University of Rhode Island

DigitalCommons@URI
Seminar Research Paper Series Schmidt Labor Research Center

2011

Employee Responses to Job Dissatisfaction

Kristine Vangel
University of Rhode Island

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/lrc_paper_series

Recommended Citation
Vangel, Kristine, "Employee Responses to Job Dissatisfaction" (2011). Seminar Research Paper Series. Paper 37.
http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/lrc_paper_series/37http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/lrc_paper_series/37

This Seminar Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the Schmidt Labor Research Center at DigitalCommons@URI. It has been accepted
for inclusion in Seminar Research Paper Series by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@URI. For more information, please contact
[email protected].
 Employee Responses to Job Dissatisfaction
Kristine Vangel
University of Rhode Island

Over the past several years, high unemployment and limited job mobility prospects have kept voluntary employee
turnover statistics relatively low. In more favorable job markets, dissatisfied employees are likely to leave
undesirable work situations and move on to what they perceive will be more satisfying work relationships. In tight
labor markets, dissatisfied employees often find that they are unable to leave dissatisfying jobs. This paper explores
two questions pertaining to retention of dissatisfied employees. What can we expect, in terms of turnover, when the
job market becomes more favorable to job seekers and how do dissatisfied employees who remain with employers
respond behaviorally while continuing to work in a dissatisfying work environment?

In the workplace, employee turnover carries a Although both terms tend to have intuitive,
negative connotation. Turnover can be costly to a common-sense meanings, the two concepts have
firm because the organization loses its investment been examined and reconceptionalized in many
in human capital. Turnover can be voluntary or academic papers, scholarly journals and various
involuntary. It can be the decision of the studies. Much of the interest stemming from job
employee or at the hand of the employer. satisfaction and organizational commitment falls
Employers continually work to reduce voluntary in the realm of behavioral consequence, as it has
turnover costs through various human resource been argued that these two concepts relate to
functions including training, performance productivity, attendance at work, participation and
management, compensation strategies, and turnover (Camp, 1993). Thus, job satisfaction and
selection methods. According to the United States commitment are potential predictors of future
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2011), the current employee behavior.
voluntary turnover rate for private industry is Job satisfaction, defined by Locke, is “a
1.4%, compared to 2.5% 10 years ago. pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting
Although the prior statistic appears beneficial from the appraisal of one‟s job or job experiences”
to employers, looks can be deceiving. In recent (1976: 1304). It can be measured globally or by
years, job markets have bottomed out and facet by job satisfaction measurement scales such
unemployment rates have risen significantly as the job descriptive index (JDI) or other
resulting in poor employment prospects for job- measurement instruments (Brown & Peterson,
seekers. This not only has an impact on turnover 1993). Job satisfaction has long been thought to
rates but also a substantial impact on employers. have a significant effect on job performance.
Although employers strive to reduce turnover, However, support for this hypothesis has been
some percentage of voluntary turnover is healthy hard to obtain (Christian, Iyer & Soberman, 2006).
for an organization; especially when the In their 2006 study, Christian, Iyer and Soberman;
employees who are not engaging in voluntary somewhat counter-intuitively, found a significant,
turnover are dissatisfied in their jobs and positive effect of job performance on job
displaying negative job behaviors. Excluding satisfaction. This has important implications for
failing job markets, turnover would typically be firms because it implies that actions to increase job
subject to an employee‟s job satisfaction and/or performance can also increase job satisfaction.
organizational commitment. Additionally, job satisfaction has also been
strongly, positively correlated to organizational
JOB SATISFACTION & commitment (Brown & Peterson, 1993).
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT Organizational commitment yields two
The topics of job satisfaction and schools of thought: behavioral and attitudinal.
organizational commitment have received One of the first definitions of commitment comes
considerable attention from human resource from Becker‟s (1960) work on the concept of side
professionals, organizational psychologists and bets, whereby commitment is seen as a force
sociologists throughout the past fifty years. displaying continued organizational membership

© Kristine Vangel, 2011

 Vangel – Responses to Employee Dissatisfaction 2

due to extraneous interests. Subsequent research process in regards to membership, or for that
on this behavioral school of thought later termed matter, turnover? One credible answer is the
the concept of “investments,” a contribution in motivational model of expectancy theory (Graen,
which a future gain will lead to continued 1969).
membership (Kantor, 1968). The attitudinal
school of thought views commitment as a set of Expectancy/Commitment Theory
intentions involving a strong belief in the Expectancy theory is based on the belief that
organization‟s goal, a willingness to exert high an individual‟s effort will result in valued rewards,
levels of effort, and a desire to maintain thereby explaining membership and performance
membership (Steers, 1977). Meyer and Allen in organizations. Scholl (1981), however, argues
(1991) later revamped this concept and proposed a that commitment is an independent force that also
three-component model highlighting an emotional explains employee behavior. Scholl identifies 4
attachment or identification with the organization non-exhaustive commitment mechanisms
(affective commitment), a realization of the costs independent of behavior and expectancy: (1)
associated with leaving (continuous commitment), investments, (2) reciprocity, (3) lack of
and a feeling of obligation to continue alternatives, and (4) identification. What results is
employment (normative commitment). But what a 2 x 2 matrix as evident in Table 1:
contributes to an employee‟s decision-making

TABLE 1
Relationship of Commitment and Expectancy as a Motivating Force

Low Commitment High Commitment

Low Expectancy Dissatisfied-Leave Stay-Dissatisfied
High Expectancy Stay-Satisfied Stay-Satisfied

As evident above, the expectancy/commitment organization, and the question of particular interest
model results in 3 potential behaviors: leave the is: Can the behavior effects of dissatisfied
organization because one is dissatisfied, stay with employees be predicted in various workplace
the organization because one is satisfied, or stay climates? Specific attention to the nature of the
with the organization despite that one is organization is warranted because it is presumed
dissatisfied. The interest of this paper is the that the organization is the focus of an individual‟s
behavior of those individuals that are dissatisfied commitment (Reichers, 1985). The model of this
but decide to maintain membership in an question is seen in Figure 1 as follows:

FIGURE 1
Job Dissatisfaction Process in Expressing Behavior
Organizational
Climate

Decision to engage in Expressed

dissatisfaction behavior Dissatisfaction
Stay (voice, loyalty, neglect) Behavior
Job Membership
Dissatisfaction Leave

