Discrete Structures

Rules of inference
Prof. Mohsin Riaz

1
 Rules of Inference
Valid Arguments in Propositional Logic
Assume you are given the following two
statements:
 “if you are in this class, then you will get a grade”
 “you are in this class”
Therefore,
 “You will get a grade”

2
 Modus Ponens
(Latin for “the way that affirms by affirming”

• If it snows today, then we will go skiing

• Hypothesis: It is snowing today
• By modus ponens, the conclusion is:
• We will go skiing
3
• If I smoke, then I cough
• I Smoke
_______________________
• I cough

4
 Modus Tollens
(Latin for "the way that denies by denying")
● Assume you are given the following two statements:
 “you will not get a grade”
 “if you are in this class, you will get a grade”
● Let p = “you are in this class”
● Let q = “you will get a grade”

● By Modus Tollens, you can conclude that you are not

in this class

5
 Addition
• If you know that p is true, then p  q will
ALWAYS be true i.e. p → p  q

6
 Addition
• If you know that p is true, then p  q will
ALWAYS be true i.e. p → p  q

• p : “It is below freezing now”

• q : “It is raining now”
• 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∶ “It is below freezing or raining now”
• 𝑝 → 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∶ “If it is below freezing now then it is
below freezing or raining now”
7
 Simplification
• If p  q is true, then p will ALWAYS be true i.e.
pq→p

8
 Simplification
• If p  q is true, then p will ALWAYS be true i.e.
pq→p

• p: “It is below freezing”

• q: “It is raining now”
• p  q : It is below freezing and raining now.

• p  q → p: It is below freezing and raining now

implies that it is below freezing
9
 Hypothetical syllogism
• 𝑝→𝑞 ∧ 𝑞→𝑟 → (𝑝 → 𝑟)

• If it rains today, then we will not have a barbecue

today.
• If we do not have a barbecue today, then we will
have a barbecue tomorrow.
• Therefore, if it rains today, then we will have a
barbecue tomorrow.
10
 Disjunctive syllogism
• 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑝 → 𝑞

11
 Resolution

• Computer programs have been

developed to automate the task of
reasoning and proving theorems.
• Many of these programs make use
resolution
12
Rules of Inference to Build Arguments
• It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday
• We will go swimming only if it is sunny
• If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip
• If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset
_______________________________
• We will be home by sunset (Conclusion)

13
Rules of Inference to Build Arguments
• It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday
• We will go swimming only if it is sunny
• If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip
• If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset
_______________________________
• We will be home by sunset (Conclusion)
• p: It is sunny this afternoon
• q: It is colder than yesterday
• r: We will go swimming
• s: We will take a canoe trip
• t: We will be home by sunset

14
Rules of Inference to Build Arguments
• It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday
¬𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
• We will go swimming only if it is sunny 𝑟 → 𝑝
• If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip ¬𝑟 →
𝑠
• If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset 𝑠 → 𝑡
_______________________________
• We will be home by sunset (Conclusion) 𝒕
• p: It is sunny this afternoon
• q: It is colder than yesterday
• r: We will go swimming
• s: We will take a canoe trip
• t: We will be home by sunset
[ ¬𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 ∧ 𝒓 → 𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒓 → 𝒔 ∧ (𝒔 → 𝒕)] → 𝒕
15
 Definitions
● An Argument in propositional logic is a
sequence of propositions that end with c
conclusion.
● All except the final proposition are called
premises.
● The final proposition is called conclusion.
● An argument is valid if the truth of all
premises implies that the conclusion is true.
 i.e. (𝑝1  𝑝2  …  𝑝𝑛)  𝑞 is a tautology.
Rules of Inference to Build Arguments
• [ ¬𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 ∧ 𝒓 → 𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒓 → 𝒔 ∧ (𝒔 → 𝒕)] → 𝒕

𝒑∧𝒒 → 𝒑

17
Rules of Inference to Build Arguments
• [ ¬𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 ∧ 𝒓 → 𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒓 → 𝒔 ∧ (𝒔 → 𝒕)] → 𝒕

18
Rules of Inference to Build Arguments
• [ ¬𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 ∧ 𝒓 → 𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒓 → 𝒔 ∧ (𝒔 → 𝒕)] → 𝒕

