361 Volume 1

Review of Australian standard AS5100 Bridge design
with a view to adoption - Volume 1

October 2008
Research Report 361

Review of Australian standard
AS 5100 Bridge design
with a view to adoption
Volume 1
D. K. Kirkcaldie
Opus International Consultants Limited
Wellington
J. H. Wood
John Wood Consulting
Lower Hutt
NZ Transport Agency Research Report 361

ISBN 978-0-478-33423-4
ISSN 1173-3756
© 2008, NZ Transport Agency

Private Bag 6995, Wellington 6141, New Zealand
Telephone 64 4 894 5400; Facsimile 64 4 894 6100
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.nzta.govt.nz
Kirkcaldie, D. K., and Wood, J. H. 2008. Review of Australian standard AS 5100

Bridge design with a view to adoption. Volume 1. NZ Transport Agency Research
Report 361. 130 pp.
This report is published in two volumes as follows:
Volume 1: Executive summary, recommendations and parts 1 to 4

Volume 2: Parts 5 to 8
Keywords: AS 5100, Australian bridge design, Transit NZ Bridge manual

An important note for the reader
The NZ Transport Agency is a Crown entity established under the Land Transport
Management Act 2003. The objective of the NZ Transport Agency is to undertake its
functions in a way that contributes to an affordable, integrated, safe, responsive, and
sustainable land transport system. Each year, the NZ Transport Agency invests a portion of
its funds on research that contributes to this objective.
This report is the final stage of a project commissioned by Land Transport New Zealand
before 31 July 2008 and is published by the NZ Transport Agency.
While this report is believed to be correct at the time of its preparation, the NZ Transport
Agency, and its employees and agents involved in its preparation and publication, cannot
accept any liability for its contents or for any consequences arising from its use. People
using the contents of the document, whether directly or indirectly, should apply and rely
on their own skill and judgement. They should not rely on its contents in isolation from
other sources of advice and information. If necessary, they should seek appropriate legal
or other expert advice in relation to their own circumstances, and to the use of this report.
The material contained in this report is the output of research and should not be
construed in any way as policy adopted by the NZ Transport Agency but may be used in
the formulation of future policy.
Additional note
The NZ Transport Agency (NZTA) was formally established on 1 August 2008, combining
the functions and expertise of Land Transport NZ and Transit NZ.
The new organisation will provide an integrated approach to transport planning, funding
and delivery.
This research report was prepared prior to the establishment of the NZTA and may refer to
Land Transport NZ and Transit NZ.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions made to this project by the peer
reviewers: Howard Chapman and Ian Billings, and the project steering group: Frank
McGuire (formerly Transit New Zealand), Ron Muir (Hutt City Council), Charles Clifton
(University of Auckland), and Ross Cato (Precast NZ).
Abbreviations and acronyms
AADT Annual average daily traffic

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI American Concrete Institute
AS Australian standard
AS 5100 AS 5100:2004. Bridge design
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
Bridge manual Bridge manual, 2nd edition 2003 and amendments, Transit
New Zealand
BS British standard
BSI British Standards Institute
HERA Heavy Engineering Research Association
HLP Heavy load platform
NZBC New Zealand Building Code
NZS New Zealand standard
NZTA New Zealand Transport Agency
SAI SAI Global Ltd
SLS Serviceability limit state
TOPS Transit New Zealand’s Overweight Permit System
Transit Transit New Zealand (now NZ Transport Agency)
Transit NZ Transit New Zealand (now NZ Transport Agency)
UDL Uniformly distributed load
ULS Ultimate limit state
Contents: Volume 1
Executive summary ................................................................................................................... 7

Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 43
Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 44
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 45
Purpose of the proposed research ................................................................................... 45
Report format.................................................................................................................. 46
1. AS 5100.1: Scope and general principles ...................................................................... 47
AS 5100.1 content .......................................................................................................... 47
1.1 Scope (section 1) and application (section 2) ......................................................... 47
1.2 Application............................................................................................................ 48
1.3 Referenced documents.......................................................................................... 48
1.4 Definitions ............................................................................................................ 49
1.5 Notation ................................................................................................................ 50
1.6 Design philosophy ................................................................................................ 50
1.7 Waterways and flood design.................................................................................. 52
1.8 Environmental impact............................................................................................ 53
1.9 Geometric requirements........................................................................................ 54
1.10 Road traffic barriers .............................................................................................. 58
1.11 Collision protection............................................................................................... 60
1.12 Pedestrian and bicycle-path barriers...................................................................... 61
1.13 Noise barriers........................................................................................................ 62
1.14 Drainage ............................................................................................................... 62
1.15 Access for inspection and maintenance................................................................. 63
1.16 Utilities.................................................................................................................. 64
1.17 Skew railway bridges (section 17) and camber on railway bridges (section 18)...... 64
1.18 Appendix A: Matters for resolution before design commences.............................. 64
1.19 Appendix B: Road barrier performance level selection method .............................. 65
2. AS 5100.2: Design loads ................................................................................................ 68
AS 5100.2 content .......................................................................................................... 68
2.1 Scope and general................................................................................................. 69
2.2 Referenced documents.......................................................................................... 69
2.3 Definitions ............................................................................................................ 70
2.4 Notation ................................................................................................................ 70
2.5 Dead loads ............................................................................................................ 70
2.6 Road traffic ........................................................................................................... 72
2.7 Pedestrian and footpath load ................................................................................ 83
2.8 Railway traffic........................................................................................................ 85
2.9 Minimum lateral restraint capacity ........................................................................ 85
2.10 Collision loads....................................................................................................... 86
2.11 Kerb and barrier design loads and other requirements for road traffic barriers ..... 87
2.12 Dynamic behaviour................................................................................................ 90
2.13 Earth pressure....................................................................................................... 91
2.14 Earthquake forces ................................................................................................. 92
5
2.15 Forces resulting from water flow ........................................................................... 93
2.16 Wind loads ............................................................................................................ 96
2.17 Thermal effects ..................................................................................................... 97
2.18 Shrinkage, creep and prestress effects ................................................................ 101
2.19 Differential movement of supports...................................................................... 101
2.20 Forces from bearings .......................................................................................... 102
2.21 Construction forces and effects........................................................................... 103
2.22 Load combinations .............................................................................................. 103
2.23 Road signs and lighting structures ...................................................................... 107
2.24 Noise barriers...................................................................................................... 107
2.25 Appendix A: Design loads for medium and special performance barriers ............ 108
3. AS 5100.3: Foundations and soil supporting structures ............................................ 109
AS 5100.3 content......................................................................................................... 109
3.1 Scope .................................................................................................................. 109
3.2 Application.......................................................................................................... 110
3.3 Referenced documents........................................................................................ 110
3.4 Definitions .......................................................................................................... 111
3.5 Notation .............................................................................................................. 111
3.6 Site investigations ............................................................................................... 111
3.7 Design requirements ........................................................................................... 112
3.8 Loads and load combinations.............................................................................. 112
3.9 Durability ............................................................................................................ 113
3.10 Shallow footings.................................................................................................. 114
3.11 Piled foundations ................................................................................................ 115
3.12 Anchorages ......................................................................................................... 117
3.13 Retaining walls and abutments............................................................................ 118
3.14 Buried structures................................................................................................. 119
3.15 Assessment of geotechnical strength reduction factors for piles (appendix A) .... 120
3.16 On-site assessment tests of anchorages (appendix B).......................................... 120
3.17 Summary of AS 5100.3........................................................................................ 120
4. AS 5100.4: Bearings and deck joints ........................................................................... 121
AS 5100.4 content......................................................................................................... 121
4.1 Status of adoption of AS 5100.4 for use in New Zealand ..................................... 121
4.2 Supplementary requirements adopted for the application of AS 5100.4 in
New Zealand ....................................................................................................... 122
4.3 Bridge manual amendment commentary ............................................................. 126
4.4 Summary of AS 5100.4........................................................................................ 129
6
Executive summary
The objective of this project was to investigate the suitability and practicality of adopting the
Australian standard AS 5100:2004 (AS 5100) for bridge design for New Zealand. To complete
this objective, the significant differences and gaps between current design requirements of
AS 5100 and the Transit NZ Bridge manual (2nd ed 2003) and its supporting standards were
identified. The project considered the New Zealand regulatory environment and identified the
measures required to enable the use of AS 5100 in New Zealand.
Each section of the seven parts of AS 5100 was compared with the equivalent section of the
Bridge manual and its supporting standards. A summary is given below of the main
differences between the two design documents and the material needed in terms of
supplementary documents to make AS 5100 suitable for application to bridge design in
New Zealand. The full extent of the material that would need to be harmonised is
considerable. See the appropriate sections in the report for a more complete identification of
the supplementary material required if AS 5100 were adopted. Following the conclusions
given below, tables E1 to E6 summarise the actions required for the preparation of
supplementary documentation necessary to make parts 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 of AS 5100 suitable
for adoption in New Zealand. Part 4 of AS 5100 ‘Bearings and deck joints’ has already been
adopted by the Bridge manual and if AS 5100 were adopted it is recommended that part 7
‘Rating of existing bridges’ be adopted in its entirety (with minor supplementary material) as
a guideline document together with the present Bridge manual section 6 ‘Evaluation of
bridges and culverts’.
The parts and sections in AS 5100 are referred to below using the numbering in the standard.
AS 5100.1: Scope and general principles

Sections 1 and 2: Scope and application
The scope and application sections of AS 5100.1 encompass the scope and application of the
Bridge manual and could be adopted without significant change.
Section 3: Referenced documents

Additions and some exclusions would need to be made to the AS 5100.1 section 3 list of
referenced documents to incorporate relevant New Zealand standards and regulations.
Section 4: Definitions
AS 5100.1 and AS/NZS 1170 definitions of design life and design working life are consistent
with the durability requirements of the Bridge manual. However, the Bridge manual provides
the more appropriate definition of design working life and also treats durability explicitly,
which is the preferred approach.
Section 5: Notation
Section 5 of AS 5100.1 is suitable for adoption without modification, subject to the clauses to
which the notation refers being adopted without modification.
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REVIEW OF AUSTRALIAN STANDARD AS 5100 BRIDGE DESIGN WITH A VIEW TO ADOPTION. VOLUME 1
Section 6: Design philosophy

Section 6 of AS 5100.1 is generally suitable for application in New Zealand; however, if
AS 5100 were adopted, its philosophy would need to be checked with the Department of
Building and Housing to ensure it meets the requirements of the New Zealand Building Code
(NZBC). In view of the philosophical differences between AS 5100.1 and the Bridge manual,
supplementary documentation may be required to address the following:
 the specification of design lives for ancillary structures

 the replacement of the definition of ultimate actions with Bridge manual text describing
the basis of derivation of design ultimate actions as applied in New Zealand
 the incorporation of specific requirements for durability and structural robustness
corresponding to those set out in the Bridge manual.
Section 7: Waterways and flood design

Section 7 of AS 5100.1 sets out general waterway and flood design considerations, which are
suitable for application in New Zealand when supplemented by the specific requirements of
the Bridge manual, and with the design flood events replaced by the Bridge manual
requirements.
Section 8: Environmental impact

AS 5100.1 section 8 requirements are appropriate for adoption for New Zealand use.
Section 9: Geometric requirements

Section 9 of AS 5100.1 outlines the factors to be considered in determining geometrics of the
bridge deck cross-section but in some respects it is less specific than the Bridge manual for
the make-up of the deck cross-section and the various combinations of lane width, edge
clearance, barrier form and footpaths/cycletrack. Before adopting AS 5100.1 bridge width
criteria, Transit’s roading geometrics and traffic safety specialists would need to review them
in detail.
The AS 5100.1 approach of adopting different vertical clearances dependent on the road type
being crossed would need to be modified for application in New Zealand.
AS 5100.1 geometric provisions for footbridges, subways and cyclepaths are generally
appropriate for New Zealand, but a review of the width necessary to accommodate cyclists on
the road carriageway would be required as the provisions are wider than the 1.5 m shoulders
usually provided in New Zealand.
Section 10: Road traffic barriers

AS 5100.1 section 10 criteria are generally suitable for adoption in New Zealand except that
NCHRP 350 test level 3 (TL3) is a more appropriate lower bound for the minimum level of
side protection.
If AS 5100.1 were adopted, it would be desirable to prepare supplementary documentation

retaining:
 the Bridge manual’s risk-based procedure for derivation of the required performance
level
 the listing of preferred acceptable non-proprietary barrier solutions
 Transit’s requirements for geometric layout, end treatment and transitions
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Executive summary
 the drawings of standard detailing for the Transit W-section bridge guardrail system.
Section 11: Collision protection

AS 5100.1 section 11 requirements for collision protection are suitable for application in
New Zealand.
Section 12: Cycle path barriers

AS 5100.1 section 12 requirements for pedestrian and bicycle-path barriers are generally
suitable for application in New Zealand. Supplementary documentation would be required to
cover requirements for kerbs.
Section 13: Noise barriers

AS 5100.1 section 13 requirements for noise barriers are suitable for application in
New Zealand. However, they are not very extensive and it would be necessary to consider
whether they are sufficiently comprehensive.
Section 14: Drainage

AS 5100.1 section 14 requirements are suitable for adoption in New Zealand. However, the
Bridge manual provisions largely complement these requirements with little duplication and
if AS 5100.1 were adopted the provisions should be retained and included in supplementary
documentation.
Section 15: Access for inspection and maintenance

AS 5100.1 section 15 requirements are suitable for adoption in New Zealand.
Section 16: Utilities

AS 5100.1 section 16 requirements are suitable for adoption in New Zealand. However, the
Bridge manual provisions largely complement these requirements and if AS 5100.1 were
adopted the provisions should be retained and included in supplementary documentation.
Appendix A: Matters for resolution before design commences

The adoption of AS 5100.1 would require a review of all appendix A clauses. Transit’s
requirements for each would need to be included in supplementary documentation.
Appendix B: Road barrier performance level selection method

Overall, the AS 5100.1 appendix B road barrier performance selection method is suitable for
application in New Zealand and offers some improvements over the current Bridge manual
method. The adoption of AS 5100.1 would require a review of the appropriateness of the
road type and curvature factors for New Zealand conditions. If the current Bridge manual
factors were retained, supplementary documentation would need to be prepared. Retention
of the Bridge manual criteria for performance levels 6 and special would need to be
considered.
AS 5100.2: Design loads

Section 1: Scope and general
Section 1 of AS 5100.2 is suitable for application in New Zealand, but would benefit from
having the list of information to be presented on the drawings extended to include:
 foundation bearing capacity
9
 material characteristic strength and properties (eg concrete compressive strength f’c,
steel yield strength fy) and the steel material standard .

If AS 5100.2 were adopted, additions and possibly some exclusions would need to be made
to the section 2 reference list to incorporate documents relevant to New Zealand.
Section 3 of AS 5100.2 states that the definitions of AS 5100.1 apply. See comments made
for AS 5100.1.
Section 4: Notation
Section 4 of AS 5100.2 is suitable for adoption without modification subject to the clauses to
which the notation refers being adopted without modification.
Section 5: Dead loads

AS 5100.2 section 5 dead load ultimate limit state (ULS) load factors are significantly lower
than those adopted by the Bridge manual, while the superimposed live load ULS factors are
significantly higher. The Bridge manual load factors for dead load generally align reasonably
with AS/NZS 1170.
Before AS 5100.2 could be adopted a detailed review of load factors and load combinations
appropriate for New Zealand should be carried out. This review would need to extend to all
other load types to ensure alignment with the safety index adopted by the NZBC and its
supporting verification methods and approved documents.
If AS 5100.2 were adopted it would also be necessary to improve the treatment of load
factors and strength reduction factors for soil retaining structures. This area is not
adequately covered in the Bridge manual.
Section 6: Road traffic

Except at span lengths approaching 100 m, the moving load model (M1600) is the dominant
design loading specified in AS 5100.2 section 6 and is approximately twice the design
loading currently adopted in New Zealand for spans over 20 m. The AS 5100.2, A160 axle
loading is 1.33 times higher than the Bridge manual HN axle loading. Adoption of the
AS 5100.2 design traffic live loading would have significant implications for the construction
cost of new bridges and require the development of policy for the management of the load
capacity of existing bridges.
The AS 5100.2, M1600 and stationary load model (S1600) design loadings, with their
unsymmetrical arrangement of varying and variable axle group spacings, are unnecessarily
complicated simulations of design loading that would add considerably to the modelling and
analysis effort involved in design. The Bridge manual HN and HO loadings are much simpler
and give a satisfactory representation of the traffic load effects on New Zealand bridges. The
AS 5100 approach of applying reduction factors for multiple lanes loaded to individual lanes
is similarly more complicated than the Bridge manual approach, and again the justification
for this added complexity is questionable.
A review was recently undertaken of the design traffic live loadings appropriate for use in
New Zealand and, as a result, revisions were made. However, these revisions are currently
10
Executive summary
subject to debate between NZ Transport Agency (NZTA) and other parties and it would not be
appropriate to adopt the AS 5100.2 design traffic live loads at the present time.
Section 7: Pedestrian and bicycle-path load

The AS 5100.2 section 7 footpath uniformly distributed load (UDL) generally reduces more
rapidly in relation to length than the Bridge manual loading. Which load specification is more
appropriate is not clear and would require a more detailed review if AS 5100.2 were adopted.
The AS 5100.2 specification for accidental loading of a footpath by a vehicle, at one-third the
rate set out in the Bridge manual, is not suitable for adoption. The AS 5100.2 service access
loading is also judged to be too light, equating to approximately two to three people.
Section 9: Minimum lateral restraint capacity

The AS 5100.2 section 9 requirement for the provision of lateral force capacity at each
continuous section of the bridge superstructure could be adopted, but the level of restraint
should be revised to have a more rational basis.
Section 10: Collision loads

AS 5100.2 section 10 and the Bridge manual design loads and method of application for
traffic collision with bridge supports are essentially the same. The Bridge manual provisions
for train collision were adopted from the 1992 Austroads bridge design code, and so bear
some similarity to the AS 5100.2 requirements but these have now been extensively revised
and extended. The Bridge manual covers possible ship impact on bridge piers but this load is
not covered in AS 5100.2.
If AS 5100.2 collision load requirements were to be adopted supplementary documentation

would be needed to:
 clarify the circumstances for which the design of traffic collision load on supports would
be required
 incorporate a design traffic collision loading for bridge superstructures
 clarify, for train collisions and the alternative load path approach, when more than one
pier is considered to be removed
 present alternative requirements regarding train collision when not based on pier support
redundancy
 incorporate requirements for withstanding possible ship impact.
Section 11: Kerb and barrier design loads and other requirements for road
traffic bridges
AS 5100.2 section 11 requirements for kerb and barrier design loads do not adequately
reflect the requirements of the Bridge manual. If AS 5100.2 were to be adopted, detailed
review of some aspects and supplementary documentation would be required in the following
areas:
 The Bridge manual barrier acceptance criteria would need incorporation.

 Barrier design loads for performance level 3 traffic barriers would need incorporation.
 The traffic barrier failure hierarchy would require review.
 The AS 5100.2 requirement prohibiting shear keying between the abutting ends of
adjacent parapets at expansion joints would require revision.
11
 The design loads for pedestrian barriers would require detailed review, in view of the
significant differences between the AS 5100.2 and Bridge manual design loadings.
 The design loadings for handrails mounted on top of traffic barriers would need review
and incorporation.
Section 12: Dynamic behaviour

For road bridges, AS 5100.2 section 12 offers an attractively simple initial approach for
dynamic loading; however, it is based on the AS 5100.2 design traffic live loading. For
pedestrian bridges, the AS 5100.2 load of 700 N appears to be unrealistically high, as the
‘dynamic excitation’ load and a person’s speed of travel across the bridge is not well defined.
By comparison, the BS 5400 part 2 loading adopted by the Bridge manual, applies a
sinusoidally varying load with a peak magnitude of 180 N, which appears more reasonable.
To adopt the AS 5100.2 provisions for dynamic behaviour, review and supplementary
documentation would be required to consider the:
 specification of the design loadings for road bridges

 specification of the dynamic behaviour acceptance criteria for road bridges for at least
those requiring dynamic analysis
 clarification of the speed of travel of the design load for pedestrian bridges.
Section 13: Earth pressure

The AS 5100.2 section 13 surcharge load is designed to be a simulation of the design traffic
load effects on retaining walls. If the AS 5100.2 design traffic loads were not adopted, and
the HN–HO loading retained, then the Bridge manual earth pressures from traffic live loading
should also be retained.
AS 5100.2 section 13 provides an appropriate method for simulation of the effects of train
loading on earth retaining structures.
Section 14: Earthquake forces

AS 5100.2 section 13 requirements do not incorporate seismic hazard spectra for
New Zealand or provide the necessary depth of treatment for such a dominant aspect of
structural design in New Zealand. If AS 5100.2 were adopted, extensive supplementary
documentation would be required to largely replace this section and incorporate seismic
resistant design criteria appropriate to New Zealand.
Although the AS 5100.2 earthquake load provisions could perhaps be adopted for low
seismicity areas in New Zealand, a consistent approach for all of New Zealand seems
necessary to ensure acceptability of designs for building consent under the New Zealand
Building Act 2004.
Section 15: Forces resulting from water flow

The AS 5100.2 section 15 provisions for forces resulting from water flow are generally more
comprehensive than those presented in the Bridge manual, and could be adopted with minor
changes to clarify lift factors for small angles of attack on piers and the shape and size for
the design debris raft.
12
Executive summary
If AS 5100.2 were adopted, supplementary documentation would be required to incorporate

the minor changes for lift factors and angles of attack and to retain the Bridge manual ULS
and SLS design return periods which align with AS/NZS 1170.
Section 16: Wind loads

The Bridge manual adopts the BS 5400 part 2 approach which requires consideration of wind
acting on adverse and relieving areas, and reduces the design wind speed for wind acting on
relieving areas. The BS 5400 Part 2 and AS 5100.2 section 16 approaches have a lot of
similarity in their derivation of drag and lift coefficients and loaded areas, but the BS 5400
approach is generally a little more refined than the provisions of AS 5100.2.
If AS 5100.2 were adopted, the Bridge manual requirements for wind load should be retained
as they are more comprehensive than those presented in AS 5100.2 and the return periods
for the ULS and SLS align with AS/NZS 1170.
Section 17: Thermal effects

The AS 5100.2 section 17 treatment of overall temperature effects is geared to Australian
conditions and is not directly applicable to New Zealand.
For differential temperature, a detailed study is needed to compare the results from applying
the AS 5100.2 differential temperature gradient curves with those given in the Bridge
manual.
If AS 5100 were adopted, supplementary documentation would be required to incorporate

temperature ranges for overall temperature change effects and reference temperature
gradients appropriate for New Zealand conditions and for the bridge types used in
New Zealand.
Section 18: Shrinkage, creep and prestress effects

While the requirements of AS 5100.2 section 18 are generally suitable for adoption, they
would need to be extended, through supplementary documentation, to incorporate additional
requirements given in the Bridge manual on the use of cracked sections, restraint of bearings
and differential shrinkage in composite structures. In addition, a review of the load factors
adopted by AS 5100.2 would be required.
Section 19: Differential movement of supports

The AS 5100.2 section 19 requirements for differential movement are generally suitable for
adoption but if adopted supplementary documentation would be required to cover:
 differential settlement as an ULS load condition

 extended causes of ground deformation
 horizontal and rotational deformations imposed on the structure.
Section 20: Forces from bearings

AS 5100.2 section 20 requirements are generally suitable for adoption but the treatment of
bearing frictional forces at the ULS should be more clearly expressed.
Section 21: Construction forces and effects

AS 5100.2 section 21 requirements are suitable for adoption without modification.
13
Section 22: Load combinations

AS 5100.2 section 22 load combinations are presented by simple expressions that appear to
neglect detailed consideration of the loads that are likely to coexist. For the SLS the number
of load combinations to be considered precludes the use of manual methods and would
require the use of a computerised process.
For the ULS, the Bridge manual considers a wider range of loads acting concurrently on the
structure than do the AS 5100.2 provisions.
Adoption of the AS 5100 load combinations is not recommended. If AS 5100.2 were adopted,
supplementary documentation would be required to incorporate the Bridge manual load
combinations.
Section 23: Road signs and lighting structures

AS 5100.2 section 13 requirements are generally suitable for adoption but the design wind
speeds should be reviewed and made consistent with the principles presented in
AS/NZS 1170. Alignment with this code is important for building consent purposes.
Section 24: Noise barriers

As for road signs and lighting structures, the design requirements set out in AS 5100.2 for
noise barriers are generally suitable for adoption but the design wind speeds should be
reviewed and made consistent with the principles presented in AS/NZS 1170.
Appendix A: Design loads for medium and special performance level barriers
The differences between the requirements given in appendix A of AS 5100.2 and the
corresponding Bridge manual provisions are relatively minor. Appendix A is generally
suitable for adoption.
AS 5100.3: Foundations and soil supporting structures

Section 1: Scope
Section 1 is suitable for adoption should AS 5100.3 as a whole be adopted. It should be
extended with supplementary documentation to incorporate requirements for the design of
earthworks.
Section 2: Application
Section 2 is suitable for adoption should AS 5100.3 as a whole be accepted.

