3.

1 Cryogenic Fluid Mechanics

„ Fluid flow commonly occurs in most cryogenic systems

„ Refrigeration systems: gas cycles including flow through heat
exchangers
„ Fluid distribution systems: transfer lines, actively cooled thermal
shields
„ Natural and forced circulation systems for large devices (magnets)
„ Forced flow superconductors for large magnets
„ Cryogenic systems frequently experience a variety of fluid flow
conditions:
„ Single phase, subcooled liquid (incompressible)
„ Compressible fluid flow (gases)
„ Two phase flow (liquid + vapor co-existing)
„ Most fluid dynamics issues are “classical” in nature although
compressible and two phase flow are common

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 1

 Typical 1 D flow problem
.m
Δp
Elbow Contraction
Valve Orifice Q
.m flow meter

„
.
Input variables: m (mass flow rate), Q (heat load), inlet T & P
„ Physical dimensions: length (L), tube diameters, other components (flow
meters, valves, tube bends, etc.)
„ Output Variables: outlet pressure & temperature, phases
„ Fluid dynamics problem: determine the pressure drop (Δp) and adiabatic
temperature change under given conditions
„ Heat transfer problem: determine the temperature of the fluid and tube
wall for given heat transfer rate, Q. The heat transfer coefficient (h) vs.
flow conditions
„ In most cases, these two problems are coupled (i.e. must be solved
simultaneously)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 2

 One phase, incompressible flow
Hydraulic diameter
L ⎛1 2⎞ 4 A flow
„ Pressure drop: Δp = 4 f d ⎜ ρu ⎟ where Dh =
Dh ⎝ 2 ⎠ P

„ fd is the “Fanning Friction Factor”, which depends on Reynolds number:

Smooth tube correlations: ρuDh

Re D ≡
„ fd =
16
for laminar flow ReD < 2000 μ
Re D
0.0791
„
fd = 1 for turbulent flow 2000 < ReD < 10,000 (Blausius)
Re D4

„
1
fd
1
2
(
= 1.737 ln Re D f d
1
2 )− 0.396 for turbulent flow 10,000 < ReD
Von Karman-Nikuradse
Rough tubes: value depends on ratio (k/D = amplitude of roughness/diameter)
⎛ k 1.25 ⎞⎟
„ 1
= −4 log10 ⎜ + Colebrook correlation for Re > 10000 and
⎜ ⎟ rough tubes
fC ⎝ 3.7 D Re D f C ⎠
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 3
 Fanning Friction Factor
Note: Darcy friction factor (ME) = 4 x Fanning friction factor (ChE)

From: Bird, Stewart & Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena

Friction Factor (fd)

Reynolds number = ρuD/μ

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 4

 Loss coefficients for components
⎛1 2⎞ Similar to the tube pressure drop expression,
Δp = K ⎜ ρu ⎟ with “K” incorporating all hydraulic losses
⎝2 ⎠
„ Components
„ Valves
„ Elbows
„ Tees
„ Flow meters
„ Comparison to flow in
tube: K ~ 4f(L/Dh)
„ Equivalent length of
2” 90 elbow:
Leq ~ KD/4f
= 0.95x2/4x0.005
~ 100” (2.5 m)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 5

 Compressible fluid dynamics

„ Liquids are incompressible and in many cases one can approximate gas
flows with incompressible expressions assuming average properties.
When is this OK? (v/c << 1 and Δp/p << 1, ΔT/T << 1)
„ For some problems, it is necessary to include compressibility effects,
such that the the density, ρ = Function (p,T)

.
m

Q D
„ For example, as the heat is applied to the flow, the temperature will
increase resulting in an acceleration of the fluid.
„ Also, isenthalpic flow (Q = 0, W = 0) of real gases can increase (or
decrease) the temperature of the fluid (Joule-Thomson Effect)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 6

 Compressible fluid dynamics (cont.)

dp f d ⎛ 1 2 ⎞ 2 dρ
„ Pressure drop: = 4 ⎜ ρu ⎟ + u (1)
dx D ⎝2 ⎠ dx
friction acceleration
„ Density depends on T, p through the equation of state for the fluid.
These are related as: dρ dp dT
= ρκ + ρβ
dx dx dx
„ Since the pressure drop depends on u and dT/dx, we need a second
equation to solve for 1-D flow. That is the “Stagnation Enthalpy”:
ρuD ρuD
q=−
4
(C μ
p j +u κ
2
) dp
dx
+
4
(C p −u β
2
) dT
dx
(2)

