius of the
used to produce an acceptable following circular curve.
alignment.
Safety on Vertical Alignment
Effect of Gradient
• Generally, grades should be as flat as - Increases freight costs due to the
possible, consistent with economy
lower speed of heavy vehicles.
and longitudinal drainage
requirements. Flat grades permit all
vehicles to operate at the same
speed. Steeper grades produce
variation in speeds between vehicles
with varying power to weight ratios.
• This speed variation:
- Leads to higher relative speed
differential between vehicles,
increasing the risk of rear end
crashes, and;
- Results in increased queuing and
overtaking requirements which
gives rise to further safety Directorate General of Highway (2012). Road
problems, particularly at higher Safety Engineering Series. Manual 1. Road
traffic volumes. Safety Engineering for Indonesian Roads
Safety on Vertical Alignment
Gradient
• Minimum grades are usually fixed • To achieve a quality balanced
by drainage considerations. design, it is necessary to consider
the length of the grade. Most
Generally, for major urban roads, standards do not explicitly limit the
when kerb and channel or another length of slopes, but suggest that it
form of lined or paved drain is is desirable to limit the length of
used, a desirable minimum grade sections with maximum slopes.
AASHTO (2010)proposes limiting
of 1% and an absolute minimum the maximum length to that which
grade of 0.3% is recommended to will not exceed the critical length of
drain water effectively from the grade. “The critical length is that
traffic lanes. The removal of water which will cause a typical loaded
truck (300 pound/horsepower) to
from the road surface is essential operate without an unreasonable
to prevent aquaplaning. reduction in speed. A reduction of
20 km/h is recommended, the
reason being the significant
increase in accident involvement
rate at higher speed reductions”.
Combined Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
Introduction
• The most pleasing three- • This enhances the appearance in
dimensional result is achieved if sag curves by reducing the three-
the horizontal and vertical dimensional rate of change of
curvature is kept in phase, as this direction, and improves the safety
relates most closely to naturally of crest curves by indicating the
occurring forms. direction of curvature before the
• Where possible, the vertical curves road disappears over the crest.
should be contained within the • Thus, the best appearance requires
horizontal curves. the scale of the vertical and
horizontal movements to be
comparable: a small movement in
one direction should not be
Rural Road Design Series. A Guide to the combined with a large movement
Geometric. Design of Rural Roads. AusRoads,
2003 in the other.
Introduction
• Drainage structures in sag curves • Bridges built on combined
that are combined with horizontal horizontal and vertical curvature
curves require careful design if a can present considerable
disjointed or kinked appearance is aesthetic problems, especially if
to be avoided. Culverts should reduced formation widths are
introduce little aesthetic difficulty if used. Particular care should be
they are contained within devoted to the design of the
embankments and are made bridge kerbs and railings, as well
sufficiently long to accommodate as to the location and
full road formation widths. transitioning of approach guard
fences.
• In general, the more generous the
curvature, the more pleasing and
Rural Road Design Series. A Guide to the
Geometric. Design of Rural Roads. AusRoads, safer will be the result.
2003
Risiko
Kondisi Eksisting
Introduction
• Horizontal curves combined with
crests have less influence on the
appearance of a road than those
combined with sags.
• Nevertheless, the effect on safety
can be much greater, as the crest
can obscure the direction and
severity of the horizontal curve.
• Minimum radius horizontal
curves, therefore, should not be
combined with crest vertical Marka yang tidak sesuai dengan kondisi lokasi
curves. yang minim jarak pandang akibat tanjakan dan
turunan. Lokasi seperti ini berisiko tabrak
Tinggi
Rural Road Design Series. A Guide to the depan depan yang umumnya mengakibatkan
Geometric. Design of Rural Roads. AusRoads, korban fatal.
2003
Coordination of Vertical and Horizontal Alignments
The ideal combination. A smooth flowing appearance results when vertical

and horizontal curves coincide. Ideally horizontal curves should slightly
overlap the vertical
A legitimate case of coordination one phase is skipped in the horizontal