If AS 5100.3 were adopted additions, and possibly some exclusions, would need to be made
to the referenced documents to incorporate documents required by the supplementary
material.
Section 4 of AS 5100.3 is suitable for adoption as is.
Section 5: Notation
Section 5 of AS 5100.3 is suitable for adoption. Extension of the list of notations may be
required to incorporate notation from any supplementary documentation used to support
other adopted sections of AS 5100.3.
14
Executive summary
Section 6: Site investigation

AS 5100.3 section 6 requirements are generally suitable for adoption but if adopted
supplementary documentation would be needed to cover additional requirements specified
by the Bridge manual, including the confirmation of site conditions during construction.
Section 7: Design requirements

Section 7 of AS 5100.3 is generally suitable for adoption provided the other sections which it
refers to are also adopted. If AS 5100.3 were adopted, supplementary documentation would
be required to incorporate requirements for the capacity design of foundations and for the
design of earthworks.
Section 8: Loads and load combinations

If AS 5100.3 section 8 were adopted, review and amendment of the following areas with
supplementary documentation would be required:
 the design of spill-through abutments columns

 load factors for soil supporting structures where the loads are imposed predominantly
from the soil
 the Bridge manual consideration of settlement and the requirement to consider dynamic
and earthquake actions on earth retaining structures.
Section 9: Durability
Section 9 of AS 5100.3 is generally suitable for adoption. If AS 5100.5 were not adopted for
concrete design, supplementary documentation would be required to state the durability
requirements for concrete structures.
Section 10: Shallow footings

AS 5100.3 section 10 requirements are generally suitable for adoption. If AS 5100.3 were
adopted, supplementary documentation would need to be included to retain the referenced
design guidelines given in the Bridge manual.
Section 11: Piled foundation

Section 11 of AS 5100 is generally suitable for adoption, but would require supplementing
with additional documentation to include the Bridge manual requirements for seismic
resistance. In addition the following areas would require review:
 the location of the maximum design moments in laterally loaded piles

 the strength reduction factors at the top end of the range adopted by AS 2159
(AS 5100.3 requires strength reduction factors to be in accordance with this standard).
Section 12: Anchorages

AS 5100.3 section 12 requirements are generally suitable for adoption, but clarification on
capacity reduction factors would be required. Reference is made to AS 5100.5 and AS 5100.6
for structural strength reduction factors, but these do not appear to be clearly defined in the
sections on anchorages.
If AS 5100 were adopted, supplementary documentation would be required to incorporate the

Bridge manual requirements for the corrosion protection of anchors and other Bridge manual
requirements for anchored and soil nailed walls not included in AS 5100.3.
15
Section 13: Retaining walls and abutments

Section 13 of AS 5100.3 lacks adequate criteria for the performance of abutments and
retaining walls under earthquake loads. Otherwise it is generally suitable for adoption subject
to other parts of AS 5100 referred to also being adopted.

the categorisation of walls and seismic performance criteria presented in the Bridge manual.
Section 14: Buried structures

Section 14 of AS 5100.3 is generally suitable for adoption; however, if adopted,
supplementary documentation would be required to incorporate the Bridge manual
provisions for earthquake resistant design of buried structures.
AS 5100.3 does not specifically cover corrugated metal structures, and so the standards cited
by the Bridge manual should be reviewed and considered for inclusion.
Appendix A: Assessment of geotechnical strength reduction factors for piles

As indicated above for section 11, a review would be required of the strength reduction
factors at the top end of the specified ranges given in this appendix.
Appendix B: On site tests of anchorages

Appendix B is suitable for adoption.
Other considerations – strength reduction factors

Throughout AS 5100.3, geotechnical strength reduction factors differ from one structural
element type to another for the same method of assessment of geotechnical strength. In
some cases these factors include allowance for the design life of the structure (ie whether
permanent or temporary) which is usually taken into account in the load factors assigned to
the design loading.
If AS 5100.3 were adopted, a review of the strength reduction factors and load factors would
be required to ensure that they satisfy the required safety index.
AS 5100.4: Bearings and deck joints

AS 5100.4 has previously been reviewed and adopted by the Bridge manual as the standard
for the design and performance of bearings and deck joints, supplemented by additional
requirements set out in the Bridge manual, section 4.7. The AS 5100.4 provisions for the
design of elastomeric bearings were not adopted. There is significant variation in the
approach adopted by existing standards (AS 5100, BS 5400, AASHTO and Eurocodes) and
uncertainty about which standards predict the characteristics of bearings most accurately. A
review of the various specifications would be required to determine the most suitable
approach for New Zealand conditions.
AS 5100.5: Concrete
The Bridge manual adopts NZS 3101 ‘Concrete structures’. However, NZS 3101:2006 is the
latest edition and was adopted for the purpose of this project.
16
Executive summary

Section 1 of AS 5100.5 would require significant amendment to be suitable for adoption. The
required amendments include:
 alignment of the reinforcing steels acceptable for use with those specified in NZS 3101
 extension of the list of references to include New Zealand and international documents
relevant to New Zealand practice
 an amalgamation of the AS 5100 and NZS 3101 list of information to be included on the
drawings or in the specification
 a statement on the relationship of the standard to the NZBC
 requirements relating to construction review.
Section 2: Design requirements and procedures

With the exception of the sub-section on ‘Other design requirements’ most of section 2 of
AS 5100.5 could be adopted without major modifications. Review of the strength reduction
factors would be required and it would be necessary to include a strength reduction factor for
when actions are derived from overstrengths of elements. A significant addition would need
to be made under ‘Other design requirements’ to include clause 2.6 of NZS 3101, which
stipulates additional design requirements related to earthquake effects. This would not be
straightforward as the terminology relating to classification of structures, inelastic behaviour
and capacity design are very different in the two standards.
Section 3: Loads and load combinations for stability, strength and serviceability
Section 3 of AS 5100.5 is generally suitable for adoption but modification would be required
in line with the actions, outlined in section 2 of this report (below), considered necessary to
adopt AS 5100.2.
Section 4: Design for durability

Section 4 of AS 5100.5 is generally suitable for adoption but significant changes would need
to be made. In particular, the Australian exposure classifications would need to be replaced
by the New Zealand ones and the tabulated covers for corrosion protection revised to be
more in line with NZS 3101. Supplementary provisions giving requirements for corrosion
protection of cast-in fixings and fastenings, and stating the need to take precautions against
alkali silica reaction would need to be incorporated.
Section 5: Design for fire resistance

Section 5 of AS 5100.5 could be adopted without modification; however, it would be
desirable to reference section 4 of NZS 3101 rather than AS 3600.
Section 6: Design properties of materials

With some minor modification section 6 of AS 5100.5 is suitable for adoption. The most
significant difference between this section and NZS 3101 is the restriction on the use of the
various ductility grades of reinforcement. This would need to be addressed. The more
restrictive requirements of NZS 3101 in this area are based on earthquake loading
considerations and would need to be adopted.
The shrinkage strain and creep factor coefficients given in AS 5100.5 are based on Australian
climatic conditions and these would need to be modified for New Zealand conditions.
17
Section 7: Methods of structural analysis

With some minor modification section 7 of AS 5100.5 is suitable for adoption. The most
significant difference between this section and NZS 3101 that would need to be addressed is
the selection of the best location within the adopted standard for clauses on seismic analysis
and deflection. Seismic design procedures are mainly covered in section 6 of AS 5100.5 and
in section 2 of NZS 3101, and the clauses on calculation of deflections presented in section 6
of NZS 3101 are in sections 8 and 9 of AS 5100.5.
Clauses on the design for seismic loads using elastic analyses, which are presented in
NZS 3101 and not included in AS 5100.5, would need to be added. Provisions for strut-and-
tie analysis methods would also need to be added. The basis for the differences in the
clauses on moment redistribution would need to be investigated and some modifications
made to reflect the best practice in this area for both live load and seismic load cases.
Section 8: Design of beams for strength and serviceability

With some modification section 8 of AS 5100.5 could be adopted. Although the general
approach used in both standards for the design of reinforced concrete and prestressed
concrete beams is essentially the same, there is a large number of relatively minor
differences that would need to be addressed by a careful review.
If AS 5100.5 were adopted, supplementary provisions would be needed to cover the

NZS 3101 special provisions for ductility in earthquakes applying to reinforced concrete beam
and slab members, and prestressed concrete beam members.
Section 9: Design of slabs for strength and serviceability

Significant modifications would need to be made to section 9 of AS 5100.5 before it could be
adopted. Supplementary material would need to be incorporated to provide for two-way slab
action, elastic plate analysis and the empirical membrane design method given in NZS 3101.
Section 10: Design of columns and tension members for strength and
serviceability
With some modification section 10 of AS 5100.5 could be adopted. Although the general
approach used in both standards for the design of reinforced concrete columns is essentially
the same there is a large number of relatively minor differences that would need to be
addressed by a careful review.
If AS 5100.5 were adopted, supplementary provisions would need to be incorporated to cover

the NZS 3101 special provisions applying to reinforced concrete columns designed for
ductility in earthquakes.
Section 11: Design of walls

Section 10 of AS 5100.5 could not be adopted without the addition of significant
supplementary material, including special provisions applying to walls designed for ductility
in earthquakes, to bring the provisions more in line with those of NZS 3101. A significant
limitation of the provisions in AS 5100.5 for walls is that they do not cover members
subjected to in-plane horizontal forces (reference is made to AS 3600 for this type of
loading). The AS 5100.5 wall provisions are only applicable to the design for gravity loads on
retaining walls and abutments and are not suitable for the design of laterally loaded pier
walls.
18
Executive summary
Section 12: Design of non-flexural members, end zones and bearing surfaces
With a number of modifications section 12 of AS 5100.5 could be adopted. A significant
amount of supplementary material on areas covered in NZS 3101 and not in AS 5100.5,
including provisions for piles and pile caps and the application of strut-and–tie and elastic
analysis methods for the design of anchor zones, would need to be incorporated.
Section 13: Stress development and splicing of reinforcement and tendons

With a number of modifications section 13 of AS 5100.5 could be adopted. Supplementary
material on provisions presented in NZS 3101 and not covered in AS 5100.5, would need to
be incorporated. In particular, additional material would be needed to cover the development
of flexural reinforcement at critical sections and the special requirements for members
designed for earthquake effects.
Section 14: Joints, embedded items, fixing and connections

Section 14 of AS 5100.5 could be adopted. Supplementary material, to incorporate provisions
presented in NZS 3101 and not covered in AS 5100.5, would need to be incorporated. In
particular, additional material would be needed to cover the design of cast-in anchors and the
design of fixings for earthquake effects.
Section 15: Plain concrete members

The provisions in section 15 of AS 5100.5 could be adopted for use in New Zealand without
significant modification.
Section 16: Material and construction requirements

If AS 5100.5 were adopted, section 16 would need to be replaced by the provisions of NZS
3109 ‘Specification for concrete construction’, which is more appropriate for New Zealand
conditions.
Section 17: Testing of members and structures

Section 17 of AS 5100.5 could be adopted without significant modification. It would be
necessary to integrate these provisions with the Bridge manual procedures for assessing the
strength of existing bridges by proof loading. There is some overlap and inconsistency
between the AS 5100.5 and Bridge manual provisions but it would not be a major task to
revise both sets of provisions to make them compatible.
Appendix A: Referenced documents

reference to the standards listed in NZS 3101 that are relevant to concrete bridge design.
Most of the documents listed in NZS 3101 that are not already in appendix A of AS 5100.5
would need to be included. Some of the Australian standards would need to be replaced by
the equivalent New Zealand ones.
Appendix B: Design of segmental concrete bridges

Appendix B of AS 5100.5 could be adopted without modification. It provides useful
background information applicable to the design of segmental concrete bridges.
19
Appendix C: Beam stability during erection

Appendix C of AS 5100.5 could be adopted without modification. It provides useful
information relevant to the design and construction of bridges constructed with precast
prestressed concrete beams.
Appendix D: Suspension reinforcement design procedures

Appendix D of AS 5100.5 could be adopted without modification. It provides useful
information relevant to the design and construction of frequently used details in bridge
superstructures.
Appendix E: Composite concrete member design procedures

Appendix E of AS 5100.5 could be adopted with minor modifications to make it consistent
with the provisions of section 18 of NZS 3101. It includes detailed design procedures,
additional to those given in NZS 3101, which are relevant to the design of commonly used
types of bridge superstructures such as I beams with cast in situ slabs.
Appendix F: Box girders

Appendix F of AS 5100.5 could be adopted without modification. It provides useful design
information for box girder superstructures that is not presented elsewhere in New Zealand
design standards.
Appendix G: End zones for prestressing anchors

Parts of appendix G of AS 5100.5 could be adopted but it would need to be revised to include
the more modern analysis procedures described in NZS 3101.
Appendix H: Standard precast prestressed concrete girder

A revised version of appendix H of AS 5100.5, presenting dimensions and section properties
of standard bridge beam sections used in New Zealand, could be adopted.
Appendix I: References
If AS 5100.5 were adopted, a much more comprehensive list of references would need to be
incorporated, based on those in the commentary to NZS 3101 that are relevant to concrete
bridge design.
NZS 3101 Material not included in AS 5100.5

The following sections of NZS 3101, containing parts relevant to bridge design, do not
receive significant coverage in AS 5100.5 and would need to be considered in supplementary
documentation if AS 5100.5 were adopted.
Section 13 Design of diaphragms

Although the provisions of section 13 of NZS 3101 apply to diaphragms in buildings some of
them are relevant to bridge design.
Section 14 Design of footings, piles and pile caps

The provisions of section 14 of NZS 3101 apply to the structural design of isolated and
combined footings. Basic principles for the structural design of piles are included. The
provisions of section 14 are applicable to both buildings and bridges.
AS 5100.5 contains very few provisions specifically related to the design of footings and pile
caps and no provisions for the structural design of piles.
20
Executive summary
Section 15 Design of beam column joints

The provisions of section 15 of NZS 3101 apply to the design of beam column joints subjected
to shear induced by gravity and earthquake loads. Although the provisions are directed mainly
towards building frames, they are also relevant to bridge pier frames and joints at the
intersections of bridge pier columns with footings. If AS 5100 were adopted, supplementary
information on the design of beam column joints would need to be incorporated.
Bridge manual provisions for concrete bridge design

The Bridge manual requires the design of concrete bridges to be in accordance with
NZS 3101, with modifications and additional provisions in the following areas:
 crack widths
 design for durability
 prestressing tendon losses
 minimum thickness of prismatic flexural members
 reinforced concrete deck slab design.
The Bridge manual supplementary material for prestressing tendon losses and reinforced
concrete deck slab design is not covered by the AS 5100.5 provisions and if AS 5100.5 were
adopted supplementary material would still be required to cover these areas. A detailed
review of the crack width and durability design provisions of AS 5100.5 and NZS 3101 would
also be required.
Limitation of NZS 3101 for bridge design

NZS 3101 states that although it has been developed to be generally applicable to the design
of bridges, and is adopted by the Bridge manual, some aspects are recognised as not being
adequately covered. It further states that aspects of bridge design for which reference to
technical literature should be made include design for the following:
a) the combination of shear, torsion and warping in box girders

b) deflection control taking into account the effects of creep, shrinkage and differential
shrinkage and differential creep
c) stress redistribution due to creep and shrinkage
d) the effects of temperature change and differential temperature (refer to the Bridge
manual for these design actions)
e) the effects of heat of hydration. This is particularly an issue where thick concrete
elements are cast as second stage construction and their thermal movements are
restrained by previous construction
f) shear and local flexural effects, which may arise where out-of-plane moments are
transmitted to web or slab members, or where the horizontal curvature of post-tensioned
cables induces such actions
g) seismic design of piers, where the curvature ductility demand is greater than given in
table 2.4 (NZS 3101).
Although omissions of the above items are a limitation of NZS 3101, with the exception of
items (d) and (f), these areas are not adequately addressed by the provisions of AS 5100.5. If
AS 5100.5 were adopted, supplementary information on the other bridge design aspects
listed above would be desirable.
21
AS 5100.6: Steel and composite construction

The Bridge manual adopts NZS 3404 for design in steel, except for steel box girders. For
steel box girders with composite concrete decks AS 5100.6 is adopted. For other box girders
BS 5400 parts 3, 5 and 10 are adopted.

Section 1 of AS 5100.6 is generally suitable for application in New Zealand. If AS 5100 were
adopted, the referenced standards, both within this section and throughout AS 5100.6, would
need to be reviewed and expanded to include New Zealand and international standards that are
relevant to design and construction in New Zealand. Consideration should be given to
incorporating a clause presenting definitions, as has been provided in other parts of AS 5100
and in NZS 3404. Differences in notation would need to be resolved if parts of NZS 3404 were
retained. The contents of NZS 3404 sections 1.5 ‘Use of alternative materials and methods’ and
1.6 ‘Design and construction review’ should also be incorporated for New Zealand practice.
Section 2: Materials
Section 2 of AS 5100.6 is generally suitable for adoption subject to amendment to
incorporate standards for the wide range of materials supplied in the New Zealand market
and standards appropriate to concrete construction in New Zealand.
Section 3: General design requirements

Section 3 of AS 5100.6 is generally suitable for adoption. If AS 5100 were adopted
supplementary documentation would be needed to explicitly incorporate a requirement to
design for earthquakes, and if necessary, to incorporate limitations on deflection and
vibration consistent with those associated with AS 5100.2. Definitions for the use of general
and structural purpose (GP and SP) welds should also be provided.
The AS 5100.6 provisions for corrosion resistance should be extended to include the
corrosion protection specified in NZS 3404 appendix C and to include requirements for
weathering steels, not currently covered by either standard.
Section 4: Methods of structural analysis

Section 4 of AS 5100.6 is generally suitable for adoption subject to it being supplemented
with additional documentation to incorporate the requirements related to seismic resistance
contained within NZS 3404. Supplementary documentation would also be required to
incorporate the additional analysis approaches (elastic analysis with moment and shear
redistribution, and plastic analysis) included in NZS 3404 with the limitations and exclusions
which are appropriate for gravity load design of bridges.
A review of the analysis procedure given in section 4 of AS 5100.6 for longitudinal shear
would be required to ensure that at the ULS adequate shear capacity was provided between
the points of zero and maximum moment to transfer the capacity of the deck slab across the
interface with the steel beam, particularly in continuous beams.
Section 5: Steel beams

Section 5 of AS 5100.6 is generally suitable for adoption subject to supplementary
documentation being prepared to incorporate the requirements contained in NZS 3404
related to seismic resistant design.
22
Executive summary
Where NZS 3404 presents requirements omitted from section 5 of AS 5100.6, these should
be incorporated through supplementary documentation.
Section 6: Composite beams

Providing the ratio of the ULS loading to the SLS loading acting on a composite section does
not exceed 1.8, section 6 of AS 5100.6 is generally suitable for adoption for the design of
composite beams. If AS 5100.6 were adopted supplementary documentation would be
required to incorporate the seismic design requirements contained within the corresponding
section of NZS 3404.
There is a significant difference between AS 5100.6 and NZS 3404 in the calculation of
strength associated with the design of transverse reinforcement. A review of these provisions
would be required.
Section 7: Composite box girders

Section 7 of AS 5100.6 has already been adopted by the Bridge manual.
Section 8: Transverse members and restraints

Section 8 of AS 5100.6 is suitable for adoption as is. It extends the requirements of NZS 3404
that are particularly applicable to bridges.
Section 9: Members subjected to axial tension

Section 9 of AS 5100.6 is suitable for adoption subject to the inclusion of supplementary
documentation to incorporate the seismic design requirements presented in NZS 3404.
Section 10: Members subjected to axial compression

documentation being prepared to incorporate the seismic design requirements of NZS 3404.
Section 11: Members subjected to combined actions

documentation being prepared to incorporate the NZS 3404 provision for plastically yielding
elements to have full lateral restraint.
Section 12: Connections

document being prepared to incorporate the following areas:
 the seismic design requirements contained within the corresponding section of NZS 3404
 pin design rules in NZS 3404 based on tests by the Heavy Engineering Research
Association (HERA) and incorporated in a 2001 amendment. They should, therefore, be
preferred to the rules given in AS 5100.6
 a requirement for splices in compression members between points of lateral support to
be designed for a minimum moment as well as a minimum axial load
 a requirement for the local effect of member connections on hollow sections to be
considered
 a requirement for the need for higher weld quality in some situations (eg to provide for
fatigue) to be considered. The guidance provided by NZS 3404 on weld category selection
should also be retained
23
 an increase in the range of applications for plug welds, as allowed by NZS 3404
 a correction to amend the size of plug and slot welds for plates less than 12 mm thick
 a requirement for welding consumables for butt welds to produce a minimum strength
not less than the parent metal.
Section 13: Fatigue

Section 13 of AS 5100.6 is generally suitable for adoption subject to the supplementary
documentation addressing the following:
 an amalgamation of the capacity factor requirements of AS 5100 and NZS 3404

 a review of the fatigue loading to achieve consistency with the design traffic loadings
adopted for use in New Zealand
 clarification and correction of the detail categories
 clarification of the definitions for frnc and frsc.
Section 14: Brittle fracture

Section 14 of AS 5100 is generally suitable for adoption, subject to incorporation of the
following NZS 3404 provisions through supplementary documentation:
 requirements for welding consumables and bolts

 the map of isotherms for New Zealand and reference to the National Institute of Water
and Atmospheric Research as the source for information on abnormally low local ambient
temperatures
 inclusion of AS 1554.5 as a standard to be complied with where appropriate
 requirements for the permissible temperature to be raised for category 1 and 2 members
of seismic resisting systems
 inclusion of the BS EN 10025 and JIS G 3106 steel grades, as these may also be
encountered in New Zealand.
Section 15: Testing of structures or elements

documentation being prepared to incorporate:
 the requirement for the test load to be applied for at least five minutes
 references to the Bridge manual as the source for the design loading to be used as the
test load
 reference to the Bridge manual for load application, instrumentation and procedure
 acceptance criteria for strength and ductility testing for seismic applications.
Appendix A: Elastic resistance to lateral buckling

Appendix A of AS 5100.6 is generally suitable for adoption.
Appendix B: Strength of stiffened web panels under combined actions

Appendix B of AS 5100.6 is generally suitable for adoption.
24
Executive summary
Appendix C: Second order elastic analysis

The wording of appendix C of AS 5100.6 has been amended over time, via AS 4100, from the
original wording presented in NZS 3404, with some changes in meaning that may not have
been intended. If adopted, appendix C should be subjected to a detailed review.
Appendix D: Eccentrically loaded double-bolted or welded single angles in

trusses
Appendix D of AS 5100.6 is suitable for adoption subject to:
 a review of the need to limit applicability to compression members with slenderness

ratios of L/ry < 150
 confirmation or correction of the expression for ‘e’ for the case of angles on opposite
sides of the truss chord.
Appendix E: Nominal section moment capacity for composite sections under

sagging moments
Although the simplified method of calculation in appendix E of AS 5100.6 is not consistent
with NZS 3101 it is considered suitable for adoption. In view of the level of accuracy in the
effective slab rules the approximate concrete stress block appears satisfactory and the
calculation method is well established.
Appendix F: Interaction curves for composite columns

Appendix F of AS 5100.6 is suitable for adoption for the design of segments of concrete
infilled steel tube columns where full composite action can be assumed.
Appendix G: Fabrication
Appendix G of AS 5100.6 is suitable for adoption subject to the addition of the NZS 3404
requirement limiting the yield stress of steel where required to satisfy seismic design
requirements.
Appendix H: Erection
Appendix H of AS 5100.6 is generally suitable for adoption; however, the material contained
in NZS 3404 and omitted from AS 5100.6 should be incorporated in supplementary
documentation.
Appendix I: Modification of existing structures

Appendix I of AS 5100.6 is suitable for adoption.
NZS 3404 Material not included within AS 5100.6

The following sections of NZS 3404, potentially relevant to bridge design, do not receive
significant coverage in AS 5100.6. If AS 5100.6 were adopted, supplementary documentation
based on the NZS 3404 provisions, would need to be prepared to include these areas.
Section 12: Seismic design

As earthquake loads are usually a significant consideration in the design of bridges in New
Zealand, except perhaps in the zones of lowest seismicity, it is essential that the design
standard for bridges in New Zealand include requirements for seismic design.
Appendix A: Referenced documents

A much more limited listing appears in AS 5100.6.
25
Appendix B: Maximum levels of ductility demand on structural steel seismic-resisting systems

This area is important for seismic design and is related to section 12 of NZS 3404.
Appendix C: Corrosion protection (brief coverage only in AS 5100.6 clause 3.7)

AS 5100.6 is deficient in its treatment of corrosion protection.
Appendix L: Inspection of bolt tension using a torque wrench

If AS 5100.6 were adopted, the requirements of appendix L of NZS 3404 for the inspection of
bolted connections would need to be incorporated into the AS 5100 appendix for erection.
Appendix M: Design procedure for bolted moment-resisting endplate connections

The requirements of appendix M of NZS 3404 are relevant to the seismic design of frames.
AS 5100.7: Rating of existing bridges

Section 1 of AS 5100.7 sets out appropriate requirements and principles for the evaluation of
bridge structures and is suitable for adoption. However, it does not cater adequately for the
needs of the Transit NZ Highway Permit System and if adopted supplementary documentation
would be required to incorporate provisions that address the information needs of the
Highway Permit System and administration of bridge posting under the Heavy Motor Vehicle
Regulations.

The referenced documents in section 2 of AS 5100.7 are appropriate for bridges built in the
past and future to AS 5100 requirements. If AS 5100.7 were adopted, supplementary
documentation would be required to incorporate the design standards that applied to
New Zealand bridges in the past.
Section 3: Notation
Section 3 of AS 5100.7 is suitable for adoption subject to the sections that contain the
notation also being adopted. If AS 5100.7 were adopted, notation in any supplementary
documentation would need to be harmonised with this notation.
Section 4: Rating philosophy

The AS 5100.7 section 4 outlines of the rating philosophy, principles and methodology are
suitable for adoption. However, if section 4 were adopted it would need to be supplemented
by the Bridge manual requirements which set out specifically the relevant reference rating
loads appropriate to New Zealand; set modelling assumptions to be adopted for a variety of
conditions; and provide methods for the evaluation of concrete and timber decks.
Section 5: Assessment of load capacity

Section 5 of AS 5100.7 is suitable for adoption but would need to be supplemented by the
Bridge manual requirements for the determination of material characteristic strengths,
including information on historical characteristic strengths of materials, and criteria for the
strength testing of materials and analysis of the test results.
26
Executive summary
Section 6: Load testing

Section 6 of AS 5100.7, as a general specification of load testing requirements, is suitable for
adoption; however, supplementary documentation would be needed to incorporate the Bridge
manual requirements for proof loading.
Section 7: Assessment of the actual loads

Section 7 of AS 5100.7, setting out the general principles and methods for assessing the
loads to be applied in the rating analysis is generally suitable for adoption, subject to
AS 5100.2 also being adopted. If AS 5100.7 were adopted, the Bridge manual’s prescriptive
requirements, geared to providing specific data in a consistent form for defined rating live
loads for use in Transit’s Overweight Permit System (TOPS) would need to be retained and
incorporated through the preparation of supplementary documentation.
Section 8: Fatigue
Section 8 of AS 5100.7 is generally suitable for adoption.
Topics not included in AS 5100, requiring coverage

The Bridge manual and the supporting materials design standards referenced by it include a
number of topics not included at all or to any significant extent in AS 5100. Topics essentially
not covered by AS 5100 are:
 bridge design statement

 influence of approaches
 aesthetics
 special studies
 design of earthworks
 seismic design of steel structures
 seismic design of concrete structures
 empirical design of reinforced concrete deck slabs based on assumed membrane action
 earthquake resistant design – encompassing:
- design philosophy
- ductility demand
- analysis methods
- member design criteria, foundation design and liquefaction
- structural integrity and provision for relative displacements
- earth retaining walls

 structural strengthening
 bridge side protection – Transit’s specific requirements in respect to:
- barrier acceptance criteria
- standard solutions
- design of deck slabs to resist barrier forces
- pedestrian and cyclist barriers, and combined pedestrian/traffic barriers
- geometric layout, end treatment and transitions
27
- barrier performance level 3 standard design

 toroidal rubber buffers
 lightly trafficked rural bridges
 bridge site information summary.
Conclusions
Conclusions on Part 1: Scope and general principles
Six of the AS 5100.1 sections could be adopted without significant change, seven would
require minor supplementary documentation and three: section 6 ‘Design philosophy, section
7 ‘Waterways and flood design’, and section 10 ‘Road traffic barriers’ would require major
supplementary documentation.
Conclusions on AS 5100.2: Design loads

Seven of the 24 AS 5100.2 sections could be adopted without significant change, 14 would
require minor supplementary documentation, four would require major supplementary
documentation and three: section 6 ‘Road traffic’, section 14 ‘Earthquake forces’, and section
22 ‘Load combinations’ would probably need replacement.
The three sections of AS 5100.2 requiring replacement would essentially be replaced by the
present or enhanced Bridge manual provisions so adopting AS 5100.2 would not involve
major review and development work.
Conclusions on AS 5100.3: Foundations and soil supporting structures

Five of the 14 AS 5100.3 sections could be adopted without significant change, nine would
require minor supplementary documentation, and three: section 8 ‘Loads and load
combinations’, section 12 ‘Anchorages’, and section 13 ‘Retaining walls and abutments’
would require major supplementary documentation.
Conclusions on AS 5100.4: Bearings and deck joints

AS 5100.4 has already been adopted by the Bridge manual subject to a number of additional
requirements set out in the manual. Adoption of a part of AS 5100.4 with supplementary
requirements covered by the Bridge manual has proved to be an acceptable approach for the
design of bridge components.
Conclusions on AS 5100.5: Concrete

Only one of the 17 AS 5100.5 sections could be adopted without significant change, five
would require minor supplementary documentation, nine would require major supplementary
documentation and one: section 16 ‘Materials and construction requirements’, would need
replacement.
AS 5100.5 is one of the most important parts of the whole document for New Zealand in that
most bridges in New Zealand are constructed of concrete or have major concrete
components, and this part should also include detailed earthquake design provisions. The
overall conclusion from this review is that there would be no advantage in adopting AS
5100.5 for concrete bridge design in New Zealand. A better approach would to be to continue
using NZS 3101 and add supplementary material to cover aspects of bridge design not
adequately addressed in NZS 3101. This supplementary material should incorporate or
28
Executive summary
include reference to some of the material in AS 5100.5, particularly the design information in
the appendices.
The main reasons for preferring NZS 3101 to AS 5100.5 for concrete bridge design in New
Zealand are as follows:
 The non-seismic sections of NZS 3101 are largely based upon the American Concrete
Institute (ACI) standard ACI 318-02. Because of the considerable resources of ACI this
standard is frequently updated to incorporate the latest developments in design practice,
structural analysis and concrete research. The ACI standard has world-wide acceptance
and has been adopted as the basis of concrete design standards in many non-European
countries.
 Some of the provisions of AS 5100.5 appear rather dated and may have been based on
earlier versions of the ACI standard.
 NZS 3101 was first published in 1982. (It replaced a provisional standard 3101P
containing similar provisions. The 1978 edition of the MWD Highway bridge design brief
required concrete bridges to be designed in accordance with DZ 3101 – a draft
forerunner to NZ 3101P). Prior to the adoption of NZS 3101, ACI-77 and earlier versions
of this standard were frequently used or referenced for the design of bridge and other
concrete structures in New Zealand. (For example ACI-63 was used in New Zealand in the
late 1960s.) Because of the close relationship of NZS 3101 to the ACI concrete design
standard and the application of NZS 3101 for the design of most concrete structures in
New Zealand since it was first introduced in the 1970s, New Zealand engineers have
become very familiar with the basis of the provisions, their application in design and the
notation and nomenclature. Changing to a different concrete design standard would be
disruptive and have economic disadvantages for many design offices.
 Adoption of AS 5100.5 for bridge design would result in a loss of consistency between
bridge design and the design of other concrete structures in New Zealand. This would be
a particular disadvantage for smaller design agencies where the same personnel
frequently design a wide range of concrete structures. Whether there are advantages in
having separate materials design standards for different types of structures (eg buildings
and bridges) is a debatable point. Although separate standards for buildings and bridges
are used in Australia and the United States, this is not the case in Europe where the
materials codes (Eurocodes) have generally been developed to cover the range of
commonly designed structures. In New Zealand, where specialist resources are limited, it
seems best that materials design codes should cover the widest possible range of
structures.
 NZS 3101 is more comprehensive than AS 5100.5, covering a wider range of topics
relevant to bridge design in New Zealand and providing more prescriptive detail. The
basis of the design provisions and background testing and research is referenced in a
comprehensive commentary to NZS 3101. A commentary to AS 5100.5 (AS 5100.5 supp 1
2008) has recently been published but was not available when the research for this
project was completed
 If AS 5100.5 were adopted a major supplement would be required to incorporate seismic
design requirements. This would be difficult and time consuming to prepare, and would
involve more than merely abstracting the seismic design provisions given in NZS 3101 as
these are interrelated to the provisions and nomenclature used for non-seismic aspects of
the design of many of the structural member types covered in the standard.
29
The main disadvantage of adopting NZS 3101, rather than AS 5100.5, is that there are a
number of relevant provisions in AS 5100.5 that are not adequately covered in NZS 3101.
These include:
 crack width limitations for bridges

 cover to tendons and ducts
 shrinkage and creep effects
 unbonded tendons
 curved prestressing ducts
 requirements for halved joints and hanger steel
 design of movement joints
 prototype testing and testing of hardened concrete
 guidelines for segmental, composite concrete and box girder bridges.
Many of the above provisions that not adequately covered in NZS 3101 are important for
bridge design but they tend to be ‘stand-alone’ items that do not impinge on other provisions
in the standards. For this reason, they would be relatively easy to incorporate by
supplementary documentation or by direct reference to the AS 5100 provisions.
The main advantage of adopting AS 5100.5 would be the development of consistency

between the concrete bridge design requirements of New Zealand and Australia. In particular,
the larger New Zealand consultancies, who undertake international work, would benefit most
from uniformity of design standards. Being able to draw on the specialist resources of both
countries for development and revision of the standards would also be an obvious advantage.
Overall, the disadvantages of adopting AS 5100.5 for New Zealand would outweigh the
advantages.
Conclusions on AS 5100.6: Steel and composite construction

