Introduction

Reflective practice is seen by many teacher educators to be at the very heart of effective teacher
preparation programs and the development of professional competence. Loughran (2002) writes, ‘It is
through the development of knowledge and understanding of the practice setting and the ability to
recognize and respond to such knowledge that the reflective practitioner becomes truly responsive to the
needs, issues, and concerns that are so important in shaping practice’(p.9).

According to philosopher and educator John Dewey (1933), we begin to reflect on a complex situation when
we face that situation and ask ourselves what needs to be done. Dewey’s ideas and the idea of professional
reflective practice were developed in the 1980s with the emergence of Schon’s (1983) concept of ‘reflection-
in-action’. According to Schon (1983), reflection-in-action is a rigorous professional process involving
acknowledgement of and reflection on uncertainty and complexity in one’s practice leading to ‘a legitimate
form of professional knowing’ (p.69). Since the 1980s, the development of reflective skills has been widely
adopted in a range of higher education and best practice professional settings including education, health
sciences and leadership. Whilst most educators in higher education would agree that it is important for learners
to develop these skills, there has not always been agreement on the definition of reflection or exactly what
constitutes reflective practices in a higher education context.

Reading:
http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/publications/46%20classroom%20climate.pdf

Unit objectives
After studying this unit, the student will be able to:

1. Understand meaning and nature of Reflective Practices

2. Describe the process of Reflection
3. Apply Major techniques and strategies of reflection
4. Demonstrate various skills for reflection
5. Evaluate systematic reflection throughout the teaching-learning process

7.1 Meaning and nature of Reflective Practices

Definitions:

In reflective practice, practitioners engage in a continuous cycle of self-observation and self-evaluation in

order to understand their own actions and the reactions they prompt in themselves and in learners
(Brookfield, 1995; Thiel, 1999). The goal is not necessarily to address a specific problem or question
defined at the outset, as in practitioner research, but to observe and refine practice in general on an
ongoing basis (Cunningham, 2001)

Reflective practice… is the habitual and judicious use of communication, knowledge, technical skills,
reasoning, emotions, values and reflection in daily practice for the benefit of the individuals and
communities being served. (Epstein and Hundert, 2002)

“[practitioners] frame the problem of the situation, they determine the features to which they will attend,
the order they will attempt to impose on the situation, the directions in which they will try to change it.
In this process, they identify both the ends to be sought and the means to be employed.” (Schön, 1983)

Reading:
http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/publications/46%20classroom%20climate.pdf

What is Reflection? Reflection is very broadly able to be defined as the deliberate, purposeful,
metacognitive thinking and/or action in which educators engage in order to improve their
professional practice. Different theories, models and levels of reflection have most commonly
focused on differentiating the major elements of this construct:

 the conditions, situations or circumstances that prompt engagement in the

reflective process
 the process itself, different types of reflection, different concepts or opinions on how this
is undertaken
 the content of the reflection, what exactly needs to be analysed, examined, discussed,
challenged in the reflective process and with what perspectives or ideologies
 the product of the reflection, improved understanding of professional practice, action
taken as a result of the reflective thinking.
The brief overview of understandings of reflection in educational practice that follows illustrates some
of these differences as proposed by various writers in this field
 Reading:
http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/publications/46%20classroom%20climate.pdf

7.2 Process of Reflection

Using a Reflective Practice Framework In learning environments and teaching contexts, teachers may
encounter situations or episodes where they need to pause, think and make intelligent decisions. Stephen
Brookfield (1999) introduces four lenses through which teachers can view these teaching and learning
episodes and reflect on their implications. These lenses are: (1) autobiographies as teachers and learners,
(2) students’ eyes, (3) colleagues’ experiences, and (4) the literature on teaching and learning. The first
lens involves putting our autobiographical self in the mirror to understand students’ experiences through
self-reflection. This can be done by drawing on our own experiences and understanding. This process can
also alert us of the assumptions we may have made along the way. The second lens is to see ourselves as
students see us, and draw on students’ feedback to inform our reflections. This reflective process makes
us aware of the invisible power relationships within learning environments that may affect students’
learning experiences. The third lens enables us to observe our practice critically from a colleague’s
perspective. Finally, the fourth lens is research on teaching. It can provide us with insights into other
people’s practices, through reading literature, for instance. We find various related aspects of the things
we have been doing in our own teaching in other people’s situations. In other words, they may be named
“in different ways [but they are] generic aspects of what we thought were idiosyncratic events and
processes” (Brookfield, 1999, p. 30).