Commitment Consequence
 Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 3

To answer this question, the behavioral Exit

response of dissatisfied employees must first be In some of the earlier research on turnover
identified as well as the various types of studies, Porter and Steers (1973), in their work on
workplaces to which workers may be exposed. To employee turnover and absenteeism, show that a
begin, we examine Hirshman‟s concept of exit, multiplicity of organizational, work and personal
voice and loyalty. factors are associated with an employee‟s decision
to withdraw. They produce very strong evidence
Exit, Voice, and Loyalty to support that overall job satisfaction represents
Hirshman‟s concept of exit, voice and loyalty an importance force in an individual‟s
addresses how members within organizations, participation decision. They define satisfaction as
whether a business, a nation or other groups of the sum total of an individual‟s met expectations
people, discern their wrongdoings before decline on the job, and propose factors that make up the
and failure. Hirshman notes that‟s “under any employee‟s expectation set (Porter & Steers,
economic, social, or political system, individuals, 1973). The four general categories in the
business firms, and organizations in general are organization in which factors can be found that
subject to lapses from efficient, rational, law- affect withdrawal that Porter and Steers propose
abiding, virtuous, or otherwise functional are: organization-wide (e.g., pay and promotion
behavior” and that by understanding these policies), immediate work group (e.g., unit size,
reactions, organizations can craft the means to supervisor, and co-worker relations), job content
address their members‟ concerns and issues, (e.g., nature of job requirements), and person-
thereby improving the organization (Hirshman, based (e.g., age and tenure). They conclude that
1970: 1). The basic concept of Hirshman‟s model the major roots of turnover appear to be fairly
is that members of organizations will have two widespread throughout the various facets of an
possible responses to organizational decline, exit organization as they interact with particular types
or voice, and that loyalty can have an effect on of individuals (Porter & Steers, 1973). Porter and
those responses. Steers (1973) also note that role clarity and receipt
Exit is defined as a withdrawal of membership of recognition and feedback may also be inversely
from an organization, whereas voice is defined as related to turnover, however results were tentative
an attempt to repair or improve the workplace and further research was required.
through communication via complaint, grievance In their analysis, Porter and Steers (1973)
or proposal for change (Hirschman, 1970). The suggest that other variables could mediate the
general principle is that the greater the availability relationship between job satisfaction and the act of
of exit, the less likely voice will be used. quitting, and Mobley (1977) suggests that there are
However, an employee‟s measure of loyalty, or several possible intermediate steps in the
private support to the organization, can have an withdrawal decision process. Mobley‟s (1977)
effect on both exit and voice. As a rule, loyalty model suggests that thinking of quitting is the next
activates voice and is seen as a more passive logical step an employee experiences after
reaction in which employees stay with an dissatisfaction, but there are several other steps an
organization, waiting for conditions to improve employee might undergo before actually quitting.
(Farrell & Rusbult, 1992). Those steps include: evaluation of expected utility
Throughout the past 40 years, Hirshman‟s of search and cost of quitting, intention to search
concept of exit, voice and loyalty has been for alternatives, search for alternatives, evaluation
examined by researchers and theorists resulting in of alternatives, comparison of alternatives vs.
various perspectives and controversies on the present job, and intending on leaving (Mobley,
model. We now review each component 1977). Mobley notes a lack of research of
separately and examine the current research and evaluation in the withdrawal decision process and
theory on dissatisfaction in organizations. recommends more emphasis be placed on the
psychology of that process.
 Vangel – Responses to Employee Dissatisfaction 4

In continuation of his research, Mobley significant progress in understanding the

collaborates with Griffeth, Hand and Meglino psychology of the employee turnover process.
(1979) to form a better understanding of the In an effort to examine and validate Mobley‟s
psychology of the employee turnover process by research, Griffeth and Hom (1991) conducted
proposing a joint-collaborated, clear conceptual cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of
model of the process. Because past research has Mobley‟s theories and concepts. Their
revealed that age, tenure, overall satisfaction, job comprehensive examination supported many of
content, intentions to remain on the job, and Mobley‟s basic views but compelled them to make
commitment are all negatively, and consistently, some revisions. In particular, Griffeth and Hom
related to turnover; Mobley et al. (1973), provide a (1991) proposed that dissatisfaction may stimulate
potential mechanism for integrating the research a general predisposition to withdraw, thus
findings into an individual-level model of the mobilizing more specific withdrawal intentions.
turnover process. The resulting model is described They suggest that such withdrawal decisions may
as starting with turnover behavior and working occur simultaneously, even if the act of
back through its antecedents. The conceptual withdrawal occurs at a different time.
model calls attention to the main effects of Griffeth and Hom‟s work was later expanded
satisfaction, the attraction and expected utility of upon by Hom and Kinicki (2001) as they used
the present job, and the attraction and expected structural equation modeling and survival analysis
utility of any alternatives (Mobley et al., 1979). to examine how dissatisfaction drives employee
Expected utility is conceptualized as “the turnover. Hom and Kinicki (2001) validated
individual‟s valuation of the rewards offered by previous findings that withdrawal cognitions and
different alternatives and his appraisal of his job comparisons have direct effects on
chances of being able to realize each of the terminations and can mediate the influence of
alternatives” (Blau, Gustad, Jessor, Parnes, & other antecedents. Additionally, they integrated
Wilcox, 1956: 533). In addition to their proposed job avoidance, interrole conflict, and employment
complex conceptual model; Mobley, Griffeth, conditions into the Hom-Griffeth model, as seen in
Hand and Meglino conclude that integrative, Figure 2 (Hom & Kinicki, 2001).
multivariate longitudinal research is needed for

Figure 2
How Dissastisfaction Translates into Turnover: Expanded Hom-Griffeth Model
 Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 5

Interrole conflict, as defined by Kossek and definition that is used to summarize several
Ozeki (1998) is the collision between work and approaches to employee relations.
nonwork role demands, or more specifically, the A multidimensional construct of employee
extent to which one‟s job interferes with voice was proposed by Van Dyne, Ang, and
community and personal endeavors. Hom and Botero (2003) that is based on employee motives.
Kinicki‟s (2001) research showed support that They differentiate between three different kinds of
interrole conflict decreases job satisfaction and voice: acquiescent voice, defensive voice, and
increases withdrawal cognitions. Additionally, prosocial voice, which differ according to whether
their research supported the prediction that job an employee is passive or proactive, or whether
satisfaction reduces job avoidance, and job the behaviors are self-protected or not (Van Dyne
avoidance increases with withdrawal cognitions et al., 2003). In essence, prosocial voice is other-
(Hom & Kinicki, 2001). Hom and Kinicki (2001) oriented (not intended to benefit the self) behavior
concluded that interrole conflict and job avoidance based on cooperation and suggestion for change,
directly influence turnover and they suggest future defensive voice is self-protective and based on
research should broaden the concept of withdrawal fear (e.g. when employees engage in self-
acts to include behavior such as tardiness or acts defensive behavior such as blaming others), and
of vocal complaint. Another finding from their acquiescent voice is disengaged and based on
research showed support that unemployment rates resignation (e.g. automatically supporting
also act to moderate turnover, in that recessions management proposals due to the belief that one is
could weaken the control that withdrawal unable to make a difference) (Van Dyne et al.,
cognitions had over an employee‟s expected 2003). As evident from these definitions,
withdrawal utility (Hom & Kinicki, 2001). In prosocial voice is the most consistent with
other words, during periods of high Hirschman‟s concept of voice. Van Dyne et al.
unemployment, employees thinking about quitting also propose a similar construct for employee
would become pessimistic about the benefits of silence and recommend future research on the
leaving and their chances of finding another job. constructs with special attention to their
Voice antecedents and consequences in workplace
The term voice refers to how employees are atmospheres.
able to communicate their opinions of work Recent research suggests that the opportunity
activities and whether they have a say in decision for voice is closely linked to organizational
making issues within the organization. Hirshman commitment, particularly when positive
defined voice as “any attempt at all to change, relationships exist between employee/line-
rather than to escape, from an objectionable state manager, and when there is trust in senior
of affairs” (1970:30). Worker voice within an management (Farndale, van Ruiten, Kelliher, &
organization can be communicated in a variety of Hope-Hailey, 2011). Farndale et al. (2011) make
ways. For instance, the presence of a union can note that when employees perceive themselves as
function to unite the needs and wants of those having an impact on organizational decisions, they
employees within the bargaining unit. Employees show higher levels of organizational commitment.
can also serve as their own voice when no union is Another example of recent research on voice
present by speaking directly to their employer via comes from the work of Avery, McKay, Wilson,
open-door policies, grievance procedures and Volpone and Killham (2011) as they examine the
suggestion boxes. In cases where employees hire effect of tenure on employee voice. Avery et al.
lawyers to file class action suits against their (2011) suggest that employee voice diminishes
employer for differences regarding pay, dismissal with tenure but is particularly important for
or harassment; the lawyer functions as the employees with less tenure. Other studies have
employee voice (O‟Toole, 2006). Federal and also shown that job dissatisfaction can lead to
state legislature has also operated for worker voice creativity when voice is expressed and when
by implementing regulations and improving the employees are committed to remaining in their
conditions and terms of employment. In short, organizations (Zhou & George, 2001).
the term “employee voice” has a broad range
 Vangel – Responses to Employee Dissatisfaction 6