Only one of the eight AS 5100.6 sections could be adopted without significant change, three
would require minor supplementary documentation, and four: section 1 ‘Scope and general’,
section 4 ‘Rating philosophy, section 5 ‘Assessment of load capacity’, and section 6
‘Composite beams’, would require major supplementary documentation. This major
documentation would be mainly required to incorporate seismic design requirements and
would probably take the form of a separate section with cross-referencing from the other
sections.
Rather than the adoption of AS 5100.6 with supplementary material it would be desirable to
have a joint AS/NZS standard for steel structures to cover the contents of AS 4100, AS 5100.6
and NZS 3404. The differences between these three codes are not major, and there would be
significant advantages in New Zealand and Australia adopting a joint standard that covered
both building and bridge steel structures. However, considering that the development of
separate building and bridge concrete codes in Australia is a reasonably recent development
it seems unlikely that reverting back to a unified standard would gain acceptance with all of
the various controlling agencies. An alternative approach that would be acceptable within
New Zealand would be to amend NZS 3404 to provide a more comprehensive cover of bridge
design requirements. An interim approach would be to maintain the status quo with the
Bridge manual adopting NZS 3404 but with additional supplementary material to incorporate
relevant AS 5100.6 provisions not included in NZ 3404.
30
Executive summary
One shortcoming of AS 5100.6 identified in this review is that there are many errors in the
design empirical equations. Corrections to many of these have been published in a document
issued by the Brisbane City Council. Formal correction of the code by issue of amendments
by the controlling authority, Standards Australia, appears to be a slow process.
Some of the advantages and disadvantages outlined above of adopting AS 5100.5 for New
Zealand also apply to AS 5100.6. Again the overriding considerations, which sway the choice
in favour of retaining NZS 3404, are the difficulty of preparing supplementary material for
AS 5100.6 to incorporate seismic design requirements, and the advantage in New Zealand of
maintaining consistency between building and bridge material design standards.
Conclusions on AS 5100.7: Rating of existing bridges

Four of the 15 AS 5100.7 sections could be adopted without significant change, nine would
require minor supplementary documentation, and four: section 3 ‘General design
requirements’, section 4 ‘Methods of structural analysis’, section 5 ‘Assessment of load
capacity’, and section 7 ‘Assessment of the actual loads’, would require major supplementary
documentation.
AS 5100.7 provides requirements and guidance of a general nature applicable to the rating of
bridges for live load capacity and is generally suitable for adoption. The Bridge manual’s
section 6: ‘Evaluation of bridges and culverts’, is specifically focused on providing the
information needed for posting bridges in accordance with New Zealand’s Heavy Motor
Vehicle Regulations and for the operation of TOPS. It is essential to retain this section of the
Bridge manual and AS 5100.7 should not be adopted in place of it. It would be appropriate to
adopt AS 5100.7 as a guideline document in its present form with minor supplementary
documentation, to stand alongside the Bridge manual’s section 6.
Conclusions on topics not included in AS 5100 requiring coverage

Most of the material covered in the Bridge manual that is not included in AS 5100 is
important for bridge design in New Zealand and is not adequately covered in other standards
or design guidelines. If AS 5100 were to be adopted, this material should be incorporated by
the preparation of a supplementary document and the earthquake resistant design provisions
of the Bridge manual would need to replace the earthquake load provisions presented in
AS 5100.2.
Overall conclusions on adopting AS 5100

Aligning the Bridge manual to AS 5100 by supplements is more complicated than may at first
appear, as significant differences arise in many areas including seismic design, design live
loading and slab design. As summarised above, without extensive supplements AS 5100 does
not meet many of the New Zealand design requirements. It would be cumbersome and rather
impractical to carry out design using an extensively supplemented document.
Conclusions on materials codes

Materials design standards should be comprehensive stand-alone documents (such as
NZS 3101 and NZS 3404), and should be referred to by structure design standards, such as
the Bridge manual. It would be a retrograde step if New Zealand were to convert to the
current Australian practice of structure-specific materials design standards. The two
Australian standards for the design of concrete structures – AS 3600 and AS 5100.5, and for
the design of structural steel – AS 4100 and AS 5100.6, lead to the possibility of conflict and
confusion between two sources of similar information. Producing, maintaining and
31
synchronising them also requires far more scarce technical resources than would be needed
if one materials design standard was produced to cover all common structural applications of
the material – as is the aim with NZS 3101 and NZS 3404. A compromise approach seems to
be that taken by the Eurocodes, where materials standards are presented with structure-
specific sections, as appropriate, and ‘national annexes’ to cover local requirements.
Conclusions on harmonisation of codes

It would be very desirable to have bridge design standards common to New Zealand and
Australia, as has been successfully achieved in areas such as the loading standard
AS/NZS1170. Many current differences arise from traditional practice, rather than from
necessary technical differences, and could be eliminated by adjustment of local practices.
Basic differences of practice (eg live loading, seismic) could be covered by separate sub-
sections, as has been done in AS/NZS 1170. Such a combined standard should be produced
by a joint committee from the two countries. If harmonisation of bridge design standards is
to be achieved, agreement on this approach is required before any other paths for
harmonisation are followed.
A separate step in any harmonisation would be to produce joint AS/NZS concrete and steel
materials design standards to apply to all common structural applications. Such a project
would require considerable resources to complete, and would have a greater chance of
success if the Australians could be convinced that structure specific materials design
standards are not required.
Conclusions on administrative matters

The Austroads Bridge Design Code that preceded AS 5100 was administered by the
Austroads roading authority. Now that AS 5100 is under the control of Standards Australia it
is understood that making revisions or amendments is a more protracted process than was
previously the case. An advantage of retaining the Bridge manual is that it would still be
controlled by an agency with a vested interest in expediting revisions and improvements.
32
Executive summary
Table E1 Summary table for AS 5100.1.
Proposed action if AS 5100.1 were adopted

Section Major issues
Adopt in present Minor Major Replace N/A
form supplement supplement
1 Scope 
2 Application 
3 Referenced documents Need to incorporate NZ standards and other 
documents as appropriate
4 Definitions 
5 Notation 
6 Design philosophy Highly desirable to align with AS/NZS 1170 
7 Waterways and flood design Bridge manual much more specific 
8 Environmental impact  
9 Geometric requirements Detailed review of the implication of differences 
required.
10 Road traffic barriers Detailed review of the implication of differences 
required. Retain Transit’s current standard and
preferred solutions.
11 Collision protection 
12 Pedestrian and bicycle barriers 
13 Noise barriers 
14 Drainage 
15 Access for inspection and maintenance 
16 Utilities 
17 Skew railway bridges 
18 Camber on railway bridges 
Appendix A: Matters for resolution before Need to reference relevant NZ and Transit documents. 
design commences
Appendix B: Road barrier performance level Detailed review of the differences in road type and 
selection method curvature factors required.
33

1 Scope and general  

2 Referenced documents 
3 Definitions 
4 Notation  
5 Dead loads Detailed review of the implications of differences 
required.
6 Road traffic AS 5100 design traffic loading is very much heavier than 
Bridge manual design traffic loading
7 Pedestrian and bicycle-path load Review of the differences required. 
8 Railway traffic 
9 Minimum lateral restraint capacity 
10 Collision loads Detailed review of requirements related to train collision 
required.
11 Kerb and barrier design loads and other Detailed review of the differences is required 
requirements for road traffic bridges
12 Dynamic behaviour Load simulation and acceptance criteria are very 
different. A detailed review is required.
13 Earth pressure 
14 Earthquake forces AS 5100 provides insufficient coverage of this usually 
dominant aspect of structural design in NZ
15 Forces resulting from water flow 
16 Wind loads 
17 Thermal effects Detailed review of differences required. Calibration 
required to NZ conditions.
18 Shrinkage, creep and prestress effects  
19 Differential movement of supports 
34
Executive summary

20 Forces from bearings  

21 Construction forces and effects 
22 Load combinations The AS 5100 formulation of load combinations is ? ?
significantly different to the Bridge manual. A detailed
review is required.
23 Road signs and lighting structures 
24 Noise barriers 
Appendix: Design loads for medium and 
special performance level barriers
35

1 Scope 
2 Application 
3 Referenced documents 
4 Definitions 
5 Notation  ?
6 Site investigations 
7 Design requirements Review required of strength reduction factors 
throughout this part.
8 Loads and load combinations 
9 Durability 
10 Shallow footings 
11 Piled foundations Review required of strength reduction factors. 
Earthquake resistant design requirements need
incorporating.
12 Anchorages Review and clarification required of strength reduction 
factors. Supplement specification for corrosion
protection of anchors. Interrelated with retaining walls,
earthquake resistant design requirements need
incorporating
13 Retaining walls and abutments Interrelated with anchorages, earthquake resistant 
design requirements need incorporating
14 Buried structures Specific requirements for flexible metal plate culverts 
need incorporating.
Appendix: Assessment of geotechnical Review required of strength reduction factors 
strength reduction factors for piles
Appendix: On-site assessment tests of 
anchorages
36
Executive summary

Section Major issues Adopt in present Minor Major
Replace N/A
1 Scope and general Alignment of reinforcing steels acceptable for use in NZ.

Relationship of AS 5100 to the NZ Building Code.
2 Design requirements and procedures Need to incorporate NZS 3101 requirements for
earthquake effects. Not straightforward because of

different terminology related to classification of
structures, inelastic behaviour and capacity design.
3 Loads and load combinations for Bridge manual load combinations need to be retained.

stability, strength and serviceability
4 Design for durability AS 5100 exposure classifications need to be replaced

and a number of corrosion protection issues addressed.
5 Design for fire resistance 
6 Design properties of materials Alignment of reinforcing steels acceptable for use in NZ.
Creep and shrinkage coefficients need to be modified for 
NZ conditions.
7 Methods of structural analysis Location within adopted standard for clauses on seismic
analysis and deflection.

Addition of clauses on seismic design using elastic
analysis.
8. Design of beams for strength and
Special provisions for members and frames designed for
serviceability 
9 Design of slabs for strength and Two-way slab action, elastic plate analysis and

serviceability membrane design method are not covered.
10 Design of columns and tension Design of transverse reinforcement for shear,
members for strength and serviceability confinement and lateral restraint of longitudinal bars.

Special provisions applying to columns designed for
11 Design of walls AS 5100 does not contain provisions for walls subjected
to horizontal in-plane forces.

Special provisions applying to walls designed for ductility
in earthquakes.
12 Design of non-flexural members, end AS 5100 does not contain adequate provisions for piles 
37

Replace N/A
zones and bearing surfaces and pile caps.
AS 5100 does not cover the application of strut-and-tie
and elastic analysis methods for anchor zone design.
13 Stress development and splicing of Development of reinforcement at critical sections and
reinforcement special requirements for members designed for 
earthquake effects.
14 Joints, embedded items, fixings and AS 5100 does not cover the design of cast-in anchors or

connections the design of fixings for earthquake effects.
16 Materials and construction requirements NZS 3109 is more appropriate for NZ conditions. 
17 Testing of members and structures Consistency with the Bridge manual provisions. 
App. B Design of segmental girder bridges 
App. C Beam stability during erection 
App. D Suspension reinforcement design

procedures
App. E Composite concrete design Needs revision to be consistent with provisions of

procedures section 18 of NZS 3101.
App. F Box girders 
App. G End zones for prestressing anchors Needs revision to incorporate modern methods of

analysis.
App. H Standard precast prestressed Needs revision to only include standard beam sections

concrete girder used in NZ.
App. I References A more comprehensive list of references is required.

NZS 3101 material not included within AS NZS 3101 section 13 – Design of diaphragms
5100 AS 5100.5 does not contain provisions related to the
diaphragm action of decks under horizontal earthquake
loads.
NZS 3101 section 14 – Design of footings, piles and pile 
caps.
AS 5110.5 does not contain adequate provisions for the
design of footings and pile caps. Two-way shear design
is a specific omission. No provisions are included for
38
Executive summary

Replace N/A
laterally loaded piles.
NZS 3101 section 15 – Design of beam column joints
AS 5100.5 does not contain any provisions specifically
related to the design of beam column joints.
39
Table E5 Summary table for AS 5100.6: Supplementary documentation required if AS 5100 adopted.

1 Scope and general Notation differences need to covered in a usable way. 
2 Materials 
3 General design requirements Incorporate a requirement to design for earthquake *

resistance, and limitations on deflection and vibration.
Extend requirements for corrosion protection and
include provisions for the use of weathering steels (refer
table E6)
4 Methods of structural analysis Incorporate requirements related to analysis for seismic *
resistance.
Permit additional forms of analysis where applicable to
bridge design.
Review and ensure consistency in approach for deriving
effective flange width between concrete and steel
design sections.
Review adequacy of requirements for longitudinal shear
design in continuous composite members at the ULS.
5 Steel beams Rectify what appear to be numerous errors in this section. *
Incorporate requirements for seismic resistant design.
Incorporate relevant NZS 3404 material omitted.
6 Composite beams Rectify equation 6.6.4.4.(2) *
Incorporate requirements for seismic resistant design
Reviews are required of:
 the strength of channel shear connectors
 the calculation of strength associated with the
design of transverse reinforcement
 the use of profiled sheeting as permanent formwork
7 Composite box girders Review recommended for errors 
8 Transverse members and restraints 
9 Members subject to axial tension Incorporate requirements for seismic resistant design 
40
Executive summary

10 Members subject to axial compression Incorporate requirements for seismic resistant design 
11 Members subject to combined actions 
12 Connections Incorporate requirements for seismic resistant design 
and several other minor amendments.
Review the capacity of pins.
13 Fatigue Clarify clause 13.1.6 Capacity factor 
Revise clause 13.2 Fatigue loading
Clarify/correct detail category diagrams and equation
13.7.3(1)
14 Brittle fracture Incorporate a map of isotherms for New Zealand 
15 Testing of structures or elements Incorporate acceptance criteria for strength and ductility 
testing for seismic applications. Expand advice on test
procedures to match the Bridge manual section 6.6
Appendix: Elastic resistance to lateral Review the use of segment length instead of effective 
buckling length throughout this appendix.
Correct equation A4(1)
Appendix: Strength of stiffened web panels Confirm that equation B2(1) is correct 
under combined actions
Appendix: Second order elastic analysis Undertake a detailed review of the appendix wording to 
ensure that it properly reflects the intent.
Appendix: Eccentrically loaded dot trusses Minor corrections 
Appendix: Interaction curves for composite 
columns
Appendix: Fabrication 
Appendix: Erection Incorporation of NZS 3404 material on erection 
tolerances, inspection of bolted connections, and
grouting at supports recommended.
Appendix: Modification of existing structures 
A major supplement is required to incorporate seismic design requirements. This supplement, it is envisaged, would become a section in its own right. The asterisked sections would
otherwise only require somewhat more minor but still significant supplements which would include cross-referencing to the seismic design supplement. (Refer to table E6)
41
Table E6: Summary table for AS 5100.6: NZS 3404 material not included in AS 5100 and recommended for inclusion if AS 5100 adopted.
NZS 3404 section Recommendation/comment
Section 12: Seismic design Recommendation: That supplementary documentation be prepared to incorporate requirements for seismic design with
Appendix B: Maximum levels of ductility appropriate cross-references also incorporated into the supplements to other sections of AS 5100.6.
demand on structural steel seismic resisting Comment: This is a major supplement required. Supplementary documentation can be based on NZS 3404 section 12 and
systems appendix B. A section on seismic design is a major omission from AS 5100.6 and constitutes a 50-page section in NZS 3404
Appendix A: Referenced documents Recommendation: That the referenced list of documents presented in AS 5100.6 clause 1.2 be extended to include standards
relevant to steel bridge design and construction in New Zealand, drawing from NZS 3404 appendix A
Appendix C: Corrosion protection Recommendation: That supplementary documentation be prepared to incorporate requirements for corrosion protection
appropriate to the New Zealand environment.
Comment: AS 5100 is deficient in its coverage of corrosion protection. Supplementary documentation can be based on NZS 3404
appendix C, which was developed to satisfy the requirements of the New Zealand Building Code clause B2: Durability.
Appendix K: Standard test for the evaluation Recommendation: When revised in the future, it is recommended that appendix J of AS 4100 be incorporated into AS 5100.
of slip factor Comment: NZS 3404 appendix K is the same as AS 4100 appendix J. At the present time AS 5100 references appendix J of AS
4100, but it is thought that AS 4100 is not referred to for anything else, and so it would be better for AS 5100 to incorporate
appendix J avoiding the need to refer to AS 4100, a standard generally not used in New Zealand
Appendix L: Inspection of bolt tension using Recommendation: Accompanying the recommendation of section 6.23.3 to incorporate requirements for the inspection of bolted
a torque wrench connections, it is recommended that the appendix L also be incorporated as supporting ‘informative’ documentation.
42
Executive summary
Recommendations
Considering the collective conclusions on all parts of AS 5100 regarding their suitability for
adoption it is recommended that:
 The Bridge manual, with adoption of the NZS 3101 (concrete) and NZS 3404 (steel)
materials design codes, should be retained for bridge design in New Zealand.
 At the same time as revision of the New Zealand concrete and steel materials design
codes is being considered, Transit should promote greater representation on Standards
New Zealand code committees to ensure that any deficiencies in the bridge design area
are more adequately covered.
 The Bridge manual should undergo a major revision to incorporate the sections of
AS 5100 (excluding the concrete and steel materials sections) identified in this project
that would enhance the present provisions. Some sections of the Bridge manual could
make direct reference to additional material presented in AS 5100, but for other sections
it might be more appropriate to revise the Bridge manual provisions taking into account
the requirements presented in AS 5100.
 The emphasis of the next revision of the Bridge manual should be based on
harmonisation with AS 5100; however, it is also important that other overseas bridge
design standards be monitored to identify new developments in design procedures and
construction materials appropriate for application in New Zealand. On some aspects of
design it may be appropriate to reference or incorporate into the Bridge manual
provisions from standards other than AS 5100.
 NZTA should form a strategic planning group comprising local bridge design and
highway experts to advise on revising and maintaining the Bridge manual to the best
international practice appropriate for New Zealand.
43
Abstract
The objective of this project was to investigate the practicality of adopting the AS 5100
bridge design standard for New Zealand. The significant differences and gaps between
current design requirements as presented by AS 5100 and the Transit NZ Bridge manual and
its supporting standards were identified. The project gave consideration to the New Zealand
regulatory environment and identified measures that would need to be taken to enable AS
5100 to be used in New Zealand.
Although many advantages and disadvantages were identified for adopting AS 5100 for
bridge design in New Zealand, it was considered that the best option was to retain the Bridge
manual and to revise it to incorporate more of the AS 5100 material relevant to bridge design
than presently adopted. The overriding consideration in reaching this conclusion was the
difficulty of preparing supplementary material for AS 5100.5 and AS 5100.6 to incorporate
seismic design requirements consistent with the New Zealand seismic design philosophy.
There were also significant differences between the Bridge manual and AS 5100 approaches
to traffic loads and loading combinations that have had a major impact on both construction
costs and the adequacy of existing bridges, and these would be difficult to resolve and unify.
44
Introduction
Introduction
Purpose of the proposed research

The purpose of this research was to identify the significant differences and gaps between
current design requirements as presented by Australian standard AS 5100:2004 (AS 5100) for
bridge design and the Transit NZ Bridge manual and its supporting standards. A basic
assumption of this project was that the AS 5100 standard would be adopted for New Zealand
practice, albeit with additional documentation that specified necessary exceptions and
alternatives. The project also considered the New Zealand regulatory environment and
identified measures necessary for the application of AS 5100 in New Zealand.
Transit NZ is a member of Austroads, the association of Australian and New Zealand road
transport and traffic authorities, and has a policy of adopting Austroads publications when
practicable and suitable for application in the New Zealand environment. As a result of CER,
there has also been a move to align New Zealand and Australia standards, with many now
produced as joint AS/NZS standards.
New Zealand is a small country with limited skilled technical and financial resources available
for the development and maintenance of design standards. Adoption of the Australian
standard for bridge design would result in a greater pool of resources being available for the
development of the bridge design standard in New Zealand, and would also result in the
standard being compatible with, and underpinned by, other design guidance currently being
developed by Austroads in their bridge technology series of publications. It would also allow
the use of bridge design software which incorporates AS 5100, thus providing efficiencies for
bridge design in New Zealand.
This research builds on a previous Transfund NZ project: ‘A framework for an ideal road
structures design manual’ (Kirkcaldie 1997). That project outlined the coverage desirable in an
ideal road structures design manual and included a comparison of the 1992 Austroads Highway
Bridge Design Code (the predecessor of AS 5100) with the Bridge manual. It concluded that an
ideal road structure design manual could not be satisfactorily created from one of the
documents alone but would require incorporation and significant modification of both
documents together with consideration of information from other sources. This previous
project provided the basis for many of the more recent Bridge manual amendments, which
have generally increased the harmonisation with the Australian bridge design standards.
In the short term, if AS 5100 were adopted as the standard for bridge design in New Zealand,
a significant effort would be required to produce supporting documentation to adapt the
standard to New Zealand conditions. This is expected to apply particularly in the areas of:
 Transit procedures for selection and approval of the option for final design (bridge
design statement)
 earthquake resistant design
 live loading and associated secondary loads (braking, centrifugal force)
 concrete materials design
 elastomeric bearings design
 compatibility with the New Zealand Building Act and Building Code.
45
In the long term, the effort involved from New Zealand to maintain the bridge design
standard is expected to be reduced because it will be shared with all the Australian states.
Report format
The format of this report follows the section titles of AS 5100, and compares the content of
each section with the comparable requirements presented in the Bridge manual. The report
concludes with a section capturing those aspects of the Bridge manual not encompassed by
AS 5100. Overall conclusions on the adequacy of AS 5100 for adoption for bridge design in
New Zealand and recommendations for the way forward are given following the executive
summary at the front of the report.
The numbers of the report’s main sections 1 to 7 correspond to the part numbers in
AS 5100, and with the exception of appendices and summaries, the main heading numbers in
each section correspond to the section number in each AS 5100 part. For example, report
heading number 3.4 refers to section 4 in part 3 of AS 5100 (AS 5100.3). The final main
section of the report, section 8, covers the topics not included in AS 5100.
The report is published in two volumes as follows:
Volume 1: Executive summary, recommendations and parts 1 to 4.
Volume 2: Parts 5 to 8.
46
1 AS 5100.1: Scope and general principles
1 AS 5100:1: Scope and general principles
AS 5100.1 content
Table 1.1 lists the content of part 1 of AS 5100 (AS 5100.1) together with the comparable
sections or clauses of the Bridge manual.
Table 1.1 AS 5100.1 content and comparable Bridge manual clauses.
AS 5100.1 content Comparable Bridge manual clauses

1 Scope Introduction
2 Application Introduction
3 Referenced documents References relevant to each section are listed at
the end of each section
4 Definitions 2.1.2
5 Notation 3.5 – for notation used to designate loadings,
otherwise notation is defined in individual clauses
as the notation arises
6 Design philosophy 2.1
7 Waterways and flood design 2.3
8 Environmental impact 1.3 – but does not specify requirements
9 Geometric requirements 2.2; Appendix A
10 Road traffic barriers 2.2; Appendix B
11 Collision protection 2.2; 3.4.18; Appendix B
12 Pedestrian and bicycle path barriers Appendix B
13 Noise barriers Not covered
14 Drainage 4.13.3
15 Access for inspection and maintenance 1.3 – but does not specify requirements
16 Utilities 1.3; 4.13.4
17 Skew railway bridges Outside the scope of the Bridge manual
18 Camber on railway bridges Outside the scope of the Bridge manual
Appendix A: Matters for resolution before design Not covered
commences
Appendix B: Road barrier performance level Appendix B
selection method
1.1 Scope (section 1) and application (section 2)
1.1.1 Outline of coverage

AS 5100.1 specifies requirements for the design of the following structures:
 bridges providing support to road traffic loads, railway traffic loads, and tramways and
pedestrian bridges
 other structures providing support to road or railway traffic or their loads (eg culverts,
structural components related to tunnels, retaining structures, deflection walls, sign gantries)
 structures built over or adjacent to railways, or both
 modifications to existing bridge structures.
47
In applying the standard for structures with spans greater than 100 m, railways with speeds
greater than 160 km/h, unusual or complex structures, and structures constructed from
materials other than those covered (concrete and structural steel), the requirements of the
standard are to be supplemented by other appropriate standards and specialist technical
literature. Some clauses in the standard are noted as requiring confirmation of acceptance by
the relevant authority or structure owner.
1.1.2 Variation of requirements from the Bridge manual

The Bridge manual is written explicitly to set out Transit’s requirements and, compared with
AS 5100.1, does not cover railway or cable supported structures, and limits its applicability to
structures with spans not exceeding 100 m.
1.1.3 Suitability and actions required to enable adoption

The scope and application of AS 5100.1 encompass the scope and application of the Bridge
manual and are intended to be even broader; therefore, no action is required regarding scope
and applicability, providing the requirements of the standard are otherwise found to be
appropriate for the New Zealand roading environment.
Clauses within AS 5100.1 requiring confirmation of their acceptance by the relevant authority
(in this case Transit) will require review and their acceptance, or rejection, documented.
1.2 Application
See section 1.1 above.
1.3 Referenced documents

Section 3 of AS 5100.1 lists documents referred to in this part. These comprise standards,
with one technical advisory document.

The Bridge manual differs from AS 5100.1 in listing numerous references at the end of each
section. These comprise standards and useful technical publications, which reflect the
different philosophies inherent in the two documents. In addition to the documents listed in
section 3 of part 1, AS 5100.1 references technical advisory documents in several appendices
to the main parts, but these only cover a limited number of topics.

Review of other sections of this part will inevitably require additions to and some exclusions
from this list of referenced documents to incorporate standards and regulations relevant to
the New Zealand environment. This is expected to include, but not necessarily be limited to,
the following:
 the New Zealand Building Code (NZBC)

 standards for design loadings
 the NZBC Verification method B1/VM4 foundations
 AS 1523 Elastomeric bearings for use in structures
 NZS 3101 Concrete structures standard
48
 NZS 3404 Steel structures standard

 NZS 3603 Timber structures standard
 AS 1720.1 Timber structures, part 1: Design methods
 AS/NZS 3845 Road safety barrier systems
 State highway geometric design manual draft (Transit New Zealand 2000)
 Highway surface drainage (Transit New Zealand 1977)
Also, the technical advisory references listed in the Bridge manual, section 2, relating to
waterway design, and in other sections relating to numerous other topics should be added to
the above list.
1.4 Definitions

Definitions in section 4 of AS 5100.1 are provided for the following:
 authority
 design life
 professional engineer
 reference surface
 service life
 sleeper – related to railway applications
 transom – related to railway applications.
The distinction between design life and service life in the definitions is difficult to discern.
Design life is defined as the period assumed in design for which a structure or structural
element is required to perform its intended purpose without replacement or major structural
repairs, while service life is defined as the period over which a structure or structural element
is expected to perform its function without major maintenance or structural repair.
Professional engineer is defined in terms of Australian legislation.

The definitions of design life and service life are comparable to the definition of design
working life in the Bridge manual, which defines design working life in terms of the time to
when the structure is expected to become functionally obsolete or to have become
uneconomic to maintain in a condition adequate for it to perform its functional requirements.
This terminology and definition in the Bridge manual was adopted to be consistent with
AS/NZS 1170, but prior to the amendment of AS/NZS 1170 which now incorporates a
definition for design working life consistent with the AS 5100.1 design life definition.
The term ‘major structural repair’ used by but not defined in AS 5100.1 is comparable to
‘major renovation’ used in the Bridge manual. The Bridge manual uses this term as a
definitive interpretation of the durability requirements of the NZBC.
The Bridge manual also presents definitions for the serviceability and ultimate limit states.
These are defined more comprehensively in AS 5100.1 under section 6 ‘Design philosophy’.
49

For consistency, a common terminology and a common definition of design life/design
working life should be adopted. The AS 5100.1/AS/NZS 1170 definition of design life/design
working life is consistent with the durability requirements clause (2.1.7) of the Bridge manual
and so can be applied with the requirements of the Bridge manual. However, the Bridge
manual provides the more appropriate definition of design working life, and also treats
durability explicitly, which is the preferred approach. Therefore, it is recommended that this
definition and explicit specification of durability requirements be submitted to the standards
committees for their consideration.
The terms: ‘major structural repairs’ (as used in AS 5100.1) and ‘major renovation’ (as used
in the NZBC) need to be equated and a definition included in supplementary documentation.
In supplementary documentation, the term ‘professional engineer’ needs to be defined in

terms consistent with New Zealand legislation.
1.5 Notation

Notation occurring in AS 5100.1 is defined in section 5, together with references to the
clauses in which the notation occurs.

Notation is presented in the Bridge manual after the formulae or clauses to which it applies.
No overall summary of notation is provided.

