Program/level: B.Ed(1.

5)
Course title: Educational statistics (8614)
Q:1 Educational statistics is widely applied in teaching-learning process. Discuss
and elaborate your answer with examples.

Ans:

Statistics: “Statistics is a branch of knowledge that deals with facts and figures. The term
statistics refers to a set of methods and rules for organizing, summarizing, and interpreting
information. It is a way of getting information from data ”

In other words, statistics is a methodology which a researcher use for collecting and interpreting
data and drawing conclusion from collected data.

Function of Statistics:
Statistics has a numerous functions to do.

The following points explain the functions of statistics in summary:

1. This helps to systematically collect and present data.

2. It also helps you understand the complexity of your task and simplify it.

3. This is classified information.

4. It provides a broad base and comparison methods.

5. This will help you explore the connections between different phenomena.

6. This will also help you determine the behavior model.

7. This will help you formulate a hypothesis and test it.

8. This allows you to draw logical conclusions.
Statistics in Education:
Measurement and evaluation are an important part of the learning process. In this process, we get

points and then interpret them to make a decision. Statistics allow us to look at these values more

objectively. This makes the learning process more efficient and effective.
The knowledge of statistics helps the teacher in the following way:
1. It helps the teacher to provide the most exact type of description:
If we want to know if students are taking a test or following children. From the results obtained,

we will describe the results of students ' work or behavior. Statistics will help the teacher give an

accurate description of the data obtained.

2. It makes the teacher definite and exact in procedures and thinking:

Sometimes, due to a lack of technical knowledge, the teacher may be weak,
describing the student's academic performance. But the statistical metrics that
allow it to describe performance using the correct language and symbols are there.
That the interpretation is clear and accurate.
3. It enables the teacher to summarize the results in a meaningful and
convenient form:
Statistics gives order to the data. It helps the teacher to make the data precise and meaningful and

to express it in an understandable and interpretable manner.

4. It enables the teacher to draw general conclusions:

Statistics give the order for. This will help the teacher make sure that the information is accurate

and reliable and put it in a clear and interpretable form.

5. It helps the teacher to predict the future performance of the pupils:
Statistics allow the teacher to predict how much this topic will occur under those cases that we

know about, and there is complete and satisfied satisfaction. For example, teachers can be used

to predict the probability of a student's graduation score based on the results of their college

entrance exams.
6. Statistics enables the teacher to analyze some of the causal factors
underlying complex and otherwise be-wildering events:
One common factor is that behavioral outcomes are the result of many causal factors. The

reasons a particular student performs poor in a particular subject are diverse and numerous. So,

using appropriate statistical methods, we can keep these external variables constant and can

confirm that the reason for the student's failure on a particular topic.

Data is analyzed using two different methods: –

Description The Statistics Are As Follows:

Descriptive statistics are descriptions or generalizations of the number of features, information.

Some descriptive statistics techniques cover classification, tabulation, graphical representation,

and calculation of certain metrics, such as the mean, median of a series, that summarize some of

the main characteristics of information.

This method, we will not be able to do anything, there are no results, but it can give decent

information about the characteristics of a particular group of people.

Inferential analysis also known as statistical output. Conversations about the conclusion of

scientific results, about generalizing the results of research, in some special cases. Methods of

inference statistics and helps to summarize the results of selecting all the population that

organize the election.

For example:

Statistic is important in our daily life. We live in the information world and much of this
information is determined mathematically with the help of statistics. It means statistics keeps us
informed about day to day happening.

Every day we watch weather forecasting. It is possible due to some computer models based on
statistical concepts. These models compare prior weather with the current weather and predict
future weather.

Statistics also has a big role in the medical field. Before any drugs prescribed, pharmacists show
statistically valid rate of effectiveness.

Print and electronic media uses statistical tools to make predictions of winner of electrons and
coming government.
Statistics in education helps in the collection and presentation of data in a well-arranged
manner. Simply put, Statistics in educations helps in the orderly arrangement of both
processed and unprocessed’

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Q:2 Identify a problem of your own choice. Briefly discuss the steps you will follow to test
your hypothesis.

Ans:

Hypothesis testing: It is usually impossible for a researcher to observe each individual an a

population. Therefore, he selects some individual form the population as sample data to evaluate
a hypothesis about a population. He then uses the sample data to answer questions about the
population. For this purpose, he uses some statistical techniques.