Voice, however, may not always be commitment to further enhance the welfare of an
constructive as Van Dyne and LePine (1998) organization through change. Thus, Barry (1974)
would suggest it is. They define voice as an concludes the concept of exit, voice and loyalty is
expression of constructive criticism meant to make presented through an incorrect relationship and in
innovative suggestions and modifications for fact, voice is built into the concept of loyalty
change. However, research conducted on the use which requires non-exit as a means to exercise
of informal voice systems, such as open-door voice.
policies, does not support this theory. Karen Rusbult, Farrell, Rogers, and Mainous (1988)
Harlos (2001) found in her research a strong view loyalty as a passive constructive behavior
evidence of deaf-ear syndrome and frustration (e.g. being quietly supportive and patient). Unlike
effects on employees utilizing informal voice passive voice as presented by Dyne et al., the
systems. Deaf-ear syndrome refers to the concept of loyalty here incorporates a private
organization‟s failure to respond to employees‟ support for the organization while remaining
complaints whereas frustration effects are defined optimistic for conditions to improve. Rusbult et
as a pattern of increased dissatisfaction with al. (1988) propose that loyalty is an attempt to
perceptions of unfairness (Harlos, 2001). In revive or maintain satisfactory employment
essence, Harlos (2001) found that voice complaint conditions. Their research provides support that
systems can foster exactly what they are intended loyalty is more apt to be used with employees who
to prevent. Thus, Hirshman said it best when he experience high levels of overall job satisfaction
said voice is “messy and full of heartbreak” (1970: and high prior satisfaction and with employees
107). who have high investment in their job (Rusbult et
Loyalty al., 1988).
According to Hirschman‟s concept of exit, In a revised model built on the behavior of
voice, and loyalty, the behaviors of exit and voice business firms in the Polish economy in the late
are moderated by an employee‟s loyalty (1970). 1970‟s, Kolarska and Aldrich (1980) introduce the
His theory suggests that loyal people are less concept of silence in place of loyalty. The
likely to exit and more likely to use voice to framework behind this model is that doing nothing
change the relationship or wait patiently until the is the most common response by dissatisfied
situation improves. The concept of loyalty, employees because it is the path of least resistance
according to Hirshman (1970), is predominately (Kolarska & Aldrich, 1980). Reasons for doing
portrayed as an attitude that affects the use of exit nothing could include feelings of loyalty, apathy,
or voice, but other times loyalty is described as a withdrawal, or contentment (Kolarska & Aldrich,
behavior in which employees act to support the 1980). This model, therefore, supports the theory
organization. This dual concept of loyalty has that loyalty is built into a separate construct but is
resulted in minor controversy among researchers, not a direct behavioral response to feelings of
as some have conceptualized loyalty as an attitude discontentment. In conclusion, Kolarska and
while others have interpreted it as a distinct Aldrich (1980) suggest that staying silently and
behavioral response (Saunders, 1992). Therefore, doing nothing is the standard against what
researchers and theorists have worked to enhance authorities judge other responses of dissatisfaction.
or refine Hirschman‟s concept of loyalty due in no Graham and Keeley (1992) also argue that
small part to the fact that it is the most elusive of loyalty is an attitude that yields behavioral
the three concepts. consequences and they introduce three types of
Barry (1974) argues that Hirshman‟s concept loyalty: unconscious, passive, and reformist.
of loyalty is poorly developed and only holds Unconscious loyalty is a term supported by
credit in regards to „brand loyalty‟ (i.e. the Hirschman and could be the result of inattention,
unwillingness of a customer to switch from one selective perception, or total ignorance (Graham &
brand of product to another). Barry (1974) Keeley, 1992). Passive loyalty most closely
negates Hirshman‟s concept of loyalty as an resembles patience or the length of time members
attitude, claiming that loyalty does not typically will passively wait for improvement, and reformist
mean a reluctance to leave but is more so a loyalty leads to organizational change as
 Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 7

participants become increasingly active in the act of intentionally withholding ideas,