19
Rules of Inference to Build Arguments
• [ ¬𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 ∧ 𝒓 → 𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒓 → 𝒔 ∧ (𝒔 → 𝒕)] → 𝒕

20
• If you send me an e-mail message, then I will
finish writing the program
• If you do not send me an e-mail message,
then I will go to sleep early
• If I go to sleep early, then I will wake up feeling
refreshed
____________________________________
• If I do not finish writing the program, then I
will wake up feeling refreshed

21
• If you send me an e-mail message, then I will finish
writing the program 𝒑 → 𝒒
• If you do not send me an e-mail message, then I will go
to sleep early ¬𝒑 → 𝒓
• If I go to sleep early, then I will wake up feeling
refreshed 𝒓 → 𝒔
____________________________________
• If I do not finish writing the program, then I will wake
up feeling refreshed ¬𝒒 → 𝒔

• p = You send me an e-mail

• q = I will finish writing program
• r = I will go to sleep early
• s = l will wake up feeling refreshed

[ 𝒑 → 𝒒 ∧ ¬𝒑 → 𝒓 ∧ 𝒓 → 𝒔 ] → (¬𝒒 → 𝒔)
22
• [(𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (¬𝒑 → 𝒓) ∧ (𝒓 → 𝒔)] → (¬𝒒 → 𝒔)

23
• [(𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (¬𝒑 → 𝒓) ∧ (𝒓 → 𝒔)] → (¬𝒒 → 𝒔)

24
• [(𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (¬𝒑 → 𝒓) ∧ (𝒓 → 𝒔)] → (¬𝒒 → 𝒔)

25
• [(𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (¬𝒑 → 𝒓) ∧ (𝒓 → 𝒔)] → (¬𝒒 → 𝒔)

26
• [(𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (¬𝒑 → 𝒓) ∧ (𝒓 → 𝒔)] → (¬𝒒 → 𝒔)

27
• Hypotheses: 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 and 𝑟 → 𝑠 imply the
conclusion: 𝑝 ∨ 𝑠
• 𝒑∧𝒒 ∨𝒓 ∧ 𝒓→𝒔 →𝒑∨𝒔

• 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ∨ 𝑟 ≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑟 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) de Morgan’s law
• 𝑟 → 𝑠 ≡ ¬𝑟 ∨ 𝑠
• 𝑝 ∨ 𝑟 ∨ ¬𝑟 ∨ 𝑠 ≡ p ∨ 𝑠 resolution

28
 Fallacies
• Several common fallacies arise in incorrect
arguments.
• The proposition 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑝 is not a
tautology, because it is false when p is false and
q is true
• There are many incorrect arguments that treat
this as a tautology
• This type of incorrect reasoning is called the
fallacy of affirming the conclusion
29
 Example
• If you do every problem in this book, then you
will learn discrete mathematics.
• You learned discrete mathematics.
• Therefore, you did every problem in this book.

• p: You did every problem in this book

• q: You learned discrete mathematics

30
• If you do every problem in this book, then you
will learn discrete mathematics.
• You learned discrete mathematics.
______________________________________
• Therefore, you did every problem in this book.

• p: You did every problem in this book

• q: You learned discrete mathematics

31
• If you do every problem in this book, then you
will learn discrete mathematics.
• You learned discrete mathematics.
______________________________________
• Therefore, you did every problem in this book.
• p: You did every problem in this book
• q: You learned discrete mathematics

• If 𝑝 → 𝑞 and 𝑞 then 𝑝
• 𝑝→𝑞 ∧𝑞 →𝑝
32
• If you do every problem in this book, then you will
learn discrete mathematics.
• You learned discrete mathematics.
______________________________________
• Therefore, you did every problem in this book.
• p: You did every problem in this book
• q: You learned discrete mathematics

• If 𝑝 → 𝑞 and 𝑞 then 𝑝
• 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑝 Fallacy
• It is possible for you to learn discrete mathematics in
some way other than by doing every problem in this
book (Reading, Listening Lectures, doing some but not
all problems).
33
Rules of Inference for
Quantified Statements