Hypothesis testing is a statistical method that uses sample data to evaluate a hypothesis about a
population parameter. A hypothesis test is usually used in context of a research study. Depending
on the type of research and the type of data, the details of the hypothesis test will change from on
situation to other.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world
using statistics. It is most often used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypothesis,
that arise from theories.

Problems in hypothesis:

Hypothesis testing is an inferential process. It means that it uses limited information obtained
from the sample to reach general conclusions about the population. As a sample is a small subset
of the population, it provides only limited or incomplete information about the whole population.
Yet hypothesis test uses information obtained from the sample. In this situation, there is always
the probability of reaching incorrect conclusion. Generally two kinds of errors can be made.

1. Type 1 Errors

A type1 errors occur when a researcher rejects a null hypothesis that is actually true. It means
that the researcher concludes that the treatment does have an effect when in fact the treatment
has no effect. Type1 error is not a stupid mistake in the sense that the researcher is overlooking
something that should be perfectly obvious. He is looking at the data obtained from the sample
that appear to show a clear treatment effect. He never knows whether a hypothesis is true or
false.

2. Type 11 Errors:

A type 11 errors occur when a researcher fails or reject the null hypothesis that is really false. It
means that a treatment effect really exists, but the hypothesis test has failed to detect it. This type
of error occur when the effect of the treatment is relatively small. That is the treatment does
influence the sample but the magnitude of the effect is very small. The consequences of type11
error are not very serious.

Summarizing we can say that a hypothesis test always leads to one of two decisions.

I. The sample data provides sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis.

II. The sample data do not provide enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis.

There are 5 main steps in hypothesis testing:

1. State your research hypothesis as a null (Ho) and alternate (Ha) hypothesis.

2. Collect data in a way designed to test the hypothesis.
3. Perform an appropriate statistical test.
4. Decide whether the null hypothesis is supported or refuted.
5. Present the findings in your results and discussion section.

Though the specific details might vary, the procedure you will use when testing a hypothesis will
always follow some version of these steps.

Step 1: Perform a statistical test

Has a wide range of statistical tests that are available, but they were based on, versus intra-group
variance-this is how to spread information within a category) versus inter-group variance (and
range different categories from each other. If the inter-group variance is large.

Step 2: State your null and alternate hypothesis

For development, original research, hypotheses (predictions that you would like to explore), it is
important to repeat the fact as one of the zero (Ho) and alternative (Ha) assumptions you can test
the mathematician. The alternate hypothesis is usually your initial hypothesis that predicts a
relationship between variables. The null hypothesis is a prediction of no relationship between
the variables you are interested in.

Step 3: Collect data

In order for the test to be valid, it is very important that the sample and collection of information
is prepared in such a way as to test the hypothesis. If your data is not representative, can't draw
anything statistically significant enough that there is little or no overlap between these groups,
then you statistical tests will reflect this by showing down the p value

Step 4: Decide whether the null hypothesis is supported or refuted

In most cases, you will use the p stands that are created using your statistical test to guide your
decision. In most cases, your cutoff to refute the null hypothesis should be 0.05-that is, when
there is no 5% chance you would have followed these results if the null hypothesis was true.
Step 5: Present your findings

Results of hypothesis testing are presented in the "Results" and "Discussion" sections of your
articles.

In the results section, you can imagine a short summary, work experience, and the results in the
summary of your statistical tests (for example, price differences in group averages and their
associated p-values). During the discussion, you can discuss whether your first hypothesis was
confirmed or disproved. In the formal language of hypothesis testing, we say that reject or accept
the null hypothesis. You will probably be asked to solve this problem for your statistics tasks.

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Q:3 Discuss different situations where a teacher can use correlation and regression to draw
conclusions.

Ans:

Correlation:

The most commonly used correlation is the Pearson correlation. It is also known
as pearson product-moment Correlation. It measures the degree and the direction
of linear relationship of between two variables. It is denoted by r, and r= degree to
which X and Y vary together/ degree to which X and Y vary separately = co-
variability of X and Y variability of X and Y vary separately.