pressuring the organization (Graham & Keeley, information and opinions which could lead to
1992). Graham and Keeley (1992) note that improvements in an organization. As previously
empirical research can help determine the noted in the discussion involving employee voice,
antecedents and consequences of loyalty and the Van Dyne and colleagues presented three types of
multiple roles loyalty can play in relation to voice, employee voice and employee silence. Mirroring
however, it cannot determine which conceptual employee voice, the three types of employee
interpretation of loyalty is correct. silence are: acquiescent silence, defensive silence,
One suggestion to eliminate the confusion and prosocial silence (Van Dyne et al., 2003).
between loyalty as an attitude or a behavioral Only one of these presented constructs, however,
outcome is presented by Leck and Saunders fits the framework of neglect. Defensive silence
(1992). They propose use of the term “patience” and prosocial silence are based on proactive
in replace of loyalty as a behavior. Leck and behavior due to fear or cooperation, whereas
Saunders (1992) argue that Hirschman acquiescent silence, that which fits the mold of
predominately described loyalty as an attitude, neglect, is based on employees feeling unable to
thus the rationale to change the concept of loyalty make a difference and is considered a passive
as a behavior was appropriate to better distinguish behavior (Van Dyne et al., 2003). Examples of
the two concepts. Additionally, they suggest acquiescent silence include withholding ideas
patience better describes the construct of loyalty, based on resignation, or not expressing opinions
and disentangles the cause (loyalty as attitude) due to low self-efficacy to make a difference (Van
from the effect (patience as behavior) (Leck & Dyne et al., 2003). Neglect in the form of silence
Saunders, 1992). However, this concept of has also been supported by Farrell (1983) as
patience has not been incorporated in further emphasized in a multidimensional scaling study
research and ultimately has not bridged the gap that notes silence is a key characteristic of neglect
into an accepted formal definition. and inaction.
The categories in the Exit-Voice-Loyalty-
Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect Neglect (EVLN) model as presented by Farrell
As evident, the concepts of exit, voice, and differ among two primary dimensions:
loyalty have been interpreted by theorists and constructiveness versus destructiveness, and
researchers across various perspectives, however, activity versus passivity (Farrell & Rusbult, 1992).
none have had such an impact on the framework As evident in Figure 3, voice and loyalty are
of the model as Farrell‟s inclusion of the concept constructive reactions, and exit and neglect are
of neglect. Neglect, as adapted from a study destructive reactions; whereas exit and voice are
involving romantic relationships, is described as a active reactions, and neglect and loyalty are
lax and disregardful behavior among workers passive reactions. Constructive reactions are
(Farrell, 1983). Neglect differs from loyalty in defined as attempts to maintain or revive
that it is not derived from the hope of recovery; satisfactory working conditions and in contrast,
instead there is an implicit acceptance that destructive reactions can impede employee-
recovery is not plausible (Withey & Cooper, organization relationships (Farrell & Rusbult,
1989). Neglect is evident in work settings as very 1992).
passive or moderately passive responses, such as
when an employee exhibits reduced interest or EMPIRICAL RESEARCH: PREDICTING
effort, increased lateness or absenteeism, increased EXIT, VOICE, LOYALTY AND NEGLECT
errors, or uses company time for personal business In the continued analysis of the EVLN model,
(Farrell, 1983). Rusbult et al. (1988) examined the effects of job
The belief that neglect can be exceedingly satisfaction, investment size, and quality of
passive and will lead to reduced interest or effort, alternatives on each of the four categories. They
lends support to the idea that neglect can also be hoped to determine under what circumstances
evident in the concept of silence. Silence, employees would engage in exit, voice, loyalty or
according to Van Dyne et al. (2003), is defined as neglect based on three complementary studies.
 Vangel – Responses to Employee Dissatisfaction 8

FIGURE 3 (Rusbult et al., 1988). One interesting thing to

Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect Typology note was the difference in results for men and
o of Responses to Job Dissatisfaction women. Men engaged in voice as predicted, when
investment and satisfaction were high, whereas
women engaged in voice under these same
circumstances but also when it was perceived that
they had nothing to lose, when investment and
satisfaction were low (Rusbult et al., 1988). The
third study in this research showed evidence that
men engage in higher levels of neglect than
women (Rusbult et al., 1988). This difference in
reaction between men and women warrants further
research to better determine if gender plays a role
in predicting dissatisfaction behaviors.
Farrell and Rusbult (1992) continued the
analysis of job satisfaction, quality of alternatives,
and investment size in influencing the reactions of
The first sponses to Job Dissatisfaction
study examined causal impact of the exit, voice, loyalty and neglect in a meta-analysis
category responses to dissatisfaction; the second of five studies designed to test current theories.
study explored the effects of job satisfaction, Each predictor (i.e. job satisfaction, quality of
investment size, and quality of alternatives alternatives, and investment size) was associated
towards each of the four categories in the EVLN with hypotheses regarding all four responses to
model as well as tested for predictions among dissatisfaction, resulting in 12 theory predictions
employees; and the final study focused on the (Farrell & Rusbult, 1992). In an effort to enhance
causal impact of the categories in an experimental validity, the five studies employed multiple
setting (Rusbult et al., 1988). These three studies methodologies including survey research,
consisted of different methodologies and laboratory experimentation and longitudinal
measurements to increase construct validity and investigation (Farrell & Rusbult, 1992).
external validity. The results supported the The results of these studies show support that
theories proposed: that high job satisfaction overall job satisfaction is consistently associated
promoted constructive voice and loyalty responses with each behavioral response to dissatisfaction,
and inhibited destructive exit and neglect and that quality of job alternatives and employee
responses, that high levels of investment investment can have an effect on the mode of
encouraged voice and loyalty responses and response to dissatisfaction (Farrell & Rusbult,
inhibited exit and neglect, and that high quality 1992). In particular, high levels of job satisfaction
alternatives encouraged active exit and voice supported constructive tendencies (i.e. voice and
responses and inhibited loyalty (Rusbult et al., loyalty) and reduced destructive tendencies (i.e.
1988). However, there was no significant link exit and neglect), superior job alternatives
evident in the results between the quality of supported active tendencies (i.e. exit and voice),
alternatives and the response of neglect (Rusbult et and greater employee investment appears to
al, 1988). promote constructive tendencies (i.e. voice and
Analysis of the Rusbult et al.(1988) study loyalty) (Farrell & Rusbult, 1992). A summary of
shows that in all three studies, investment size their findings can be found in Table 2.
interacted along with satisfaction in influencing Analysis of the Farrell and Rusbult study
voice, and in particular, high investment size presents two theoretical predictions that were not
coupled with high satisfaction most often resulted supported by the results: (1) poor quality of
in voice. It is suggested that perhaps voice is only alternatives would promote loyalty behaviors and,
used when employees are highly motivated to (2) high levels of employee investment would
improve conditions because the use of voice may inhibit the tendency to exit (Farrell & Rusbult,
be regarded as a difficult and costly action 1992).
 TABLE 2
Summary of Findings: Farrell and Rusbult, 1992

Job Satisfaction (JS) Quality of Alternatives (QA) Investment Size (IS)

Exit Greater JS reduced tendencies of exit Superior QA more likely to exit No evident relationship
Voice Greater JS increased tendencies of voice Superior QA more likely to voice Greater IS promotes voice
Loyalty Greater JS increased tendencies of loyalty No evident relationship Greater IS promotes loyalty
Neglect Greater JS reduced tendencies of neglect Superior QA less likely to neglect Greater IS inhibits neglect