The Reflection Cycle:

Reflecting is a cyclical process, where recording ones thoughts (reflecting) “leads to improvement and/or
insight” (RMIT, 2006). Improvement could mean progress, development, growth, maturity, enhancement,
or any number of words which could imply change. In education, we want students to change for the
better, to grow while learning and to mature into knowledgeable adults. Recording what has happened,
reflecting on processes and analyzing to improve deeper learning all can lead to new dimensions of
students’ inner selves
 Reading:
http://www.niu.edu/facdev/_pdf/guide/assessment/reflective_journals%20and_learning_logs.pdf

7.3 Major techniques and strategies:

There are several modes and frameworks for reflective practice used for the enhancement of students’
learning experience and also professional development.

7.3.1 Critical incident analysis

Why use critical reflection? Analysing a critical incident may help you to:

 “reflect-on-action” (ie past experience),

 “reflect-in-action” (ie as an incident happens), and
 “reflect-for-action” (ie actions you may wish to take in future experiences)
Often “reflection” and “critical reflection” are used inter-changeably in the literature. However, critical
reflection denotes another level of reflection beyond what you might or might not cover in other forms of
reflection (eg. diary, journal). Sometimes action is just “too hot” for us to consciously reflect-in-action (as the
incident happens) (eg. Eraut, 1994). This is why a critical reflection framework may be better suited as it
requires reflection in relation to past and future action. A default use of this technique and tool, particularly in
“health”, is as a way of reflecting on “what was perceived to go wrong”. While this is a valid purpose, the
scope of this framework has broader applications – namely as an appreciative form of inquiry. This framework
of reflection starts from a basis of what has worked well and why. Critical reflection is an extension of “critical
thinking”. It asks us to think about our practice and ideas and then it challenges us to step-back and examine
our thinking by asking probing questions. It asks us to not only delve into the past and look at the present but
importantly it asks us to speculate about the future and act. What theory underpins this form of reflection?
Critical incident reflection sits well within the action research field or it can “stand-alone” as a learning
method. While there is little agreement in the literature about what is
reflective practice there does seem to be agreement that critical reflection can be taught to adults. John
Flanagan, who founded the American Institutes for Research in 1946, introduced critical incident
reflection. He set out a 20 year plan to improve the effectiveness of organisations and their leaders. His
strategy: • To formulate problems in general terms so that they could apply findings to a broad class of
issues; • To emphasise new research methods to be of central importance; • To develop “the critical
incident technique” to identify contributing factors to the success or failure in specific situations.

Reading:

http://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/childhood/professionals/support/reffram.pdf