34
35
36
 Example
• Show that the premises:
• "Everyone in this discrete mathematics class has
taken a course in computer science" and “Aslam
is a student in this class"
• Imply the conclusion “Aslam has taken a course in
computer science.“

37
• D(x): x is in this discrete mathematics class
• C(x): x has taken a course in computer science
• Premises: ∀x(D(x) → C(x)) and D(Aslam)
• Conclusion: C(Aslam)

38
• D(x): x is in this discrete mathematics class
• C(x): x has taken a course in computer science
• Premises: ∀x(D(x) → C(x)) and D(Aslam)
• Conclusion: C(Aslam)

• Steps Reason
• ∀x(D(x) → C(x)) Premise
• D(Aslam) → C(Aslam) Universal instantiation

39
• D(x): x is in this discrete mathematics class
• C(x): x has taken a course in computer science
• Premises: ∀x(D(x) → C(x)) and D(Aslam)
• Conclusion: C(Aslam)

• Steps Reason
• ∀x(D(x) → C(x)) Premise
• D(Aslam) → C(Aslam) Universal instantiation
• D(Aslam) Premise

40
• D(x): x is in this discrete mathematics class
• C(x): x has taken a course in computer science
• Premises: ∀x(D(x) → C(x)) and D(Aslam)
• Conclusion: C(Aslam)

• Steps Reason
• ∀x(D(x) → C(x)) Premise
• D(Aslam) → C(Aslam) Universal instantiation
• D(Aslam) Premise
• C(Aslam) Modus ponens
• A→B ∧A →B 41
 Example
• Show that the premises “A student in this class
has not read the book,” and “Everyone in this
class passed the first exam” imply the conclusion
“Someone who passed the first exam has not read
the book.”

42
• Show that the premises “A student in this class
has not read the book,” and “Everyone in this
class passed the first exam” imply the conclusion
“Someone who passed the first exam has not
read the book.”
• C(x): “x is in this class”
• B(x): “x has read the book”
• P(x): “x passed the first exam”
• Premises: ???

43
• Show that the premises “A student in this class
has not read the book,” and “Everyone in this
class passed the first exam” imply the conclusion
“Someone who passed the first exam has not
read the book.”
• C(x): “x is in this class”
• B(x): “x has read the book”
• P(x): “x passed the first exam”
• Premises: ∃x(C(x)∧￢B(x)) and ∀x(C(x) → P(x)).
• The conclusion???

44
• Show that the premises “A student in this class
has not read the book,” and “Everyone in this
class passed the first exam” imply the conclusion
“Someone who passed the first exam has not
read the book.”
• C(x): “x is in this class”
• B(x): “x has read the book”
• P(x): “x passed the first exam”
• Premises: ∃x(C(x) ∧￢B(x)) and ∀x( C(x) → P(x) ).
• The conclusion: ∃x( P(x) ∧￢B(x) )

45
• Premises: ∃x(C(x) ∧￢B(x)) and ∀x( C(x) → P(x) ).
• The conclusion: ∃x( P(x) ∧￢B(x) )

46
• Premises: ∃x(C(x) ∧￢B(x)) and ∀x( C(x) → P(x) ).
• The conclusion: ∃x( P(x) ∧￢B(x) )

47
• Premises: ∃x(C(x) ∧￢B(x)) and ∀x( C(x) → P(x) ).
• The conclusion: ∃x( P(x) ∧￢B(x) )

48
• Premises: ∃x(C(x) ∧￢B(x)) and ∀x( C(x) → P(x) ).
• The conclusion: ∃x( P(x) ∧￢B(x) )

49
• Premises: ∃x(C(x) ∧￢B(x)) and ∀x( C(x) → P(x) ).
• The conclusion: ∃x( P(x) ∧￢B(x) )

50
• Premises: ∃x(C(x) ∧￢B(x)) and ∀x( C(x) → P(x) ).
• The conclusion: ∃x( P(x) ∧￢B(x) )

51
• Premises: ∃x(C(x) ∧￢B(x)) and ∀x( C(x) → P(x) ).
• The conclusion: ∃x( P(x) ∧￢B(x) )

52
• Premises: ∃x(C(x) ∧￢B(x)) and ∀x( C(x) → P(x) ).
• The conclusion: ∃x( P(x) ∧￢B(x) )

53