“Methinks you are my glass and not my brother”

(Act 5, Scene 1)

by

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

A Report Submitted to
Dra. Milagros Tanlayco

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for Shakespeare

Reuben G. Torralba
M.A. Literature

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
I. Introduction

A. Sources and Influences of the Play 3

II. Synopsis of the Comedy 5

1
III. Analysis/Criticism/Appreciation

A. Plot Structure
1. Exposition 8
2. Incentive Moment 8
3. Rising Action 10
4. Climax 10
5. Falling Action 11
6. Conclusion 11

B. Characterization 11
C. Setting 15
D. Conflict 17

IV. Style and Craftsmanship of Shakespeare as Comedian

1. Symbolism 17
2. Language 21
3. As a Comedian 28

V. Themes/Values/Relevance Today

A. Themes 32
B. Values 36
C. Relevance Today 36

IV. Bibliography 37

Comedy of Errors

I. Sources and Influences of the Play

The Comedy of Errors is one of Shakespeare's earliest plays, but it is

wrong to think of it as an apprentice work. It was first printed in the First

Folio in 1623, and the earliest known performance is recorded to have

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been at Gray's Inn, one of London's law schools, on December 28th, 1594.

However, thematic resemblances to other plays have led many scholars to

believe that it was written years earlier than this performance.

The play bears a striking resemblance to the Menaechmi, a play by

the Roman playwright Plautus. Shakespeare must have read the original

play in Latin, since the English version did not appear until 1595. The

premise of the Menaechmi follows: a Syracusan merchant with twin sons

takes one of them on a trip abroad. During the trip, his seven year old son

becomes separated and is taken to be raised by a childless trader. The

father is heartbroken and dies a few days later, while his son is taken to

Epidamnum with the trader. When the news reaches Syracuse, the other

brother's name is changed to that of his now missing brother.

The action in the play is set years later when Menaechmus of

Syracuse arrives at Epidamnum. He is greeted warmly by everyone and

receives numerous free gifts, including intercourse with his brother's

mistress. The two men finally meet and decide to return to Syracuse, at

which point the one brother sells off all of his assets- including his, “wife,

should there be any purchaser."

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 Shakespeare adopted a great deal of his plot from this story, but

added several key changes. He moved the action to Ephesus, which is

more associated with magic arts and early Christianity. He also added the

twin servants for humor content, borrowing them from another of Plautus'

plays, the Amphitruo.

Shakespeare combines aspects of these Latin plays with biblical

source material, chiefly the Acts of the Apostles and the Pauline Epistle to

the Ephesians.

The dramatic element is heightened by Shakespeare because he

includes an intense rivalry between the cities of Syracuse and Ephesus.

Thus Egeon is captured and sentenced under an inflexible law. At the end

of the play he is being led to his execution, raising the stakes of a

resolution to the plot. Further, he is the character who gains the most once

he is reunited with his loved ones.

The only authoritative text source for the play is the First Folio of 1623. It is

believe that the text was based on Shakespeare's own autograph

manuscript, since several references and stage directions indicate

knowledge of the play which only Shakespeare would have possessed. For

example, stage directions indicate characters such as “a schoole-master,

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call'd Pinch" or “wife of Antipholis Sereptus." Since there is no mention in

the dialogue that Pinch is a schoolmaster, or of the surname Sereptus, it

has been inferred that these are Shakespeare's original directions.

II. SYNOPSIS OF THE COMEDY

The Comedy of Errors begins with a merchant of Syracuse named

Aegeon being arrested in the town of Ephesus. His crime? The towns of

Ephesus and Syracuse have an age long feud meaning a tradesman from

Syracuse is far from welcome in Ephesus. Before Solinus, the Duke of

Ephesus, Aegeon tells his sad story... Many, many years ago (33 years),

Aegeon and his wife Aemilia and their two identical boys both named

Antipholus were shipwrecked in a violent storm. With them were their two

identical servants, both confusingly named Dromio. Two ships rescue the

family, Aegeon losing his wife, one of the identical twins plus one of the two

servants who are rescued by a ship last seen heading for Corinth. The

other vessel rescues Aegeon, one of the sons and one of the servants who

return to Syracuse. When the remaining Antipholus came of age at

eighteen, Aegeon allowed Antipholus and the surviving Dromio to search

for his long lost brother. The two dissappear. Five years of searching later,

Aegeon explains he has arrived in Ephesus to look for his son and servant.