To quantify the strength of the relationship, we can calculate the correlation coefficient. In
algebraic notation, if we have two variables x and y, and the data take the form of n pairs (i.e. [x1,
y1], [x2, y2], [x3, y3] ... [xn, yn]), then the correlation coefficient is given by the following equation:

where   is the mean of the x values, and   is the mean of the y values.
This is the product moment correlation coefficient (or Pearson correlation coefficient). The value
of r always lies between -1 and +1. A value of the correlation coefficient close to +1 indicates a
strong positive linear relationship (i.e. one variable increases with the other; Fig. Fig.2).2). A
value close to -1 indicates a strong negative linear relationship (i.e. one variable decreases as the
other increases. A value close to 0 indicates no linear relationship (Fig. (Fig.4);4); however, there
could be a nonlinear relationship between the variables

Hypothesis test of correlation

We can use the correlation coefficient to test whether there is a linear relationship between the
variables in the population as a whole.Therefore, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that the
true population correlation coefficient is not 0 and that there is a linear relationship between ln
urea and age.
The standard error [3] of zr is approximately:

and hence a 95% confidence interval for the true population value for the transformed correlation
coefficient zr is given by zr - (1.96 × standard error) to zr + (1.96 × standard error). Because zr is
Normally distributed, 1.96 deviations from the statistic will give a 95% confidence interval.
For the A&E data the transformed correlation coefficient zr between ln urea and age is:

The standard error of zr is:

The 95% confidence interval for zr is therefore 0.725 - (1.96 × 0.242) to 0.725 + (1.96 × 0.242),
giving 0.251 to 1.199.
We must use the inverse of Fisher's transformation on the lower and upper limits of this
confidence interval to obtain the 95% confidence interval for the correlation coefficient. The
lower limit is:

giving 0.25 and the upper limit is:

giving 0.83. Therefore, we are 95% confident that the population correlation coefficient is
between 0.25 and 0.83.
The width of the confidence interval clearly depends on the sample size, and therefore it is
possible to calculate the sample size required for a given level of accuracy. For an example, see
Bland
Regression:
Regression find the best line that predicts dependent variables from the independent variables.
The decision of which variables is calls dependent and which calls independent is an important
matter in regression, as it will get a different best-fit line if we exchange the two variables,
dependent to independent and independent to dependent. The line the predicts independent
 variables from dependent variables will not be the same as the line that predicts dependent
variables from independent variables.
Objectives of regression Analysis:
The regression analysis is used to explain variability in dependent variables by mean of one or
more independent variables and to analyze relationships among to answer the question of how
much dependent variables changes with the changes in the independent variables and to forecast
or predict the value of dependent variables based on thr values of the independent variables.
Types of regression:
1. Linear Regression
2. Logistic Regression
3. Ridge Regression
4. Lasso Regression
5. Polynomial Regression
6. Bayesian Linear Regression
1. Linear Regression
Line regression is one of the main types of engine regression model in the learning room. A linear
regression model consists of a predictor variable and a dependent variable that are linearly related to
each other. In such cases, data that contains more than one independent variable in a linear regression
model is called a multi-linear regression model.
2. Logistic Regression
Logistic regression is a kind of regression techniques that can be used when a sensitive variable is
discrete. For example: 0 or 1, true or false, and so on. This means that the target variable can only
have two values, the sigmoid curve shows that the relationship between the target variable and the
independent variable is different.
3. Ridge Regression
This is another one of the types of regression in machine learning which is usually used when
there is a high correlation between the independent variables. This is because, in the case of
multi collinear data, the least square estimates give unbiased values.

4. Lasso Regression
Lasso Regression is one of the types of regression in machine learning that performs
regularization along with feature selection. It prohibits the absolute size of the regression
coefficient. As a result, the coefficient value gets nearer to zero, which does not happen in the
case of Ridge Regression.
6. Polynomial Regression
Polynomial regression is a type of regression engine methods in the learning room that make up a
somewhat linear regression model, with little modification. This is a polynomial regression model of
the relationship between the independent and dependent variables X and Y, specified to the nth power.
6. Bayesian Linear Regression
A Bayesian regression model is a type of regression engine model in training that uses
Bayes ' theorem to determine the value of regression coefficients. In this regression,
posterior the feature distribution to a specific location to find the least squares. Bayesian
line regression, i.e. both Line regression and ridge regression, but it is more stable than a
simple linear regression model

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