The hypothesis of loyalty in relation to quality Research conducted by Withey and Cooper
of alternatives was derived from the presumption (1989) compared the results of two longitudinal
that employees with low mobility were apt to studies in regards to the EVLN model and three
passively and optimistically wait for conditions to predictor variables: the cost of the action, the
improve, however, there was weak or no support efficacy of the action, and the attractiveness of the
for this based on the results; and suggestions were setting in which the action occurs. The cost of the
made for future research to assess multiple action related to both direct and indirect costs such
variables including organizational commitment as time and energy, lost income and benefits, lost
and direct turnover intentions (Farrell & Rusbult, skills, loss of reputation and other emotional costs
1992). The hypothesis of exit in relation to (Withey & Cooper, 1989). Cost of action was
employee investment was based on prior research then refined to voice costs (i.e. the effort required
indicating a negative relationship, however, there to bring about change and the likelihood of
was weak or no support for this based on the punitive response) and exit costs (i.e. skill
results; and suggestions were made for future specificity, sunk costs, and investment) (Withey &
research in determining a potential curvilinear Cooper, 1989). Skill specificity refers to those
relationship where exit behaviors just shy of actual skills learned on the job which are nontransferable,
turnover may be promoted with increased sunk costs refers to the economic losses due to
investment size but actual turnover is inhibited by turnover, and investment refers to the extent of
high investment (Farrell & Rusbult, 1992). which a person has devoted a part of themselves to
Further discussion presented in the Farrell and the job. The efficacy of the action related to prior
Rusbult (1992) study stresses the importance of satisfaction, possibility of improvement, and locus
increasing employee satisfaction to promote of control (i.e. an individual‟s belief that his or her
desirable employee behaviors. The findings also actions matter); and the attractiveness of the
suggest the importance of organizational setting refers to commitment and alternatives
interventions to promote greater employee- (Withey & Cooper, 1989). Using longitudinal
organization relationships, which again act to data from respondents in a sample of 1,000
promote desirable employee behaviors (Farrell & randomly selected college graduates, Withey and
Rusbult, 1992). Additionally, it is proposed that in Cooper (1989) tested predictions to data from a
organizational settings with labor markets that are smaller sample to assess external validity.
favorable to employees, employee reactions to Additionally, semi-structured interviews,
dissatisfaction may be volatile based on active supervisory ratings, and access to company
attempts to change or destroy the employee- records were obtained in order to assess construct
organization relationship (Farrell & Rusbult, validity of EVLN responses (Withey & Cooper,
1992). This could lead to the belief that during 1989).
times of tight and competitive labor markets, The results of the Withey and Cooper (1989)
employee reactions may be passive and could study provides support that exit is the most
result in behaviors of loyalty and neglect. Further consistently predicted response. Employees are
research is needed to support or refute these apt to turnover, or take steps towards exiting,
theories. when exit costs are low and voice costs are high,
when satisfaction and the possibility of

© Kristine Vangel, 2011

 Vangel – Responses to Employee Dissatisfaction 10

improvement are low, when commitment is low, employees will then choose one of the remaining
and when there are more attractive alternatives three behavioral responses with the availability of
(Withey & Cooper, 1989). Analysis of these another job playing a key role in their decision
results shows that the economic costs of exit (Withey & Cooper, 1989). The second sequence
increase loyalty and neglect, and reduce exit; starts with loyalty and if nothing changes, the next
whereas psychological costs not only reduce exit response is voice. If voice is also not successful,
but also reduce loyalty and neglect. This could the employee then resorts to either exit or neglect,
lead to the belief that economic costs entrap again with the availability of another job playing a
people in their jobs, and psychological costs might key role in their decision (Withey & Cooper,
act to engage employees in their job (Withey & 1989). Additionally, the study also supported the
Cooper, 1989). Additionally, people are more idea that exit and neglect are related as evident by
prone to turnover when they are pulled out by a positive correlation between the two variables,
attractive alternatives, or pushed out by suggesting that neglect could be seen as a
dissatisfying conditions. precursor to exit (Withey & Cooper, 1989).
Voice was the hardest variable to predict in Further research is suggested in supporting these
this study due to measurement difficulties and theories.
conceptual problems (Withey & Cooper, 1989). In evaluating the response of exit, voice and
In particular, the researchers noted a reliance of a loyalty in standard and nonstandard employment
response to voice is, in essence, required by those settings, Davis-Blake, Broschak, and George
exercising voice. Withey and Cooper (1989) (2003) suggested that job insecurity as a form of
suggest future research in regards to the extent dissatisfaction can evoke ENLN responses.
employees are protected, beliefs about vocal Berntson, Näswall, and Sverke (2010) sought to
reaction, and interpersonal barriers of voice to refine this theory by investigating the role of
truly determine a predictor of voice. employability and job insecurity in moderating
The results of this study also show that exit, voice, loyalty and neglect. The results show
loyalists are affected by prior satisfaction, that job insecurity has a major effect on exit, voice
possibility of improvement and locus of control; and loyalty, but not on neglect (Berntson et al,
and neglectors are affected by cost of action and 2010). In particular, Berntson et al. (2010)
efficacy of response (Withey & Cooper, 1989). indicate that employees who experience high
Withey and Cooper (1989) noted that during the employability (i.e. an individual‟s perception of
course of their study, the concept of loyalty began viability in the labor market) show a higher
to shift from quiet support to something that intention to exit, less use of voice, and lower
closely mirrored the action of neglecters, levels of loyalty. Analysis of these results
employees just biding their time who were suggests that insecure, employable individuals
ultimately entrapped. In fact, the results show that tend to focus on their own career path as opposed
many of the same variables that predicted loyalty to general involvement in the organization
also predicted neglect (Withey & Cooper, 1989). (Berntson et al, 2010). In contrast, employees
Withey & Cooper (1989) acknowledge the who report low employability but also suffer from
possibility of their inability to detect loyalty, but job insecurity may show a greater loyalty to the
also propose that perhaps employees who do not organization.
choose to exit are left with two choices instead of Empirical research on the EVLN model is not
three: people can work to change the situation restricted to workplace behavior. As previously
(voice) or become silent (loyalty shading to mentioned, the concept of neglect was identified in
neglect). a multidimensional scaling study investigating the
Further analysis of the Withey and Cooper behavioral responses of dissatisfaction in ongoing,
(1989) study shows possible sequences of adult romantic involvements (Rusbult &
behaviors suggesting the four responses in the Zembrodt, 1983). Further research by Rusbult,
EVLN model are not independent but are related. Zembrodt, and Gunn (1982) in relation to romantic
The first sequence begins with voice, and when involvements supports the prediction that when
voice does not act to solve the dissatisfaction, prior satisfaction is high and/or when investment
 Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 11

size in increased, voice and loyalty are probable; and beliefs of organizational members (Denison,
also, lower levels of investment will inspire exit or 1996). However, not all research adopts these
neglect responses. The results also indicate that definitions. Therefore, semantics aside, because
when more attractive alternatives exist, exit the antecedents of EVLN behavior that could
behaviors are promoted and loyalist behavior is logically affect employee response to
inhibited (Rusbult et al., 1982). These results are dissatisfaction may have its roots in culture or
in agreement with subsequent research on climate, this paper acknowledges the discrepancy
workplace dissatisfaction behaviors as previously of paradigm but focuses towards a bigger picture
mentioned. where either construct is valid.
Further research on the determinants and Two proposed concepts of organizational
consequences of the EVLN model in adult culture come from Walton‟s (1991) analysis of
romantic involvements show support that management work-force strategies. Walton (1991)
problems of greater severity can encourage active proposed control and commitment based strategies
responses (i.e. exit and voice) and discourage that vary in regards to job design principles,
loyalty behaviors (Rusbult, Johnson, & Morrow, performance expectations, organization structure
1986). This research also finds that behavioral and style, compensation policies, employment
responses of voice and loyalty resulted in more assurance, employee voice policies, and labor-
favorable outcomes and greater evidence of management relations. Walton (1991) noted
satisfaction and commitment later in the different behavioral and outcome responses to the
relationship (Rusbult, Johnson, & Morrow, 1986). two strategies. In particular, as Walton (1991)
Severity of problems and consequences of EVLN points out, the benefits of a commitment oriented
behavior, although touched upon briefly in atmosphere can boost product quality, cut waste,
empirical research with some preliminary findings, reduce turnover, and promote the development of
has not been narrowly duplicated in workplace skills and employee self-esteem.
dissatisfaction research to date. Further research is The basis of a control oriented atmosphere,
recommended to determine if parallels also exist according to Walton (1991), is structured by a top-
for consequences of EVLN behavior and severity down allocation of authority which strives to
of the problem; as they do for other determinates establish order, exercise control, and achieve
such as satisfaction, investment size and productivity and efficiency in the application of
alternatives. the work force. The basis of a commitment
oriented atmosphere is structured with relatively
Workplace Climate/Organizational Culture flat hierarchies which promote job security and are
“The environment has long been recognized as founded on the belief that employee commitment
a source of influence on the individual‟s behavior leads to enhanced performance (Walton, 1991).
(Downey, Hellrigrel, & Slocum, Jr., 1975: 149).” Walton (1991) suggests a current transition
In the past, organizational climate has been happening, and has been happening, from a
defined as an individual‟s perception of his or her control based workforce towards a commitment
work environment (Downey et al., 1975). More based workforce, but also notes that most
recently, organizational climate has been viewed organizations adopt what is termed a transitional
as a multidimensional construct that is influenced stage approach (i.e. a comprehensive version of a
by organizational characteristics such as commitment based workforce). Walton (1991)
leadership style and job activities (Batlis, 1980). alludes to the fact that commitment based
Debate has spurned over the years in regards to the strategies increase job satisfaction and
differences in terminology between organizational organizational commitment, but research is not
climate and organizational culture. It has been provided to confirm or deny these beliefs.
suggested that organizational climate refers to a Research conducted by Downey et al. (1975)
situation and its link to thoughts and behaviors of found significant support that organizational
employees, whereas organizational culture refers climate interacts with an individual‟s personality
to an evolved context within which a situation is in predicting job satisfaction. Studies have also
embedded and is ultimately rooted in the values shown that culture can affect decision-making
 Vangel – Responses to Employee Dissatisfaction 12