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 The Duke is saddened by this such that he will not sentence Aegeon

immediately for being in Ephesus. The Duke offers Aegeon one day to pay

a ransom, otherwise he will die as per custom for citizens of Syracuse

being in Ephesus. Unknown to Aegeon, his wife did survive, a rude

fisherman stealing Antipholus and Dromio from her. These two eventually

make their way to Ephesus whilst Aemilia, in her grief, becomes a nun in

Ephesus.

Havoc soon ensues when Aegeon's surviving son Antipholus lands in

Ephesus, bringing confusion to all since Antipholus appears in one place

then across another at impossible speed, Antipholus saying he is from

Epidamnum, thus avoiding arrest. Antipholus is quickly mistaken for the

Antipholus who is native to Ephesus, eventually dining with Antipholus of

Ephesus' wife Adriana.

Likewise, Ephesus goldsmith Angelo gives Antiopholus of Syracuse a

gold chain his Ephesus twin ordered, expecting his payment later.

Antipholus of Syracuse falls for Luciana, Adriana's sister rejecting him,

thinking her sister's husband is trying to seduce her!

Meanwhile, Angelo returns, asking for payment for the chain which

Antipholus of Syracuse naturally refuses; he ordered for no such chain

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(though he did receive it). Antipholus of Syracuse is quickly arrested,

everyone thinking Antipholus of Syracuse is Antipholus of Ephesus. During

all this, Adriana believes her husband and servant Dromio to be mad, such

is their jumping from place to place, even forcing them to see a Doctor

Pinch. Hilariously, he tries to exorcize the devil from Antipholus' body.

Adding to the confusion, Adriana meets Antipholus and Dromio of

Syracuse, thinking they have escaped from the Pinch's care, not realising

those two are still in the doctor's care. Antipholus and Dromio of Syracuse

simply don't know what to think! The Syracuse pair quickly go into hiding in

a nearby abbey. Antipholus and Dromio of Ephesus escape the doctor's

care, finding Duke Solinus just as Aegeon is about to be executed. Both

Antipholus and Dromio of Ephesus try to explain their movements, Aegeon

recognising his son, Antipholus of Ephesus not recognizing his father.

Antipholus and Dromio of Syracuse now arrive with an abbess (Aegeon's

wife Aemilia). Both pairs now explain all in front of Solinus, Aegeon being

pardoned for entering Ephesus, the family reunited and Antipholus of

Syracuse arranging to marry Luciana.

III. Analysis/Criticism/Appreciation
A. Plot Structure
1. Exposition

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 The opening lines make it clear that the states of Syracuse and

Ephesus have been at variance, and that, according to the law, any

merchant from Syracuse seen in the city of Ephesus is to be put to

death unless he can pay a thousand marks by way of ransom, in

order to save his life. During the dialogue that follows, the Duke

questions Egeon about his reasons for venturing into Ephesus,

knowing well that death lurked around the corner. Egeon, being thus

prompted by the Duke, relates the history of his life to him.

2. Incentive Moment
The Duke learns of the sad state of affairs that has brought

Egeon to Ephesus in search of his family. Egeon begins his story at

his birth. He says that he was born in Syracuse and brought up to

become a merchant. Upon approaching the age of marriage, he was

married to a fine lady, with whom he lived happily, until urgent

business obliged him to go across to Epidamnum. Once there he

realized he was to be detained for a long time; therefore, he sent for

his wife. Shortly after her arrival she delivered two baby boys who

were identical twins. Ironically, at that very same time, a poor woman

living in the same inn as Egeon and his wife also delivered a set of

identical twin boys. Since their parents were exceedingly poor, Egeon

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brought up the two boys, with the intention of raising them to become

valets to his own two sons.

Egeon's wife became impatient about returning home, so

Egeon agreed to depart. Before they had sailed a league from

Epidamnum, a dreadful storm arose. The sea churned so violently

that it was feared that the ship would sink. The sailors, fearing for

their lives, departed in a smaller boat, and Egeon's family was left to

its own resources. Egeon and his wife each took hold of one son and

one slave and fastened them to the masts. No sooner was this done

than the ship was split by a rock. Egeon was separated from his wife,

son, and the slave boy, because they were on the other part of the

ship and were carried away by the current. However, Egeon knew

they were safe, for he saw his wife and the children being rescued by

a boat of fisherman who, he supposed, were from Corinth. He and his

other son were also rescued by sailors, who took them homeward to

Syracuse.