1 ∂T ⎞
Where, μ j = − ⎟⎟ is the Joule-Thomson coefficient
C p ∂p ⎠ h
Equs. (1) and (2) are simultaneous equations with unknowns T & p
V. Arp, Adv. in Cryo Engn. Vol 17, 342 (1972)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 7

 Simultaneous solution of fluid equations

„ Separation of the two simultaneous equations yields,

dp − 2 f d G ρD + 4qGβ ρD C p − u β
=
2 2
( ) (1’)
dx ( )
1 − G 2 ρ (κ + βφ )

=
2
(
dT 4q GD C p − u β − 2 f d G φ ρD
2
)
dx (
1 − G 2 ρ (κ + βφ ) ) (2’)

Where we have defined the parameter,

μ j C p + u 2κ m&
φ= and G≡
Cp − u2β A
Note that the dominant term in Eq. (1’) is the friction (2fG2/ρD)
and in Eq. (2’) is the enthalpy flux (4q/GDCp)
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 8
 Approximate solution for sub-sonic flow
„ For nearly ideal gases, κ ~ p-1 and β ~ -T-1 and for relatively slow velocity,
u << c (sound speed) the above two equations simplify,

dp 2G 2 f d 4qGβ
≈− + (1”)
dx ρD ρDC p
dT 4q 2 fdG2
≈ − μj
dx GDC p ρD (2”)

„ It is straightforward to prepare a program to calculate dp/dx and dT/dx

in a 1-D channel containing a compressible fluid of known properties
„ Note that the 2nd term in the dp/dx equation (acceleration) has the effect
of increasing the pressure gradient relative to the incompressible form
(note that β is negative)
„ The 2nd term in the dT/dx equation (isenthalpic expansion) can either
increase or decrease the gradient relative to the incompressible solution
depending on the magnitude and sign of μj (κ is positive)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 9

 Example: Compressible flow in a tube (1)

Supercritical helium
„ Tube length = 500 m
„ D = 4.8 mm
„ m_dot = 0.98 gm/s
„ Q = 0.074 W/m
„ Solid lines are
computed using
compressible fluid
mechanics
„ f = 0.007

Note: this value of f was used to best

fit the data and is slightly different
J.W. Dean, et al, Adv. Cryog. Engn. 23, 250 (1978)
from value predicted from correlation.

To compare to incompressible solution, choose average values for T & p. 10

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010
 Example: Compressible flow in a tube (2)

„ Length = 500 m
„ D = 4.8 mm
„ m_dot = 3 gm/s
„ Q = 0.062 W/m
„ Solid lines are
computed using
compressible fluid
mechanics
„ f = 0.005

Example

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 11

 Two phase flow

„ Two-phase flow is an important topic in cryogenics since the liquids

are volatile and are commonly distributed near saturation
conditions
„ Two-phase flow is a difficult problem as there are many variables
that affect it:
„ Mass flow
„ Pressure & temperature relative to saturation
„ Gravity, system configuration
„ Heat transfer, rate of phase change
„ This is mostly an empirical subject due to its complexity
„ Numerous two-phase flow models exist, although much of this work
has been carried out on conventional fluids (water/steam,
water/air)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 12

 Flow Regimes (Baker)

All these flow regimes may occur in a horizontal pipe flow. The
actual flow regime will depend on fluid velocities and properties.
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 13
 Baker plot for air-water system

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 14

 Two-phase flow definitions

1. Void Fraction (α): Ratio of the local vapor volume to the total flow
volume
Av
α=
Al + Av

2. Flow Quality (χ): Ratio of the vapor mass flow rate to the total
mass flow rate
m& v
χ=
m& l + m& v
3. Slip Ratio (S): ratio of the vapor to liquid velocity

uv ⎛ χ ⎞⎛ 1 − α ⎞⎛ ρ l ⎞
S = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ul ⎝ 1 − χ ⎠⎝ α ⎠⎝ ρ v ⎠

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 15

 Pressure drop in two phase flow

ΔpT = Δp gr + Δpa + Δp f
h
„ Due to change in elevation (h): Δp gr = − g ∫ ρ dx
0
„ Acceleration of the fluid stream:

Δp a = G ⎢
⎡ χ 2
+
1(− χ 2
)
⎤ ⎡ χ 2
1 − χ 2
(⎤ )
⎥ −G ⎢ +
2 2
⎥
αρ
⎣ v (1 − α )ρ l ⎦1 αρ
⎣ v (1 − α )ρ l ⎦2

„ Friction pressure drop depends on model for flow regime:

(dp dx )2φ
Define the two phase friction multiplier: φ ≡ 2
l
(dp dx )l

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 16

 Homogeneous two phase flow model

„ Assumptions (mixed flow model):

„ S = 1; i.e. the liquid and vapor velocities are equal
„ Thermodynamic equilibrium exists between the two phases
„ The friction contribution to the pressure drop reduces to the
standard expression for each phase
„ Model works most effectively for helium at high Reynolds number
(ρv/ρl is typ. ~ 0.1)
L ⎛1 2⎞
Δp = 4 f d ⎜ ρu ⎟ where fd is given by an appropriate correlation
D⎝2 ⎠
0.0791
The two phase flow friction multiplier: For example: fd = 1
Re D4
Δp2φρ u 2
φ f 2φ
φl =
2
=
2
Using Blausius correlation and ul = uv
Δpl ρ l ul2 f l
−1
⎡ ⎛ρ ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛μ ⎞⎤ 4
φ = ⎢1 + χ ⎜⎜ l − 1⎟⎟⎥ ⎢1 + χ ⎜⎜ l − 1⎟⎟⎥
2

⎝ ρ v ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ μ v ⎠⎦
l
⎣
USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 17
 Lockhart Martinelli Correlation

„ Assumptions (separated flow model)

„ Static pressure drop of two phases are equal
„ Fluid volume is a linear combination of two phases
„ Only applies to friction contribution to pressure drop
„ Works well for nitrogen & hydrogen at moderate flow rates
„ Correlating parameter
(dp dx )l = ⎛⎜ ρ v f l ⎞⎟⎛ 1 − χ ⎞
2

X2 = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ where, for example: f l =

0.0791
=
0.0791
(dp dx )v ⎝ ρ l f v ⎠⎝ χ ⎠ Re
1
4 ( ρ l ul D μ l ) 4
1
D

X2 is the ratio of the pressure drop for the pure liquid/vapor phases.
The two phase flow friction multiplier is then given as a correlation in
terms of the factor X2
dp dx )2φ X 2 + CX + 1
φl2 = = Where C = 20 if both phases are turbulent
dp dx )l X2

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 18

 Homogeneous Model vs LM Correlation

helium nitrogen

0.571 0.145
⎛ρ ⎞ ⎛ μL ⎞ ⎛1− χ ⎞
Note: Χ tt = ⎜⎜ v ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ρL ⎠ ⎝ μv ⎠ ⎝ χ ⎠

P. S. Shen & Y. Jao, Advances in Cryo. Engn. 15 , 378 (1970)

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 19

 Natural circulation loops

Coil cooling system for CMS detector magnet at CERN-LHC

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 20

 Natural Circulation Cooling Loop

„ Natural circulation loops are very useful in many cryogenic m&

applications since they do not require a pump or other
device to force the fluid flow
„ Common applications include:
„ Cooling shields for large cryostats (NHMFL magnets)
„ Indirect cooling of large superconducting magnets such as the H
detector magnets for particle accelerators
„ These cooling loops work based on the balance between the Q
hydrostatic head difference as the driving pressure and the
friction and acceleration pressure drop
Δpd = Δp f + Δpa
„ For a simple loop (right), the driving pressure is given by m&
the difference in hydrostatic head on the two legs of the
loop H
Δpd = ρ l gH − g ∫ ρ ( z ) dz
0
„ The density varies with z because Q generates vapor and
Δpd increases with Q

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 21

 Pressure drop through the loop

There are several contributions to the pressure drop in the

m&
natural circulation loop:
L2
m& 2 L1
1. Single phase on the liquid side: Δp1 = f
2 ρ l A2 Dh
m& 2 L2
2. Adiabatic two phase flow: Δp A
= f Φ 2 p (χ ex )
2 ρ l A2 Dh
2p

χ L1
m& 2 L3 1 ex L3
3. Diabatic two phase flow: Δp2 p = f Φ 2 p (χ )dχ Q
2 ρ l A2 Dh χ ex ∫0
D