7.3.2 Reflective learning Journals

Learning journals are written records, which students create as they think about the concepts they have learned,
the critical incidents involved in their learning and the interactions they have had with other students or tutors
(Thorpe 2004). According to Luidens (1997, page 141), ‘writing is a manifestation of thinking', and because
students need to manipulate and transform their knowledge before they can present it in a written form,
learning journals are suggested to have the ability to facilitate new understandings (Yinger et al 1981). In
addition, reflective journal writing can also enable students to critically review the processes of their own
learning and behaviours, and to change their learning strategies as and when needed (Gleaves et al 2008). The
literature reports a positive association between journal keeping and learners' cognitive skills (McCrindle and
Cristensen 1995; Stephien et al 1998). For example, in a study by McCrindle and Christensen (1995), forty
undergraduates in a first-year biology course were randomly assigned to a learning journal (experimental)
group or a control group. The results showed that students in the experimental group used more cognitive
strategies during a learning task compared to those in the control group. In addition, students who kept learning
journals showed more sophisticated conceptions of learning and greater awareness of cognitive strategies.
They also performed significantly better on the final examination for the course compared to students who had
not used learning journals. Learning journals are widely adopted in practice in many institutions, albeit mostly
on a non-compulsory basis. For instance, the University of Portsmouth provides a reflective journal template
on their website, as well as links to reflective writing guides. Furthermore, many other universities provide
useful information to support students to develop reflective writing skills (University of Bradford 2015;
University of Manchester 2015; University of Reading 2015). It is useful to note that many degree courses
with The Open University have requirements where student learning journals are mandatory as part of
assessment submission. Entries are not marked only non-submission leads to loss of marks. In spite of the
advantages of journal writing as presented above, some studies have also shown that students can experience a
number of challenges in keeping a reflective journal. Some examples include a loss of enthusiasm for the task
over time, frustration and uncertainty about what to write, and the solitary nature of writing (Bain et al 1999
and Kerka 1996). Moreover, in some cases students might simply document concrete observations of their
experiences, without demonstrating any critical reflection (Kerka 1996). These studies suggest that academics
will sometimes need to provide additional support to students while they are writing learning journals. They
could, for instance, provide guidelines regarding content and format, suggest a theme for reflection, and give
clear explanations of the purpose for the reflective exercise (Woodward 1998). In addition, academic
staff could also provide students with feedback and encouragement throughout the process in order to
facilitate further reflection (Dye 2005).

Reading:
http://www.niu.edu/facdev/_pdf/guide/assessment/reflective_journals%20and_learning_logs.pdf

It is suggested that students capture all formal and informal events which will prove useful when the time
comes to return to the reflective journal or learning log for review. Students should focus on the areas
which pose the most problems or difficulty in addition to those which are less problematic. Key to
reflective journals and learning logs is to see progression over a period of time and to “gain a sense of
achievement” (Dalhousie University, n.d.).

“Write, record

Describe the situation (the course, the context)

Who was involved with the situation?

What did they have to do with the situation?

Reflect, think about What are your reactions?

What are your feelings?

What are the good and the bad aspects of the situation?

What you have learned?

Analyze, explain, gain insight

What was really going on?

What sense can you make of the situation?

Can you integrate theory into the experience/situation?

Can you demonstrate an improved awareness and self-development because of the situation?

Conclusions

What can be concluded in a general and specific sense from this situation/experience and
the analyses you have undertaken?

Personal action plan

 What are you going to do differently in this type of situation next time?

What steps are you going to take on the basis of what you have learned?”

Reading:
http://www.niu.edu/facdev/_pdf/guide/assessment/reflective_journals%20and_learning_logs.pdf

7.3.3 Peer coaching

Peer review is considered to be another important tool for developing critical self-reflection skills in
students (Dochy et al 1999). Encouraging students to give each other regular feedback in group meetings
helps students become familiar with reflective practices (Moon 1999 and Boud 1999). In peer review,
students reflect on their own and others' performance of group 6 tasks. Reviewing the performance of
their peers (strengths, weaknesses and areas for improvement) builds the students understanding of the
principles of effective group processes and allows them to think about their own performance or
approaches (Moon 1999). Research has shown that students who engage in such self-monitoring exercises
where they evaluate each other's performance (rather than rely soley on teachers for feedback) become
better at self-regulated learning (Butler 2002; Alvi and Gillies 2015). As Moon (1999) explains, 'working
with others can facilitate learners to reflect and can deepen and broaden the quality of the reflection so
long as all the learners are engaged in the process' (page172). Although peer assessment can be used as
one tool to facilitate critical reflection, we need to be aware that students in the transition stage might lack
experience in such methods, so peer assessment is probably best introduced as a formative, rather than
summative device (Booth 2001, page 501). As too many new types of assessment may lead to resistance,
peer assessment might be more likely to gain acceptance once students have become more comfortable
with the notion of reflective learning (Booth 2001). The role of academic staff is also important here, as
they would need to offer students significant support as they adjust to peer assessment

Reading:
http://www.enhancementthemes.ac.uk/docs/publications/transition-skills-and-strategies---critical-self-
reflection.pdf?sfvrsn=8