3. Rising Action

His son, on turning eighteen years of age, left home with his

attendant to search for his mother and twin. According to Egeon, that

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was seven years ago, and he himself has been traveling for the past

five years in the hope of being reunited with his family. The duke,

having learned of Egeon's misfortunes, takes pity on him. Though he

cannot freely pardon him, he grants Egeon until the end of the day to

collect the money to pay the fine; if he fails he is doomed to death.

4. Climax/ Turning Point/Epiphany

The climax is reached when the confusion reaches its peak.

Antipholus of Ephesus is wrongly arrested and then worked upon by

a conjurer, while Antipholus of Syracuse, convinced that Adriana and

Luciana practice witchcraft, runs about brandishing a sword and

finally takes refuge in the Priory. When the confusion turns to

madness, the Duke and the Abbess step in as arbitrators. The

climactic moment occurs when both sets of twins are brought face to

face with each other.

5. Falling Action/Resolution
The play ends in comedy. Immediately after the twins have

seen each other and Adriana says, "I see two husbands, or mine

eyes deceive me," everything begins to fall into place. The correct

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 identities of everyone are established, and all doubts are thus

cleared.

6. Conclusion
The family, along with the Duke and the two Dromios, proceeds

to the Priory to celebrate their reunion at a feast. In the end, harmony

is restored in the Ephesian world that has been split by tragedy.

B. Characterization
ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE

The twin brother of Antipholus of Ephesus and the son of

Egeon. Antipholus of Syracuse has been traveling the world with his
slave, Dromio of Syracuse, trying to find his long-lost brother and
mother. At the beginning of the play, he has just arrived in Ephesus.
The years of searching have made this Antipholus restless and
anxious: he worries that in searching for his lost family members, he
has somehow lost himself. When confronted with the Ephesians'
strange behavior, Antipholus's disorientation is intensified—he cannot
tell whether he should be terrified of their seemingly supernatural
powers or thankful for the gifts they bestow upon him.

ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS

The twin brother of Antipholus of Syracuse. Antipholus of

Ephesus is married to Adriana and is a well-respected merchant in

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 Ephesus. He owns a house called the Phoenix and is the head of a
large and bustling household. Having served bravely in his army,
Antipholus of Ephesus is a favorite of Duke Solinus. Unlike his twin
brother, Antipholus of Ephesus is very settled and well established:
he has much to lose in the confusion and chaos.

DROMIO OF SYRACUSE AND DROMIO OF EPHESUS

Long-lost twin brothers and servants to Antipholus of Syracuse

and Antipholus of Ephesus, respectively. The Dromio twins are more
nearly identical to each other than the Antipholus twins. Witty, antic,
and perennially put upon, they grumblingly but good-naturedly endure
endless abuse from their masters and mistresses. The Dromio twins'
history resembles that of the Antipholus twins: they were born on the
same day as their masters, a fact that is referenced often in the text.
However, the resemblance between servant and master ends there.
Despite the play's frantic substitutions and frequent cases of
mistaken identity, the line between master and servant is one that is
never crossed.

ADRIANA

The wife of Antipholus of Ephesus and a fiercely jealous

woman. Adriana doesn't appreciate or put much stock in her sister,
Luciana's, advice to be meek and accommodating toward her
husband, whom Adriana believes is cheating on her.

LUCIANA

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 Adriana's unmarried sister and the object of Antipholus of
Syracuse's affections. Luciana preaches the virtues of patience and
subservience to her sisters.

EGEON

An elderly Syracusian merchant. Egeon is the long-lost

husband of the abbess Emilia and the father of the two Antipholus
twins. As the play begins, Egeon has been sentenced to death for
violating a law prohibiting travel between Syracuse and Ephesus. He
had been searching for the son he raised, who left Syracuse seven
years ago to find their missing family members.

ABBESS

The head of a religious order in Ephesus. The abbess's real

name is Emilia, and she is the long-lost wife of Egeon and the mother
of the Antipholus twins.

DUKE SOLINUS

The ruler of Ephesus.

BALTHASAR

A merchant in Ephesus.

ANGELO

A goldsmith in Ephesus and a friend to Antipholus of Ephesus.

MERCHANT

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 An Ephesian friend of Antipholus of Syracuse. The merchant
cautions Antipholus of Syracuse to disguise himself so as to escape
the punishment reserved for Syracusian travelers.

SECOND MERCHANT

A tradesman to whom Angelo is in debt.

DOCTOR PINCH

A schoolteacher, doctor, and would-be exorcist.