plane, but vertical still coincide. The long tangent plan softened by vertical
curvature
If the horizontal scale is large and vertical scale is relatively small, it maybe
satisfactory to include two vertical movement on one long horizontal curve
Both examples have visual poor alignment with unrelated horizontal and
vertical curves and broken backed horizontal curves
A short movement in one plane should not be placed within a large

movement in the other
Research Related in Indonesia
Effect on geometric variable on Indonesian toll roads
Design for dual- 2 and dual-3 toll roads: Lane width can be reduced to the minimum of 3.60
m but a wider interior shoulder of 1.50 m should be incorporated together with an
adequate exterior shoulder width of 3.00 m for providing an emergency lane
Tri Tjahjono, 2007. The Effect of Geometric Variables to the Risk of Accidents on Indonesian Toll Roads. Journal of the
Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 6, 2007
27
Safety on Rural low volume Road in Eastern Indonesia
• Tjahjono carried a fatality rate • Proportion of motorcycles to total
causal factor study in 2009 utilized traffic flow has the greater effect to
fatality rate, followed by road width,
16 segments of EINRIP M&E base average speed and roughness index.
year data (2008).
• Increasing proportion of motorcycles
• A generalized linear regression by 10 per cent will increase 30 per
analysis based on negative cent fatality rate.
binomial distribution with 4 (four) • Decreasing road width (carriageway
independent variables i.e. and hard shoulders) by 0.5 m will
roughness index [based on increase fatality rate of around 8.50
per cent
International Roughness Index (IRI)
numbers], proportion of • Increasing average speed by 5 km/h
will increase fatality rate of around
motorcycles, road width and 3.50 per cent
average operational speed. The • Increasing roughness index by 1
study concluded (see following factor of IRI index will increase
Figures that: fatality rate of around 2.80 per cent.
Tjahjono, 2009. The effect of traffic and road condition to the fatality rates on rural roads in Eastern Indonesia.
Journal of Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies Vol. 8, 2009
28
Safety on Rural low volume Road in Eastern Indonesia
Tjahjono, 2009. The effect of traffic and road condition to the fatality rates on rural roads in Eastern Indonesia.
Journal of Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies Vol. 8, 2009
29
SUB CHAPTER 7.3
SAFETY AT INTERSECTION
Basic principles of intersection safety
Introduction
• The principles of intersection are • define and minimise conflict
must considering following aspects: areas;
• provide adequate visibility of the
intersection, and adequate sight
• define the vehicle paths;
distance to other vehicles • provide clear indications of right-
approaching or standing at the of-way requirements;
intersection
• allow for all vehicular and non-
• minimise the number of conflict vehicular traffic to use the
points;
intersection;
• reduce the relative speed between
vehicles • keep it simple;
• give precedence to major traffic • minimise road user delay.
movements;
• separate conflicts in space and
time;
Directorate General of Highway (2012). Road Safety Engineering Series. Manual 1. Road Safety
Engineering for Indonesian Roads
a. Adequate sight distance
The two most important sight • Each driver/rider needs to
distances to consider for safety at recognise the intersection in
intersection are; sufficient time to be able to react
correctly.
• ASD – Approach Sight Distance
• SISD – Safe Intersection Sight
Distance
Approach sight distance (ASD)
• The first and most fundamental
requirement of safe intersection
design is to enable approaching
drivers/riders to recognise the
presence of an intersection and the
form of the intersection layout.
• ASD is the minimum sight distance from the driver’s eye height (1.05
which should be provided at an m) to a point 0.2 m above the road
intersection. It is defined as the surface. SSD assumes that a
distance required for a driver/rider driver/rider will have to stop
to perceive marking or hazards on sharply due to an object about
the road surface approaching an 0.2m high on the road ahead.
intersection and to stop.
• The ASD allows drivers/riders to be Safe intersection sight distance (SISD)
able to see the line marking and • SISD is the minimum distance that
kerbing at the intersection. should be provided on the major
• ASD is similar to Safe Stopping road at all intersections. It is
Distance (SSD) except that ASD is measured along the carriageway
measured from a driver’s eye from the approaching vehicle to
height (1.05 m) to the road surface the point of conflict, and is
(0.0 m), while SSD is measured measured from 1.05 m to 1.05 m.