processes which help to guide and shape behavior on voice system failures show support for the fact
(Smircich, 1983). Additionally, recent research that if an organization is not supportive and will
has suggested that costs associated with EVLN not act on employee concerns, then individuals
behaviors are a function of the organizational will not engage in voice responses (Wilkinson,
climate (Goldberg, Clark & Henley, 2011). Dundon, Marchington, & Ackers, 2004).
Researchers have also indicated that the decision Furthermore, it has been suggested that the
to express certain behavioral responses of decision to engage in vocal responses are
dissatisfaction can hinge on perceived safety and influenced by the climate (i.e. perception) in
acceptance of ideas (Van Dyne et al., 2003). regards to choosing collective or individual voice
These perceptions all speak to organizational forums (Goldberg et al., 2001). Therefore, it can
climate. The question that then comes to mind is: be theorized, that organizational climate does
to what extent does organizational climate affect directly impact the decision to express EVLN
job satisfaction and organizational commitment? responses.
Lok and Crawford (2001), through empirical
research investigating the relationship between Organizational Climate Effects on EVLN
perceptions of organizational culture, job Responses
satisfaction and commitment; found that To determine the effects of organizational
subculture has a greater influence on commitment climate on exit, voice, loyalty and neglect, a clear
than organizational culture. Subcultures are construct of organizational climates must be
defined as smaller clusters of values, beliefs and developed. For the purpose of this paper, we
attributes which exist independent of adopt Walton‟s (1991) concept of control and
organizational culture and are typically found in commitment based workplaces and integrate Lok
departmental designations (Lok & Crawford, and Crawford‟s (2001) three-pronged model of
2001). It is important to note that the subculture bureaucratic, innovative and supportive cultures to
of a group can include core values found in the result in three potential organizational cultures:
organizational culture. Three particular types of authoritative, receptive, and progressive. An
culture were identified in this study: bureaucratic authoritative climate includes control and
(e.g. power-oriented and regulated), innovative bureaucratic principles, and is defined as having a
(e.g. creative and challenging), and supportive hierarchal atmosphere where management is
(e.g. sociable and relationship-oriented). Lok and commanding and compliance is absolute. A
Crawford‟s (2001) results show that innovative receptive climate includes commitment and
subcultures had strong positive effects on supportive principles, and is defined as having
commitment, while bureaucratic subcultures had more of an egalitarian structure where problem
negative effects on commitment. Supportive solving is emphasized through collaboration. A
subcultures, although originally displaying progressive climate includes innovative concepts
positively correlated results with commitment, did with a moderate reliance on control and
not have significant effects on commitment after transformation forces. Progressive climates are
having controlled for other independent variables defined as emphasizing and expecting progress
(Lok & Crawford, 2001). through team-structured workplaces, where
Analysis of these results suggest that factors management dominates and focus is placed on
such as hierarchical decision making, autocratic pioneering skills with challenging objectives.
work environments, and restricted employee Before presenting an analysis of empirical
empowerment will negatively impact employee research on EVLN responses to each of these three
commitment (Lok & Crawford, 2001). Thus, proposed organizational cultures, let us first
organizational climate does in some respect have provide an overview of the empirical research
an indirect impact in the dissatisfaction process for previously examined in this paper. Rusbult et al.
employees, but does organizational climate have a (1988) and Farrell and Rusbult (1992) look at the
direct impact on the behavior responses of those effects of job satisfaction, quality of alternatives,
employees experiencing dissatisfaction? The and investment size on EVLN responses. The
research would indicate yes. Literature focusing combined results of these two studies are: high job
 Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 13