Section 5 of AS 5100.1 is suitable for adoption without modification subject to the clauses in
which the notation occurs being adopted without modification. It is debatable whether the
summary method of presentation is preferable to presentation in the immediate location of
the formulae or clauses.
1.6 Design philosophy

Section 6 of AS 5100.1 encompasses the following:
 Design is to be based on engineering principles, experimental data and experience, with

attention given to a number of aspects listed in ensuring safety and performance.
 Design life – specified to be 100 years for structures covered by the standard, with
elements such as deck joints and bearing having a long life compatible with that of the
structure. The design life of ancillary structures such as light poles, sign structures and
noise barriers may have a shorter life as specified by the authority.
 Limit states – these are defined.
 Analysis methods – linear elastic analysis is to be used unless non-linear methods are
specifically implied elsewhere in the standard approved by the authority.
50
 Design actions (S*) – design actions are defined. An ultimate design action is taken as
having a 5% probability of exceedance within the life of a structure. A serviceability
design action is defined as having a 5% probability of exceedance in any one year.
 Capacity or strength – capacity or strength is defined as being as specified in the
appropriate materials design part of the standard, and as being derived from the nominal
capacity of the element (Ru) and the relevant capacity reduction factor (Ø) of the material.
Where derived from dead loads of part or all of the structure, the capacity is to be
reduced by an appropriate load factor specified in AS 5100.2.
 Verification of limit states – for the ultimate limit state (ULS), the relationship: ØRu ≥ S* is
to be satisfied. For the serviceability limit state (SLS), stress, deflection, cracking or
vibration levels are to satisfy limits specified in the appropriate parts of AS 5100.
 Other considerations – bridges are not designed for every possible eventuality, and there
is a need to clear-span zones of potential impact or to provide appropriate redundancy,
protection or robustness for impact forces that may exceed those specified.

In the area of design philosophy, the Bridge manual has endeavoured to align with that of
AS/NZS 1170, which is expected to be taken as a benchmark by the Department of Building
and Housing in administering the Building Act 2004 and requirements of the NZBC. The
following variations exist:
 Design life – the Bridge manual does not, as it should, currently specify design lives for
ancillary structures, such as bearings and deck joints. It specifies the same normal design
life (100 years) as AS 5100.1.
 Design actions – in the Bridge manual for the ULS these have varying probabilities of
exceedance which take into account the design life, importance and post-disaster
function of the structure.
 Other considerations – the Bridge manual mentions the approaches to mitigation of
accidental impact forces given in AS 5100.1, and also presents a specific requirement for
all elements of the structure to be adequately interconnected to provide robustness
against unanticipated extreme events.
 Durability – a durability requirement is specified in the Bridge manual, whereas it is
implied through the design life definition in AS 5100.1.

The design philosophy section is generally suitable for application in New Zealand; however,
if AS 5100.1 were to be adopted, its philosophy should be tested with the Department of
Building and Housing to ensure it meets the requirements of the NZBC. In view of the
philosophical differences between AS 5100.1 and the Bridge manual (and by inference
AS/NZS 1170), it may be expected that one standard meets with acceptance by the
Department of Building and Housing and the other does not. Taking this into account, the
provision of supplementary documentation addressing the following, is recommended:
 the specification of design lives for ancilliary structures

 replacement of the definition of ultimate actions with the material extracted from the
Bridge manual (clause 2.1.3) describing the basis of derivation of design ultimate actions
as applied in New Zealand
51
 incorporation of specific requirements in respect to durability and structural robustness

corresponding to those contained within the Bridge manual (clauses 2.1.7 and 2.1.8
respectively).
The ultimate actions presented in the Bridge manual were developed based on AS/NZS 1170
which is understood to have been calibrated to a safety index following the principles set out
in the International Standard ISO 2394 ‘General principles on reliability of structures’. With
the Department of Building and Housing expected to cite AS/NZS 1170 as an acceptable
solution for design loadings, this standard is expected to provide a benchmark for design
loadings for the issue of building consents in New Zealand, and thus alignment with it will
continue to be desirable to ensure the acceptance of designs. Adoption of the AS 5100.1
specification of ultimate actions, which is less conservative for some actions, is therefore not
supported.
Similarly, inclusion of a robustness requirement that aligns with AS/NZS 1170 and an explicit
durability requirement that aligns with and clarifies the NZBC is considered to be desirable to
enable the passage of building consent applications through the consent process.
1.7 Waterways and flood design

Coverage in section 7 of AS 5100.1 is given in general terms to the following:
 Factors to be considered include:
- span and vertical clearances required for navigation by river craft
- serviceability requirements – frequency and duration of loss of service due to

inundation
- serviceability requirements of the surrounding land
- serviceability requirements of the channel bed, banks and road embankment versus
scour protection required
- serviceability of the bridge under the SLS flood
- strength and stability of the bridge under the ULS flood
- the hydraulic capacity required of the system to avoid unacceptable afflux effects
under overtopping in a ULS flood
- the impact of any stream improvement works or the bridge and embankment in
altering flood flow patterns.
 Estimation of design floods – ultimate and serviceability design floods to comply with the
probabilities of exceedance specified in the design philosophy section, with theoretical
estimates of flood sizes to be compared with local flood experience.
 Debris – the need to assess the amount and size of debris, the span length and clearance
required to pass the debris, and to design for the hydrodynamic and impact forces
imposed on the structure.
 Stream improvement works – to be considered where the natural stream course is
unstable.
 The design of piers and abutments – to minimise the effects on water flow, avoid
trapping debris and maintain stability under scour effects.
52
 Secondary structures which encompass:
- the need, on wide floodplains, for relieving culverts or floodways
- the design of culverts for hydraulic forces, protection against undermining, and for
stabilisation of the downstream end against the effects of embankment overtopping,
and the sizing and spacing of culverts for debris.
- the protection of embankments.
Specific bridge waterway requirements are to be determined by the authority in consultation

with other relevant authorities.

The Bridge manual is considerably more specific in its requirements for waterway and flood
design, specifying:
 compliance with the Austroads publication: Waterway design – a guide to hydraulic

design of bridges, culverts and floodways (Austroads 1994), except as amended
 100 years as the minimum annual recurrence interval flood that the structure must be
capable of passing without significant damage to the structure or waterway
 the minimum level of service that must be provided for the passage of traffic, including
the associated freeboard allowance
 the ULS flood that the bridge must have the strength and stability to withstand
 flood estimation methods and approaches to be used
 the methods to be employed for the estimation of scour.

AS 5100.1 sets out the general considerations, and, in that respect, is suitable for application
in New Zealand. However it should be supplemented by the specific requirements of the
Bridge manual, and the design flood events should be replaced by the Bridge manual
requirements.
1.8 Environmental impact

Environmental requirements are to be determined by the authority in consultation with other
authorities, but are to include the following:
 discharge of pollutants
 paint systems
 flora and fauna protection
 capture of run-off and silt traps for excavations.

The Bridge manual does not contain requirements related to environmental impact other
than to require environmental considerations and constraints to be presented and discussed
in the bridge design statement.
53

The AS 5100.1 requirements are appropriate for adoption for New Zealand use.
For issues governed by national legislation and regulations, or in which there is national
unanimity of approach among regional councils, Transit should develop and document
requirements. For issues where there is variability in the approach adopted by regional
councils, or variability in requirements around New Zealand due to variability in the
environmental conditions or for other reasons, the design statement will remain the
appropriate avenue for determining and endorsing approaches to be taken.
1.9 Geometric requirements

Section 9 of AS 5100.1 covers:
 railway bridges – to be as specified by the railway authority

 bridges over navigable waterways – to be as specified by the waterway authority
 road bridge carriageway widths – these are to be determined by the relevant authority,
but based on the following:
- provision of a consistent level of service along a highway
- traffic lane widths provided on the bridge being no less than on the approach
roadway
- minimum specified clear widths being met for national highways (refer to the
comparison with the Bridge manual below)
- for other roads, the full width of the shoulders and pavement being accommodated
on bridges of less than specified lengths (refer to the comparison with the Bridge
manual below)
 edge clearances for bridges without walkways
 horizontal clearance to substructure components of bridges over roadways
 vertical clearance over roadways
 vertical and horizontal clearances of bridges over railways – to be as required by the
railway authority
 superelevation and crossfall
 walkway width on road bridges
 pedestrian bridges
 pedestrian subways
 bicycle paths.
1.9.2.1 General
The variations between the AS 5100.1 and Bridge manual requirements are many, though the
approaches are generally similar and the results not too dissimilar.
1.9.2.2 Bridge widths, and clearances between side protection and traffic lanes
The following tables 1.2 and 1.3 present comparisons of some of the requirements.
54
Table 1.2 compares the AS 5100.1 and Bridge manual requirements for minimum clear width
of bridges on national highways in Australia and state highways in New Zealand. AS 5100.1
does not specify a minimum width for traffic lanes.
Table 1.2 Comparison of AS 5100.1 and Transit Bridge manual minimum clear bridge widths.
AS 5100.1 Transit Bridge manual

for 2-lane bridges
Nominal
AADT per Bridge Minimum clear Bridge length
AADT carriageway
lane length (m) width (m)
width (m)
Full carriageway ≤ 30 10.0
All AADT ≤20 > 4000
width > 30 9.4
Width of traffic ≤ 15 10.0
lanes + 2.4 m
≥1000 > 20 2000–4000
(= 9.4 m for 2 x 3.5 > 15 9.0
m lanes)
Width of traffic 500 –2000 All 8.5
lanes + 1.2m
< 1000 >20
(= 8.2 m for 2 x 3.5 <500 All 8.2
m lanes)
Table 1.3 compares the length of bridge requiring a full width carriageway. These are based
on annual average daily traffic (AADT) 30 years ahead in both cases. In the Bridge manual
these do not apply where the approach road is kerbed, the bridge has footpaths or the
approach road shoulder width is less than the clearance required between the barrier on the
bridge and the adjacent traffic lane.
Table 1.3 Length of bridge requiring a full carriageway width deck.

Type of road Length of bridge (m) Type of road Length of bridge (m)
National highways ≤ 20 m
Freeways/motorways ≤ 50 m Motorway ≤ 75
Controlled access roads ≤ 50 m
Divided highways ≤ 20 m Divided road ≤ 30
Other roads where the 2-lane road where the
expected AADT will be: expected AADT is:
>2000 > 4000
500 –2000 ≤ 15 2000–4000 ≤ 30
≤500 ≤9 500 –2000 ≤ 15
≤6 < 500 ≤9
≤6
Table 1.4 compares edge clearances required between bridge deck side protection and the
adjacent traffic lanes. In AS 5100.1 they apply only to bridges without walkways.
55
Table 1.4 Clearance between bridge side protection and the adjacent traffic lane.

Type of road Clearance Type of side Type of road Clearance (mm)
(mm) protection
Kerbs Kerbed approach road Align bridge kerb with
approach kerb
No approach road kerb 600 minimum
Low volume 2- 600 Safety Low volume 1 or 2- 600 preferred minimum
lane roads (≤500 barrier lane roads 300 absolute minimum.
vehicles/day) (AADT < 500)
Medium volume 1000 Medium volume 2-lane 750 preferred minimum
2-lane roads roads 600 absolute minimum
(500 –5000 AADT 500–2000 1000 preferred minimum
vehicles/day) (i) AADT 2000–4000 600 absolute minimum
High volume 1200 High volume 2-lane 1200 preferred minimum
roads (≥ 5000 roads 600 absolute minimum
vehicles/day) (AADT > 4000)
Divided roads and 1200 preferred minimum
motorways 600 absolute minimum
1.9.2.3 Clearance envelope to underlying roadways

AS 5100.1 does not define a horizontal clearance envelope around a roadway, leaving the
road controlling authority to specify their requirements, but does list factors to be taken into
consideration, while the Bridge manual defines a horizontal and vertical clearance envelope.
Vertical clearances specified by AS 5100.1 are as given in table 1.5. The Bridge manual
specifies a minimum requirement of 4.9 m and a preferred requirement of 6.0 m over the
carriageway which reduces over the shoulders.
Table 1.5 AS 5100.1 specified vertical clearance over roadways.
Location Clearance minimum (m)

Urban and rural freeways 5.3
Main and arterial roads 5.3
Other roads 4.6*
High clearance routes 5.8
Pedestrian bridges As set out below
*Note: Provided there is a 5.3 m clearance on an alternative road approved by the authority.
AS 5100.1 requires vertical clearances to pedestrian bridges to be:
 at least 200 mm greater than adjacent traffic bridges, but not less than 5.3 m
 5.5 m minimum where there are no adjacent bridges
 6.0 m minimum on designated high clearance routes.
1.9.2.4 Footpaths and cycletracks

AS 5100.1 requires a minimum footpath width of 1.8 m unless specified otherwise by the
authority, and also specifies minimum gradients for stairways and ramps associated with
pedestrian bridges. The corresponding Bridge manual requirements are:
 behind a rigid barrier: 1.00 m minimum; 1.70 m preferred

 all other situations: 1.30 m minimum; 2.00 m preferred.
56
For subways, AS 5100.1 specifies a clear width of 3.0 m, clear height of 2.4 m and a ramp
gradient of 1:8 minimum. These are not covered in the Bridge manual.
AS 5100.1 also covers clear widths and ramp gradients for cycletracks, again not covered by
the Bridge manual. These are given in tables 1.6 and 1.7.
Table 1.6 Clear width of bicycle paths on roadways.
Bicycle paths on carriageway (one-way cycling) 2.0 m minimum

Separate bicycle path (two-way cycling) 3.0 m minimum
Dual use (two-way bicycles and pedestrians) 3.0 m minimum
Table 1.7 Ramp gradient of bicycle paths on road bridges.
For ramp length up to 20 m Maximum 1 in 8

For ramp length up to 50 m Maximum 1 in 14

Geometric requirements determine the width of the bridge superstructure and also, in the
case of bridges over roads, the height of bridges (and thus also embankments). Consequently
they have a significant impact on costs associated with bridging.
AS 5100.1 does a good job of outlining the factors to be considered in determining

geometrics of the bridge deck cross-section. However, in some respects it is less specific in
the actual criteria to be adopted than is the Bridge manual when it comes to considering the
make-up of the deck cross-section and the various combinations of lane width, edge
clearance, barrier form and footpaths/cycletrack.
The Bridge manual presents a range of geometric width criteria that have been developed to
suit New Zealand conditions. Before adoption of the AS 5100.1 bridge width criteria is
considered, a detailed review of these criteria and their cost implications by Transit’s roading
geometrics and traffic safety specialists is recommended.
In respect to vertical clearances over roads, the Austroads approach of adopting different
vertical clearances dependent on the road type being crossed is not favoured. Past
experience has shown that it is extremely difficult to control where trucks can travel, so a
uniform vertical clearance related to the legal maximum allowable height of vehicles is to be
preferred. Also over time, roads may change their function and be upgraded.
The AS 5100.1 approach of requiring a higher vertical clearance for footbridges is favoured
and is also included in the Bridge manual. Footbridges are generally relatively light structures
that do not have the robustness to withstand lateral vehicle impact on their superstructures
that road bridges possess.
The AS 5100.1 provisions for footbridges, subways and cyclepaths are considered to be
generally appropriate for New Zealand use, except that where cyclists are accommodated on
the road carriageway (one-way cycling) there would be an increase in width above the 1.5 m
wide shoulders commonly provided.
57
Recommendations:
 that Transit specialists review the geometric standards for the make-up of the bridge
deck cross-section and consider whether the AS 5100.1 criteria might be appropriate for
adoption instead of those specified by the Bridge manual
 that Transit retain its current criteria for road bridge vertical clearances but revise its
criteria for footbridge vertical clearances to align with AS 5100.1
 that Transit adopt the AS 5100.1 criteria for footbridges, subways and cycle paths but
review the width to be provided where cyclists are accommodated on the road
carriageway
 that in the event of AS 5100.1 being adopted, supplementary documentation be prepared
to overwrite those aspects of AS 5100.1’s geometric standards not adopted and to
supplement AS 5100.1 with Transit’s specific requirements.
1.10 Road traffic barriers

Section 10 of AS 5100.1 applies to traffic barriers for new bridges and replacement traffic
barriers for existing bridges, and sets out the design requirements for road traffic
containment barriers on bridges.
Its coverage includes:
 the separation of footpaths from the adjacent carriageway

 principles applying to the form and properties of the traffic barrier
 acceptance criteria for bridge traffic barriers
 characterisation of various performance levels in terms of test vehicles, speed and angle
of impact
 criteria for the determination of required barrier performance level
 requirements for the geometry of the barrier for parapet type barriers, post and rail type
barriers
 requirements for the transition from an approach barrier to the bridge barrier and end
treatments.
It is noted that kerbs are not covered in this section.
1.10.2.1 General
AS 5100.1 requires the performance level and barrier type requirements to be specified by
the relevant authority, whereas the Bridge manual provides a risk-based procedure and lists
preferred solutions as the basis for the designer to determine and recommend an appropriate
solution.
1.10.2.2 Barrier form and properties principles

AS 5100.1 outlines principles to be satisfied by the form and properties of the barrier which
are not spelt out in the Bridge manual. These include:
58
 performance requirements, in general terms, for the containment, deceleration,

redirection and avoidance of spearing of vehicles
 capability for rapid repair
 ability to accommodate movements of the bridge structure
 harmonisation with the bridge structure and avoidance of unnecessary obstruction of
view and sight distance
 being detailed to limit hydrodynamic forces and debris entrapment under inundation by
floods of up to 20-year return period. (The Bridge manual does not permit state highway
bridges to be inundated by floods of up to 20-year return period.)
1.10.2.3 Barrier performance levels

Barrier performance levels specified by AS 5100.1 and by the Bridge manual can be
approximately equilibrated as follows:
Table 1.8 Comparison of AS 5100.1 and Bridge manual barrier performance levels.
AS 5100.1 Bridge manual

Barrier performance level NCHRP 350 Barrier performance level NCHRP 350
test level test level
No barrier No barrier
Low TL 2 Performance level 3 TL 3
Regular TL 4 Performance level 4 TL 4
Medium TL 5 Performance level 5 TL 5
Performance level 6 TL 6
Special Special performance level
At the low end of the performance scale, the Bridge manual sets a higher standard than does
AS 5100.1. The descriptions of performance differ a little but these differences would not
lead to a variation in test level.
AS 5100.1 provides a more complete description of the medium performance level 5,

although its criteria are generally reflected in the Bridge manual risk-based procedure.
For special and performance level 6 barriers, the Bridge manual is similar but more
quantitative in the criteria used to define these performance levels.
1.10.2.4 Barrier geometry

For parapet type barriers, the Bridge manual has adopted profiles from AS 3845:1999. The
AS 3845 ‘F’ type barrier conforms to the barrier profile given by AS 5100.1 figure 10.6.1(A),
but the AS 3845 VCB barrier is not a shape permitted by AS 5100.1. On the other hand, the
AS 5100.1 figure 10.6.1(B) barrier shape is not a shape presented in AS 3845 or accepted by
the Bridge manual.
For post and rail systems, the Bridge manual does not present comparable requirements for
vehicle contact surface or for the setback of posts from the face of the rail. It does, however,
present full details for the W section bridge guardrail standard systems, including a series of
drawings of standard detailing for the system, and indicates the intended mode of behaviour.
Also, for the G9 Thrie Beam system, reference is made to AS 3845, which provides full details
of the system’s standard componentry.
59
For the transition at bridge approaches, requirements are similar but AS 5100.1 focuses more
on considerations to be taken into account while the Bridge manual is more prescriptive on
the minimum performance test level and length of approach guardrailing to be provided. On
end treatments, the Bridge manual, in addition to the AS 5100.1 provisions, requires
compliance with the NCHRP 350 test level 3 (TL3) evaluation criteria and indicates some
acceptable solutions from AS 3845.

The AS 5100.1 criteria are generally appropriate for adoption in New Zealand except that it is
felt that TL3 is a more appropriate lower bound for the minimum level of side protection,
where side protection is to be provided.
Retention of the Bridge manual’s risk-based procedure for the determination of performance
level is recommended as it is a more quantitative method that is relatively simple to apply.
It is not in New Zealand’s interest to have a proliferation of different post and rail barrier
forms as this poses difficulties for maintaining inventories of replacement parts. Transit’s
present approach of indicating standard non-proprietary acceptable solutions, steering
designers to selection of solutions from among these, should be retained.
It is recommended that a review be undertaken to resolve whether Transit should match its
requirements to AS 5100.1, or retain its current requirements. In the event of Transit
retaining its current requirements, but AS 5100.1 otherwise being adopted, supplementary
documentation would be needed to modify the performance level descriptions in one or two
areas to match Transit’s requirements and to retain the more quantified definition of
performance levels 6 and special.
In the event of AS 5100.1 being adopted, it is recommended that supplementary

documentation be prepared that retains:
 the Bridge manual’s risk-based procedure for derivation of the required performance
level
 the listing of preferred acceptable non-proprietary barrier solutions
 Transit’s requirements for geometric layout, end treatment and transitions
 the drawings of standard detailing for the Transit W-section bridge guardrail system.
1.11 Collision protection

Relevant authorities are required to make an assessment of the risk of a vehicle impacting
the bridge supports, superstructure or elements above deck level and to determine the
appropriate level of protection and its performance levels. The coverage of section 11 of
AS 5100.1 encompasses:
 collision from traffic load
- the set back of bridge piers from the roadway, beyond which protection by barriers is
not required, is to be determined by the relevant authority
- pedestrian bridge piers are to be protected or located to avoid collision

 collision from railway traffic
60
- bridges over railways are to have a clear span between abutments
- where this is not achievable, structural form and load capacity conditions to be met
by the structure are specified, including requirements for pier minimum thickness
and for deflection walls
 ship collision with bridge piers
- piers are to be protected by auxiliary structures or designed to resist the impact of

craft using the waterway. Alternatively, the pier may be designed for SLS impact and
failure at the ULS provided the superstructure does not collapse.

In the Bridge manual, collision load requirements tend to focus on the design loadings rather
than on the principles associated with avoiding collapse. For collision by shipping, the Bridge
manual requirements are the same as AS 5100.1, except the latter allows pier failure
provided the superstructure does not collapse.

The requirements of section 11 of AS 5100.1 are considered suitable for adoption without
modification but note that design loads for collision, specified elsewhere in AS 5100.2, are
significantly greater than those currently specified in the Bridge manual.
1.12 Pedestrian and bicycle-path barriers

Section 12 of AS 5100.1 encompasses:
 the geometric requirements for handrails, including:
- barrier heights for pedestrians and cyclists
- spacing of balusters and their requirement to be vertical.

 pedestrian protection barriers for bridges over electrified railways – essentially as a
requirement of the railway authority, but their impact on sightline should also be
considered
 protection screens to prevent objects falling or being thrown from bridges, covering:
- design options – full enclosure on pedestrian bridges, 2.4 m high solid opaque
parapet walls
- geometric properties for screens
- the extent of such screens along a bridge over an underlying road or railway
- design to avoid damage to the bridge structure on failure, becoming a hazard under
vehicle impact, and for panels to be replaceable.

AS 5100.1 allows handrails with only vertical balusters, whereas the Bridge manual permits
horizontal rails in situations generally of lower risk.
Requirements for handrails mounted on traffic barriers differ between AS 5100.1 and the
Bridge manual, with AS 5100.1 focused on the security of the rail’s attachment and
avoidance of vehicles being speared in a collision, while the Bridge manual’s focus is on
61
design loadings. Both provide requirements for the height of the barrier, with minor
differences in the heights where cyclists are present.
By comparison with AS 5100.1, the Bridge manual does not present requirements for
protection barriers for bridges over electrified railways, or to prevent objects from falling or
being thrown from bridges.
The Bridge manual includes requirements for kerbs.

The AS 5100.1 requirements for pedestrian and bicycle-path barriers are considered to be
generally suitable for application in New Zealand. Supplementary documentation will be
required to cover requirements for kerbs, and also for the option of handrails with horizontal
intermediate rails, if considered desirable. However, this option could be dispensed with
particularly as horizontal rails are not permitted by the NZBC. The clear spacing between
vertical members should also be reviewed as the maximum of 130 mm specified by AS
5100.1 is greater than the 100 mm specified in the NZBC.
1.13 Noise barriers

Section 13 of AS 5100.1 specifies that noise barriers should:
 be designed so that their failure will not damage the bridge

 have connections and joints detailed so that in the event of vehicle impact, they cannot
fragment, producing projectiles
 be modular so that individual panels can be replaced, and
 not be continuous across bridge expansion joints.

The Bridge manual does present any requirements for noise barriers.

The AS 5100.1 requirements for noise barriers are considered suitable for application in
New Zealand. They are not very extensive and consideration may be warranted as to whether
they are sufficiently comprehensive.
1.14 Drainage

Section 14 of AS 5100.1 requires that:
 transverse and longitudinal drainage is provided by suitable crossfall and gradient

 water flowing downgrade on the approaches towards a bridge is intercepted on the
approach
 short bridges, particularly those over roads or railway, do not have scuppers, but
stormwater is discharged to drains at the abutments
62
 long bridges have drainage outlets of sufficient number and size. Outlets are rigid, ultra-
violet and corrosion resistant, not less than 100 mm in least dimension and provided
with cleanouts
 drainage prevents discharge against the structure, prevents erosion by the outlet
discharge and does not discharge onto traffic lanes or rail corridor
 overhanging edges of deck are provided with a drip detail, continuous where possible
 the design ensures water drains from all parts of the structure, and dirt, leaves or other
foreign matter is not retained
 drainage pipes passing through closed cells of a bridge are of durable material, and the
cells are provided with drain holes in case of leakage or bursting.

Provisions of the Bridge manual not covered in AS 5100.1 include:
 direct discharge over the edge of the deck on spans wholly over water is allowed unless
there is a particular reason for not doing so. Otherwise stormwater is to be collected and
specific provision made for its disposal. Stomwater drains and pipes are to be self-
cleaning wherever possible
 piped drainage systems are to be designed for a 20-year return period rainfall event and
advice is provided on design references
 sumps are to be positioned where they will not affect traffic ride and detailed to provide
for future bridge deck resurfacing.
 deck expansion joints are required to be watertight unless specific provision is made to
collect and dispose of water passing through them.

The AS 5100.1 requirements are suitable for adoption for use in New Zealand. However, the
Bridge manual requirements largely complement those of AS 5100.1 with little duplication
and should be retained and included through supplementary documentation.
1.15 Access for inspection and maintenance

Section 15 of AS 5100.1 requires provision to be made for access for inspection and
maintenance, and for that provision to facilitate safe work practice in terms of health and
safety legislation.

The Bridge manual goes no further than to identify access for inspection and maintenance as
a factor that influences the design, and to be addressed in the design statement.

The AS 5100.1 requirements are suitable for adoption and use in New Zealand.
63
1.16 Utilities

Section 16 of AS 5100.1 is relatively general, requiring:
 provision to be made for the attachment of utilities as permitted by the authority

 the location and method of attachment to be subject to the approval of the authority and
to be fabricated from durable materials
 the utility to be constructed of durable materials to prevent leakage into, or onto the
structure.

Additionally, the Bridge manual requires:
 network utility operators to be advised of the extent and direction of movements at

bridge expansion joints due both to length changes and seismic acceleration
 designers to consider the possibility of bridge overloading due to leakage or rupture of
pipes carrying fluids inside a box girder, and for adequate drainage to be provided
 compliance with special conditions that apply to the installation of pipelines carrying
flammable fluids. Such pipelines are precluded from being carried inside box girders.

The AS 5100.1 requirements are suitable for adoption for use in New Zealand. However, the
Bridge manual requirements largely complement the requirements of AS 5100.1 and should
be retained and included through supplementary documentation.
1.17 Skew railway bridges (section 17) and camber on railway

bridges (section 18)
Sections 17 and 18 of AS 5100.1 are not relevant to highway bridges and thus have not been
reviewed.
1.18 Appendix A: Matters for resolution before design

commences

Appendix A of AS 5100.1 lists all clauses throughout the AS 5100.1 standard requiring
confirmation by the relevant authority or owner of the bridge or associated structure before
commencement of the design process.

A review of all of these clauses is required and Transit’s requirements set out in
supplementary documentation. The fact that there are 32 separate items in section 1 alone to
be resolved ‘by the authority’ indicates the need for ‘the authority’ to maintain its own design
manual (such as a modified Bridge manual), even if AS 5100.1 were adopted by Transit.
64
1.19 Appendix B: Road barrier performance level selection

method

Appendix B of AS 5100.1 presents a procedure for assisting in the selection of the
appropriate performance level for road traffic barriers for the more common types of bridge
site risk parameters such as traffic volume, alignment and gradient of the road, height of the
bridge and conditions under the bridge.