• It provides sufficient distance for a
driver/rider on the major road to
see a vehicle on the minor
intersecting road moving into a
collision position (possibly even
stalling across the through lane),
then to decelerate to a stop before
reaching the collision point.
• The driver/rider on the side road is
assumed to be stationary 5 m back
from the Stop line (or the edge of
the road).
b. Minimising conflict points
• A conflict point is a point within an
intersection where road space
required by one line of traffic may be
simultaneously required by another.
The more conflict points in an
intersection, the greater the risk of a
crash.
• There are four basic types of
intersection manoeuvres that involve
conflicts: • It is an important requirement of
• Diverging ( D ) – where the safe intersections to minimise their
following vehicle is forced to slow number of conflict points. The
• Merging ( M ) above diagrams show that a cross
• Crossing ( C ) road has 32 conflict points.
• Weaving ( W )
b. Minimising conflict points • The problems may be safety
• Conflict points can be reduced or problems, capacity problems or
eliminated by altering an driver/rider compliance
intersection. Blocking a median problems. Whatever the reason,
opening in a divided highway will
eliminate many conflict points. closing the median and directing
• Channelising the same opening so traffic to the left and into a U turn
that only selected turns are is common in Indonesia.
possible will also reduce conflict Unfortunately it is usually an
points. inefficient and (sometimes)
• However – a clear mind is needed unsafe option to adopt.
when thinking about closing a
median opening at an intersection.
It needs to take into account
several matters. In Indonesia there
is a tendency to close off the
centre of large signalised
intersections as soon as any
problems emerge.
c. Reduce the relative speed between vehicles
• Relative speed between vehicles is • important to remember –
the resultant vector determined intersection crashes tend to
from the velocities of the individual yield very serious outcomes
vehicles at a conflict point. because intersections are the
• Safety at an intersection depends location of most right angle
largely on achieving low relative crashes
speeds.
• Most engineers understand the
threat of a head-on collision, but
few appreciate the high impact
speeds generated during right
angle collisions. This fact is one of
the most
• important to remember – • Crossing a road should take
intersection crashes tend to yield place at or near right angles so
very serious outcomes because that driver estimation errors are
intersections are the location of minimised.
most right angle crashes • However, this can produce a
high relative impact speed. It is
therefore necessary to reduce
the approach speeds.
• This is not easy but it can be
done through altering the
alignment on the approach to
the intersection, by
channelisation (including
roundabouts) or by installing
signs or signals.
Directorate General of Highway (2012). Road
Safety Engineering Series. Manual 1. Road Safety
• The diagrams above highlight three
things:
• Right angle accidents are severe
accidents
• Y-junctions present a great risk of
severe accidents
• Roundabouts offer real safety
benefits
• Other conflicts – weaving, merging
and diverging manoeuvres – should be
designed for low relative speed. If
relative speeds are controlled,
drivers/riders will accept smaller gaps.
• This improves capacity, reduces delays
and most importantly it improves
safety. These are all valuable goals to • Transforming Y junction to T
seek.
junction for improving road safety
• The AASHTO policy suggests • These may require horizontal or
maintaining an intersection angle vertical realignment of approaches.
of 75 to 90 degrees for new Realigning both of the minor-road
construction.(Angles as low as approaches so that they intersect
60 degrees are acceptable if cost
and other constraints dictate a the major road at a different
need for this degree of skew. If location or a different angle can
reconstructed intersections have a help address horizontal sight
skew angle below 60 degrees, distance issues. Such strategies
examination of collision rates and should generally be considered
patterns may be required. only at intersections with a
• Signalized intersections may have persistent crash pattern that
sight-distance-related safety cannot be changed by less
problems that cannot be addressed expensive methods, such as
inexpensively (such as clearing clearing sight triangles at
sight triangles, adjusting signal
phasing, or prohibiting turning intersections and in medians.
movements).
• Examples of different types of realignment
• Realignment of the approaches on