NELL

Antipholus of Ephesus's obese kitchen maid and Dromio of

Ephesus's wife. Nell never appears onstage, but Dromio of Syracuse
gives a lengthy description of her.

LUCE

A maid to Antipholus of Ephesus. Along with Dromio of

Syracuse, Luce keeps her master out of the Phoenix while his wife
and his twin brother are dining inside. Some editions call this
character “Nell,” thereby combining her with Dromio of Ephesus's fat
wife.

COURTESAN

A friend of Antipholus of Ephesus and proprietress of the

Porpentine.

C. Setting/Atmosphere/Period Involved

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Syracuse
Syracuse, the home of Egeon and Antipholus and Dromio of

Syracuse, is located on the modern day island of Sicily. The city was

founded in 734 BCE by Greek settlers from Corinth. Cicero, a famous

orator and statesman in ancient Rome, described Syracuse as the greatest

and most beautiful Greek city.

Ephesus
Ephesus, located on the western coast of Asia Minor (modern day

Turkey), is where the play takes place. It was also home to one of the

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Temple of Diana at Ephesus.

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The temple was constructed of marble and contained 127 sixty-foot high

columns and four bronze statues of Amazons.

There is no historical evidence of a feud between Syracuse and

Ephesus. In fact, in the original play by Plautus on which Shakespeare

based his work, the two rival cities are Syracuse and Epidamnum.

Shakespeare may have chosen to use Ephesus instead because it was

more familiar to Elizabethan audiences as a major center of Christianity.

When St. Paul arrived in the city to preach Christianity in the first century

CE, he met with great resistance from the Ephesians who worshipped

Diana. In Roman mythology, Diana was the chaste goddess of the hunt

and the moon. Shakespeare may have used his audiences’ familiarity with

the story—and the association of the city with a virgin goddess—to make

Emilia’s miraculous appearance as a nun from the abbey all the more

amazing and resonant.

E. Conflict
Protagonist

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 The Antipholus twins are the protagonists of the play. Antipholus of

Syracuse, however, is portrayed with greater sensitivity and more detail

than is used for his brother.

Antagonist

The Antipholus twins are their own antagonists, for it is due to their

identical names and appearances that the conflict, that is the confusion

within the play, arises. In another light, all the other characters of the play

who add to the chaos by way of mistaking one for the other may also be

seen as the antagonists.

IV. Style and Craftsmanship of Shakespeare as Comedian

A. Symbolism

In The Comedy of Errors there are numerous features that signal the

presence of symbolism.

1. 1,000 marks

In Orpheus and Greek Religion, W.K.C. Guthrie says:

"Once fallen, the soul cannot return to its true home, the highest heaven,

until after ten thousand years, divided into ten period of a thousand years

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each, each period representing one incarnation and the period of

punishment or blessedness which must follow it."

So the span of a 1,000 years is a fixed period. If the individual does not

complete that period here on earth, then the ancient decree of the gods

sentences him to death and to the completion of the 1,000 years in the

realm beyond the earth.

2. Syracuse and Ephesus

Duke Solinus tells Aegeon that there is "mortal and intestine jars"

between Syracuse and Ephesus. It is not difficult to determine the

symbolism. Ephesus was famous for its temple of Diana, considered one of

the Seven Wonders of the Ancient Word. Since Diana was goddess of the

moon she ruled everything in the sublunary, or material realm, which was

the domain of nature. Since Syracuse was in opposition to Ephesus,

Syracuse represents the domain above the moon, while Ephesus

represents everything beneath the moon, i.e., the earth. In Shakespeare's

works Duke is utilized to designate deity. "Solinus', the Duke of Ephesus

obviously has a symbolic name. "Solinus" means "The Alone ", a very apt

designation for deity. Plotinus uses the phrase, "the flight of the Alone to

the Alone" to designate to flight of the soul to God.

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3. The Twins

The fact that each twin is identical to the other is also an allegory of

the Dionysian myth. In the symbolism of the Dionysos, looking in the mirror

represented the idea that the part of Dionysos that incarnated in the lower

world was a reflection and exact replica of the Dionysos of the higher world.

4. The Title

The theme of wandering that is so prevalent in Orphic theology, is

also very much a theme of the play. The title of the play, The Comedy of

Errors, can be read as The Comedy of Wandering, since the word error

comes from the Latin errare, to wander. The Antipholus twins were

separated shortly after birth, and when he was 18, Antipholus of Syracuse

left home and began a period of years of wandering in search of his twin.