7.3.3 Action research

Reflective practice can be more formally encouraged and directed as action research (Kember & Kelly,
1993). Action research involves systematically changing your teaching using ‘on the ground’ evidence
that suggests the changes you make are in the right direction and enhancing student learning (Biggs &
Tang, 2007). The target of action research is the teacher, not the change that’s being implemented. In
action research the term ‘reflection’ is considered misleading. Transformative reflection (Brockbank &
McGill, 2000) suggests that teaching is being altered as a result of the reflection and is deemed more
accurate. Engaging in action research to improve teaching practice however involves a more explicit
theory of teaching (Biggs & Tang, 2007). While many teachers have an implicit theory of teaching there
is a need for a more consciously worked-out theory that generates answers to teaching problems. This
helps to rephrases the unhelpful and not very useful ‘there’s something wrong with my teaching’ to the
more manageable and approachable ‘students are only regurgitating what I give to them in class’. The
latter also brings it back to the teaching, not the students, and allows the problem to framed in a way that
that can be addressed by the teacher.

Reading:

https://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/Reflective%20Practice.pdf

7.3.5 Portfolios as a source of reflection

Student portfolios represents a powerful reflective tool, as they can help students keep track of their
development (Zubizarreta 2008). A student portfolio is defined as a collection of student work that
illustrates the student's efforts, progress, or achievement in given areas (Arter and Spandel 1992). A
number of universities that have adopted the use of learning portfolios. The University of New South
Wales (2015), for example, have developed the UNSW Student Portfolios Site, where students can record
their experiences and achievements relevant to a number of graduate attributes, such as communication,
teamwork and problem solving. An exercise on reflection on what has already been achieved can enable
students to plan how they will go about developing further desired attributes. Similarly, the University of
Glasgow (2015) have developed the Graduate Skills Programme (GSP), where students build an
electronic portfolio illustrating the skills they have developed in their university years. Students are
encouraged to write about four different aspects of their university experience:

(1) academic skills related to aspects such as writing a dissertation or attending academic skills workshops;

(2) extra-curricular activities related to aspects such as studying abroad or being part of a student society
or club;

(3) jobs and careers, where networking activities with employers at career fairs can be discussed and/or
the creation of a professional LinkedIn profile; and

(4) work-related learning, where students can discuss their summer internships and placements. Students
can choose to complete either element of their e-portfolio (or all), articulate the skills they have developed
and reflect on their future career objectives.
 Reading:
http://www.enhancementthemes.ac.uk/docs/publications/transition-skills-and-strategies---critical-self-
reflection.pdf?sfvrsn=8

7.4 Skills for reflection

There are various methods to encourage reflection through wiring or conversations, individually or in pair
or group reflection, or a combination of these. The way that people capture their reflections is largely
dependent on:

 their own learning style

 their discipline – whether they are in a predominantly written-oriented, performanceoriented or
oral discipline; and
 what resources they happen to have at hand at the time
For practical reasons, most people capture their reflections in written forms such as diaries, post-it notes on
lesson plans, journals, portfolio materials, poetry, sometimes short stories, novels or books. However, some
capture reflections in dance, some in drama, some in song. Scholars have reminded of the quality of journal
writing for reflection on teaching, and how reflective they actually are. Research indicates that reflective
journals mostly have the form of reports, or descriptive writing (Hume, 2009; Maloney & Campbell-Evans,
2002). Writing journals is the most popular form of reflection among teachers. Moon (1999) devotes one
complete chapter to the use of journals for reflection. Writing journals should be sustained in the course of
time and on-off type of writing does not ensure that learning has occurred from the reflective process. Moon
suggests both unstructured and structured forms of journal writing. Unstructured forms include:

 ‘free wring and reflecting’ (chronological but not involved everyday);

 recording thoughts and refection of an ongoing event or issue; and
 ‘double-entry journals’ where one part of the journal is for recoding of the event or what
happened, and on the other side we write our reflection on “the written account of the experience”
(Moon, 1999, p. 194).

Reading:
http://www.waikato.ac.nz/tdu/pdf/Booklets/2015/ReflectPrac.pdf

Recording Lessons:

Recording your lessons can be an especially interesting technique since it will give you an opportunity to
see and hear yourself from another perspective. You may do things or have certain tendencies in class that
you not aware of. Recording your lesson is a good way to critically analyze your teaching performance
and class presence. You can make either a video an audio recording. Audio recording is easier and is less
distracting. It is also sufficient if you’re only concerned about your speech tendencies. You may want to
consider analyzing an audio recording if you want to answer some of the following questions:

 How much do I talk?