an intersection may be applicable
where severe collision problems
occur.
d. Give precedence to major movements
• Drivers/riders expect the major • Sometimes, the major traffic
road to be given precedence at an movement makes a right turn at an
intersection. This also generally intersection and it can be difficult
allows the intersection to provide for road users to appreciate which
maximum capacity for its users. approaches are carrying the major
However, it is not reasonable to streams of traffic.
expect all road users to be able to • For all these reasons, ensure that
understand and appreciate which intersection has clearly displayed
road through the intersection is the traffic control signs indicate which
major road. approaches which are required to
• Some drivers/riders are unfamiliar give way and which approaches
with the road, and others have no may pass through. Stop signs and
idea about major or minor roads. Give Way signs are used for this
purpose
Directorate General of Highway (2012). Road Safety Engineering Series. Manual 1. Road Safety Engineering for
Indonesian Roads
• Other conflicts – weaving, merging

and diverging manoeuvres – should
be designed for low relative speed. If
relative speeds are controlled,
drivers/riders will accept smaller
gaps.
• This improves capacity, reduces
delays and most importantly it
improves safety. These are all
valuable goals to seek.
Directorate General of Highway (2012). Road

Safety Engineering Series. Manual 1. Road Safety
• Drivers/riders expect the major • Sometimes, the major traffic
road to be given precedence at an movement makes a right turn at an
intersection. This also generally intersection and it can be difficult
allows the intersection to provide for road users to appreciate which
maximum capacity for its users. approaches are carrying the major
• However, it is not reasonable to streams of traffic.
expect all road users to be able to • Stop signs and Give Way signs are
understand and appreciate which used for this purpose. Without
road through the intersection is the these signs placed on the minor
major road. roads, an intersection is deemed to
• Some drivers/riders are familiar be uncontrolled.
with the road, and others have no • The Road Rules then mean that
idea about major or minor roads. traffic is required to give way to the
left.
e. Separate conflicts in space and time
• Traffic signals are a form of traffic
control that separates conflicts
within an intersection in time. By
controlling which approach is able
to enter the intersection at which
time, potential conflicts can be
eliminated – but only if
drivers/riders comply with the
traffic signals. Some drivers/riders
deliberately disregard red signals
(this is a matter for Police
enforcement), but others fail to see
the signals (possibly due to trees,
buildings, shadows and other
obstructions). It is necessary
therefore to ensure that the traffic
signals in the intersection are as
conspicuous as possible.
Directorate General of Highway (2012). Road Safety
Engineering Series. Manual 1. Road Safety
f. Define and minimize conflict areas
• Safety is maximised when the
conflict area of an intersection is
kept as small as practical.
• This can be achieved by:
• Providing only the area needed
for the intersection
• Squaring up the intersecting
roads
• Minimising the number of lanes
provided and marking these
clearly
g. Define vehicle paths h. Control approach speeds
• Drivers/riders need guidance as • Drivers/riders should not be
they travel along a road. Lane lines permitted to approach, enter or
are used for this purpose. When pass through an intersection at a
these lines are missing, speed that is clearly unsafe for
drivers/riders may drift away from the conditions. This can be
their correct path. achieved by a combination of
• When approaching an intersection alignment, speed control, lane
this becomes even more critical. width and traffic control.
The actual vehicle path definition • Start by ensuring that each of the
depends on the type of entering roads are correctly
intersection and the traffic control signed with speed restriction
provided, but is highly desirable to signs. Then, make sure that the
define each vehicle path clearly intersection is clearly visible to
and positively. road users on all approaches.
Finally, make sure the lane
markings are consistent and clear.
g. Example of unclear information of intersection
Intersection Configuration
Choice of Intersection
• Choice of intersection can be
determine by capacity and cost.
• Following table and figure indicates
the range of application of different
types of intersection (IHT, 1987)
Safety Consideration
• There is a definite safety advantage in replacing a 4-leg intersection with two
staggered 3-leg ones. Offset should lie between 5 and 40 m for connector
highways and more a main arterial highway.
• Two types of layouts are possible (left-hand-side driving)
The first 3-leg intersection goes to the The first 3-leg intersection goes to the
right: Vehicle crossing the priority left: Vehicle crossing the priority highway
highway must watch both sides and must watch only one side and merge
wait for a suitable gap (merge from from the left. Once on the priority
the right). Once on the priority highway, turns are to the right and
highway, turn are only to the left, thus disturbing the through traffic.
reducing interaction with through
traffic.
Safety Consideration
• An example of a cross road converted to a pair of staggered T intersections
SUB CHAPTER 7.4
ROADSIDE ENVIRONMENT.
Roadside Hazards
Introduction
• Road and roadside design play an • “Run-off-road” crashes are
important role in achieving a Safe amongst the most serious type of
System. Safe System issues relate crash in most countries.
to roadsides and run-off-road • They are a problem for Indonesia.
crashes. Removing roadside objects This problem is likely to worsen in
or shielding them with safety the near future as speeds increase
with more duplicated highways,
barriers could be expected to bring more toll ways, and more urban
about a major reduction in road flyovers and localised traffic
trauma. Although this principle is capacity improvements.
well understood, the detailed • The concept of the “forgiving
knowledge to support effective roadside” is fundamental to the
decision making in this area work of road safety engineers who
needed to be addressed. are seeking to improve the safety
of their road network.
Roadside Hazards
Roadside hazards
• A roadside hazard can be defined
as any fixed object with a
diameter greater than 100 mm
that is located on the roadside
within the clear zone.
• There are other roadside hazards Unshielded bridge parapets
too, including deep sided drains
and un-drivable side slopes. But it
is useful to start a roadside
hazard by using a 100 mm
diameter as a basic starting point.
Large billboard supporting poles