This procedure is very similar to that presented in the Bridge manual, but with some
differences. Both procedures rely on the calculation of an adjusted AADT value through the
application of factors for road type, grade, curvature of the alignment, and height of the
structure and under structure land use. Then the determination of barrier performance level
from graphs, for various speed thresholds, of adjusted AADT plotted against percentage
commercial vehicles for various barrier offsets.
AS 5100.1 provides definitions of the factors that, in the case of the road type factor and the
height and under structure land use factor, are a little more complete and clearer to interpret.
However, in its treatment of water depth in relation to the height and under structure factor,
clarification would be beneficial. AS 5100.1 provides good guidance on the derivation of the
percentage of commercial vehicles that is lacking in the Bridge manual.
The following are two significant differences in the factors applied:
 road type factor – both standards adopt road type factors of:
- 1.0 for divided roads, or undivided roads with five or more lanes
- 2.0 for one-way traffic

 but differ for two-way undivided traffic with four or fewer lanes, where
- AS 5100.1 adopts a constant factor equal to 1.5

- the Bridge manual ramps the factor down from 1.45 at 60 km/h to 1.15 at 110 km/h
design speed
 curvature factor – in a plot of CU (curvature factor, on the vertical axis) to radius of
curvature (on the horizontal axis) the AS 5100.1 curve is positioned considerably to the
left of the Bridge manual curve, as depicted in figure 1.1 below. To highlight the
differences, table 1.9 presents the curvature factor derived from the two standards for a
few example radii of curvature.
65
3.5
3.0
Curvature Factor Cu
2.5
2.0 Bridge Manual

AS5100
1.5
1.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Radius of Curvature
Figure 1.1 Comparison of AS 5100.1 and Bridge manual curvature factors.
Table 1.9 Comparison of AS 5100.1 and Bridge manual curvature factors for some example
radii of curvature.
Example radii of curvature (m) AS 5100.1 Bridge manual

curvature factor curvature factor
290 3.0 3.0
660 1.33 3.0
870 1.0 2.0
1400 1.0 1.0
As the barrier performance levels are equivalent between the two standards except at the low
end, it can be seen that AS 5100.1 could require a higher barrier performance level for two-
way undivided traffic flow, but a lower barrier performance level based on curvature of the
road alignment.
The Bridge manual flow diagram for the selection procedure, extends the AS 5100.1
procedure to consider barrier requirements and the need for separate footpaths when
pedestrians are present.
As noted in section 1.10, AS 5100.1 does not include a barrier performance level
corresponding to NCHRP test level 6, whereas the Bridge manual does. Thus the specification
of criteria for special performance level barriers differs somewhat. The AS 5100.1 test criteria
for special performance barriers, in setting a speed of 100 km/h for the 44-tonne articulated
van test vehicle, sets a higher standard than the Bridge manual which adopts 80 km/h as the
test speed.
1.19.3 Suitability and action required to enable adoption

Overall, the AS 5100.1 road barrier performance selection method is suitable for application
in New Zealand and offers some improvements over the Bridge manual method. However, a
66
review is required of the appropriateness of the AS 5100.1 road type and curvature factors
for New Zealand conditions. If the current Bridge manual factors are to be retained, this will
require supplementary documentation. Retention or otherwise of the current Bridge manual
criteria for performance levels 6 and special has been discussed in section 1.10, and if
retained these would also need to be incorporated through supplementary documentation.
67
2 AS 5100.2: Design loads
AS 5100.2 content

1 Scope and general 3.1 Introduction
2 Referenced documents 3.6 References
3 Definitions 2.1.2 Definition of terms
4 Notation 3.5 – for notation used to designate loadings,
otherwise notation is defined in individual
clauses as the notation arises
5 Dead loads 3.4.1 Dead load
3.4.2 Superimposed dead load
6 Road traffic 3.2 Traffic loads –gravity effects
3.3 Traffic loads – horizontal effects
7 Pedestrian and bicycle-path load 3.4.14 Loads on footpaths and cycle tracks
8 Railway traffic
9 Minimum lateral restraint capacity 2.1.8 Structural robustness
10 Collision loads 3.4.18 Collision loads
11 Kerb and barrier design loads and other B6 Side protection design criteria
requirements for road traffic bridges
12 Dynamic behaviour 3.4.15 Vibration
13 Earth pressure 3.4.12 Earth loads
14 Earthquake forces 3.4.3 Earthquake
Section 5 Earthquake resistant design
15 Forces resulting from water flow 2.1.3 Basis of design
2.3 Waterway design
3.4.8 Water pressure
16 Wind loads 2.1.3 Basis of design
3.4.5 Wind
17 Thermal effects 3.4.6 Temperature effects
18 Shrinkage, creep and prestress effects 3.4.4 Shortening
3.4.17 Forces locked-in by the erection sequence
19 Differential movement of supports 3.4.16 Settlement, subsidence and ground
deformation
20 Forces from bearings 3.4.4 Shortening
21 Construction forces and effects 3.4.7 Construction loads
3.4.17 Forces locked-in by the erection sequence
22 Load combinations 3.5 Combination of load effects
23 Road signs and lighting structures
24 Noise barriers
Appendix A: Design loads for medium and special B6 Side protection design criteria
performance level barriers
68
2.1 Scope and general

AS 5100.2 sets out the minimum design loads, forces and load effects for road, railway,
pedestrian and bicycle bridges and associated structures.
The design loads and forces are to be considered as acting in combinations as set out in
section 22 of AS 5100.2. Any other forces that may act, and their combination with other
loads, in addition to those specified, are also to be considered in a manner consistent with
the principles set out in AS 5100.2.
A range of design load information is specified to be presented on the front sheet of the
bridge drawings.

The Bridge manual does not specify any comparable requirements for loads other than those
presented in the manual for consideration, or for design load information to be presented on
the drawings.

The requirement to present design loading information on the drawings is supported, as this
information is valuable if work is undertaken on the bridge in future. Further information that
should also be considered for presentation on the drawings includes:
 foundation-bearing capacity
 material characteristic strength and properties (eg concrete compressive strength f’c,
steel yield strength fy) and the steel material standard.
Section 1 of AS 5100.2 is suitable for application in New Zealand as is, but could benefit from
having the list of information to be presented on the drawings extended as suggested above.

Section 2 lists documents referred to by AS 5100.2.

No requirements are specified in this section.

If AS 5100.2 were adopted, additions and possibly some exclusions would need to be made
to this list of reference documents to incorporate documents relevant to New Zealand.
Additions would be expected to include the documents referenced in the Bridge manual
section 3.6. and also NZS 1170.5 ‘Structural design actions, part 5: Earthquake actions’.
69
2.3 Definitions

Section 3 of AS 5100.2 states that the definitions of AS 5100.1 apply.
Section 1.4 of this report comments on variation from the Bridge manual and suitability for
application in New Zealand.
2.4 Notation

Notation occurring in AS 5100.2 is defined in section 4, together with references to the
clauses in which the notation occurs.

No requirements are specified by this section.

Section 4 of AS 5100.2 is suitable for adoption without modification, subject to clauses in
which the notation occurs being adopted without modification.
2.5 Dead loads

Section 5 of AS 5100.2 covers permanent dead loads, superimposed dead loads, soil loads on
retaining walls and buried structures, and railway ballast and track loads.
Load factors are specified for both the ULS and the SLS, and in the case of the ULS as to
whether the load acts to reduce safety or increase safety.

AS 5100.2 includes non-structural elements unlikely to vary during the use of the structure,
such as parapets and kerbs within the dead load, whereas the Bridge manual treats these as
superimposed dead load.
The AS 5100.2 approach applies load factors to the dead load which differ depending on
whether the weight of a part, or load on a part, of the structure reduces or increases safety.
This is also covered in the Bridge manual but perhaps is not as clearly expressed by the
requirement that a permanent load, at the SLS, is to be replaced by 0.9 x permanent load,
and at the ultimate state by the permanent load /j, where j is the load factor outside the
bracket applied to all permanent loads.
There is significant difference in the load factors applied to dead load and superimposed
dead load between AS 5100.2 and the Bridge manual. For the general or common cases the
load factors adopted by the two standards are as given in table 2.2:
70
Table 2.2 Dead load and superimposed dead load load factors.
AS 5100.2 Bridge manual
Load ULS load factor SLS load Load ULS load factor SLS load
factor factor
Reduces Increases
safety safety
Dead load, steel 1.1 0.9 1.0 Dead load Varies 0.8* – 1.35 1.0
construction
Dead load, 1.2 0.85 1.0
concrete
construction
Superimposed 2.0 0.7 1.3 Superimposed Varies 0.8* – 1.35 1.0
dead load dead load
*Note: 0.8 applies when vertical earthquake, reducing the effect of gravity, results in a more severe
situation. Otherwise the load factor varies 1.0 –1.35 depending on the load combination.
AS 5100.2 does not specify any minimum allowances to be made for surfacing or services,
whereas, regardless of whether a bridge is be surfaced immediately or not, the Bridge
manual requires an allowance of 1.5 kN/m2 to be made for surfacing. The Bridge manual also
requires a minimum allowance of 0.25 kN/m2 over the full width of the bridge deck to be
made for services.
AS 5100.2 specifies a design loading for railway ballast and track loads, which is not covered
or relevant to the Bridge manual as it does not consider railway bridges.

The AS 5100.2 approach of applying a reduction load factor at the ULS where the load
increases safety is considered to be appropriate (eg where axial load increases the flexural
capacity of a reinforced concrete member subjected to combined compression and flexure.) It
is also an approach adopted by AS/NZS 1170. However, the ULS load factors differ
significantly from those adopted by the Bridge manual, with those for dead load being
significantly lower, while that for superimposed live load is significantly higher. The Bridge
manual load factors for dead load generally align reasonably with AS/NZS 1170.
Before adoption of the AS 5100.2 criteria, a detailed review of what load factors are
appropriate in conjunction with a review of load combinations is recommended. This
recommendation applies not only to dead load and superimposed dead load, but also to all
the other load types. This is necessary to ensure alignment with the safety index adopted by
the NZBC and its supporting verification methods and approved documents.
Section 5 in AS 5100.2 includes specification of how soil loads on retaining walls and buried
structures are to be derived that would be more appropriately located in section 13. It
specifies load factors to be applied to soil densities and draws on AS 4678 ‘Earth-retaining
structures’ for the derivation of soil loads. AS 4678 applies material uncertainty factors
(equivalent to strength reduction factors) in the derivation of design values for the internal
friction angle, Ø, and cohesion, c, which is considered to be appropriate, but these factors
are the same regardless of how these material properties are assessed, which is not a good
approach. However, the AS 5100.2 provisions are an improvement on those of the Bridge
manual.
71
2.6 Road traffic

Section 6 of AS 5100.2 presents several load models that simulate the effects of road
vehicles, singly or in groups. The design loads encompass:
 gravitational live loading

 the superimposed dynamic effects due to vehicle – structure interaction
 horizontal centrifugal forces and braking forces.
Section 6 also covers:
 the number of traffic lanes to be designed

 the reduction in lane loading when multiple lanes are loaded
 a design load and spectrum for fatigue effects
 load factors to be applied for the ULS and SLS
 the distribution of traffic loads through fill.

The design traffic loading specified in AS 5100.2 differs significantly from that of the Bridge
manual in almost every respect.
2.6.2.1 Design loading configurations

The AS 5100.2 normal design traffic load comprises the following, each considered
separately:
 the W80 wheel load, which comprises an 80 kN load applied over a contact area 400 mm
wide x 250 mm long anywhere on the road surface (refer to figure 2.1)
 the A160 axle load comprising two W80 wheels spaced 2.0 m apart between the centres
of the wheel contact areas (refer to figure 2.1)
 the M1600 moving load comprising the combination of axle group and lane uniformly
distributed loads (UDLs) illustrated in figure 2.2. The lane width is taken as 3.2 m. The
lane UDL is continuous or discontinuous as may be necessary to produce the most
adverse effect, and the truck variable length is similarly to be determined so as to
produce the most adverse effect
 the S1600 stationary load comprising the combination of axle group and lane UDLs
illustrated in figure 2.3, applied in a similar fashion to the M1600 load.
72
Figure 2.1 AS 5100.2 W80 wheel load and A160 axle load configurations.
Figure 2.2 AS 5100.2 M1600 moving traffic load configuration.
Figure 2.3 AS 5100.2 S1600 stationary traffic load configuration.
73
In addition, where required by the authority, bridges are to be designed for heavy load
platforms (HLP). There are two forms for these, the HLP 320 load and the HLP 400 load, as
illustrated in figure 2.4:
Figure 2.4 AS 5100.2 heavy load platform configurations.
These are made up and applied as follows:
 16 rows of axles spaced at 1.8 m centres

 total load per axle: 200 kN for the HLP 320 and 250 kN for the HLP 400
 eight tyres per axle row
 overall width of axles: 3.6 m for the HLP 320 and 4.5 m for the HLP 400
 the tyre contact area is taken as 500 mm wide x 200 mm long for each set of dual wheels
 tyre contact areas are centred 250 mm and 1150 mm from each end of each axle
 for continuous bridges, the load is to be considered as separated into two groups of
eight axles each with a central gap of between 6 m and 15 m, chosen to give the most
adverse effect.
By comparison, the Bridge manual design traffic loadings, of which there are two, the HN
loading and the HO loading, are much simpler, comprising two axles at a constant spacing of
5 m applied in conjunction with a uniformly distributed lane loading over a lane width of
3.0 m. These design loadings are illustrated in figure 2.5.
74
Figure 2.5 Bridge manual HN and HO loading configurations.
2.6.2.2 Number of traffic lanes in the bridge cross-section

AS 5100.2 defines the standard design lane width as 3.2 m with the number of design lanes
calculated as:
n = b/3.2 (rounded down to the next integer)
where:
n = the number of lanes
b = width between traffic barriers, in metres
These lanes are to be positioned laterally on the bridge to produce the most adverse effect.
The Bridge manual, on the other hand, defines the roadway as the zone between the face of
kerbs, guardrail or other barrier, including shoulders and cycletrack at the same level as the
75
carriageway, and divides the roadway into equal width design load lanes with the number of
lanes determined as set out in table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Bridge manual derivation of number of load lanes.
Width of roadway Number of load lanes

Less than 6.0 m 1
6.0 m but less than 9.7 m 2
This results in load lane widths of up to 6.0 m but generally varying from 3.0 m up to 4.85 m
for other than single-lane bridges.
2.6.2.3 Factors for more than one lane loaded

When more than one lane is loaded, AS 5100.2 applies reduction factors to the loads in the
additional lanes as set out in table 2.4. The Bridge manual’s simpler approach is to apply a
reduction factor to the total traffic live load when more than one lane is loaded, as given in
table 2.5.
Table 2.4 AS 5100.2 accompanying lane factors.
Standard design lane number, n Accompanying lane factor

1 lane loaded 1.0
2 lanes loaded 1.0 for the first lane, and
0.8 for the second lane
3 or more lanes loaded 1.0 for the first lane
0.8 for the second lane
0.4 for the third and subsequent lanes
Notes:
First lane – the loaded lane giving the largest effect
Second lane – the loaded lane giving the second largest effect
Third lane – the loaded lane giving the third largest effect
Table 2.5 Bridge manual reduction factors for multiple lanes loaded.
Number of lanes loaded Reduction factor

1 1.0
2 0.9
3 0.8
4 0.7
5 0.6
6 or more 0.55
2.6.2.4 Dynamic load allowance

AS 5100.2 has adopted the recently revised North American approach of applying constant
factors for dynamic load allowance, which are independent of the bridge length or period of
vibration. The factor is applied to the total load, however, and not just the truck element.
These factors are given in table 2.6.
76
Table 2.6 AS 5100.2 dynamic load allowance factors.
Loading (i) Dynamic load allowance (α)

W80 wheel load 0.4
A160 axle load 0.4
M1600 tri-axle group (refer Note (ii)) 0.35
M1600 load (refer Note (ii)) 0.3
S1600 load (refer Note (ii)) 0
HLP loading 0.1
Notes:
(i) Dynamic load allowance is not required for centrifugal forces, braking forces or pedestrian loads
(ii) Dynamic load allowance includes the UDL component of the traffic load
The dynamic load allowance is to be considered acting both downwards and upwards.
For parts of the structure below ground level, the dynamic load allowance factor is reduced
linearly from the factor at ground surface tabulated above to 0 at 2.0 m or greater below
ground surface.
For buried structures such as culverts the dynamic load allowance is reduced linearly from
the factor at ground surface tabulated above to 0.1 at 2.0 m or greater below ground surface.
The Bridge manual considers dynamic loading only as an additive to the static loading by
factoring the static loading effects on a structure above ground by a dynamic load factor
derived from figure 2.6. Unlike the AS 5100.2 approach, this factor, for moment, is a function
of span length. The dynamic load factor is also applied to the top slab of buried culvert type
structures but is reduced with depth of fill over the slab from the above ground value at
ground surface to 1.0 at a depth of 1.0 m.
77
Note: L is the span length for positive moment and the average of the adjacent span lengths for negative
moment
Figure 2.6 Bridge manual dynamic load factor for elements above ground.
2.6.2.5 Centrifugal forces

Both AS 5100.2 and the Bridge manual specify the design centrifugal force as a proportion of
the design moving load acting on the bridge deck, with the lanes loaded reduction factors
applied but not the dynamic load allowance. AS 5100 specifies this load to act at the level of
the deck, while the Bridge manual specifies it to act 2 m above the road surface level. The
centrifugal loads specified by the two documents are essentially the same, but AS 5100.2
places an upper bound on the force of ≤ (0.35 + θ)Wc, where Wc is the load due to multiple
lanes of the M1600 load on the length being considered, and θ is the road super elevation
expressed as a ratio (ie 4% super elevation is expressed as 0.04), a limit unlikely to ever
govern.
2.6.2.6 Braking forces

AS 5100.2 specifies the braking force to be taken as the more adverse of the following two
cases:
Single vehicle stopping:
FBS = 0.45WBS ; 200 kN < FBS < 720 kN;
where:
FBS = braking force applied by a single vehicle
WBS = load due to a single lane of the M1600 moving traffic load for the
length under consideration, without dynamic load allowance.
78
Multi-lane moving traffic stream stopping:
FBM = 0.15WBM
where:
FBM = braking force applied by multiple vehicles
WBM = load due to multiple lanes of M1600 moving traffic load heading in
a single direction, adjusted by the accompanying lane factors
appropriate to the number of lanes included, for the length under
consideration, without dynamic load allowance.
In comparison, the Bridge manual specifies the following:
For local effects, a horizontal longitudinal force equal to 70% of an HN axle load applied
across the width of any loaded lane at any position on the deck surface, representing a
skidding axle.
For effects on the bridge as a whole, a horizontal longitudinal force applied in each section of
the bridge superstructure between expansion joints equal to the greater of:
 two skidding axles as above

 10% of the live load applied to the section of superstructure in lanes heading in the same
direction.
The Bridge manual is not clear on how the dynamic load factor is to be treated when
determining braking forces, and so it is assumed that this factor is not included. On this
basis, AS 1500 specifies a more severe design braking load for the bridge as a whole, except
on short bridge sections where the two skidding axles could be more severe.
2.6.2.7 Fatigue loading

AS 5100.2 specifies a design fatigue loading, which is to be taken as the more severe of:
 70% of the effects of a single A160 axle load with dynamic load allowance
 70% of the effects of a single M1600 moving traffic load vehicle without the UDL but with
dynamic load allowance.
Each is to be applied with a load factor of 1.0 in the design lane that maximises the fatigue
effects for the component under consideration.
The number of stress cycles to be considered for each case respectively is:
 (current no. of heavy vehicles per lane per day) x 4 x 104 x (route factor)

4 -0.5
(current no. of heavy vehicles per lane per day) x 2 x 10 x L x (route factor)
where the route factor is to be taken as:
 for principal interstate freeways and highways 1.0

 for urban freeways 0.7
 for other rural routes 0.5
 for urban roads other than freeways 0.3
79
and L is the effective span in metres taken as the actual span length for positive moments,
and the average of the adjacent span lengths for negative moments.
The Bridge manual, while requiring fatigue to be considered, does not present a standard
fatigue load spectrum for New Zealand conditions. Use of the BS 5400: Part 10 Standard
fatigue load spectrum is allowed but is acknowledged to result in a somewhat conservative
outcome.
2.6.2.8 Load factors

There is considerable difference between AS 5100.2 and the Bridge manual load factors
applied to the design traffic live loads. These are summarised in table 2.7 for the load
combination cases usually dominant in design.
Table 2.7 Comparison of AS 5100.2 and Bridge manual load factors.
Traffic load Limit state
Ultimate Serviceability
AS 5100.2:
W80 wheel load 1.8 1.0
A160 axle load 1.8 1.0
M1600 moving traffic load 1.8 1.0
S1600 stationary traffic load 1.8 1.0
Heavy load platform 1.5 1.0
Bridge manual:
Normal live load (eg HN-HN) 2.255 1.35
Overload (eg HN-HO) 1.485 1.0
2.6.2.9 Deflection/vibration
AS 5100.2 requires the deflection limits of a road bridge for serviceability to be appropriate
to the structure and its intended use, the nature of the loading and the elements supporting
it. Not withstanding this requirement, the deflection for the SLS under M1600 moving traffic
load without UDL, plus dynamic load allowance, placed in each lane with multiple lanes
loaded reduction factors applied, is not to be greater than 1/600 of the span or 1/300 of the
cantilever projection, as applicable. In addition, deflections are not to infringe clearance
envelopes, hog deflection is not to exceed 1/300 of the span, and no sag deflection is to
occur under permanent load.
The Bridge manual, on the other hand, does not specify deflection limits but requires
structures to be checked for their vibrational response. For bridges carrying significant
pedestrian or cycle traffic, the maximum vertical velocity during a cycle of vibration is not to
exceed 0.055 m/sec under the two 120 kN axles of an HN load element.
2.6.2.10 Distribution of traffic loads through fill

AS 5100.2 specifies a method for the distribution of SM1600 design loads through fills. It
fails to define the SM1600 loading, which is assumed to refer to either the M1600 or S1600
loading. There are no similar criteria presented in the Bridge manual.

Figures 2.7 to 2.10 provide an approximate comparison of the design traffic live loadings
specified by AS 5100.2 and the Bridge manual for the ULS and SLS, for two lanes loaded, with
80
dynamic load allowance and multiple lanes loaded factors included. (The approximation is
that the lack of coincidence of the points of maximum moment in lanes heading in opposite
direction, and the reversed orientation of the M1600 truck in the second lane has been
ignored. For the AS 5100.2, M1600 and S1600 loads the graphs are of the effect of the load
on two lanes heading in the same direction.)
Except at span lengths approaching 100 m, where the S1600 loading produces the highest
shear, the M1600 is the dominant design loading and is approximately twice the design
loading currently adopted in the Bridge manual for spans greater than 20 m. For spans of
less than 20 m it is still significantly higher although less than twice the Bridge manual
design loading.
Adoption of the AS 5100.2 design traffic live loading, as a significantly heavier loading, would
have significant implications for the construction cost of new bridges and require the
development of policy for the management of the load capacity of existing bridges. The
AS 5100.2 A160 axle loading is 1.33 times higher than the Bridge manual HN axle loading.
In AS 5100.2, in view of the dominance of the M1600 loading, the need for the standard to
specify the other design loadings (S1600, HLP 320 and HLP 400) and for designers to
consider them is questionable.
A design traffic loading is usually intended to be a simulation of the effects of traffic on a

structure. The AS 5100.2, M1600 and S1600 design loadings, with their unsymmetrical
arrangement of varying and variable axle group spacings, are unnecessarily complicated
simulations of design loading that would add considerably to the modelling and analysis
effort involved in design. Much simpler design loadings, such as those of the Bridge manual
HN and HO loadings, are expected to be adequate and are preferred. The AS 5100.2
approach to applying multiple lanes loaded reduction factors to individual lanes is similarly
more complicated than the Bridge manual approach, and again the justification for this
added complexity is questionable.
It is not considered appropriate at present to adopt the AS 5100.2 design traffic live loads. A
review has recently been undertaken of the design traffic live loadings appropriate for use in
New Zealand, and revisions have been made to the design live loading. However, this revision
is currently subject to a debate involving NZTA and other parties. It is recommended that
New Zealand retain its current design traffic live loading until either the policy on heavy
vehicle limits changes or dedicated extra heavy vehicle corridors are formulated and
implemented.
81
100000
90000
80000
70000 HN-HN Moment
Moment (kNm)
60000 HN-HO Moment

50000 M1600 Moment
40000 HLP 320 Moment
20000
10000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Span (m)
Figure 2.7 Serviceability limit state live load moments for two lanes loaded.
180000
160000
140000
HN-HN Moment
Moment (kNm)
120000
HN-HO Moment
100000
M1600 Moment
40000
20000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Span (m)
Figure 2.8 Ultimate limit state live load moments for two lanes loaded.
4000
3500
3000
HN-HN Shear
Shear (kN)
2500 HN-HO Shear

2000 M1600 Shear
1500 HLP 320 Shear
1000 HLP 400 Shear
500
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Span (m)
Figure 2.9 Serviceability limit state live load shear for two lanes loaded.
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7000
6000
5000 HN-HN Shear

Shear (kN)
4000 HN-HO Shear

M1600 Shear
3000
HLP 320 Shear
2000 HLP 400 Shear
1000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Span (m)
Figure 2.10 Ultimate limit state live load shear for two lanes loaded.
Reviews are recommended of the following aspects of the design criteria with a view to
harmonising approaches where possible:
 dynamic load allowance factors

 centrifugal forces – harmonise the approach to level of application of the load. In other
respects the AS 5100.2 and Bridge manual specifications are essentially similar
 braking forces – the current approaches of AS 5100.2 and the Bridge manual are
sufficiently close and adoption of the AS 5100.2 approach is not likely to have a
significant impact on design
 deflection – consideration of the adaptation of the AS 5100.2 deflection criteria to the
Bridge manual design loadings and to recognise cambering as an appropriate approach
for countering deflections under permanent loads
 distribution of traffic loads through fill – the AS 5100.2 approach appears generally
satisfactory, but would require adaptation to refer to the New Zealand design traffic
loads. The appropriateness of neglecting traffic loads on single spans when the depth
exceeds 2.5 m should be reviewed as the span length is considered to be a relevant
factor.
Development of a design fatigue load spectrum applicable to New Zealand conditions is

necessary whether or not AS 5100.2 is adopted.
In the event that AS 5100.2 is adopted for use in New Zealand, it is recommended that
supplementary documentation be prepared to incorporate appropriate design traffic live
loading criteria. Where practical, these criteria should be harmonised in their approach with
AS 5100.2.
2.7 Pedestrian and footpath load

Section 7 of AS 5100.2 specifies:
 the design loading for pedestrian walkways and cyclepaths on pedestrian and cycle path
bridges and on walkways on road bridges
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 the design loading for service walkways and platforms

 the ULS and SLS load factors to be applied to these loadings.

For walkways on road bridges, AS 5100.2 specifies a design live load of 5 kPa for loaded
2 2
areas of up to 10 m , reducing linearly to 2 kPa for areas greater than or equal to 100 m .
(This linear reduction is represented by the expression: w = 5⅓ – A/30.) For pedestrian
bridges and walkways independent of road or rail bridge superstructures, the design load of
2 2
5 kPa applies up to a loaded area of 85 m before reducing linearly to 4 kPa at 100 m . In
each case, the loaded area is related to the structural element under consideration.
Where a vehicle could use a walkway, the walkway is to be designed to carry a concentrated
load of 20 kN, without dynamic load allowance.
For service walkways and platforms, the design loading is to be taken as 2.2 kN distributed
over any 0.6 m length of the walkway or platform. Service live load on access walkways not
intended for public access need not be considered as acting simultaneously with traffic live
load.
Load factors to be applied to the AS 5100.2 pedestrian and service live loads are given in
table 2.8.
Table 2.8 Load factors for design pedestrian and service live loads.
Load Limit state
Ultimate Serviceability
Pedestrian loads 1.8 1.0
Service live loads 2.0 1.0
By comparison, the Bridge manual requires walkways at the same level as the road
carriageway to be designed for highway traffic loads. Walkways raised above the carriageway
and behind a kerb are to be designed for:
 5 kPa when not considered in the same load case as traffic loading
 when traffic loads are considered in the same load case, between 1.5 kPa and 4.0 kPa
based on the formula 5.0 – S/30, where S, the loaded length in metres, is the length of
footpath that results in the worst effect on the member being considered
 an HN wheel load positioned with the wheel outer edge at the outer edge of the slab,
treated as an overload case.
Walkways not accessible to traffic are to be designed for the first two loads above, but not
the HN wheel overload.
A footbridge or cycle track bridge without traffic is to be designed for a UDL of between
2.0 kPa and 5 kPa as given by the expression 6.2 – S/25, where S is as defined above.
The Bridge manual does not present criteria for service access loads.
The load factor applying to the Bridge manual design pedestrian walkway loads for the ULS is
1.755.
84

As footpaths generally exceed 1.0 m in width, the AS 5100.2 footpath UDL loading will
generally reduce more rapidly in relation to the length considered than that specified by the
Bridge manual. Which load specification is more appropriate is not clear and a more detailed
review is required to ascertain this.
The AS 5100.2 specified loading for accidental loading of the footpath by a vehicle, at ⅓ that
specified by the Bridge manual, is considered to be too light and not suitable for adoption.
This review supports the approach of specifying a service access loading, but the AS 5100.2
service access loading is potentially light, equating to approximately only two to three
people. This number of people could be increased and allowance also made for equipment
and materials. Different access facilities would be provided to serve different functions. A
more appropriate approach may be to require access facilities to bear signage stating their
capacity, and for the design loading to be based on the stated capacity.
If AS 5100.2 were adopted, supplementary documentation would be required to amend the

design vehicle overload and the service access load criteria. A review of the walkway UDL
loading for appropriateness is also recommended.
2.8 Railway traffic

Section 8 of AS 5100.2 has not been reviewed as it is not relevant to road bridges.
2.9 Minimum lateral restraint capacity

Section 9 of AS 5100.2 specifies a minimum lateral restraining force capacity to be provided
to each continuous section of the bridge superstructure.

AS 5100.2 specifies that a positive lateral restraint system is to be provided between the
superstructure and the substructure. For continuous superstructures, lateral restraints may
be omitted at some piers provided each section of the superstructure between expansion
joints is adequately restrained. The restraint system for each section of the superstructure is
to be capable of resisting an ultimate design horizontal force normal to the bridge centreline
of 500 kN or 5% of the superstructure dead load at that support, whichever is greater.
The nearest equivalent requirements within the Bridge manual are the requirements for
structural robustness specified in clause 2.1.8, which requires both horizontal and vertical
interconnection, but does not specify force levels, and the horizontal linkage system
requirements of clause 5.6.2 of the earthquake resistant design section, which does not
require transverse linkage providing the strength and stability of the span is sufficient to
support an outer beam should it be displaced off the pier or abutment.