 How quickly do I talk?
 How loudly do I talk?
 Do I speak clearly?
 How much do students talk?
Video recording may be distracting to both you and your students, but it is useful for showing you your
behavioural tendencies while teaching. You may want to consider analyzing a video recording if you
want to answer the following questions:

 How do I come across to my students while I teach?

 Where do I face when I teach?
 Do I focus too much on one area of the class or on certain students?
 Do I have any nervous tendencies or habits?
You may think you know the answer to all these questions, but people are often surprised when they hear
or see a recording of themselves.

Reading:
http://www.eng.mcmaster.ca/fda/documents/ReflectiveTeachingAndExperientialLearningReference.pd f

7.5 Systematic reflection throughout the teaching-learning process

Teaching is very demanding work. It requires a lot of energy, stamina and fortitude. Among all the
physical activity however, it is important to remain focused on what may be identified as the more
‘intellectual’ aspects of the teaching profession. This is significant for several reasons. Arguably the most
important of these is your obligation as a beginning teacher or an aspiring teacher to make increasingly
well-informed decisions in the context of your everyday practice. This is because teaching is a profession
in which demanding situations arise on a daily basis. Frequently there are no right or wrong answers, no
procedures to follow, no time or opportunity to consult with supervising staff or colleagues. In some cases
you may have the possibility of discussing with and receiving advice about incidents or concerns from
appropriate others. Often, however, as a certified teacher (or even as a student teacher), you may simply
be advised or expected to use your professional judgement. This may be a reasonable expectation, as it
allows you to develop your skills in relation to decision making and problem solving in your specific
educational context. However, it does assume that you are well-informed or have some experience of the
reflective process. It assumes that you have a framework within which to consider your options and
determine any possible action.
Robins et al. (2003) describe reflective practice as a tool that allows teachers, student teachers and
teaching assistants to understand themselves, their personal philosophies and the dynamics of their
classroom more deeply. While acknowledging the critics who argue that there is little evidence that
reflection actually changes behaviour, they propose that the process of engaging in reflection not only
provides a personal resource that can be accessed in other similar contexts, but is also a tool that
empowers individuals who use it. This is because engagement with the process of focused thinking
supports self knowledge and understanding (White, 2004; Wieringa, 2011). The capacity to engage
with your professional work in this manner is not always easy. One reason is that classrooms are
busy, fast-moving work environments within which pupils of diverse characteristics are engaging in
an extremely important undertaking: that of learning new knowledge, skills and strategies. Another is
that any framework or other tool to support your professional development is only as beneficial as the
user is proficient. In order to develop the skills and competencies of an expert teacher, you need to
engage in reflection. Reflective practice, over time, allows you to become skilful in making informed
judgements and professional decisions, and is empowering (Robins et al., 2003). Authentic
engagement in reflection supports your efforts to become contemplative, to improve your professional
competencies and to identify your personal strengths and relative limitations as a teacher. It is because
of its potential to impact positively on individual practice that reflection is arguably the most
important of the many professional attributes that characterise successful teachers at every stage of
their careers (White, 2004)

Reading:
https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/59229_Sellars.pdf

Becoming a critically reflective teacher:

Whilst understandings and practice of reflection may show some commonality across a
range of disciplines and contexts, the addition of the qualifier critical to reflection often
signifies a deeper consideration and focus upon:

 recognizing and appreciating difference and diversity from a number of angles (for example
race, ethnicity, gender, class, culture, religion, disability, age) and how these factors impact
on learning and teaching
 challenging and dealing with the taken for granted assumptions about teaching, learning,
learners, and the learning environment
 identifying and negotiating how power operates in an always contested learning and
teaching context
 nurturing, facilitating and enabling a learning and teaching environment which
challenges students to think critically and morally about a variety of issues
 initiating socially engaged lifelong and transformative learning
Reading
https://sydney.edu.au/education_social_work/groupwork/docs/Reflection.pdf