Roadside Hazards
The Clear Zone Concept
• The “clear zone” is an area
alongside a road which should be
kept free of hazards. The width of
a clear zone depends on traffic
speed and volume, as well as
roadside geometry (the radius of
a curve and extent of any side Roadside drain
slopes).
• The following Figure is used to
determine appropriate clear zone
widths for various traffic volumes
and speeds on straight roads with
flat roadsides. It is based on
studies of “run-off-road” crashes
from AASHTO.
Un-drivable side slopes
Roadside Hazard Management
The Clear Zone Concept
Roadside Hazards
The Roadside Hazard Management Strategy
The strategy has five steps: • The installation of safety barriers is
• Firstly, manage the road and traffic the option of last resort – explore
to keep vehicles on the road. all other options before resorting
Then either: to barriers. They are expensive,
they require maintenance, they are
• Remove the hazard, or a hazard in themselves, and they
• Relocate the hazard to a safer must be correctly installed (in full
location, or compliance with manufacturer’s
• Alter the hazard to reduce impact standards) in order to function
severity, or properly when needed.
• Install safety barriers to shield the
hazard
Indonesian Roads
Traffic Sign and Marking
Introduction
• Drivers and riders receive about • Both are so commonly used on the
90% of their necessary roads that they are often taken for
driving/riding information visually - granted. This has led to some signs
through their eyes. and line markings being used
• They receive a little information via incorrectly, inefficiently or unsafely.
their hearing (horns, rumble strips) • Start by remembering the 6C’s of
and through feeling (tactile edge good signage in road safety
lines, rough roads). But the engineering work. If all sign or
overwhelming amount of their line marking meets all the six C’s
information is gathered visually. of good practice then it will be
• The two most common devices sure to assist drivers/riders to
that engineers use to provide them safely use the road (positive
with that information are signs and guidance).
line markings.
Indonesian Roads
Conspicuous Clear
• the sign has to be seen. For • the words and symbols used on
instance, do not place warning sign signs must be clear and legible.
amongst the branches of a tree. Minimise the number of words and
Make sure the sign is reflective at ensure that symbols are clear when
night. viewed from a distance.
Indonesian Roads
Comprehensible Credible
• Signs must be able to be • the message conveyed by the sign

understood. Remember that has to be believable to the
drivers/riders only have 2 drivers/riders otherwise they will
seconds in which to see, tend to ignore it.
understand and act on your sign.
Indonesian Roads
Consistent Correct
• identical traffic situations should • the words and symbols used on