When he did not return, Aegeon, the father set out after him and wandered

for five years in a vain search for him. When Antipholus of Syracuse arrives

at Ephesus, the merchant pays him a thousand marks and warns him that

a Syracusan was arrested that same day. He, therefore, has the chance to

immediately ransom, Aegeon, but instead wanders alone through the

streets of the city. Thus the play is really about wandering.

5. Antipholus

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 The names Antipholus can be traced back to classical mythology.

Pholus was the name of a centaur Hercules visited, who lived in a cave on

Mount Pholoe.

Those, who think it mere coincidence that the name of a centaur

should be associated with the name of the twins in The Comedy of Errors,

must answer the other coincidences, that not only is the myth connected

with Dionysos, but also when Antipholus of Syracuse comes to Ephesus he

stays at the Centaur Inn.

6. The Names of Three Lodgings

1. The Centaur Inn (where Antipholus S. lodges in Ephesus)

2. The Phoenix (the house of Antipholus of Ephesus)

3. The Porpentine (where Antipholus E. meets the courtesan)

Antipholus of Syracuse lodges at the Centaur Inn while he is in

Ephesus. The symbol of the centaur is a very apt allegory of the contact of

the higher self with the lower world of nature. The man half symbolizes the

higher divine part; the horse half symbolizes the lower physical half. The

1,000 marks is stored at Centaur Inn during his stay in Ephesus. This

represents the 1,000 year cycle.

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 The house of Antipholus of Ephesus is named the Phoenix. The

Phoenix, who according to the legend, arose from the ashes, symbolizes

man who, in the legend of Dionysus arose from the ashes of the Titans.

The 500 year cycle of the Phoenix, although not the period of the earth life,

while being half of the 1,000 year cycle symbolizes the complementary half

of man's life in the 1,000 year cycle that is divided between the life in his

physical incarnation and the part of his existence, during the cycle, that is

spent outside the physical.

When Antipholus of Ephesus is locked out of his home he goes to the

Porpentine (porcupine) so he can consort with the Courtesan. This

represent the life of man given over to the carnal pleasure. Since this is

opposed to his inner divine nature, he continually suffers a reaction

symbolized by the pricks of spines of the porcupine.

B. Language

Many students—and adults, for that matter—find Shakespeare

difficult to read and hard to understand. They accuse him of not

speaking English and refuse to believe that ordinary people spoke the

way his characters do. However, if you understand more about his

language, it is easier to understand. Several pointers can be especially

helpful:

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a. Soliloquies and Asides

Shakespeare’s characters often make comments to each other or

to the audience which the other characters never hear. These asides

usually comment on the action.

Also, characters sometimes think out loud, alone on stage, for the

benefit of the audience. Sometimes the character talks directly to the

audience, sometimes not. These speeches are called soliloquies. For

example, Antipholus of Syracuse, after receiving a gift of a chain and

while alone on stage, gives the following soliloquy:

What should I think of this, I cannot tell:

But this I think, there’s no man is so vain

That would refuse so fair an offer’d chain.

I see a man here needs not live by shifts,

When in the streets he meets such golden gifts.

I’ll to the mart and there for Dromio stay:

If any ship put out, then straight away. (3.2.179–185)

b. Epigrams and Imagery

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 In the dialogue of The Comedy of Errors and other Shakespeare

plays, characters sometimes speak wise or witty sayings couched in

memorable figurative language. Although these sayings are brief, they

often express a profound universal truth or make a thought-provoking

observation. Such sayings are called epigrams or aphorisms. Because

many of Shakespeare’s epigrams are so memorable, writers and

speakers use them again and again. Many of Shakespeare's epigrams

have become part of our everyday language; often we use them without

realizing that it was Shakespeare who coined them. Examples of

phrases Shakespeare originated in his plays include “all’s well that ends

well,” “[every] dog will have its day,” “give the devil his due,” “green-eyed

monster,” “my own flesh and blood,” “neither rhyme nor reason,” “one

fell swoop,” “primrose path,” “spotless reputation,” and “too much of a

good thing.”

Among some of the more memorable sayings in The Comedy of

Errors are the following:

The pleasing punishment that women bear.–Aegeon, Act I,

Scene I, Line 46.

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 Aegeon here uses oxymoron (pleasing punishment) to refer to his

wife's pregnancy.

For slander lives upon succession,

Forever housed where it gets possession.–Balthazar, Act III,

Scene I, Lines 105-106.