Acceleration pressure drop: Δpa = 2 (vg − vl )χ ex

m& 2
4.
A
vg and vl are the specific volumes of the gas and liquid
m&
The above equations relate to the total mass
. flow through
the loop. However, the vapor mass flow, mv is determined
by the heat rate, Q. Where,
&
m& v = Q and χ ex = mv m&
h fg

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 22

 Natural circulation loop test (helium)
m&

L2

„ Flow loop is ~ 5 mm ID and heated

over part of its length.
„ Simultaneous analysis of fluid L3 L1
dynamic equations Q
„ Observation: mass flow almost
independent of Q from 2 to 20 W
„ Increasing Q increases χ and Δpd m&

ƒ Δpf increases due to friction

„ Very stable operation
„ Model predicts behavior

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 23

 Design of LN2 cooled shield for 900 MHz NMR magnet

„ 900 MHz NMR magnet is a large superconducting

system under development at the NHMFL
„ The cryostat is to have high thermal efficiency.
„ A critical area is the inner warm bore, where the
space between 300 K and 2 K (operating
temperature) is small
„ To reduce the heat load at 2 K, there is a thermal
shield between 300 K and 2 K that is operating at
LN2 temperature
„ The heat load on the LN2 shield is sufficiently
high that it must be actively cooled with liquid
along its length
„ LN2 is supplied to the shield from the LN2
reservoir
„ Anticipated heat load on the inner bore is about
20 W

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 24

 LN2 shield design

„ Shield is cooled by two tubes running axially along the length, ~ 3 m

„ The supply line to the cooling tubes is large diameter, so one can
neglect the pressure drop in the inlet side
„ Circumferential conduction heat transfer maintains uniform
temperature around shield. Used copper screen.
„ Physical dimensions:
„ Shield diameter 100 mm Cooling
tubes
„ Length = 3 m
„ Thickness < 5 mm
Copper
A schematic of the simplified system is LN2
screen

given:

ƒ Assumed hydrodynamic conditions: 3m

m_dot
ƒ Turbulent flow throughout
ƒ Two phase flow on return leg only
ƒ Homogeneous flow conditions Q

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 25

 Model Analysis
Flow rate through the cooling loop is dependent on the balance between
hydrostatic head difference and friction pressure drop. The following
equations apply:
Q Q
1. Mass flow of the vapor: m& v = ~ 20/200 J/g ~ 0.1 g/s and m& =
h fg χh fg
H
2. Driving pressure head: Δpd = ρ l gH − g ∫ ρ dz
1 1− χ χ 0

where = + and χ = mv/m is the return vapor quality

ρ ρl ρv
⎡ ⎛ρ ⎞
−1
⎤
substituting for the average density, Δpd = ρ l gH ⎢1 − ⎜
⎜ ρ χ + 1⎟⎟ ⎥
l

⎢⎣ ⎝ v ⎠ ⎥⎦
3. Friction loss due to adiabatic two phase flow
2 fHm& 2
Δp f = Φ 2 p (χ ) where f is the friction factor, A = flow area and dh
ρ l A2 d h
−1
And for the homogeneous model; Φ Δp2 p ⎡ ⎛ρ ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛μ ⎞⎤ 4
= = ⎢1 + χ ⎜⎜ l − 1⎟⎟⎥ ⎢1 + χ ⎜⎜ l − 1⎟⎟⎥
Δpl ⎝ ρ v ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ μ v ⎠⎦
2p
⎣

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 26

 Two phase flow summary
„ Clearly, two phase flow is a complicated process given the number
of variables involved:
„ Mass flow rate, pressure drop, heat transfer rate, temperature
„ Void fraction, flow quality, flow regime, orientation
v
„ “Words of Wisdom”
„ Avoid creating “traps” that can collect vapor
„ Return two phase liquid above supply surface (phase separation)
„ Avoid parallel tubes with different hydraulic characteristics m

Δp is the same for all channels, but

vapor mass flow will increase for the
m4 m3 m2 m1 channels with higher heat load. This
will decrease the mass flow and could
lead to “dry out’ or vapor lock
condition.

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 27

 Cryogenic fluid distribution

„ Major components
„ Vacuum jacket lines & bayonet connections
„ Low heat leak valves
„ Heat exchangers & vaporizers
„ Circulation pumps
„ Compressors and expansion engines
„ Performance of each component affects overall
thermodynamic efficiency of system
„ Inefficiency (entropy generation) mostly due to:
„ Fluid friction
„ Heat exchange over finite ΔT

USPAS Short Course Boston, MA 6/14 to 6/18/2010 28