be managed by using the same sign signs must be clear and legible.
and/or marking. Consistency Minimise the number of words and
reduces driver/rider reaction times ensure that symbols are clear when
and improves driver understanding. viewed from a distance.
Indonesian Roads
Sign design and selection
• Studies have shown that once a
• The required size for a sign
sign falls outside a line of vision 10
depends on the legibility distance
degrees either side, or 5 degrees
of the legend and the time above the driver’s straight-ahead
required reading it. A sign must
line of vision, it can no longer be
be visible and legible over the read comfortably.
whole of the travel distance
equivalent to the reading time. • The travel time at the prevailing
The maximum distance at which a traffic speed between these
sign can be read, assuming that maximum and minimum distances
some intervening object does not must be sufficient for the driver to
obscure it, can be calculated. read the message. Reading times
are generally taken as from 0.3
• The minimum distance at which it seconds per word for short, simple,
can be read depends on its
familiar words (such as those on
angular displacement from the
regulatory or warning signs) up to
driver’s straight-ahead line of 0.7s for unfamiliar words such as
vision.
names on direction signs.
Indonesian Roads
Traffic Sign and marking
Determination of Sign (letter) Dimension
• “C” is the distance from sign where
a driver is expected to stop reading
sign – i.e. the point where a driver
would turn his/her head through
100 or more
C = S x cotangent 100 = S x 5.7
• “S” is the off-set distance from the
centre of the driving lane to the
centre of the right-hand most lane.
• “R” is the distance travelled when
reading the sign.
R – Reading time x Speed
• Reading time = 2 + (N/3) seconds
where N is the number of words or
destinations on the sign
• When N equals 6, reading time is 4 • The x-height of the sign depends of
seconds. This is taken to be the the distance the driver is from the
maximum desirable time for sign when he/she start to read it.
reading the sign. It allows for
scanning the sign twice to • It is taken that on average at a
assimilate the information. distance of 60 metres the x-height
• It should be remembered that the should be 100 mm (it is
sign may be obscured for part of proportional so that at a distance
the time by high vehicles and that of 30 metres the x-height would
driver still needs to pay attention need to be 50mm)
to the road ahead.
• Because 4 seconds is taken as the
maximum time to be allowed for
reading the sign, the number of
destination should not exceed six.
Worked Example: • Total distance from sign = R + C =
Determine required x-height for a 88+23 = 111 metres
single carriageway with 8 metres • Required x-height = (100/60) x 111
wide (lane width 4 metres) and 63
= 185 mm.
percentile speed is 80 km/h (22 m/s).
Sign size is 2 metres wide and 1
metre from edge of carriageway.
Answer:
S = 2 (centre of lane) + 1 (shoulder
width) + 1 (half sign width)
= 4 metres
C = S x 5.7 = 4 x 5.7 = 22.8 metres or
23 metres
R = reading time x speed = 4 x 22 =
88 metres
Sign Installment
Sign Installment
Sign Installation
Road Marking major road continues the line of the
edge of that road, even when the
• Road markings serve a very minor road enters at an angle other
important function in conveying to than 90°.
road users information and
requirements which might not be
possible using upright signs.
• They have the advantage that they
can often be seen when a verge- LONGITUDINAL LINES:
mounted sign is obscured, and, • Centre lines is intended for
unlike such signs, they can provide separating opposing flows of traffic
a continuing message. on single carriageway roads. On two
STOP AND GIVE WAY MARKINGS: or four lane roads the marking
should normally be laid in the
• The Stop line and the Give Way line geometric centre. It can however be
are normally positioned so that the laid off-centre to allow parking along
edge of the marking nearest to the one side.
Department for Transport (UK) (2003). Traffic Signs
Manual Chapter 5 Road Markings
Delineation and Line Marking
Introduction • Line marking
• Painted line marking is relatively
• Centre and edge delineation cheap. Centrelines can be used to
treatments help drivers judge their discourage overtaking or
position on the road, and provide accidental ‘drifting' from the lane.
advice about conditions ahead. • Edge lines help drivers judge the
Delineation treatments are alignment of the road ahead and
particularly helpful where visibility can reduce run-off-road crashes.
can become poor (for example, due Line marking is also effective at
to rain, fog or darkness) and on reducing shoulder damage, and
sharp bends. therefore in reducing
maintenance costs.
• There are many delineation
• Rumble strip or profiled line
treatments available, and these marking applied as an edge-line
should be used in a consistent or centreline can be effective in
manner along a route or road reducing run-off-the-road and
network. Example delineation head-on crashes, particularly
treatments include: crashes related to driver fatigue.
Type of Delineation
• Retroreflective Pavement Markers • Guide posts are usually about one
(RRPMs)
metre high and set about one
• Retro-reflective pavement metre from the edge of the road.
markers or road studs ('cats
They can be equipped with
eyes') are usually used in
conjunction with painted line reflectors, or painted with
marking to warn drivers of reflective paint, and so are
changes in alignment in the road especially useful at night.
ahead. • They should not constitute a
• RRPM's are particularly helpful in roadside hazard, and so should be
darkness or during wet weather constructed of lightweight,
when line marking becomes frangible, durable material. Guide
difficult to see. posts may be necessary in some
• Guide posts locations to show a road route in
• Guide posts assist the road user a bad weather.
by indicating the alignment of the
road ahead, especially at
horizontal and vertical curves.
Type of Delineation
Typical guide posts
Rigid (plastic-rubber) guide posts