satisfaction will increase constructive behavior authoritative climates and when not plausible,
(i.e. voice and loyalty) and inhibit destructive neglect is seen as a secondary response.
behavior (i.e. exit and neglect), high levels of Receptive climates, however, are more
investment will encourage voice and loyalty and suitable for employees to experience high levels of
inhibit neglect, and high quality of alternatives job satisfaction, low quality of alternatives, high
will promote active behaviors (i.e. exit and voice) investments, low voice costs, high efficacy of
(Rusbult et al, 1988; Rusbult & Farrell, 1992). action, and greater commitment. The
Withey & Cooper (1989) suggest that exit is apt to collaboration between management and employees
occur when exit costs are low, voice costs are will likely foster the belief that employee opinion
high, satisfaction and chance of improvement are is valued, resulting in increased employee
low, commitment is low, and attractive investment and commitment. Thus, it is proposed
alternatives are available; additionally, they note that during times of dissatisfaction, employees are
that psychological costs can reduce the behaviors most likely to engage in behavioral responses of
of exit, loyalty and neglect. Withey & Cooper voice and loyalty. In particular, high investments
(1989) also present possible sequencing of and high satisfaction will most greatly produce a
behaviors including voice leading to ELN response of voice (Rusbult et al, 1988).
responses, and loyalty leading to voice which in Considering Withey & Cooper‟s (1989)
turn leads to exit or neglect. Finally, Berntson et sequencing concept, employees who engage in
al. (2010) note that employees with low job voice but do not have their needs met and
security and low employability are likely to dissatisfaction continues, will then resort to other
experience high loyalty, whereas employees who responses. Due to the high levels of commitment
consider themselves as having high employability and efficacy of action in receptive climates, it is
are more apt to exit, less likely to use voice, and presumed that when voice is not met, it will
will have lower levels of loyalty. These transition to the passive response of loyalty, where
antecedents of EVLN responses are now employees will wait out the suffering conditions
incorporated into authoritative, receptive, and for future improvement (Withey & Cooper, 1989;
progressive climates. Rusbult et al, 1988; Farrel & Rusbult, 1992).
Based on the principles of authoritative Therefore, voice is seen as the primary response in
climates, it is proposed that employees will receptive climates and when voice is not met,
experience lower levels of job satisfaction, lowers loyalty is seen as a secondary response.
levels of investment, higher levels of quality of Progressive climates are likely to result in
alternatives, high voice costs, lower commitment, employees experiencing high levels of job
and low job security. The relationship between satisfaction, moderate to low quality of
management and employees is likely to leave alternatives, high investments, moderate to high
employees feeling that they are easily expendable, voice costs, high commitment, moderate job
resulting in a detached work ethic. Thus, these insecurity, and high levels of employability.
factors would suggest that employees are most apt Although team work is emphasized in progressive
to engage in the behavioral response of exit when climates, goals and innovation rule the foundation
experiencing dissatisfaction. However, if between management expectations and employees;
employability is low or the labor market is tight, therefore, employees are apt to experience high
employee reactions may be passive and could levels of investment and satisfaction due to their
result in behaviors of loyalty and neglect (Farrell contribution and performance in the organizations
& Rusbult, 1992; Withey & Cooper, 1989). Due success, but fear of failure and reprisal may
to the authoritative climate and regulatory increase voice costs and lower job security. Thus,
atmosphere of the workplace environment, and the these factors would suggest that employees are
probably that employee investment is low; it is most apt to engage in the behavioral response of
proposed that when exit is not appealing to loyalty when first experiencing dissatisfaction.
employees they will be most apt to respond with High satisfaction and high investment has resulted
behaviors of neglect in these environments. in actions of loyalty and voice in empirical
Therefore, exit is seen as the initial response in research (Farrell & Rusbult, 1992; Rusbult et al.,
 Vangel – Responses to Employee Dissatisfaction 14

1988). However, because voice costs may be experience can potentially filter organizational
considered high, employees in progressive climate differently for each employee. Gender
climates are most apt to respond to dissatisfaction effects may also play a role in the dissatisfaction
through means of loyalty. If conditions do not process as evident in the research conducted by
improve once loyalty exceeds its usefulness, it is Rusbult et al. (1986) on romantic relationships.
proposed that employees are then likely to engage However, this paper assumes that in general,
in the response of exit. This is due to the support employees are prone to respond to their
of empirical research finding exit responses environment in similar ways.
increase when employability is high, voice costs At this point, let us revisit the proposed model
are high, and attractive alternatives exist (Withey of this paper. We proposed that organizational
& Cooper, 1989; Berntson et al, 2010). Therefore, climate would have an effect on an employee‟s
loyalty is seen as the initial response in expressed behavior of dissatisfaction. Although
progressive climates and when conditions do not we still support this theory, we now include that
improve, exit is seen as a secondary response. organizational climate also has an effect on an
employee‟s commitment. This is due to Lok and
CONCLUSION Crawford‟s (2001) finding that subcultures can
Empirical research is required in supporting have positive and negative effects on commitment.
these proposed hypotheses. It should be noted, Therefore, it is suggested that organizational
however, that not all employees are prone to act climate can have multi-level effects on the
the same in response to dissatisfaction for each dissatisfaction process. The revised model is
individual is different, and exit costs and portrayed in Figure 4.
psychological costs can vary. Additionally,
climate is perceptive, so although an
organization‟s culture may be definable, personal

FIGURE 4
Revised Job Dissatisfaction Process in Expressing Behavior
Organizational
Climate

Stay
Job Membership Decision to engage in Expressed
Dissatisfaction Leave dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
behavior (voice, Behavior
loyalty, neglect)

Commitment Consequence

Organizational
Climate

It should also be addressed that the behaviors such as accidents and sabotage, have also been
of exit, voice, loyalty and neglect may not suggested as responses to dissatisfaction and are
necessarily represent the exclusive behavior not inclusive to the EVLN model (Farrell, 1983).
reactions of dissatisfaction. Unusual behaviors, Organizational cynicism has also been proposed as
 Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 15

an alternative response to employee dissatisfaction Blau, P.M., Gustad, J.W., Jessor, R., Parnes, H.S.,
(Naus, van Iterson, & Roe, 2007). Organizational & Wilcox R.C. Occupational Choice: A
cynicism is defined as a negative attitude towards Conceptual Framework. Industrial and Labor
the organization based on belief, affect, and Relations Review, 1956, 8, 531-543.
behavior (Naus et al., 2007). Further research is
Bowling, N.A., Hendricks, E. A., & Wagner, S. H.
required to determine potential effects and
Positive and negative affectivity and facet
antecedents of organizational cynicism.
satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of
In conclusion, understanding predictors and Business and Psychology, 2008, 23, 115–125.
outcomes of the dissatisfaction process can allow
organizations to better manage desired results. Brown, S.P., & Peterson, R.A. Antecedents and
Turnover rates, employee surveys, and awareness Consequences of Salesperson Job Satisfaction:
of EVLN behaviors are examples in which Meta-Analysis and Assessment of Causal
organizations can determine dissatisfaction. Effects. Journal of Marketing Research, 1993,
Although companies do not strive to create 30, 63-77.
dissatisfaction, it is a reality for some employees Camp, S.D. Assessing the Effects of
and researchers suggest coherent organizational Organizational Commitment and Job
practices that highlight integrity to promote Satisfaction on Turnover: An Event History
employees to stay as members and remain Approach. The Prison Journal, 1993, 74, 279-
involved (Naus, et al., 2007). For example, since 305.
loyalty has been shown to promote constructive
responses and deter destructive responses, it would Christen, M., Iyer, G., & Soberman, D. Job
be wise for organizations to uphold procedures Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Effort: A
and policies that foster a sense of loyalty among Reexamination Using Agency Theory. Journal
their employees (Leck & Saunders, 1992). Walton of Marketing, 2006, 70, 137-150.
(1991) suggested a transformation to commitment Davis-Blacke, A., Broschak, J.P., & George E.
based workplaces to positively influence Happy Together? How Using Nonstandard
satisfaction, absenteeism, turnover and safety. Workers Affects Exit, Voice, and Loyalty
Although a number of promising areas for further Among Standard Employees. Academy of
research have already been suggested, we stress Management Journal, 2003, 46, 475-485
the need for additional research in regards to the
outcomes of dissatisfaction responses to promote a Denison, D.R. What is the Difference Between
better understanding of the relationship between Organizational Culture and Organizational
the workplace and employees, and determine a Climate? A Native‟s Point of View on a
way to forge organizational success and Decade of Paradigm Wars. Academy of
accomplishment. Management Review,1996, 21, 619-654.
Downey, H.K., Hellriegel, D., & Slocum Jr., J.W.
REFERENCES Congruence Between Individual Needs,
Avery, D. R., McKay, P. F., Wilson, D. C., Organizational Climate, Job Satisfaction and
Volpone, S. D. and Killham, E. A. Does voice Performance. Academy of Management
go flat? How tenure diminishes the impact of Journal, 1975, 149-155.
voice. Human Resource Management, 2011, Farndale, E., Van Ruiten, J., Kelliher, C., & Hope-
50, 147–158. Hailey, V. The influence of perceived
Barry, B. Review Article: Exit, Voice, and employee voice on organizational
Loyalty. British Journal of Political Science, commitment: An exchange perspective.
1974, 1, 79-107. Human Resource Management, 2011, 50, 113-
129.
Becker, H.S. Notes on the Concept of
Commitment. The American Journal of Farrell, D. Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect as
Sociology, 1960, 66, 32-42. Responses to Job Dissatisfaction: A
Multidimensional Scaling Study. The
 Vangel – Responses to Employee Dissatisfaction 16