These lines with end rhyme use personification (slander lives) to

point out that it lives on from generation to generation.

Ill deeds are doubled with an evil word.–Luciana, Act III, Scene

II, Line 20.

Antipholus of Syracuse has been wooing Luciana. But she

mistakes him for Antipholus of Ephesus, who is married to her sister.

Consequently, she scolds the Syracusan. Her words contain alliteration

(deeds, doubled).

The venom clamors of a jealous woman

Poison more deadly than a mad dog's tooth.–Aemilia, Act V,

Scene I, Line 69.

This metaphor compares a jealous woman to a mad dog.

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 In addition, Shakespeare uses imagery as he speaks with

metaphors, similes, and personification. Recognizing when his

characters are doing this helps in understanding the play. For example,

Antipholus of Syracuse compares himself to a drop of water:

I to the world am like a drop of water,

That in the ocean seeks another drop,

Who, falling there to find his fellow forth

Unseen, inquisitive, confounds himself.

So I, to find a mother and a brother,

In quest of them, unhappy, lose myself. (1.2.35–40)

Another example is of Dromio of Ephesus comparing himself to

a football:

Am I so round with you, as you with me.

That like a football you do spurn me thus?

You spurn me hence, and he will spurn me hither:

If I last in this service, you must case me in leather. (2.1.82–85)

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c. Prose vs. Verse

Prose is the form of speech used by common people in

Shakespearean drama. There is no rhythm or meter in the line. It is

everyday language. Shakespeare’s audiences would recognize the

speech as their language. When a character in a play speaks in

prose, you usually know that he is a working class member of society.

However, many important characters also speak in prose at times.

For example, both Antipholus of Syracuse and Dromio of

Syracuse speak in prose as they comically describe a large woman

who is chasing Dromio:

Antipholus: Then she bears from breadth?

Dromio: No longer from head to foot than from hip to hip: she is

spherical, like a globe; I could find out countries in her.

(3.2.112–15)

Of course, working class characters can also speak in verse,

especially when they are being pompous or making fun of others. For

example, Dromio of Ephesus speaks in verse in the following:

Return’d so soon! rather approached to late:

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The capon burns, the pig falls from the spit;

The clock hath strucken twelve upon the bell:

My mistress made it one upon my cheek:

She is so hot, because the meat is cold:

The meat is cold, because you come not home:

You come not home because you have no stomach:

You have no stomach, having broke your fast:

But we that know what ’tis to fast and pray,

Are penitent for your default to-day. (1.2.43-52)

Also, Shakespeare will often signal the end of a scene by

ending with a couplet, or two rhyming lines:

Dromio of Syracuse: Master, shall I be porter of the gate?

Adriana: Ay, and let none enter, lest I break your pate.

Luciana: Come, come, Antipholus, we dine too late.

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C. As a Comedian

In The Comedy of Errors, Shakespeare experimented with different

types of comedy, making his audience laugh in different ways. Some types

of comedy, often called “high comedy,” appeal to our more intellectual

sense of humor. Other types of comedy rely mostly on silly physical gags,

sometimes called “low comedy.”

High comedy has also been called “pure comedy” and often appealed

to the more well-educated members of the audience. One type of high

comedy is verbal wit, or wordplay. Characters often outsmart each other

with words rather than with physical tricks or traps. Shakespeare used puns

and played with the multiple meanings of words to fashion jokes. In The

Comedy of Errors, the Antipholus and Dromio brothers have several

skirmishes of verbal wit. The Dromios will often reply to a question or

command from their master with a pun, picking up on a different meaning

of a word to create a joke. Their masters will respond in kind, creating a

quick exchange of wordplay. Antipholus and Dromio of Syracuse also have

an extended series of jokes about Nell, the kitchen maid who claims

Dromio as her love. Comparing her large person to a globe, they make

jokes about where different countries would be found on her body. The pair

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is able to make cracks both about the kitchen maid and the other European

countries which would have been familiar to Shakespeare’s audience.

Another type of high comedy is satire. Satire is a mix of comedy and

criticism, also known as “biting humor” or the “criticism of life.” Satire is

used as a way of making fun of people and their style of living and often

has an underlying political message. Playwrights who are writing a satire

will often take a stereotype that applies to a group of people and make it

even bigger and more extreme than before. For example, it is a stereotype

that all rich people wear fancy clothes. Therefore, the characters in a satire

may wear clothing that is exceptionally colorful and ornate in order to show

off this stereotype.