shielding a slope.
Reinforced concrete guide posts
provide good delineation but they
are an unnecessary hazard along
the roadsides.
A guide post made by cutting a PVC

pipe in two and sticking a reflector on
the top.
Type of Delineation
• Guide Posts on Curves
The setting out details for guide
posts on curves is specified in
EINRIP standard drawing STD-825.
The standard drawing requires
guide posts to be installed on
curves up to a radius of 200
metres. It is recommended that
closely spaced guide posts should
be installed on curves up to a
radius of 500 metres as set out in
the modified table below.
Type of Delineation
• Chevron alignment markers (CAMs)
• CAMs or ‘chevrons' can be installed
along the outside of a bend to
provide drivers with a better view
of the bend as they approach it,
and to assist them in positioning
the vehicle during the bend.
Type of Delineation
Retroreflective Pavement Markers (RRPMs) Chevron Alignment Markers
Tactile edge line marking

Line Marking
• Lane Lines ensure that available • Edge line is intended for general
carriageway space is used to its use to delineate the edge of
maximum capacity. In helping carriageway, particularly on unlit
vehicles to maintain a consistent classified roads and those not
lateral position, they also offer having clearly defined raised
safety benefits and should be used kerbs. It should also normally be
wherever practicable. used on all-purpose roads with
hard shoulders or hard strips, on
• Double white lines are used to
motorways, unless profiled edge
prohibit overtaking where visibility
lines are used and to delineate
is restricted. Drivers may cross the
footways at level crossings.
line nearer to them when it is
broken, but not when it is • Raised profile lines are prescribed
continuous. for use as an alternative to the
edge of carriageway marking.
Line Marking
• They consist of a continuous line CHEVRON MARKINGS
marking with ribs across the line at • Chevron markings are intended to
regular intervals. The vertical edges separate streams of traffic
of the raised ribs stand clear of the travelling in the same direction,
water film in wet conditions, e.g. on the approach to a junction
improving retroreflective under or to a pedestrian refuge in a
headlight illumination. The ribs also one-way street.
provide an audible vibratory
warning to drivers should they
stray from the carriageway and run
onto the marking.