The review supports the general principles of the AS 5100.2 provisions, but some rewording
of the clause is desirable to achieve clarity on the level of restraint force capacity to be
provided at individual restraint points and to continuous sections of the superstructure as a
whole. To specify the restraint force capacity at a support in terms of the reaction at that
85
support does not seem entirely logical when restraint is not required to be provided at some
supports. Neither is the specification of an arbitrary total force capacity logical as the length
and mass of superstructure to be restrained may vary widely from structure to structure.
If AS 5100.2 were to be adopted, it is recommended that the principles embodied in section 9

of AS 5100.2 be adopted but that a more rationally based level of restraint capacity be
developed.
2.10 Collision loads

Section 10 of AS 5100.2 specifies design collision forces and their application for the
following situations:
 traffic collision with bridge supports not located behind protective barriers
 traffic collision with protection beams positioned to protect low vertical clearance bridges
 train collision with all significant structures erected above railway tracks
 loads on railway bridges arising from derailment of a train.

The AS 5100.2 and Bridge manual design load and method of application for traffic collision
with bridge supports are essentially equivalent. (The AS 5100.2 force is double, but the load
factor one-half.) AS 5100.2 requires this loading to be considered when supports are not
located behind appropriate traffic barriers, which is not at all clear, whereas the Bridge
manual is much more specific on this issue.
The protection beams have not yet been adopted in New Zealand, although there is rising
concern over the frequency of over-height vehicle strikes on bridges. Consequently, the
Bridge manual does not currently contain equivalent provisions for loads on protection
beams. On the other hand, the Bridge manual does specify design collision loads for bridge
superstructures that are of a much smaller magnitude than the forces specified by AS 5100.2
for protection beams.
The Bridge manual provisions for train collision were adopted from the 1992 Austroads
Bridge Design Code, and so bear some similarity to the AS 5100.2 requirements. However,
these have been extensively revised and extended in AS 5100.2. These now provide the
option of designing the bridge with sufficient redundancy to be able to sustain loss of one or
more piers without collapse under its dead load plus 20% of the live load, or of designing to
resist the specified collision loads on the bridge piers. The AS 5100.2 ULS design collision
loads (ie ULS load factor x force) have undergone a reduction to 75% of the Bridge manual
loads, but the clearance width from the railway centreline within which this loading is
required to be considered has been increased from 5.5 m to 10 m. For the clearance from
10 m out to 20 m, AS 5100.2 has a requirement for a collision load of 1500 kN to be
considered in any horizontal direction. Also, but not concurrent with the loads above, any
part of a structure within 10 m horizontally or 5 m vertically is to be designed for a 500 kN
ULS collision load, reducing above 5 m to 0 at 10 m height.
Possible ship impact on bridge piers is also required to be considered by the Bridge manual,
but this load is not covered in AS 5100.2.
86

The AS 5100.2 requirements for collision load from traffic require clarification of the
conditions under which they are to be applied. This needs to include the extent of set-back
from the carriageway edge if unprotected, and the standard of barrier protection if shielded
by barriers.
The requirements for train collision related to provision of an alternative load path should
also clarify when more than one pier is to be considered removed.
The collision load due to traffic compared with that due to a train appears to be
disproportionate. The design loads are high and have the appearance of being based on
arbitrary judgement. Some of the structural forms in current use for railway overpasses,
such as Armco arch culverts and precast double hollow core unit decks supported on
mechanically reinforced earth walls, are unlikely to meet the AS 5100.2 requirements for
train collision loads.
It is recommended that a detailed review of requirements for train collision loading be

undertaken. A risk-based approach and a focus on designing for robustness may be more
appropriate than designing for excessively high or arbitrary loads that may not be able to be
accommodated economically. Trains are, after all, guided vehicles, the derailment of which is
relatively rare and their collision with structures even more rare.
If AS 5100.2 were to be adopted supplementary documentation should be prepared to:
 clarify the circumstances when design for traffic collision loads on supports is required
 incorporate a design traffic collision loading for bridge superstructures
 clarify, for train collisions and the alternative load path approach, when more than one
pier is to be considered to be removed
 present alternative requirements for train collision based on the detailed review
recommended above
 incorporate requirements for withstanding possible ship impact.
2.11 Kerb and barrier design loads and other requirements for
road traffic barriers

Section 11 of AS 5100.2 specifies:
 the design lateral load for kerbs

 requirements for the development of a prototype barrier or minor modifications to a
barrier system
 the design loads for low and regular performance barriers*
 the required effective and minimum actual heights for low and regular performance
barriers*
 criteria for the design of barrier anchorages (interpreted as the connection of the barrier
to the bridge deck)
 requirements for barrier continuity
 criteria for the design of deck slab cantilevers to resist barrier loads
87
 requirements for expansion joints and end parapets

 design loadings for pedestrian barriers.
*Note: Similar requirements for higher capacity barriers are covered in appendix A of
AS 5100.2
2.11.2.1 Traffic barrier acceptance criteria and design loads

For kerbs, AS 5100.2 specifies only a lateral ULS design force of 15 kN/m whereas the Bridge
manual requires kerbs to be designed for concurrent lateral ULS loading of 16.5 kN/m plus a
vertical HN wheel load.
AS 5100.2 sets out requirements for prototype barrier systems and modified performance
validated barrier systems. The Bridge manual on the other hand sets out barrier acceptance
criteria requiring that barriers comply with one of the following criteria:
 The barrier has undergone satisfactory crash testing to the appropriate test level in
accordance with NCHRP Report 350 (1993) with a maximum deflection not greater than
600 mm.
 The barrier system is based on similar crash-tested barriers used elsewhere with a
maximum deflection not greater than 600 mm, subject to Transit approval.
 The barrier system is one that is deemed to comply by Transit.
The Bridge manual also provides a table of approved non-proprietary solutions.
AS 5100.2 specifies design loads for low and regular performance barriers. The loads for
regular performance barriers correspond to those specified by the Bridge manual for
performance level 4 barriers. As noted in section 1.10, the low performance level barriers
specified by AS 5100.2 are below the minimum performance standard specified by the Bridge
manual which adopts performance level 3 corresponding to NCHRP TL3 as its lower bound
barrier performance level. Otherwise the barrier design forces and methods of application,
and barrier effective height requirements are essentially the same. The Bridge manual, clause
B6.1, fails to state that the design loads tabulated in table B3 are ULS loads for which the
appropriate load factor is 1.0.
2.11.2.2 Traffic barrier failure hierarchy

AS 5100.2 establishes a hierarchy of failure of the barrier system through the application of
varying ULS load factors, applying a load factor of 1.0 to the design of the barrier, a load
factor of 1.05 to the design of the barrier anchorages, and a load factor of 1.1 to the design
of deck cantilevers for the barrier forces. The Bridge manual, on the other hand, requires
failure to be confined to the barrier system and/or its fixings with the deck slab to remain
undamaged. A higher load factor is applied to the design of the deck slab to ensure this
outcome.
2.11.2.3 Traffic barrier continuity and expansion joints

AS 5100.2 presents requirements for the strengths and detailing of rail splices, and requires
rigid parapets at expansion joints to stand alone without shear key interconnection. Where
gaps greater than 25 mm could develop between adjacent panels, bridging plates are to be
provided. There are no comparable requirements in the Bridge manual.
88
2.11.2.4 Pedestrian barriers

Pedestrian barrier design forces differ between AS 5100.2 and the Bridge manual. AS 5100.2
requires the following:
 longitudinal members to be designed for a simultaneous transverse and vertical load of

0.75 kN/m, or the appropriate wind load, whichever is most adverse
 where an authority requires barriers to restrain crowds or people under panic conditions,
this loading is increased to 3.0 kN/m transversely and vertically
 static deflections due to the above loadings to not exceed:
- for longitudinal members: L/800
- for posts; h/300

 load factors for these loadings are to be taken as 1.8 for the ULS and 1.0 for the SLS.
The Bridge manual separates the barrier into its elements and requires the following:
 the top rail to be designed to resist a horizontal and vertical service load of 1.75 kN/m,
non-concurrently

2
other members to resist a horizontal service load of 1.5 kN/m applied to the gross area
and a point load of 0.5 kN applied at any point
 the load factor to be taken for the ULS is 1.7.
2.11.2.5 Combination traffic – pedestrian barriers

The Bridge manual presents requirements for combined pedestrian/traffic barriers mounted
on a kerb with a 500 mm wide strip, or on a footpath with a kerb. For these:
 the traffic barrier portion is to meet the requirements for the appropriate barrier
performance level
 the handrail top rail portion is to resist loads of 4.4 kN/m horizontally and 1.75 kN/m
vertically, and the loadings on other handrail components are as set out above for hand
rails
 deflection of the barrier is to be limited to prevent the impact side wheel having less than
100 mm of contact width with the bridge deck.

The AS 5100.2 requirements alone are insufficient to adequately reflect Transit’s
requirements. If AS 5100.2 were to be adopted, detailed review of some aspects and
supplementary documentation would be required in the following areas:
 Transit’s traffic barrier acceptance criteria

 barrier design loads for performance level 3 traffic barriers
 the traffic barrier failure hierarchy. AS 5100.2’s load factors are unlikely to be sufficient
to ensure that damage to the bridge deck is avoided because of strain hardening in the
yielding steel of the barrier
 expansion joints and end parapets. The justification for prohibiting shear keying between
the abutting ends of adjacent parapets at expansion joints is not clear and in fact
measures that limit the differential transverse displacement of one section of parapet
relative to the next are considered to be beneficial, reducing the likelihood of the
colliding vehicle being snagged
89
 the design loads for pedestrian barriers (in view of the significant differences in the
AS 5100.2 and Bridge manual design loadings). The AS 5100.2 design loading is felt to
be low, but inclusion of requirements for crowd loading is supported. In the rural
environment, consideration may also need to be given to the containment of stock being
herded.
 the design loadings for handrails mounted on top of traffic barriers.
2.12 Dynamic behaviour

Section 12 of AS 5100.2 encompasses the vibrational behaviour of:
 road bridges with pedestrian walkways

 road bridges without walkways
 railway bridges
 pedestrian bridges
2.12.2.1 Road bridges

For road bridges, AS 5100.2 specifies deflection limits under static loading (a proportion of
the M1600 loading without UDL), which if exceeded requires a dynamic analysis of the
bridge’s vibrational behaviour. It fails, however, to define acceptance criteria in the event of a
dynamic analysis being required.
The Bridge manual, by comparison, requires the maximum vertical velocity during a cycle of
vibration under its specified design load (two 120 kN axles of one HN load element) to be
limited to no greater than 0.055 m/sec. However, it fails to adequately define how the
loading is to be applied in order to derive the maximum velocity associated with vibration of
the bridge.
2.12.2.2 Pedestrian bridges

For pedestrian bridges, AS 5100.2 requires bridges with resonant frequencies of vertical
response within the range of 1.5 Hz to 3.5 Hz to be investigated for vibrational response
under a 700 kN load traversing the bridge at an average walking speed of 1.75 to 2.5
footfalls per second. Under this action the maximum dynamic deflection is to be within
defined limits which vary with the frequency of vibration. The Bridge manual adopts the
BS 5400 approach for design of pedestrian bridges for vibration. This requires bridges with a
fundamental frequency (fo) in the vertical direction of less than 5 Hz to be assessed and the
maximum vertical acceleration to be limited to less than 0.5√fo m/sec. It provides a
simplified method for symmetrical, constant cross-section, single span or two or three span
continuous bridges, and a more rigorous method for more complex bridge structures.

Adoption of the AS 5100.2 procedures appears to be attractive, but a review would be
required to ensure that they deliver appropriate outcomes. Adaptation of the approach for
road bridges to the New Zealand design traffic loading may also be necessary.
For road bridges, AS 5100.2 offers an attractively simple initial approach; however, it is based
on the AS 5100.2 design traffic live loading. If the AS 5100.2 design traffic live loading is not
90
adopted, then design loadings and acceptance criteria based on the adopted design traffic
live loading would need to be developed to adopt the AS 5100 method. For situations where
dynamic analysis is required, acceptance criteria would need to be developed for the AS
5100.2 approach to be used.
For pedestrian bridges, the AS 5100.2 load of 700 N appears to be unrealistically high as the
‘dynamic excitation’ load, and the speed of travel of the person across the bridge is not well
defined. By comparison, the BS 5400 part 2 loading adopted by the Bridge manual, applies a
sinusoidally varying load with a peak magnitude of 180 N, which appears more reasonable,
but the reason for the velocity of travel of the load varying with the fundamental frequency of
vibration is not clear. However, these loadings taken together with their acceptance criteria
are simulations designed to determine thresholds between acceptable and unacceptable
dynamic response, and so the loadings cannot be considered in isolation from acceptance
criteria. In view of what appears to be a very high dynamic excitation load being applied by
AS 5100.2 for pedestrian bridges, a review of the AS 5100.2 criteria is recommended to
ensure that it is producing appropriate outcomes.
To adopt the AS 5100.2 approach, supplementary documentation would be required to clarify

the vibrational behaviour requirements. The coverage of that documentation would have to
include as a minimum:
 specification of the design loadings for road bridges

 specification of the acceptance criteria for road bridges requiring dynamic analysis
 clarification of the speed of travel of the design load for pedestrian bridges.
If the current Bridge manual criteria for road bridges is retained, the manner of application of
the loading and derivation of the vertical velocity would need to be clarified.
2.13 Earth pressure

Section 13 of AS 5100.2 refers to AS 5100.3 for load effects from earth pressures on soil
retaining structures, which is covered in the review of AS 5100.3. In addition it also covers:
 surcharge loads from traffic loads

 surcharge loads from railway loads.

AS 5100.2 simulates highway live loading within a distance from a wall equal to the effective
height of the wall as the effect of an additional soil surcharge which diminishes over the
height of the wall as shown in figure 2.11. The effect of foundations placed on or in the fill
within a distance from the wall equal to the effective height is also to be taken into account.
In comparison, the Bridge manual allows live load effects to be simulated by the effect of
0.6 m of soil surcharge, with no reduction in the effect as the depth increases.
91
Figure 2.11 Equivalent load due to live load surcharge.
AS 5100.2 provides a method for the simulation of railway loads within a distance from the
wall equal to the effective wall height as surcharge loads. No equivalent provision is made by
the Bridge manual.

The AS 5100.2 surcharge load is designed to be an appropriate simulation of the AS 5100.2
traffic design load effects on retaining walls. If the AS 5100.2 design traffic loads are not
adopted for use in New Zealand, and the HN–HO loading is retained, then the Bridge manual
simulation of traffic live loading by a 0.6 m fill surcharge should also be retained. This would
require supplementary documentation should AS 5100.2 be adopted.
AS 5100.2 is considered to provide an appropriate method for simulation of the effects of

train loading on earth retaining structures.
2.14 Earthquake forces

Section 14 of AS 5100.2 covers the following:
 general requirements – this includes reference to AS 1170.4 for aspects of the calculation
of common earthquake effects
 earthquake effects to be considered at the ULS for members strengths, overall stability of
the structure and its members, and horizontal movements
 bridge categorisation for earthquake resistant design
 the methods of analysis and detailing to be applied to bridges of different categorisation
 requirements for static analysis
 requirements for dynamic analysis
 details of structural requirements for earthquake effects.
92

AS 5100.2 devotes about six pages to the coverage of earthquake resistant design, a topic to
which a 40-page section is devoted in the Bridge manual. The hazard spectra for AS 5100.2 are
drawn from AS 1170.4, while the Bridge manual adopts the hazard spectra of NZS 1170.5.
Earthquake resistance is usually a dominant aspect of structural design in New Zealand,

whereas it is a much less dominant aspect of design in Australia. This is reflected in the
depth of coverage given to the topic by each of the two standards. It is impractical within this
review of AS 5100.2 to compare in detail all the aspects of seismic resistant design and
record the differences. It is sufficient to note that the Bridge manual coverage is both far
more comprehensive in its analysis and design requirements and incorporates seismic hazard
spectra appropriate to New Zealand which AS 5100.2 does not.
This aspect of the Bridge manual is currently in the process of undergoing revision for
compatibility with the principles of AS/NZS 1170.0 and to incorporate the design loading and
aspects of the analysis requirements of NZS 1170.5.
2.14.3 Suitability and action required to enable adoption

The AS 5100.2 requirements do not incorporate seismic hazard spectra for New Zealand or
provide the necessary depth of treatment for such a dominant aspect of structural design in
New Zealand. If AS 5100.2 were adopted, extensive supplementary documentation would be
required to largely replace this section and incorporate seismic resistant design criteria
appropriate to New Zealand conditions. These could incorporate aspects of the AS 5100.2
design requirements as appropriate.
It has been suggested that AS 5100.2 could be adopted for the low seismicity areas of
New Zealand. In the same way as AS 1170.4 was not adopted by the Standards New Zealand
committee for earthquake structural design actions for low seismicity areas, it is the view of
the authors of this review that one consistent approach for all New Zealand should be
adopted based on the philosophy incorporated in NZS 1170.5 to ensure acceptability of
designs for gaining building consent under the New Zealand Building Act.
2.15 Forces resulting from water flow

Coverage is given in section 15 of AS 5100.2 to the following:
 the range of water actions to be to be considered

 the nature of the limit states and their assessment
 forces on piers due to water flow (both drag and angle of attack actions)
 forces on the superstructure due to water flow (both drag and lift actions)
 forces due to debris rafts
 forces due to log impact
 treatment of the effects of buoyancy and lift.
93
2.15.2.1 Actions to be considered

AS 5100.2 specifically names the various forms of water flow actions that are required to be
considered, including tidal and wave action on bridges across estuaries and the open sea,
which are not mentioned in the Bridge manual.
2.15.2.2 Limit states

For the ULS, AS 5100.2 requires bridges to withstand flood events up to a 2000-year return
period without collapse. The Bridge manual, by comparison, assigns the maximum ULS
return period event on the basis of bridge importance with the return ranging up to 5000
years for the bridges of highest importance category, and 2500 years for most state highway
bridges. Both codes draw attention to the critical design condition possibly occurring at a
return period less than the maximum ULS return period, but only AS 5100.2 scales the ULS
load factor, YWF, according to the return period (ARI) of the critical condition, as follows:
YWF= 2 – 0.5 log(ARI/20)
This adds to the complexity of deriving the critical condition.
AS 5100.2 defines the SLS as being the capability of the road and bridge system to remain
open or to sustain an overtopping flood without damage, and sets the SLS design flood as a
20-year return period event. The Bridge manual, on the other hand requires bridges to
withstand a 25-year return period flood event without damage and to remain trafficable in
SLS I return period events which vary according to the importance category of a bridge. For
most state highway bridges the SLS I return period corresponds to 100 years.
AS 5100.2 fails to define a flow to be treated as normal water flow, to be considered to act in
combination with other design actions. The Bridge manual sets this as the one-year annual
recurrence interval flow.
2.15.2.3 Forces on piers due to water flow

Design forces on piers are derived in a similar manner by both AS 5100.2 and the Bridge
manual. AS 5100.2 refers to ‘lift forces on piers’, which is confusing terminology. The forces
referred to are forces on wall or slab type piers, perpendicular to their plane, arising from
their orientation not being parallel to the direction of the water flow. For piers inclined to the
flow at angles less than 30o, the Bridge manual varies the design force coefficient according
to the angle of attack, whereas AS 5100.2 adopts the same force coefficient for the whole
o o
range of angle of attack from 0 to 30 .
An error exists in the Bridge manual derivation of forces acting on face areas normal to the
flow, in that the angle of attack factor applied in deriving K should be taken as 1.0.
2.15.2.4 Forces on superstructures due to water flow

AS 5100.2 derives the drag force of the superstructure as a function of its relative
submergence and its proximity to the river bed, and the ‘lift’ or ‘angle of attack’ factor also a
function of the relative submergence, both with further adjustments to be applied for bridge
superelevation. The Bridge manual, more simplistically, adopts a single drag coefficient for
all situations (which requires correction as noted above) and an angle of attack factor derived
on the same basis as for piers. For bridges with proximity ratios at the lower end of the
94
range, AS 5100.2 gives drag forces on superstructures up to 50% higher than the Bridge
manual.
AS 5100.2 also provides a method for calculation of the rotational moment about the bridge
longitudinal axis imposed on the superstructure by the water flow. This is not covered in the
Bridge manual.
2.15.2.5 Forces due to debris

AS 5100.2 leaves somewhat open the depth to be adopted for the debris raft, suggesting a
value in the range of 1.2 m to 3.0 m in the absence of an accurate estimate. For debris rafts
acting on piers, AS 5100.2 adopts a debris raft length of half the sum of the lengths of the
adjacent spans, but not greater than 20 m. Where the flood level is above 600 mm below the
soffit of the superstructure, a debris raft is also assumed to act on the superstructure over its
projected length. Drag forces for debris rafts on piers and the superstructure are derived as
functions of the water velocity and water depth, and lift on the superstructure is derived
using a constant coefficient.
The Bridge manual, by comparison, defines the debris raft acting on a pier as a triangular
shape with a length equal to half the sum of the lengths of the adjacent spans but not greater
than 15 m, and a depth of half the water depth but not greater than 3.0 m. It does not cover
debris rafts acting on the bridge superstructure.
2.15.2.6 Forces due to log impact

AS 5100.2 specifies a log impact loading, corresponding to a 2-tonne log being stopped
within a defined distance which varies according to the form of pier construction. This is
considered non-concurrent with the water flow force acting on a debris raft. The Bridge
manual has no similar requirement.
2.15.2.7 Buoyancy and lift

AS 5100.2 requires positive tie-down of the superstructure to be provided for a force equal to
1.5 x ULS lift force + buoyancy – YgDL, where Yg is the lower value applied as the dead load
ULS load factor where dead load increases safety. Requirements are also specified for
considering the effects of lift and buoyancy on the substructure, for bleed holes to be
provided to allow the escape of air trapped beneath the superstructure, and for the drainage
of internal cells of the superstructure.
Other than the requirement for all parts of the structure to be interconnected to provide
structural robustness, the Bridge manual does not present specific requirements to resist lift
and buoyancy actions.

The AS 5100.2 provisions for forces resulting from water flow are generally more
comprehensive and suitable than those presented by the Bridge manual, and so are
recommended for adoption, but would benefit from clarification or improvement of the
following areas:
 The term ‘lift forces’ in respect to piers is inappropriate and should be changed to ‘angle
of attack’ or similar wording.
 For angles of attack on piers < 30o, presentation of a range of angle of attack (lift)
factors, CL, for varying angles of attack would be beneficial.
95
 A clearer, more definitive description of the size and shape of the design debris raft is
desirable. Possibly also, details are required of how the debris raft load is to be shared
between the pier and the superstructure when it acts on both, as the load is derived
differently depending on which part of the structure it acts on.
The design return periods for the ultimate and serviceability limit state adopted by the Bridge
manual align with the philosophy of AS/NZS 1170, which is expected to be adopted by the
Department of Building and Housing as an approved document under the NZBC. Alignment
with AS/NZS 1170 is considered to be desirable to aid gaining building consents for bridge
projects, and therefore it is recommended that the Bridge manual design return periods are
retained.
What load factor should be applied for the ULS load case will require review in conjunction
with a review of load factors for all ULS load combinations, should AS 5100.2 be adopted.
Varying the load factor with return period is not favoured, because of the complexity it would
add to the determination of the critical condition and because the basis for doing so is not
clear.
Should AS 5100.2 be adopted, supplementary documentation is recommended to incorporate

the clarifications and improvements suggested above and to retain the Bridge manual
specification of ULS and SLS design return periods.
2.16 Wind loads

 the nature of structures to which this section applies

 derivation of the design wind speed and the return periods appropriate to the ULS and
SLS
 derivation of the design transverse wind load
 derivation of the design longitudinal wind load
 derivation of the design vertical wind load
 wind on railway live load.

The design return periods adopted by AS 5100.2 and the Bridge manual differ for wind load
in the same manner as the return periods for forces due to water flow.
Both codes draw on AS/NZS 1170 as the basis for deriving the design wind speed.
AS 5100.2 adopts a design return period of 2000 years for the ULS, and for the SLS wind
considered in combination with permanent effects only, a 20-year return period. For wind
acting in conjunction with live load the wind speed is taken as 35 m/sec, but the effect of
wind on road traffic need not be considered.
The Bridge manual, for the ULS, adopts design return periods varying according to the
importance of the structure, ranging up to 5000 years for the most important structures, but
2500 for most state highway bridges. For the SLS, the design return period is taken as 25
years. For wind load acting in conjunction with live load, the design wind speed is to be taken
96
as the lesser of 37 m/sec or the design wind speed for the limit state being considered, and
the effect of wind acting on the live load is taken into account in deriving the wind loading.
The Bridge manual adopts the BS 5400 Part 2 approach, which requires consideration of wind
acting on adverse and relieving areas, and reduces the wind speed for wind acting on
relieving areas.
The BS 5400 Part 2 and AS 5100.2 approaches have a lot of similarity in their derivation of
drag and lift coefficients and loaded areas, but the BS 5400 approach is generally a little
more refined.
For footbridges with spans exceeding 30 m, for which dynamic effects may be critical, the
Bridge manual adopts the principles given in ‘Design rules for aerodynamic effects on
bridges’, Design manual for roads and bridges, Part 3 BD 49/01. (UK Highways Agency
2001).

The design return periods for the ultimate and serviceability limit adopted by the Bridge
manual align with the philosophy of AS/NZS 1170, which is expected to be adopted by the
Department of Building and Housing as an approved document under the NZBC. Alignment
with AS/NZS 1170 is considered desirable for building consent purposes, and therefore it is
recommended that the Bridge manual design return periods are retained.
With long linear structures the gust effects of wind will vary along the length of the structure
and thus it is appropriate to consider the adverse and relieving areas given in BS 5400 Part 2.
Aerodynamic effects may also be critical for longer span footbridges, requiring more refined
methods than those provided by AS 5100.2.
If AS 5100.2 were adopted, the Bridge manual requirements for wind load should be retained
since they are more comprehensive than those presented by AS 5100.2.
2.17 Thermal effects

 the effects of variation in bridge temperature

 the temperature ranges to be adopted for different forms of bridge construction
 differential temperature effects and the temperature gradients to be adopted for different
superstructure forms
 the consideration of thermal effects at the ULS and SLS.
2.17.2.1 Overall temperature change

AS 5100.2 presents maximum and minimum shade air temperatures for different regions of
Australia and corresponding average bridge temperatures to various maximum and minimum
air temperatures. For superstructures of concrete deck on steel beams, and steel deck on
steel beams, adjustments to the bridge average maximum and minimum temperatures are
also provided. For concrete bridges these temperatures provide a maximum range of 46o, but
give a more typical range of about 40o. For a concrete deck on steel beams the minimum
97
temperature is reduced by 5o and the maximum temperature increased by 10o, giving a

typical temperature range of about 55o.
By comparison the Bridge manual simply requires concrete bridges to be designed for a
o
temperature range from mean temperature of ±20 , and steel bridges for a temperature
range of ±25o.
In the consideration of restraint forces mobilised in the structure, the Bridge manual states
that cracked section properties are to be assumed for deriving the rigidity of concrete piers,
whereas AS 5100.2 has no similar requirement.
2.17.2.2 Differential temperature

AS 5100.2 requires differential temperature to be considered for both positive temperature
differential conditions, where solar radiation has caused a gain in the top surface
temperature, and for negative temperature differential conditions, where re-radiation of heat
from the section results in a low top surface temperature. The Bridge manual does not
require the consideration of negative temperature differential.
AS 5100.2 presents three different differential temperature gradient curves, appropriate to

the different superstructure forms of:
 concrete deck on concrete beams, or slab

 concrete box girders
 concrete slab on steel trough, box or I girders.
These are shown in figure 2.12.
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Figure 2.12 AS 5100.2 design effective vertical temperature gradients.
The deck surface reference temperature for the temperature gradient curve is varied
according to the region of Australia. The curves are of a similar form to that adopted by the
Bridge manual single curve, shown in figure 2.13, but in general the reference temperatures
adopted by AS 5100.2 are lower than those adopted by the Bridge manual.
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Figure 2.13 Bridge manual vertical temperature gradient.
Again, the Bridge manual requires cracked sections to be used for the analysis of reinforced
concrete members subjected to differential temperature effects.
AS 5100.2 draws attention to the possible need to consider differential temperature effects in
the transverse direction in wide bridges.
2.17.2.3 Limit states

For the ULS, AS 5100.2 requires thermal effects as determined by the relevant materials
section to be considered, and assigns a load factor of 1.25. The steel section requires all
effects to be considered, while the concrete section does not appear to present any
requirements beyond the combination of factored loads as set out in AS 5100.2.

The AS 5100.2 treatment of overall temperature effects is geared to Australia and would need
supplementary data to enable application in New Zealand. However, the temperature ranges
derived from the Australian data tend to indicate that the Bridge manual approach produces
a similar outcome while the requirements are much more simply expressed.
For differential temperature, a detailed study is needed to compare the results from applying
the differential temperature gradient curves from both AS 5100.2 and the Bridge manual.
Should the AS 5100.2 curves be adopted, they would need calibration to derive an
appropriate reference temperature for New Zealand conditions.
If the Bridge manual requirements were retained, they should be revised to require
consideration of both positive and negative differential temperature gradient.
100

temperature ranges for overall temperature change effects, and appropriate reference
temperatures for differential temperature for different bridge types appropriate to
New Zealand conditions. The use of cracked sections to model member rigidity should also
be incorporated.
2.18 Shrinkage, creep and prestress effects

 shrinkage and creep effects

 prestress effects.