Low comedy is far more dependant on action and situation to create

comedic moments. The plot lines of low comedies tend to be more silly or

trivial than the plot lines of satires. The most popular form of low comedy is

known as farce. Farce is very similar to satire, but farce tends to be more

crude in its humor.

Farce often includes dirty jokes and characters that get into

embarrassing or humiliating situations. However, much like satire, farces

contain characters who are exaggerated and over the top. Also, low

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comedies depend on funny plot devices as opposed to witty words. For

example, mistaken identity was a common plot device in low comedy which

Shakespeare uses in The Comedy of Errors. Other low comedy plot

devices include inopportune arrivals, misunderstandings and embarrassing

occurrences.

Another important element of low comedy is the use of slapstick or

physical comedy. The term slapstick comes from commedia dell’arte, which

is an old form of improvised theatre that began in Italy. Characters in

commedia plays used to physically beat each other with a paddle-like stick

which had another stick attached to it. When an actor would hit another

person, one stick would hit the other, making a loud slapping sound. This

made it sound like the actor was being hit harder than he actually was. This

comedic element is used a great deal in The Comedy of Errors. There are

several scenes in which the Dromios are beaten by their masters during the

course of the play. It is the repetition of the beatings, too, that adds comedy

to the situation.

In addition to these categories of high and low comedy, there are

certain comedic elements that span the different types of comedy. For

example there is incongruity, which is when characters in a play find

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themselves out of place or in a different physical or social world than the

one they are used to. An example of this in The Comedy of Errors would be

Antipholus and Dromio of Syracuse finding themselves in the world of

Ephesus, which is both far and different from the world where they grew up.

The fact that they are in this new place and in a strange situation is cause

for most of the funny things that happen to them throughout the play.

Incongruity also involves the element of surprise. The fact that these

characters never seem to know what will happen to them next makes the

things that do happen to them all the more surprising and fun for an

audience to watch.

Perhaps one of the reasons Shakespeare’s plays were so popular

(and remain popular today) was his ability to combine elements of high and

low comedy in a single play. Even though The Comedy of Errors could be

easily defined as a farce because of its use of mistaken identity and

slapstick physicality, there is a great deal of verbal wit, incongruity and

satire contained in the story as well.

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V. Themes/Values/Relevance Today
A. Themes
1. Mistaken Identity
The case of mistaken identity is the most obvious theme in The Comedy of

Errors. Shakespeare based his play on Roman playwright Plautus’

Menaechmi which also told a story of mistaken identity. Farce is the

perfect vehicle for the purposes of telling a story about mistaken identity. It

relies on the visual, as well as, on the technique of the actors and on

dramatic irony, which relies on the audience knowing more about what is

going on than the characters themselves. In The Comedy of Errors, the

audience can sit back and enjoy the hilarity of how the Dromio twins are

constantly punished for not carrying out their masters’ orders when, in fact,

they believe they have meticulously done so. We can laugh out loud at

Adriana’s situation because we know her insecurities are based on her

jealousy and she is, in all reality, responsible for her own deception. The

audience of The Comedy of Errors is privy to the farce whereas the

characters in the play have no idea what is happening.

Mistaken identity has been explored again and again over the course of

history and is still a popular premise in storytelling today. In the nineties,

movies where people were somehow transposed into another person’s

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body and vice versa were very popular. Usually these switches crossed

over gender and this naturally caused all sorts of dilemmas for the

characters.

2. Coincidence
The play’s tension hinges on coincidence. It is a coincidence that both of

the Dromio brothers are working for the Antipholus bothers; it is a

coincidence that both of the separated brothers happen to end up in the

same city as their mother and father; and it is a coincidence that neither of

the twins are in the same place at the same time until the end of the play.

When Antipholus of Syracuse arrives, the merchant pays him a thousand

marks and simultaneously cautions him that a Syracusian was arrested that

very day. Antipholus of Syracuse therefore has the chance to immediately

ransom Egeon, and be reunited with his father. However, throughout the

entire beginning, he is too self-absorbed, preferring instead to walk alone

through the street. This actually relates to the title, since Error comes from

Latin meaning, 'to wander'. This suggests that the play is really about

wandering and the character's search to find their true identities.