Method of Establishing No-passing Zones Using a Highway Profile
• No-passing zones on vertical
curves are determined on the
basis of sight distance
requirements, as shown in the
following figure.
• Where the distance between the
end of one passing zone and the
beginning of the next is less than
the value in Table 2, the two zones
must be joined to form one
continuous no passing zone.
APPENDICES
CHARASTERISTICS OF THE EULER
SPIRAL (CLOTHOID)
Basic Relationships for Clothoid Transition Curves (AusRoads)
SPIRAL (CLOTHOID)
R = radius of the circular curve in øs = spiral angle in degrees;
metres;
IP = intersection point, or the point T= tangent distance in metres;
at which the two straights join; S= secant distance in metres;
TS = start transition, or the point at LP = length of transition curve from
which a straight and a transition TS to SC in metres.
curve join;
SC = start circular curve, or the point Lc = length of circular curve from SC
at which a transition and a to SC in metres;
circular curve join; l = distance in metres along the
PC = the point on the circular curve transition to any point B and TS;
(extended) at which the radius
if extended would be x = abscissa of any point B on
perpendicular to the straight; transition with reference to the
I = intersection angle, or the angle straight and TS in metres;
between the two straights in
degrees;
SPIRAL (CLOTHOID)
y = ordinate of any point B on
transition corresponding to the
abscissa x in metres;
p = the shift, which equals the offset
from the PC to the straight in
metres;
SPIRAL (CLOTHOID)
The expressions for x, y, p and k are

approximations only and normally As the clothoid has a constant rate of
are satisfactory for practical use. change of curvature it gives a
More precise expressions may be constant rate of change of lateral
seen in any standard books on acceleration at constant speed. For a
surveying. vehicle travelling at a constant speed
of v m/s, the lateral acceleration
increases from zero at the start of
the transition to
SPIRAL (CLOTHOID)
at the start of the circular curve. This If v m/s is converted to V km/h, this
increase in acceleration takes place equation becomes:
over a length LP metres or over a
time t (seconds)
where:
Thus, the rate of change of lateral

acceleration, A m/s3
VERTICAL CURVE FORMULAE
General
• The parabola has traditionally • Other curves such as circular
been used in road design for crest curves may be used if required for
and sag vertical curves because: a specific reason. The K value
• the vehicle undergoes a constant equivalent radius R = 100 K.
vertical acceleration;
• the length of curve is directly Vertical Curve Formulae
proportional to the grade change; (AusRoads)
• a parabola retains its basic shape
when the scale is changed A = g2 – g1 = Algebraic grade change
(%)
whereas a circle takes the form of
an ellipse when a change is made a = Vertical acceleration of vehicles on
to one of the scales. parabolas (m/sec2)
• The calculation of vertical and g1, g2 = Grade (%)
horizontal ordinates in relation to e = Middle ordinate (m)
any point on a parabola is a h1 = Eye height – for use with sight
simple matter. Gravity makes the distance (m)
use of vertical ordinates more h2 = Object height – for use with sight
convenient in construction. distance (m)
Vertical Curve Formulae (AusRoads)
K = Length of vertical curve for a 1% xhp = Distance from tangent point
change in grade (m) to high point (m)
L = Length of vertical curve (m) xlp = Distance from tangent point
L1 = Length over which the grade is to low point (m)
less than a specified slope SL y= Vertical offset from tangent to
(m) curve (m)
SL = Slope of the tangent to the
NOTE: A rising grade with increasing
curve at any point (%)
station (chainage) carries a plus sign
Low or high points occur where
and a falling grade carries a minus
SL = 0
sign.
S = Sight distance (m)
The general formula for the parabola
V = Speed (km/h)
used in road design is:
x = Distance from tangent point to
any point on curve
Vertical Curve Formulae (AusRoads)
In road design most parabola can be
designed using the following three
equations:
Other equations that may be used

include:
Vertical Curve Nomenclature (AusRoads)
End of presentation
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Transportation Safety ENCV802503

Typical super-elevation development profile on two lane roads

The ideal combination. A smooth flowing appearance results when vertical

A legitimate case of coordination one phase is skipped in the horizontal

A short movement in one plane should not be placed within a large

• Realignment of the approaches on

• Other conflicts – weaving, merging

Directorate General of Highway (2012). Road

Large billboard supporting poles

• Signs must be able to be • the message conveyed by the sign

• identical traffic situations should • the words and symbols used on

Rigid (plastic-rubber) guide posts

A guide post made by cutting a PVC

Retroreflective Pavement Markers (RRPMs) Chevron Alignment Markers

Tactile edge line marking

Department for Transport (UK) (2003). Traffic Signs

The expressions for x, y, p and k are

Thus, the rate of change of lateral

Other equations that may be used

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