Academy of Management Journal, 1983, 26, Organizational Behavior. Journal of Applied

596-607. Psychology, 1998, 83, 139-149.
Farrell, D.; & Rusbult, C.E. Exploring the Exit, Leck, J.D., & Saunders, D.M. Hirshman‟s
Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect Typology: The Loyalty: Attitude or Behavior? Employee
Influences of Job Satisfaction, Quality of Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 1992, 5,
Alternatives, and Investment Size. Employee 219-230.
Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 1992, 5,
Locke, E.A. The Nature and Causes of Job
201-218.
Satisfaction. In M.D. Dunnette (ed.),
Graham, J.W.; & Keeley, M. Hirschman‟s Loyalty Handbook of Industrial and Organizational
Construct. Employee Responsibilities and Psychology. Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1976.
Rights Journal, 1992, 5, 191-200.
Lok, P., & Crawford, J. Antecedents of
Goldberg, C.B., Clark, M.A., & Henley, A.B. Organizational Commitment and the
Speaking Up: A Conceptual Model of Voice Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction. Journal of
Responses Following the Unfair Treatment of Managerial Psychology, 2001, 16, 594-613.
Others in Non-Union Settings. Human
Mobley, W.H.; Griffeth, R.W.; Hand, H.H.; &
Resource Management, 2011, 50, 75-94.
Meglino, B.M. Review and Conceptual
Harlos, K. When Organizational Voice Systems Analysis of the Employee Turnover Process.
Fail: More on the Deaf-Ear Syndrome and Psychological Bulletin, 1979, 86, 493-522.
Frustration Effects. The Journal of Applied
Naus, F., van Iterson, A., & Roe, R.
Behavioral Science, 2001, 37, 324-342.
Organizational Cynicism: Extending the Exit,
Hirschman, A.O. Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect Model of
Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, Employees‟ Responses to Adverse Conditions
and States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard in the Workplace. Human Relations, 2007, 60,
University Press, 1970. 683-718.
Hom, P., & Griffeth, R. Structural Equations O‟Toole, J. & Lawler III, E.E. The New American
Modeling Test of a Turnover Theory: Cross- Workplace. New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
Sectional and Longitudinal Analysis. Journal 2006.
of Applied Psychology, 1991, 76, 350-366.
Porter, L.W; & Steers, R.W. Organizational,
Hom, P.W.; & Kinicki, A.J. Toward a Greater Work, and Personal Factors in Employee
Understanding of How Dissatisfaction Drives Turnover and Absenteeism. Psychological
Employee Turnover. The Academy of Bulletin, 1973, 80, 151-176.
Management Journal, 2001, 44, 975-987.
Reichers, A.E. A Review and Reconceptualization
Judge, A.T.; & Watanabe, S. Another Look at the of Organizational Commitment. Academy of
Job Satisfaction-Life Satisfaction Management Review, 1985, 10, 465-476.
Relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology,
Rusbult, C. E., Farrell, S., Rogers, G., & Mainous
1993, 78, 939-948.
III, A. G. Impact of Exchange Variables on
Kiesler, C.A. The Psychology of Commitment: Exit, Voice, Loyalty and Neglect: An
Experiments Linking Behavior to Belief. New Interactive Model of Responses to Declining
York: Academic Press, 1971. Job Satisfaction. The Academy of
Management Journal, 1988, 31, 599-627.
Kolarska, L., & Aldrich, H. Exit, Voice, and
Silence: Consumers‟ and Managers‟ Rusbult, C.E., Johnson, D.J. & Morrow, G.D.
Responses to Organizational Decline. Determinants and Consequences of Exit,
Organization Studies, 1980, 1, 41-58. Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect: Responses to
Dissatisfaction in Adult Romantic
Kossek, E., & Ozeki, C. Work-family Conflict,
Involvements. Human Relations, 1986, 39, 45-
Policies, and the Job-Life Satisfaction
63.
Relationship: A Review and Directions for
 Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Series 17

Rusbult, C.E., & Zembrodt, I. M. Responses to Republic of Ireland. The Journal of Industrial
Dissatisfaction in Romantic Involvements: A Relations, 2004, 46, 298-322.
Multidimensional Scaling Analysis. Journal of
Wilkinson,. A.; & Fay, C. Guest Editor‟s Note:
Experimental Social Psychology, 1983, 19,
New Times for Employee Voice? Human
274-293.
Resource Management, 2011, 50, 65-74.
Rusbult, C.E.; Zembrodt, I.M.; & Gunn, L.K. Exit,
Withey, M.J.; & Cooper, W.H. Predicting Exit,
Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect: Responses to
Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect. Administrative
Dissatisfaction in Romantic Involvements.
Science Quarterly, 1989, 34, 521-539.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
1982, 43, 1230-1242. Zhou, J.; & George, J.M. When Job
Dissatisfaction Leads to Creativity:
Saunders, D.M. Introduction to Research on
Encouraging the Expression of Voice. The
Hirschman‟s Exit, Voice, and Loyalty Model.
Academy of Management Journal, 2001, 44,
Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal,
682-696.
1992, 5, 187-190.
Scholl, R.W. Differentiating Organizational
Commitment from Expectancy as a
Motivating Force. Academy of Management
Review, 1981, 6, 589-599.
Smircich, L. Concepts of Culture and
Organizational Analysis. Administrative
Science Quarterly, 1983, 28, 339-358.
Steers, R.M. Antecedents and Outcomes of
Organizational Commitment. Administrative
Science Quarterly, 1977, 22, 46-56.
United States Department of Labor: Bureau of
Labor Statistics. 2011. Job Openings and
Labor Turnover.
http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/jolts.pdf
(Accessed April 2, 2011).
Van Dyne, L., & LePine, J.A. Helping and Voice
Extra-Role Behaviors: Evidence of Construct
and Predictive Validity. The Academy of
Management Journal, 1998, 41, 108-119.
Van Dyne, L., Ang, S., & Botero, I.C.
Conceptualizing Employee Silence and
Employee Voice as Multidimentional
Constructs. Journal of Management Studies,
2003, 40, 1359-1392.
Walton, R.E. From Control to Commitment in the
Workplace: In factory after factory, there is a
revolution under way in the management of
work. Harvard Business Review, 1985.
Wilkinson, A., Dundon, T., Marchington, M., &
Ackers, P. Changing Patterns of Employee
Voice: Case Studies from the UK and