3. Twins and Family

In the Renaissance, family was valued very highly but not in the same

sense that it is today. Families relied on primogeniture, that is the

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continuation of family and everything the family represented, through the

male line. This passing down through the generations guaranteed that

social order was maintained. This idea of primogeniture becomes

interesting when twins are concerned, as in The Comedy of Errors. At the

end of the play the two Dromio’s remain on stage. In the Renaissance the

eldest son always has priority, but since they are twins it is impossible to

know who is the eldest. Therefore the two twins decide to enter through the

door together, rather than fight over who is eldest.

The play also highlights the various beliefs about twins and sons. Twins

used to be viewed as two separate or alternate paths that could be taken.

Sons on the other hand, were often considered to be extensions of their

fathers. In the play this emerges through an analysis of the events which

Egeon relates. After the shipwreck where Egeon is separated from his

children, he himself becomes a split man. Where he was previously

married, he is made a bachelor by the wreck. Since his sons are meant to

take after him, we see that one son is married while the other is still a

bachelor. At the end of the play, when Egeon is reunited with his wife

Emilia, both his sons also end up married, or almost in the case of Luciana

and Antipholus of Syracuse.

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4. Love And Romance
At first glance The Comedy of Errors may not appear to be the story of love

and romance but when the lights dim at the end of the play that is exactly

what it is. What else but love drives Egeon and the other Antipholus to the

forbidden city of Ephesus? What else but desire has Adriana in a flutter and

suspicious that her Antipholus of being unfaithful to her? What else but love

and loyalty keep the Dromio twins from deserting their demanding

masters? And, what does a gold chain symbolise – it is the ultimate

romantic gift from one lover to another. The story concludes with all the

lovers being united. Egeon and Emilia’s unification is especially romantic,

as they have been long suffering from their unrequited love for one another.

Today, we would call this a romantic comedy.

5. Time
The play focuses heavily on time. All the action and events in the play

unfold over 5 acts in a 24 hour period of time. Time also provides the

tension in the play by providing a set physical time to end both the action in

the play as well as the actual performance. Shakespeare requires that all

the action culminate at five o’clock, the time of Egeon’s execution,

Antipholus of Syracuse’s meeting with the merchant, and the moment when

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Angelo must pay the second merchant his money. This makes for a

suspenseful culmination of events to complete the play.

B. Values
Servants & Bondsmen—Status in The Comedy of Errors
Status plays an important role in Comedy of Errors. As servants, the

Dromio brothers have lower status than the two Antipholus brothers, their

masters. Because he is a ruler, the Duke of Ephesus has the highest status

in the play.

C. Relevance Today
Twins in Shakespeare & Popular Culture
The mistaken identity of twins is a comedic device that has been

used for centuries. Shakespeare uses the device several times in his own

work. Where can we find this device still used today in popular culture?

From Sister, Sister to The Parent Trap to Mary Kate and Ashley, the

confusions of identical twins can always be used for a laugh.

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VI. Bibliography

Allison, Sir Robert (trans.): Plautus: Five of his Plays, London: Arthur
L. Humphreys, 1914.

Asimov, Isaac. Asimov’s Guide to Shakespeare. Doubleday, 1978.

Brooks, Harold. Themes and Structure in The Comedy of Errors. Prentice

Hall, 1965.

Charney, Maurice. Shakespearean Comedy. New York Literary Forum,

1980.

Dorsch, T.S (ed.): The Comedy of Errors, Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1988.

Gibson, Janet and Rex Gibson. Discovering Shakespeare’s Language.

Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Hunt, Maurice: "Slavery, English Servitude, and The Comedy of

Errors," in English Literary Renaissance, 27(1): 31-55, Winter
1997.

Huston, J. Dennis. Shakespeare’s Comedies of Play. Columbia University

Press, 1981.

Kermode, Frank. Shakespeare’s Language. Allen Lane, The Penguin

Press, 2000.

Kinney, Arthur F. A Modern Perspective on The Comedy of Errors.

Washington Square Press. 1996.

Miola, Robert S.: Shakespeare and Classical Comedy: The Influence of

Plautus and Terence, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.

Muir, Kenneth, ed. Shakespeare: The Comedies. Prentice Hall, 1965.

Segal, Erich (trans.): Plautus: Three Comedies, New York and

London: Harper and Row, 1969.

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Whitworth, Charles. Introduction to The Comedy of Errors. Oxford
University Press, 2002.

Websites:

www.daphne.palomar.edu/shakespeare

www.bardweb.net

www.sgc.umd.edu

www.hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/engramja/Svtour.html

www.renaissance.dm.net/compendium/home.html

www.shakespeare.org.uk

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