AS 5100.2 requires consideration of shrinkage and creep effects taking into account the
characteristics of different concrete types and age. The design effects are to be calculated
based on the nominal dead loads on the structure, whereas it is the permanent loads on the
structure that should be considered. Loads factors for shrinkage and creep of 1.2 for the ULS
and 1.0 SLS are specified.
AS 5100.2 requires the secondary effects of prestress induced in restrained components and
indeterminate structures, and the case of dead load plus prestress at transfer to be
considered. Load factors of 1.0 are specified for both the ULS and SLS.
The Bridge manual specifies that cracked sections be used for determining section rigidity in
modelling the structure to analyse for the effects of shrinkage, creep and prestress, and that
restraint by bearings be allowed for. Also, allowance is to be made for differential shrinkage
between elements in composite structures. AS 5100.2 has no similar requirements.

While the requirements of AS 5100.2 are generally suitable for adoption, it is recommended
that they are extended through supplementary documentation to incorporate the additional
appropriate requirements of the Bridge manual.
In addition, it is recommended that a review is undertaken of the load factors adopted by

AS 5100.2. The ULS load factor of 1.0 for prestress effects is considered to be too low, as
there is potential variability associated with this load.
2.19 Differential movement of supports

 differential settlement arising from settlement of supports under load

 the effects of ground subsidence due to mining.

For road bridges, AS 5100.2 requires differential settlement under the permanent loads
acting on the structure to be assessed and taken into account. The relief afforded by creep
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and soil-structure interaction should also be considered. Differential settlement is to be taken

into account at the SLS, but consideration should be given as to whether differential
settlement effects need to be included at the ULS. Where a structure has limited plastic
capacity, differential settlement is to be included at the ULS using a load factor of 1.5.
Differential settlement due to mining subsidence is to be designed for at the SLS using a load
factor of 1.0, and at the ULS using a load factor of 1.5.
The Bridge manual requires both horizontal and vertical displacements induced on or within
the structure due to the need to take ground deformation into account, and identifies
additional causes of ground deformation to be considered, eg groundwater changes and soil
liquefaction.

The AS 5100.2 requirements for differential movement are generally suitable for adoption
but it is recommended that differential movement should be included at the ULS.
There are divergent views on whether differential settlement needs to be included at the ULS
or not. A clear statement on the need to include this action is required. Ignoring differential
settlement at the ULS will lower the threshold at which inelastic behaviour due to other
actions, eg earthquake, will initiate and cause damage. For this reason it should be included.
AS 5100.2 is inconsistent in requiring mining subsidence to be considered, but not specifying
whether differential settlement due to other causes should be considered. There is no
rational reason for such a differentiation.
If AS 5100.2 were adopted supplementary documentation would have to:
 require differential settlement at the ULS

 draw attention to other causes of ground deformation
 require consideration of horizontal and rotational deformations imposed on the
structure.
2.20 Forces from bearings

Section 20 of AS 5100.2 sets out requirements for consideration of the forces arising from
the friction of sliding and rolling bearings and from the force/displacement characteristics of
elastomeric bearings.

AS 5100.2 requires the determination of bearing frictional forces based on the nominal dead
loads of the structure and the characteristic coefficient of friction for the bearing. For the
ULS, a load factor of 1.3 is applied to bearing frictional forces. For surfaces intended to slide
to accommodate movement, a coefficient of friction equal to zero is to be considered as one
ULS. The effects of seizure of a bearing are also to be considered.
The Bridge manual does not present any specific requirements for forces from bearings.

The AS 5100.2 requirements are generally suitable for adoption. How bearing frictional forces
are to be treated at the ULS could be more clearly expressed. In effect, upper and lower
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bounds are to be considered through applying a load factor of 1.3 or taking the friction
coefficient as zero.
The treatment of the forces from the distortion of elastomeric bearings requires some
clarification. These forces are mobilised by actions such as thermal expansion or contraction,
wind loading or earthquake response, and so it is the load factors associated with the actions
causing bearing distortion that should be applied.
2.21 Construction forces and effects

Section 21 of AS 5100.2 sets out requirements for the consideration of:
 permanent forces and effects introduced during construction

 loads arising during the construction
 temporary structures.

AS 5100.2 requires:
 consideration of permanent forces and effects introduced during construction

 allowance to be made for the weight of falsework or plant arising from an anticipated
construction method
 where a design is dependent on a particular method of construction, for the constraints
to be included in the drawings and specification
 investigation of the ability of the structure to resist flood and wind during construction
 consideration of time-related relaxation of construction effects where appropriate
 design of temporary structures in accordance with appropriate standards.
The Bridge manual specifies the first two of the above, but not the others.

The AS 5100.2 requirements are suitable for adoption without further modification.
2.22 Load combinations

Section 22 of AS 5100.2 categorises loads and load effects and specifies load combinations
for consideration.
2.22.2.1 AS 5100.2 Categorisation of loads

AS 5100.2 categorises the loads and load effects as follows.
Permanent effects (PE):
 structure dead load

 additional permanent loads (superimposed dead loads)
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 earth pressure
 normal water flow loads and buoyancy
 shrinkage and creep effects (zero and full effects)
 prestress effects (before and after losses)
 bearing friction or stiffness forces and effects
 differential settlement and/or mining subsidence effects.
Thermal effects:
 effects due to variation in average bridge temperature

 differential temperature effects.
Transient effects:
 vehicular traffic load, including dynamic effects

 pedestrian traffic loads
 wind loads
 earthquake loads
 flood loads including debris and impact loadings.
2.22.2.2 SLS load combinations

AS 5100.2 SLS load cases are derived as:
Permanent effects + one transient effect + k (one or more transient or thermal effects)
Where: k = 0.7 for one additional effect
= 0.5 for two additional effects.
This formulation is assessed to result in 180 load combinations, assuming no more than two
additional transient or thermal effects are considered.
Bridge manual load combinations are given in table 2.9.
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Table 2.9: Bridge manual serviceability limit state load combinations.
Group Loads
1A DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + ST + CF +1.35 LLxI + FP
1B DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + ST + TP
2A DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + ST + CF + 1.35LLxI + FP + HE + TP
2B DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + ST + CF + 1.35LLxI + FP + HE + WD
2C DL + EL + GW + EP + FW + PW + SG + ST + CF + 1.35LLxI + FP + HE
3A DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + ST + EQ + 0.33TP
3B DL + EL + GW + EP + FW + PW + SG + ST + WD
3C DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + ST + CO + 0.33TP
4 DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + ST + OLxI + 0.5FP + 0.33TP
5A DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + 0.33WD + CN
5B DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + 0.33TP + CN
5C DL + EL + GW + EP + OW + SG + 0.33EQ + CN
2.22.2.3 ULS load combinations

AS 5100.2 ULS load cases are as follows:
 PE + ultimate thermal effects (+ serviceability traffic loads if they produces a more severe
loading)
 PE + ultimate traffic loads (+ serviceability thermal effects if they produce an adverse
effect)
 PE + ultimate collision load
 PE + ultimate pedestrian traffic loads
 PE + ultimate wind load (+ serviceability thermal effects if the produce an adverse effect)
 PE + ultimate flood load (+ serviceability traffic loads, if the structure will be open to
traffic and they produce a more severe loading)
 PE + earthquake.
To enable comparison with Bridge manual load combinations, including their load factors for
the adverse effect, and using the Bridge manual notation where applicable, these load
combinations for a concrete structure are given in table 2.10.
Table 2.10 AS 5100.2 typical load combinations for loads acting adversely on a concrete
structure.
(1.2DL + 2.0SDL + 1.5EP + 2.0OW + 1.2SG + 1.0PR + 1.3BF + 1.5ST) + 1.25TP + LLxI + CF + HE
(1.2DL + 2.0SDL + 1.5EP + 2.0OW + 1.2SG + 1.0PR + 1.3BF + 1.5ST) + 1.8LLxI + 1.8CF + 1.8HE + TP
(1.2DL + 2.0SDL + 1.5EP + 2.0OW + 1.2SG + 1.0PR + 1.3BF + 1.5ST) + CO
(1.2DL + 2.0SDL + 1.5EP + 2.0OW + 1.2SG + 1.0PR + 1.3BF + 1.5ST) + 1.8FP
(1.2DL + 2.0SDL + 1.5EP + 2.0OW + 1.2SG + 1.0PR + 1.3BF + 1.5ST) + WD ult + TP
(1.2DL + 2.0SDL + 1.5EP + 1.2SG + 1.0PR + 1.3BF + 1.5ST) + k*FW + LLxI + CF + HE
(1.2DL + 2.0SDL + 1.5EP + 2.0OW + 1.2SH + 1.0PR + 1.3BF + 1.5ST) + EQ
*k, the flood flow ultimate limit state load factor, varies between 1.0 and 2.0 depending the return period
of the event that provides the critical case for design.
105
Where notation is as defined in the Bridge manual clause 3.5, and additionally:
BF = bearing friction effects
PR = prestress effects
SDL = superimposed dead load
SG = shortening effects (excluding prestress effects in the case of AS 5100.2)
As a comparison, the Bridge manual ULS load combinations are given in table 2.11.
Table 2.11 Bridge manual ultimate limit state load combinations.
Group Loads and load factors

1A 1.35(DL + EL + 1.35EP + OW + SG + ST + 1.67(CF + LLxI) + 1.30FP) + GW
1B 1.35(DL + EL + 1.35EP + OW + SG + ST + 1.25TP) + GW
2A 1.20(DL + EL + EP + OW + SG + ST + CF + LLxI + FP + HE + TP) + GW
2B 1.35(DL + EL + EP + OW + SG + ST + CF + LLxI + FP + HE) + GW + WD
2C 1.35(DL + EL + EP + SG + ST + CF + LLxI + FP + HE) + GW + FW + PW
3A 1.00(k*DL + EL + 1.35(EP + OW) + SG + ST + EQ + 0.33TP) + GW
3B 1.10(DL + EL + 1.25EP + SG + ST) + GW + FW + PW + WD
3C 1.00(DL + EL + 1.35(EP + OW) + SG + ST + 2.00CO + 0.33TP) + GW
3D 1.20(DL + EL + EP + OW + SG + ST + TP) + GW + PW + SN + 0.33WD
4 1.35(DL + EL + EP + OW + SG + ST + 1.10(CF + OLxI) + 0.70FP + 0.33TP) + GW
5A 1.35(DL + EL + EP + OW + SG + 1.10CN) + GW + 0.33WD
5B 1.35(DL + EL + EP + OW + SG + 0.33TP + 1.10CN) + GW
5C 1.35(DL + EL + EP + OW + SG + 0.33EQ + 1.10CN) + GW
*k is to be taken as either 1.3 or 0.8, whichever is more severe, when considering horizontal earthquake
response, to allow for vertical earthquake response effects, and is to be taken as 1.0 when considering
vertical earthquake response as the EQ loading.

The AS 5100.2 approach to load combinations reduces the formulation to a simplistic
mathematical process that appears to neglect to a fair degree a fundamental consideration of
what loads are actually likely to coexist and to what extent.
For the SLS, from the perspective of what is practical, the number of load combinations to be
considered requires the use of an automated computerised process.
For the ULS, AS 5100.2 adds one transient or thermal load to the permanent loads without
consideration of what transient and thermal loads are likely to act concurrently. In four cases,
a concurrent serviceability load is to be added where they result in a more severe effect. The
likelihood of ultimate flood and wind loading acting concurrently, or of pedestrian loads
acting concurrently with the ultimate traffic loading, is not considered in the AS 5100.2 ULS
load combinations.
The Bridge manual considers a wider range of loads acting on the structure concurrently,
including water ponding, ground water and snow loads in the load combinations.
A detailed investigation of the basis for the AS 5100.2 load combinations should be
undertaken before their adoption is contemplated. On the surface, their formulation appears
106
to be simplistic, and in the case of the SLS, impractical for manual application. If AS 5100.2
were adopted, supplementary documentation would need to incorporate the Bridge manual
load combinations.
2.23 Road signs and lighting structures

Section 23 of AS 5100.2 includes the following:
 definitions of the limit states for these structures

 design wind speeds and wind loads
 design live loads on service walkways
 design load combinations, being a combination of the appropriate limit state dead load,
wind load, and where appropriate, live load.

The Bridge manual does not present requirements for road signs or lighting structures as
these are outside its scope.

The design requirements set out in AS 5100.2 are generally suitable for adoption but it is
recommended that the design wind speeds are reviewed and established following the
philosophy and principles presented by AS/NZS 1170. AS/NZS 1170 is expected to be
adopted by the Department of Building and Housing as an approved document under the
NZBC and to form the basis for establishing compliance of design loadings with the building
code. Alignment with AS/NZS 1170 is therefore seen as important for providing reasonable
assurance that building consents for roading structures will be forthcoming.
2.24 Noise barriers

Section 24 of AS 5100.2 covers the derivation of and design for wind loading acting on noise
barriers.

The Bridge manual does not present requirements for noise barriers as these are outside its
scope.

As for road signs and lighting structures, the design requirements set out in AS 5100.2 for
noise barriers are generally suitable for adoption but it is recommended that the design wind
speed is reviewed and established following the philosophy and principles presented by
AS/NZS 1170.
107
2.25 Appendix A: Design loads for medium and special

performance barriers

Appendix A of AS 5100.2 provides guidance on design loads and minimum effective height
to be adopted for the design of medium and special performance barriers.

AS 5100’s medium performance level corresponds to the Bridge manual’s performance level 5,
with only minor variation in the ultimate vertical downward load.
The lower of AS 5100’s special performance levels corresponds reasonably closely to the
Bridge manual’s performance level 6, adopting slightly lower ultimate transverse and
ultimate vertical downwards loads.
The higher of AS 5100’s special performance levels is similar in loading to that of the Bridge
manual, but it adopts a higher ultimate vertical loading (450 kN cf 380 kN). The guidance on
minimum effective height is unclear, with 1400 mm suggested, but otherwise specified by
the road controlling authority, whereas the Bridge manual indicates a range of 1700 to
2000 mm.

The appendix is generally suitable for adoption. The differences from the Bridge manual
requirements are relatively small. Clearer guidance on the effective height for the upper level
special performance barriers would be helpful, but this performance level would not often be
required and its use would probably be the subject of a special study.
108
3 AS 5100.3: Foundations and soil supporting structures
3 AS 5100.3: Foundations and soil supporting

structures
AS 5100.3 content

2 Application
3 Referenced documents 4.8.2 Design standards
4.9.2 Design standards
4.14 References
4 Definitions
5 Notation Notation is defined in individual clauses as the
notation arises
6 Site investigation 2.4 Site investigations
7 Design requirements 4.8 Foundations
4.9 Earth retaining systems
4.10 Design of earthworks
8 Loads and load combinations 3.4.12 Earth loads
3.5 Combination of load effects
9 Durability 2.1.7 Durability requirements
4.9.6 Earth retaining systems
10 Shallow footings 4.8 Foundations
5.5.7 Structure on spread footing foundations
11 Piled foundations 4.8 Foundations
5.5.6 Structure on pile/cylinder foundations
12 Anchorages 4.9 Earth retaining systems
13 Retaining walls and abutments 4.9 Earth retaining systems
4.11 Integral and semi-integral abutments
5.7 Earth retaining structures
14 Buried structures 4.12 Buried corrugated metal structures
5.7.4 Culverts and subways
Appendix A: Assessment of geotechnical strength 4.8.3 Strength reduction factors for foundation
reduction factors (Øg) for piles design
Appendix B: On-site assessment tests of 4.9.6 Anchored walls
anchorages
3.1 Scope

AS 5100.3 sets out the minimum design requirements and procedures for the design in limit
state format of foundations and soil-supporting structures for bridges, subways of
conventional size and form, and culverts not specifically covered by other standards.
109
The following are excluded:
 corrugated steel pipes and arches (covered by other standards)

 underground concrete drainage pipes (covered by other standards)
 reinforced soil structures.

The Bridge manual does not contain equivalent statements of scope for foundations or for
the design of earth retaining systems.
The design of earthworks for approach embankments and cuttings is covered in the Bridge
manual, but not included within the scope of AS 5100.3.

Section 1 of AS 5100.3 is suitable for adoption should AS 5100.3 as a whole be accepted.
If AS 5100.3 were adopted supplementary documentation would be required to incorporate

provisions for the design of earthworks.
3.2 Application

Section 2 of AS 5100.3 refers to:
 relevant authority requirements to apply for the design of foundations for overhead
wiring structures for electrified railway lines
 loads to be applied are specified by AS 5100.2 together with earth pressures determined
from this part
 general design procedures to be adopted for foundations and soil-supporting structures.

The Bridge manual does not contain equivalent statements of application for foundations or
design of earth retaining systems.

This section is suitable for adoption should the part as a whole be accepted.

Section 3 of AS 5100.3 lists standards referred to within the part.


Additions, and possibly some exclusions, may need to be made to this list of reference
documents to incorporate those relevant to supplementary documentation that may be
110
recommended to support the adoption of subsequent sections of this part. These references
would be drawn from the references listed in section 4.14 of the Bridge manual.
3.4 Definitions

Section 4 of AS 5100.3 defines terms primarily related to ground anchor tendons.


This section is suitable for adoption as is.
3.5 Notation

Section 5 of AS 5100.3 defines notation used in this part, cross-referenced to where it occurs.


This section is suitable for adoption as is provided at least a section of AS 5100.3 in which
the notation appears is adopted. Extension of the notation list may be required to incorporate
any notation from supplementary documentation recommended to support adoption of
subsequent sections of this part.
3.6 Site investigations

Encompassed in section 6 of AS 5100.3 are:
 general requirements for site investigation

 requirements for design investigations
The extent of investigations is left to the relevant authority to specify.

AS 5100.3 indicates the possible coverage of preliminary and design investigations and
suggests the required minimum number of boreholes, the extent of boreholes, test pits and
other in situ tests, and that the presence of ground water and its effects be investigated.
The Bridge manual requires the investigations to establish the characteristics of the surface
and subsurface soils, their behaviour when loaded, the nature and location of any faulting,
and the groundwater conditions. Site conditions and materials affecting the construction of
the structure are to be determined.
111
Both standards require an investigation report to be produced. The Bridge manual goes
further than AS 5100.3 in requiring interpretation of the available data by suitably qualified
personnel and recommendation of foundation types and design parameters, and the need for
proof testing, pilot hole drilling or other confirmatory investigations during construction.
Confirmation of site conditions during construction is overlooked by AS 5100.3, but is given

some emphasis by the Bridge manual.

The AS 5100.3 requirements are generally suitable for adoption but would require
supplementary documentation to confirm Transit’s requirements and would benefit from
extension to include the additional requirements specified by the Bridge manual, including
the requirements for confirmation of site conditions during construction.
3.7 Design requirements

Section 7 of AS 5100.3 outlines the general principles involved and procedures to be followed
in designing for strength, stability, serviceability.

The Bridge manual does not set out a comparable overview of the principles of design for
strength, stability, serviceability and durability of foundation and soil supporting structures,
but does specify requirements in each of these areas.
Not covered in AS 5100.3, but included in the Bridge manual is the capacity design of
foundations to resist forces induced in the structure by yielding elements developing their
over-strength capacity during earthquakes. As noted previously in section 3.1.2, the design
of earthworks is also omitted from AS 5100.3.

Section 7 of AS 5100.3 is generally suitable for adoption provided the other sections referred
to by which various aspects are determined are also accepted. However, supplementary
documentation would need to be prepared, if AS 5100.3 were adopted, to incorporate
requirements for the capacity design of foundations and for the design of earthworks.
3.8 Loads and load combinations

Section 8 of AS 5100.3 sets out the loads to be considered. In general the load combinations
are taken from AS 5100.2. Section 8 identifies the variety of sources of soil induced loadings
to be considered and taken into account, and the load factors to be applied to these soil
loads and effects in design for strength and stability.

AS 5100.3 provides a comprehensive listing of all the possible sources of loads applied on
structures through or from the soils.
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In the evaluation of foundation settlements, AS 5100.3 requires the load combinations set
out in AS 5100.2 to be considered, whereas the Bridge manual allows the effects of live load
to be ignored unless the live load is sustained over a long period of time. The Bridge manual
also requires the repetitive nature of live load to be considered where it has the potential to
affect foundation performance.
For earth retaining systems, the Bridge manual requires consideration to be given to the
interaction between the ground and the structure under static, dynamic, earthquake and
construction conditions, not all of which are included in AS 5100.3

Two aspects of this section are questioned:
 In the design of spill-through abutment columns, adopting a width of only twice that of
the column as the width applying earth pressure to widely spaced columns is likely to
result in un-conservative force actions.
 For soil supporting structures, where the loads are imposed predominantly from the soil,
the loads for consideration of strength and stability are to be combined using a load
factor of 1.0 for each load. AS 5100.2 clause 5.4, specifies load factors to be applied to
the density of soil and groundwater in the derivation of ULS loads. This clause is not
sufficiently clear and gives rise to the potential for those load factors to be ignored. It
would be inappropriate for a load factor of only 1.0 to be adopted for strength and
stability design.
If AS 5100.3 were adopted, review and amendment of these two aspects through
supplementary documentation would be required.
Otherwise, this section of AS 5100.3 is generally suitable for adoption. Supplementary

documentation would be required to clarify the loads and load combinations if those specified
by AS 5100.2 were not adopted. Supplementary documentation is also recommended to
incorporate the Bridge manual approach to consideration of settlement, and its requirement to
consider dynamic and earthquake actions on earth retaining structures.
3.9 Durability

Section 9 of AS 5100.3 sets out durability requirements for structural components of
foundations and soil supporting structures, covering timber, concrete, steel, piling slip layer
coatings and other materials.

AS 5100.3 defines the durability design objectives as being to achieve:
 with appropriate maintenance, the specified service life

 the effectiveness of all the specified design criteria throughout the service life.
This is not unduly different to the Bridge manual, which in line with the NZBC provisions,
requires structures to be sufficiently durable to ensure that without reconstruction or major
renovation, they continue to fulfil their intended function throughout their design life.
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AS 5100.3 prohibits the use of untreated timber unless permitted by the relevant authority;
applies the durability requirements of AS 5100.5 ‘Concrete to the design of concrete
components’; requires action to be taken to counter stray current effects, where present,
from corroding reinforcement or buried steelwork; and specifies corrosion rates that may be
adopted in the absence of site-specific data for the corrosion of bare steel. By comparison,
the Bridge manual does not present equivalent requirements or guidance on the durability
design of timber or steel components. The Bridge manual’s durability requirements for
concrete components differ somewhat from those of AS 5100.3. These differences are
discussed in the review of AS 5100.5.
For earth retaining systems, the Bridge manual presents specific requirements for the
protection of anchors and soil nails against corrosion and to ensure their durability. These
requirements are more explicit than those presented in AS 5100.3.

Section 9 of AS 5100.3 is generally suitable for adoption. If AS 5100.3 were adopted without
AS 5100.5 for concrete design, supplementary documentation would be required to reference
the durability requirements for concrete structures. Corrosion protection provisions for
anchors and soil nails would be best dealt with in the section on anchors.
3.10 Shallow footings

Section 10 of AS 5100.3 applies to all types of shallow footings such as pad, strip and raft
foundations, where the footing is founded at a shallow depth so that the strength of the
ground above the footing level does not significantly influence the bearing resistance.
Coverage is given in section 10 to the following:
 loads and load combinations

 general design requirements
 design for geotechnical strength and stability as affected by geotechnical strength
 design for structural strength
 design for SLS
 design for durability
 structural design and detailing
 materials and construction requirements.

AS 5100.3 provides stand-alone requirements and is quite comprehensive in listing the range
of considerations to be taken into account, while the Bridge manual references a range of
other documents as providing guidance on the design of foundations and earth retaining
structures. These include the NZBC verification method B1/VM1 ‘Foundations’, which
provides methods for assessing bearing capacity and sliding resistance. AS 5100.3 does not
provide this information.
Both AS 5100.3 and the Bridge manual give the strength reduction factors to be applied in
the assessment of geotechnical capacities. Selection of the strength reduction factors to be
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adopted are in both cases based on the method of geotechnical strength assessment. In the
case of AS 5100.3 the selection is also based on other factors such as comprehensiveness of
the site investigation, sophistication of the analysis method, degree of construction control,
consequences of failure and the primary nature of the loading (static or dynamic). The Bridge
manual also presents a similar extensive list of additional considerations, encompassing
most of those in AS 5100.3 and adding a few more. These strength reduction factors
generally fall within similar ranges between the two standards, but with AS 5100.3 adopting
lower values in some cases.

The AS 5100.3 requirements appear to be generally suitable for adoption. However, if
AS 5100.3 were adopted, some supplementary documentation would be needed to retain the
references to appropriate design guidance provided in the Bridge manual.
For the issuing of building consents, territorial authorities are likely to adopt the NZBC
verification method B1/VM4 as the benchmark. Where there are differences in the approaches
or factors applied by AS 5100.3, advice will needed on how these differences may be resolved.
3.11 Piled foundations

Section 11 of AS 5100.3 sets out minimum requirements for the design, construction and
testing of piled foundations. The provisions apply to axially and transversely loaded piles
installed by driving, jacking, screwing or boring, with or without grouting.
Section 11 covers the following:

 general design requirements for strength, serviceability and durability
 structural design and detailing for precast reinforced concrete piles, prestressed concrete
piles, cast-in-place concrete piles and steel piles

AS 5100.3 requires the loads and general design of piles to comply with AS 2159, one of the
documents referenced by the Bridge manual as providing design guidance. Additionally,
AS 510.3 specifies a range of further criteria to be met such as the following, which are not
included in the Bridge manual:
 Permissible displacements are to be limited to less than what can be tolerated by the
supported structure and services.
 Where materials other than concrete or steel are used for the pile construction, relevant
standards for the material are to be applied unless specified otherwise by the relevant
authority.
 Piles are to be designed to give resistance to design actions.
 Splices in piles are only to be used where unavoidable.
 Requirements are given for minimum dimension, concrete strength, reinforcement and
detailing requirements for precast reinforced and prestressed concrete piles and cast-in-
place piles.
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 Steel piles are to have a minimum thickness of 10 mm at the end of their design life,
allowing for corrosion.
 Requirements are given for minimum spacing between piles, and minimum edge distance
and end distance when piles are cast into a pile cap.
The Bridge manual, on the other hand, includes requirements aimed at ensuring seismic
resistance, including the following:
 The effects of liquefaction are to be taken into account when assessing the support
provided to piles by surrounding soils.
 The effects of liquefaction-induced lateral spreading of the ground, and settlement are to
be taken into account.
 The minimum tensile connection strength between piles and pile cap should not be less
than 10% of the pile tensile strength.
 At the pile  pile cap junction, a steel shell is permitted to contribute to the shear
resistance and confinement, but should be neglected in determining moment capacity
 The rotation of the pile cap inducing moment as well as axial load in groups of raked
piles under lateral seismic loading should be taken into account.

This section of AS 5100.3 is considered to be generally suitable for adoption, but would
require supplementing with additional documentation to include the Bridge manual
requirements for seismic resistance.
AS 5100.3 requires piles subjected to lateral loads and bending moment to be designed to
provide a design resistance greater than or equal to the maximum serviceability and ultimate
design action effects for a distance at least 2 m below the point where lateral support
commences. The intent of this requirement is not at all clear. Except where the tops of piles
are rigidly restrained against rotation at the base of the pier, the maximum design moments
in piles usually occur at some distance below where the lateral support commences.
Related to this, a draft amendment to the Bridge manual, not yet formally adopted, proposes,
under the earthquake resistant design requirements, that where plastic hinging may occur at
depth in the ground, adequate confinement of the plastic hinge zone be provided for a
distance of at least three times the pile diameter either side of the level of maximum
moment. This should take into account the possible variability of the hinge level due to such
factors as the variability in soil stiffness, variability in the depth of scour and liquefaction of
soil layers.
A review is recommended of the capacity reduction factors at the top end of the range
adopted by AS 2159; however, where covered in the NZBC verification method B1/VM4 they
are generally in alignment. AS 2159 allows capacity reduction factors as high as 0.9, higher
than those adopted for the flexural design of reinforced concrete in New Zealand and the
appropriateness of this is questioned.
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3.12 Anchorages

Section 12 of AS 5100.3 applies to any type of anchorage used to restrain a structure by
transmitting a tensile force to a load-bearing formation of soil or rock.
Section 12 covers:

 design requirements
 materials and construction requirements
 anchorage installation plan
 anchorage testing
 monitoring.

Much as for shallow footings, AS 5100.3 provides stand-alone requirements and quite a
comprehensive listing of considerations to be taken into account. On the other hand, the
Bridge manual requires the use of established design standards and references three for
anchored walls, one for soil nailed walls, and a further reference for geosynthetic reinforced
soil walls.
The Bridge manual requires anchored walls to be designed to ensure ductile failure of the
wall under earthquake overload conditions. It also defines two classes of corrosion protection
systems and provides a decision-tree procedure for determining which class, as a minimum,
must be used.
AS 5100.3 requires proof load tests to be conducted either on test anchors prior to
construction or on selected working anchors during construction to establish the capability of
the anchor system to provide the required resistance. It then requires that acceptance tests
should be conducted on all anchors. It also provides a method for deriving the characteristic
anchorage resistance from the measured capacities. The Bridge manual requires pull-out
tests to have been conducted on trial anchors prior to the final wall being constructed, then
‘suitability’ tests to be conducted on a selected number of initially installed production
anchors, and acceptance testing of all anchors installed.
For soil nailed walls, the Bridge manual additionally specifies soil nailing only be carried out
on drained slopes free of groundwater or with an adequate level of drainage to ensure the
facing and soil nailed blocks are fully drained. Soil nailed walls are not to be used to support
bridge abutments unless it can be shown that the deformations associated with mobilisation
of soil nail capacities or earthquake can be tolerated by the bridge structure.
For reinforced soil walls, the Bridge manual additionally specifies that inextensible
reinforcement is used for reinforced soil walls supporting bridge abutments or where limiting
the deformation of the wall is critical. Geogrid may be used where abutments are piled and
the design takes into account expected deformations of the wall system. The strength of
connections between the soil reinforcement and the facing panels or blocks is also to exceed
by a suitable margin the upper bound pull-out strength of the reinforcement through
granular fill or the post yield overstrength capacity of the reinforcement, whichever is lower.
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The Bridge manual also specifies requirements for the seismic performance of different
forms of retaining wall including anchored, soil nailed and reinforced soil walls. These
requirements are not covered by AS 5100.3.

The AS 5100.3 requirements are generally suitable for adoption, but require clarification of
the capacity reduction factors to be applied in design for strength. Reference is made to
AS 5100.5 and AS 5100.6 for structural strength reduction factors, but these do not appear
to be clearly defined in the sections covering anchorages. If AS 5100.3 were adopted its
strength reduction factors would need to be reviewed and supplementary documentation
prepared to clarify or amend these as appropriate.
The section on design for durability is not very specific on durability requirements, referring
back to clause 9, which does not present any provisions specifically for anchorages. Again, if
AS 5100.3 were adopted, supplementary documentation would need to be prepared
incorporating the existing Bridge manual clause 4.9.6(e) requirements for the corrosion
protection of anchors.
If AS 5100.3 were adopted, the requirements of the Bridge manual not currently included in
this part for anchored, soil nailed and soil reinforced walls, as discussed in 4.13.2 above,
would need to be incorporated through supplementary documentation.
3.13 Retaining walls and abutments

Section 13 of AS 5100.3 covers the following:

 design requirements for strength and stability, calculation of earth pressures, eccentric
and inclined loads, serviceability and durability
 materials and construction requirements
 drainage.

Clause 7.4 of AS 5100.3 precludes instability due to sliding. The Bridge manual, by
comparison, permits wall displacement under earthquake loading in some situations and
within limits, and requires the structural design of abutments and walls to follow capacity
design principles.
The Bridge manual categorises retaining walls into different types with a range of criteria
specified for each type, in particular for earthquake resistant design which does not receive
any specific attention in this section of AS 5100.3.

Section 13 of AS 5100.3 lacks adequate criteria for the performance of abutments and
retaining walls under earthquake. It is otherwise generally suitable for adoption subject to
other parts referred to also being adopted. If AS 5100.3 were adopted it would require
supplementary documentation to incorporate the categorisation of walls and seismic
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performance criteria presented in the Bridge manual. Supplementary documentation would

also need to deal with references to other parts (eg AS 5100.5) should they not be adopted.
3.14 Buried structures

Section 14 of AS 5100.3 sets out requirements for the design of structures where soil and
rock loads form a significant proportion of the total loads on the structure.
Coverage is given within section 14 to:

 design requirements for strength, stability, serviceability and durability

AS 5100.3 requires the design of precast box culverts to comply with AS 1597. Otherwise the
requirements given for all types of buried structures in the above listed areas are mostly
relatively general in nature with no requirements specific to seismic design.
The Bridge manual coverage of buried structures is relatively minimal. It does not provide
any specific requirements for box culverts other than for earthquake resistant design. For
buried corrugated metal structures, design is to comply with the following relevant
standards, not cited by AS 5100.3:
 AS/NZS 2041 Buried corrugated metal structures

 AS 1761 Helical lock-seam corrugated steel pipes
 AS 1762 Helical lock-seam corrugated steel pipes – design and installation
 AS 3703 Long span corrugated steel structures
For these structures, the Bridge manual also specifies a design loading distribution to
simulate the pressure applied on buried structures from HN-HO-72 live loading, and requires
the possible effects of earthquake induced ground deformation and liquefaction to be
considered.
For culverts and subways, the Bridge manual explicitly does not require earthquake loads to
be considered for small structures of maximum cross-sectional dimension < 3 m, but for
larger structures varying approaches are specified dependent on the depth of soil cover and
form of structure.

Section 14 of AS 5100.3 is generally suitable for adoption but supplementary documentation
would be needed to incorporate the Bridge manual requirements for earthquake resistant
design of buried structures. Also, a review of the standards cited by the Bridge manual for
buried corrugated metal structures to check their appropriateness for inclusion and
consistency with AS 5100.3 is recommended. Should HN-HO-72 be retained as the design live
load, supplementary documentation would be required to incorporate the Bridge manual
pressure simulation for this loading on buried structures.
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3.15 Assessment of geotechnical strength reduction factors for

piles (appendix A)

Appendix A of AS 5100.3 is simply a replication of clause 4.2.2 from AS 2159.

This appendix is encompassed in the observations made previously for pile foundations
(section 3.11.3 above). Refer also to section 3.17.1.1 below for recommendations specifically
related to strength reduction factors.
3.16 On-site assessment tests of anchorages (appendix B)

Appendix B of AS 5100.3 is classed as informative and sets out stressing procedures and
assessment criteria for proof load and acceptance tests.

The Bridge manual does not directly present any comparable guidance, though it may be
provided by referenced documents.

This section is suitable for adoption.
3.17 Summary of AS 5100.3
3.17.1 Issues relevant to the AS 5110.3 as a whole
3.17.1.1 Strength reduction factors

Throughout this part geotechnical strength reduction factors tend to differ a little from one
structural element type to another for the same methods of assessment of geotechnical
strength. In some cases these factors include allowance for the design life of the structure (ie
whether permanent or temporary) and allowance for the mode of behaviour (eg bearing
failure or overturning, sliding or global instability).
It is usual to take the mode of behaviour into account in the strength reduction factors
applied to material strength, but structure design life is normally taken into account in the
design loading applied and the load factors assigned to the design loading.
If AS 5100 were adopted, a detailed review of the capacity reduction factors and load factors
specified in AS 5100.3 would be required to ensure that the required safety index is satisfied.
3.17.1.2 Cross-referencing to other AS 5100 parts

AS 5100.3 contains numerous cross-references to other parts of AS 5100, eg AS 5100.2 and
AS 5100.5, which may not be wholly adopted. If AS 5100 were adopted a detailed review and
possibly supplementary documents would be required to ensure that issues covered by this
cross-referencing are all appropriately captured.
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4 AS 5100.4: Bearings and deck joints
AS 5100.4 content
Table 4.1 lists the content of part 4 of AS 5100 ‘Bridge design’ (AS 5100.4) together with the
comparable sections or clauses of the Transit NZ Bridge manual.
Table 4.1 AS 5100.4 content and comparable Bridge manual clauses

2 Referenced documents 4.14 References
3 Definitions 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
4 Notation 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
5 Functions of bearings and deck joints 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
6 Loads, movements and rotations 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
7 General design requirements 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
8 Movement restraints 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
9 Alignment of bearings and deck joints 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
10 Anchorage of bearings 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
11 Loads resulting from resistance to movement 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
12 Elastomeric bearings 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
13 Pot bearings 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
14 Sliding contact surfaces 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
15 Mechanical bearings 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
16 Bearings subject to uplift 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
17 Deck joints 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
Appendix A: Tables of standard elastomeric 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
bearing properties
Appendix B: Testing of elastomer, category 1 tests 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
Appendix C: Manufacturing tolerances for 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
laminated elastomeric bearings
Appendix D: Testing of laminated elastomeric 4.7 Bearings and deck joints
bearings
AS 5100.4 sets out the minimum design and performance requirements for bearing and deck
joints for the articulation and accommodation of movements of bridge structures.
4.1 Status of adoption of AS 5100.4 for use in New Zealand

AS 5100.4 has previously been reviewed and adopted by the Bridge manual as the standard
for the design and performance of bearings and deck joints, supplemented by additional
requirements in section 4.7 of the Bridge manual as explained below. Cross-references within
the supplementary requirements and the commentary presented in sections 4.2 and 4.3
below refer to clauses within the Bridge manual.
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4.2 Supplementary requirements adopted for the application of

AS 5100.4 in New Zealand
4.2.1 General
4.2.1.1 Section 4.7.1(a) Design code

The design and performance of bearings and deck joints should comply with AS 5100.4:
‘Bearings and deck joints’ except where modified in section 4.7 of the Bridge manual. Where
there could be conflict between the requirements of AS 5100.4 and section 4.7, the latter
takes precedence.
4.2.1.2 Section 4.7.1(b) Elastomeric bearings

Reference to elastomeric bearings should also include laminated elastomeric bearings fitted
with a lead cylinder, commonly referred to as lead-rubber bearings, used for the dissipation
of earthquake energy.
4.2.1.3 Section 4.7.1(c) Deck joints

The number of deck joints in a structure should be the practical minimum.
In principle, deck slabs should be continuous over intermediate supports, and bridges with
overall lengths of less than 60 m and skews of less than 30o should have integral abutments.
Deck joints might be necessary in larger bridges to cater for periodic changes in length.
4.2.2 Modifications and extensions to AS 5100.4 criteria for bearings
4.2.2.1 Section 4.7.2(a) Limit state requirements and robustness

Pot bearings are designed for both the serviceability and ultimate limit states. Elastomeric
bearings should be designed for serviceability limit state (SLS) effects, with the bearing
fixings and overall bridge structure stability checked at the ultimate limit state (ULS).
Particular consideration should be given to the robustness of bearings and their fixings to
[prevent] damage or loss of stability due to earthquake actions.
4.2.2.2 Section 4.7.2(b) Design loads and load factors

Reference in AS 5100.4 ‘Bearings and deck joints’ to design loads and load factors given in
AS 5100.2 should be replaced by reference to chapter 3 of the Bridge manual.
4.2.2.3 Section 4.7.2(c) Anchorage of bearings

Bearings, other than thin elastomeric strip bearings less than 25 mm in thickness, should be
positively anchored to the bridge structure above and below to prevent their dislodgement
during response to the ULS design intensity or a greater earthquake unless the bridge
superstructure is fully restrained by other means against horizontal displacement relative to
the support. Reliance should not be placed on friction alone to ensure safety against sliding.
The bearing restraint system for horizontal load should be designed to resist the full
horizontal force transmitted by the bearing from the superstructure to the substructure.
For laminated elastomeric bearings, horizontal restraint should be provided by dowels or

bolts engaging in thick outer shims within the bearing or by vulcanising the bearings to
external plates fixed in position to the structure by bolts. External restraining cleats should
not be used. Dowels should generally be located as close to the centre of the bearing (in
plan) as practicable, to prevent them from disengaging due to deformation of the edges of
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the bearing under the high shear strain that might develop during a strong earthquake.
Dowels, as a means of bearing lateral restraint, do not need to be removable to allow bearing
replacement provided that the bridge superstructure can be jacked sufficiently to enable the
bearings to be lifted, disengaged from the restraining dowels and slid out of position.
4.2.2.4 Section 4.7.2(d) Bearing set back from the edge of concrete bearing surfaces
and confinement of bearing surfaces
Bearings should be set sufficiently far back from the edge of concrete bearing surfaces to
avoid spalling of the corner concrete. Where bearing pressures are high, confining
reinforcement should be provided to prevent tensile splitting of the concrete. Consideration
should be given to the redistribution of pressure on the concrete bearing surface due to
horizontal loads such as from earthquake action.
4.2.2.5 Section 4.7.2(d) Elastomeric bearings

Elastomeric bearings should conform with the requirements of either AS 1523 ‘Elastomeric
bearings for use in structures’ or BE 1/76 ‘Design requirements for elastomeric bridge
bearings’, except that steel reinforcing plates may be a minimum of 3 mm thick.
Wherever feasible, bearings should be chosen from those commercially available, but this
does not preclude the use of individual designs where circumstances justify it.
Under service conditions that exclude earthquake effects, the maximum shear strain in a
bearing (measured as a percentage of the total rubber thickness being sheared) should not
exceed 50%. Under response to the ULS design intensity earthquake, plus other prevailing
conditions such as shortening effects, the maximum shear strain should not exceed 100%.
In the design of elastomeric and lead-rubber bearings, the following should be given
particular attention:
 In evaluating the stability against roll-over, consideration should be given to the

sensitivity of the stability to an extreme earthquake, as safety factors can be rapidly
eroded.
 In bridges with prestressed concrete superstructures and the spans either continuous or
tightly linked, consideration should be given to the long-term effects of creep shortening
of the superstructure due to the prestress on the bearings.
4.2.3 Modifications to AS 5100.4 criteria for deck joints
4.2.3.1 Section 4.7.3(a) General requirements

The maximum opening of a deck joint will generally be determined by earthquake conditions
at the ULS. No limitation applies to the maximum design width of an open gap joint under
these conditions.
4.2.3.2 Section 4.7.3(b) Design loads

Deck joints and their fixings should be designed at the ULS for the following loads in place of
those specified by AS 5100.4:
 Vertical
The vehicle axle loads defined in section 3.2.2 of the Bridge manual together with a
dynamic load factor of 1.60. The ULS load factors to be applied should be 2.25 to an HN
axle load and 1.49 to an HO axle load.
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 Longitudinal
The local vehicle braking and traction forces specified in section 3.3.1, combined with
any force due to the stiffness of, or friction in, the joint. The ULS load factor applied to
the combined force should be 1.35.
4.2.3.3 Section 4.7.3(c) Movements

 Deck joints should be designed to accommodate the movements due to temperature,
shortening and earthquake specified in section 5.6.1(b) of the Bridge manual, and to
otherwise satisfy the requirements of 5.6.1(b).
 Design for longitudinal movements should include the effect of beam end rotation under
live load.
4.2.3.4 Section 4.7.3(d) Anchorage

The second paragraph of AS 5100.4, clause 17.4 should be replaced by the following:
Where the deck joint is attached by bolts fixing into a concrete substrate or screwed into
cast-in anchor ferrules, fully tensioned high tensile bolts should be used. The spacing of the
bolts should not be greater than 300 mm and the bolts should develop a dependable force
clamping the joint to the concrete substrate, of not less than 500 kN per metre length on
each side of the joint.
4.2.3.5 Section 4.7.4(e) Drainage

The AS 5100.4, clause 17.5 should be replaced by the following:
Deck joints should be watertight unless specific provision is made to collect and dispose of
the water. Sealed expansion joints, where the gap is sealed with a compression seal,
elastomeric element or sealant, are preferred.
Open joints, where the gap is not sealed, should be slightly wider at the bottom than at the
top to prevent stones and debris lodging in the joint, and should include a specific drainage
system to collect and dispose of the water. Such drainage systems should be accessible for
cleaning.
The design of drainage systems should accommodate the movement across the deck joints of
the bridge of not less than one quarter of the calculated relative movement under the ULS
design earthquake conditions, plus long-term shortening effects where applicable, and one-
third of the temperature induced movement from the median temperature position, without
sustaining damage. Under greater movements, the drainage system should be detailed so
that damage is confined to readily replaceable components only.
4.2.3.6 Section 4.7.3(f) Installation

Deck joints and the parts of the structure to which they are attached should be designed so
that the joint can be installed after completion of the deck slab in the adjacent span(s).
4.2.4 Additional criteria and guidance for deck joints
4.2.4.1 Section 4.7.4(a) Joint type and joint system selection

Deck joints should be designed to provide for the total design range and direction of
movement expected for a specific installation. The design engineer should consider the
guidance provided by the UK Highways Agency publication (1994), BD33/94 ‘Expansion joints
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for use in highway bridge decks’, with respect to the movement capacity of common joint
types.
Acceptance of a proprietary joint system should be subject to that system satisfying the
requirements of the Bridge manual and the additional project-specific performance
requirements. The design engineer should specify all dimensional and performance
requirements, including movement capacity, to enable manufacturers to offer joints that are
best suited to meet the requirements.
The characteristics and performance history of a particular joint should be reviewed to

determine the suitability of the joint for a specific installation. The design engineer should
consider information provided in ‘Performance of deck expansion joints in New Zealand road
bridges’ (Bruce and Kirkcaldie 2000) and ‘Bridge deck joints’ (Burke 1989), with respect to
the performance history of deck joints.
Proprietary deck joint suppliers should provide a warranty on the serviceability of their joint/s
for a period of 10 years after installation. The warranty should cover all costs associated with
rectification of a joint, including traffic control costs.
4.2.4.2 Section 4.7.4(b) Joint sealing elements

Joint sealing elements (eg compression and elastomeric membrane seals, sealants) should be
resistant to water, oil, salt, stone penetration, abrasion and environmental effects and should
be readily replaceable. Compression seals should not be used in situations where concrete
creep shortening and/or rotation of the ends of beams under live loading will result in
decompression of the seal.
Sealants should be compatible with the materials with which they will be in contact.
Irrespective of claimed properties, sealants should not be subjected to more than 25% strain
in tension or compression. The modulus of elasticity of the sealant should be appropriate to
ensure that, under the expected joint movement, the tensile capacity of the concrete forming
the joint is not exceeded. The joint should be sealed at or as near the mean of its range of
movement as is practicable. Base support for joint sealants should be provided by durable
compressible joint fillers with adequate recovery and without excessive compressive
stiffness.
Joint seals or sealant should be set 5mm lower than the deck surface to limit damage by
traffic.
4.2.4.3 Section 4.7.4(c) Nosings

New bridges and deck replacements should be designed with a concrete upstand the height
of the carriageway surfacing thickness and at least 200 mm wide between the deck joint and
the adjacent carriageway surfacing. This is to act as a dam to retain the surfacing and to
isolate the surfacing from any tensile forces imposed on the deck by the joint system.
4.2.4.4 Section 4.7.4(d) Asphaltic plug (elastomeric concrete) joints

Asphaltic plug joints are in-situ joints comprising a band of specially formulated flexible
material, commonly consisting of rubberised bitumen with aggregate fillers. The joint is
supported over the gap by thin metal plates or other suitable components. Except in retrofit
applications where the existing structural configuration prevents these joint dimensional
requirements being met, elastomeric concrete plug joints should be designed and specified
to have a minimum thickness of 75 mm and a minimum width of bond with the structure on
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either side of the joint gap of 200 mm. Such joints should be designed by the supplier or the
supplier’s agent to take account of the predicted movements at the joint including rotation of
the ends of the bridge decks to be joined due to traffic loads.
Where proposed for use in retrofit situations with dimensions less than those specified
above, evidence should be supplied to Transit of satisfactory performance of the joint system
under similar or more demanding traffic conditions with a similar joint configuration over
periods of not less than five years.
4.3 Bridge manual amendment commentary
4.3.1 General
Adoption of AS 5100.4 for the design of bearings and deck joints was undertaken in the
September 2004 amendment to the Bridge manual. The accompanying commentary sets out
the following explanation for this amendment in respect to bearings and deck joints.
4.3.2 Bearings
4.3.2.1 General philosophy

Until now, the Bridge manual has contained limited criteria for bearings, requiring only that
elastomeric bearings comply with AS 1523 or BE 1/76, are generally chosen from those
commercially available, and are designed to be replaceable.
Bearings are one of the components of bridges most responsible for incurring maintenance
costs. Internationally, design codes and bridge authorities have placed increasing emphasis
on bearings, developing criteria for their use and design, with codes devoting significant
sections to their specification.
In particular, in North America and the United Kingdom, the trend is towards eliminating
bearings wherever possible and making the bridge structures integral. In these countries,
corrosion of metal bearings will have been a particular problem due to the use of de-icing
salts on their roads. This approach is not appropriate in New Zealand, where we have a highly
developed precast concrete industry and extensive use is made of precast elements in bridge
superstructures. Supporting these elements on bearings has provided a popular, convenient
and economical solution in New Zealand bridge construction. Most New Zealand bridge
construction has relatively short spans, allowing elastomeric bearings to be used, and
resulting in few problems of corrosion of critical bearing components.
In this revision, particular focus has been placed on harmonising with Australian practice
where possible, and on ensuring the robustness of bearings to the response of bridge
structures to earthquakes.
4.3.2.2 Changes to section 4 of the Bridge manual
Section 4.7: Bearings and deck joints

AS 5100.4 presents extensive criteria for the design of bearings, and in general, these are
considered to be appropriate for adoption. Where necessary, amendments to the AS 5100.4
criteria are proposed to suit local conditions. Design loads are consistent with those specified
in section 3 of the Bridge manual.
126
Adoption of the AS 5100.4 criteria and the application of criteria for elastomeric bearings is
given in clause 4.7.1. Amendments to the AS 5100.4 criteria and additional criteria are given
in clause 4.7.2.
AS 5100.4 adopts criteria for the design of elastomeric bearings with significant differences
from those presented in AS 1523 or BE 1/76, which, in the past, have provided satisfactory
performance. Adoption of AS 5100.4’s elastomeric bearing design criteria is not proposed
until a detailed study can be undertaken to identify the effect and significance of the
differences. It is understood that there is considerable dissension within the elastomeric
bearing industry over the appropriate criteria for the design of elastomeric bearings, and that
revision of AS 1523 has failed to eventuate because of this. Maximum permitted shear
strains, not previously specified, are proposed for both normal service conditions and under
response to earthquakes.
Experience from past large earthquakes has demonstrated bearings are particularly
vulnerable to damage in such events. A number of criteria are proposed, aimed particularly at
ensuring the robustness of bearings and their fixings to earthquake loading.
4.3.3 Deck joints
4.3.3.1 General philosophy

Studies have shown that deck joint deterioration is the most common maintenance problem
affecting New Zealand road bridges. Deck joints are also a potential source of deterioration
to the bridge structure itself where leaking joints can promote corrosion of underlying
structural elements.
There is currently only minimal guidance for design, selection and installation of deck
expansion joints in the Bridge manual and the aim of the amendment is to upgrade the
design guidance for deck joints.
The amendment is based around adoption of AS 5100.4 with some modifications to reflect
New Zealand specific practice and conditions. AS 5100.4 contains comprehensive
requirements for deck joints which are generally complementary to those currently in the
Bridge manual.
The Bridge manual currently considers deck expansion joints in section 4 ‘Analysis and
design criteria’ and in section 5 ‘Earthquake resistant design’.
4.3.3.2 Changes to section 4 of the Bridge manual

In the current Bridge manual (September 2004) deck joints have been amalgamated with
bearings into section 4.7 ‘Bearings and deck joints’. In section 4.7 deck joints are covered
under 4.7.1 ‘General’, 4.7.3 ‘Modifications to the AS 5100: Bridge design, part 4: Bearings
and deck joints criteria for deck joints’, and 4.7.4 ‘Additional criteria and guidance for deck
joints’.
Subsection 4.7.1: General

Clause 4.7.1(c) covers the requirement to minimise the number of deck joints in a bridge
and, in some circumstances, to consider the use of integral abutments. This approach follows
the international trend towards the elimination of deck joints by making the bridge
superstructure continuous wherever possible to avoid problems associated with deck joints.
127
In drafting this clause, reference was made to the approach taken in BA 42/96 ‘The design of
integral bridges (UK Highways Agency 1996).
Subsection 4.7.3: Modifications to the AS 5100: Bridge design, Part 4: Bearings and deck
joints criteria for deck joints
A fundamental change to the AS 5100.4 bridge design standard requirements is the need to
accommodate the effects of earthquake movement on deck joint performance. The effects of
earthquake are considered in clauses 4.7.3(a) and 4.7.3(c) in terms of the maximum open
gap and movement at the ULS.
In clause 4.7.3(b) the design loads have been modified to agree with New Zealand practice
and nomenclature. An impact factor of 1.6 has been adopted in accordance with the
AS 5100.4 standard to account for the high dynamic loads on deck joints.
A significant change is to the anchorage of deck joints. In clause 4.7.3(d), the bolts attaching
deck joints into a concrete substrate are required to be fully tensioned high tensile bolts
rather than lower grade bolts tightened to a percentage of their proof load. This removes the
requirement to consider fatigue of the anchors.
A critical performance requirement for deck expansion joints and associated hardware is the
control of deck drainage water. An unexpected finding of ‘Performance of deck expansion
joints in New Zealand road bridges’ (Bruce and Kirkcaldie 2000) was the continued use of
open deck joints. Clause 4.7.3(e) requires that deck joints are watertight and recommends
the use of sealed expansion joints. Where open joints are used they are required to include a
separate drainage system to collect and dispose of the water which will not be damaged as a
consequence of earthquake movement.
Additional requirements for deck joint installation (clause 4.7.3 (f)) pertain particularly to the
timing of deck joint installation. Otherwise, the process of deck joint installation is closely
related to the type of joint being installed and it is recommended that the joint suppliers be
responsible for their installation.
Subsection 4.7.4: Additional criteria and guidance for deck joints

This subsection has been added to address some of the deficiencies and performance issues
that have been encountered with deck joints in New Zealand.
Clause 4.7.4(a) addresses the critical factors in designing and selecting appropriate joint
types. This clause requires the design engineer to consider both movement capacity and
performance history to determine the suitability of a joint for a particular installation. Useful
references are provided to give guidance on both these factors. As a performance measure
proprietary deck joint suppliers are required to provide a warranty on the serviceability of
their joints for a period of five years after installation.
Clause 4.7.4(b) considers joint sealing elements and is broadly similar to the requirements of
the AS 5100 bridge design standard. A principal requirement is that joint sealing elements
must be readily replaceable as they are unlikely to achieve the design life of the bridge. Key
changes include definition of the different joint sealing elements and consideration of the
decompression of compression seals due to concrete creep shortening. The clause also
includes specific design requirements for poured sealant joints.
128
Clause 4.7.4(c) describes the design requirements for a concrete nosing at the location of the
deck joints.
Clause 4.7.4(d) considers asphaltic plug joints. These joint types have a good performance
history when designed with suitable dimensions and applied in appropriate situations.
Failures have been recorded where joint dimensions were inadequate and where rotation of
the bridge deck ends under traffic loads were not accounted for. This clause specifies
measures to avoid such failures. In retrofit situations, where the joint dimensions are less
then those specified, proof of performance history with a similar joint configuration is
required.
4.3.3.3 Changes to section 5

Deck expansion joints are currently considered in the Bridge manual under section 5.6
‘Structural integrity and provision for relative displacement’, subsection 5.6.1 ‘Clearances’.
No changes have been made to this subsection.
4.4 Summary of AS 5100.4

AS 5100.4 has already been adopted for application in New Zealand subject to the additional
requirements set out in section 4.7 of the Bridge manual.
AS 5100.4 requirements for the design of elastomeric bearings were not adopted. A detailed
study is recommended of this aspect. An Opus in-house investigation by H Chapman noted
that there was significant variation in the approach adopted by various standards (AS 5100,
BS 5400, AASHTO and Eurocodes), and significant uncertainty about which standards
predicted the characteristics of bearings most accurately. Different specialists appear to
favour different standards. The specified regime for testing stiffness, particularly in shear, is
important and can significantly affect the nominal value of the shear stiffness of the bearing.
129
130

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Review of Australian standard AS5100 Bridge design

with a view to adoption - Volume 1

Research Report 361

NZ Transport Agency Research Report 361

© 2008, NZ Transport Agency

Kirkcaldie, D. K., and Wood, J. H. 2008. Review of Australian standard AS 5100

This report is published in two volumes as follows:

Volume 1: Executive summary, recommendations and parts 1 to 4

Keywords: AS 5100, Australian bridge design, Transit NZ Bridge manual

Abbreviations and acronyms

AADT Annual average daily traffic

Executive summary ................................................................................................................... 7

AS 5100.1: Scope and general principles

Section 3: Referenced documents

Section 6: Design philosophy

 the specification of design lives for ancillary structures

Section 7: Waterways and flood design

Section 8: Environmental impact

Section 9: Geometric requirements

Section 10: Road traffic barriers

If AS 5100.1 were adopted, it would be desirable to prepare supplementary documentation

Section 11: Collision protection

Section 12: Cycle path barriers

Section 13: Noise barriers

Section 14: Drainage

Section 15: Access for inspection and maintenance

Section 16: Utilities

Appendix A: Matters for resolution before design commences

Appendix B: Road barrier performance level selection method

AS 5100.2: Design loads

 foundation bearing capacity

Section 2: Referenced documents

Section 5: Dead loads

Section 6: Road traffic

Section 7: Pedestrian and bicycle-path load

Section 9: Minimum lateral restraint capacity

Section 10: Collision loads

If AS 5100.2 collision load requirements were to be adopted supplementary documentation

 The Bridge manual barrier acceptance criteria would need incorporation.

Section 12: Dynamic behaviour

 specification of the design loadings for road bridges

Section 13: Earth pressure

Section 14: Earthquake forces

Section 15: Forces resulting from water flow

If AS 5100.2 were adopted, supplementary documentation would be required to incorporate

Section 16: Wind loads

Section 17: Thermal effects

If AS 5100 were adopted, supplementary documentation would be required to incorporate

Section 18: Shrinkage, creep and prestress effects

Section 19: Differential movement of supports

 differential settlement as an ULS load condition

Section 20: Forces from bearings

Section 21: Construction forces and effects

Section 22: Load combinations

Section 23: Road signs and lighting structures

Section 24: Noise barriers

AS 5100.3: Foundations and soil supporting structures

Section 3: Referenced documents

Section 6: Site investigation