Chapter 4 - Hydraulic Design of Open Channels, Culverts, Bridges, and Detention Structures

CHAPTER
4
Table of Contents
Chapter 4 – Hydraulic Design of Open Channels, Culverts, Bridges,
and Detention Structures
4.1 Storm Water Open Channels, Culverts, Bridges, and Detention Structure Design
Overview
4.1.1 Storm Water System Design ..................................................................................4.1-1
4.1.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................4.1-1
4.1.1.2 System Components .................................................................................4.1-1
4.1.1.3 Checklist for Planning and Design ............................................................4.1-2
4.1.2 Key Issues in Storm Water System Design ..........................................................4.1-2
4.1.2.1 Introduction................................................................................................4.1-2
4.1.2.2 General Design Considerations ................................................................4.1-3
4.1.2.3 Culverts .....................................................................................................4.1-3
4.1.2.4 Bridges ......................................................................................................4.1-3
4.1.2.5 Open Channels..........................................................................................4.1-3
4.1.2.6 Storage Design..........................................................................................4.1-4
4.1.2.7 Outlet Structures........................................................................................4.1-4
4.1.2.8 Energy Dissipaters ....................................................................................4.1-5
4.1.3 Design Storm Recommendations ..........................................................................4.1-5
Section 4.1 References ........................................................................................................4.1-7
4.2 Culvert Design

4.2.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................4.2-1
4.2.2 Symbols and Definitions.........................................................................................4.2-1
4.2.3 Design Criteria .........................................................................................................4.2-2
4.2.3.1 Frequency Flood........................................................................................4.2-2
4.2.3.2 Velocity Limitations....................................................................................4.2-2
4.2.3.3 Buoyancy Protection..................................................................................4.2-2
4.2.3.4 Length and Slope ......................................................................................4.2-2
4.2.3.5 Debris Control............................................................................................4.2-2
4.2.3.6 Headwater Limitations ...............................................................................4.2-2
4.2.3.7 Tailwater Considerations ...........................................................................4.2-3
4.2.3.8 Storage ......................................................................................................4.2-3
4.2.3.9 Culvert Inlets..............................................................................................4.2-3
4.2.3.10 Inlets with Headwalls .................................................................................4.2-3
4.2.3.11 Wingwalls and Aprons ...............................................................................4.2-4
4.2.3.12 Improved Inlets ..........................................................................................4.2-4
4.2.3.13 Material Selection ......................................................................................4.2-4
4.2.3.14 Culvert Skews............................................................................................4.2-4
4.2.3.15 Culvert Sizes .............................................................................................4.2-4
4.2.3.16 Weep Holes ...............................................................................................4.2-4
4.2.3.17 Outlet Protection........................................................................................4.2-6
4.2.3.18 Erosion and Sediment Control ..................................................................4.2-6
iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development TOC.4-1

Chapter 4 Table of Contents January 2006
4.2.3.19 Environmental Considerations ..................................................................4.2-6

4.2.3.20 Safety Considerations ...............................................................................4.2-6
4.2.4 Design Procedures ..................................................................................................4.2-7
4.2.4.1 Types of Flow Control................................................................................4.2-7
4.2.4.2 Procedures ................................................................................................4.2-7
4.2.4.3 Inlet Control Design Equations..................................................................4.2-8
4.2.4.4 Nomographs ............................................................................................4.2-11
4.2.4.5 Design Procedure....................................................................................4.2-13
4.2.4.6 Performance Curves - Roadway Overtopping ........................................4.2-14
4.2.4.7 Storage Routing.......................................................................................4.2-14
4.2.5 Culvert Design Example........................................................................................4.2-15
4.2.5.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.2-15
4.2.5.2 Example...................................................................................................4.2-15
4.2.5.3 Example Data ..........................................................................................4.2-16
4.2.5.4 Computations ..........................................................................................4.2-16
4.2.6 Design Procedures for Beveled-Edged Inlets.....................................................4.2-19
4.2.6.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.2-19
4.2.6.2 Design Figures ........................................................................................4.2-19
4.2.6.4 Design Figure Limits................................................................................4.2-19
4.2.6.5 Multibarrel Installations............................................................................4.2-20
4.2.6.6 Skewed Inlets ..........................................................................................4.2-20
4.2.7 Flood Routing and Culvert Design ......................................................................4.2-20
4.2.7.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.2-20
4.2.7.3 Comprehensive Design Guidance...........................................................4.2-21
Section 4.2 References ......................................................................................................4.2-22
4.3 Bridge Design

4.3.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................4.3-1
4.3.1.1 Bridge Hydraulics Considerations .............................................................4.3-1
4.3.1.2 Highway Stream Crossing Analysis ..........................................................4.3-1
4.3.1.3 Freeboard ..................................................................................................4.3-2
4.3.1.4 Roadway/Bridge Profile .............................................................................4.3-2
4.3.1.5 Crossing Profile .........................................................................................4.3-2
4.3.1.6 Single Versus Multiple Openings ..............................................................4.3-3
4.3.1.7 Factors Affecting Bridge Length ................................................................4.3-3
4.3.2.1 Flow Zones and Energy Losses ................................................................4.3-3
4.3.2.2 Bridge Flow Class......................................................................................4.3-5
4.3.3 Design Criteria .........................................................................................................4.3-5
4.3.3.1 Frequency Flood........................................................................................4.3-5
4.3.3.2 Freeboard ..................................................................................................4.3-5
4.3.3.3 Loss Coefficients .......................................................................................4.3-5
4.3.4 Design Procedures ..................................................................................................4.3-6
Section 4.3 References ........................................................................................................4.3-7
4.4 Open Channel Design

4.4.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................4.4-1
4.4.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................4.4-1
TOC.4-2 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development

January 2006 Chapter 4 Table of Contents
4.4.1.2 Open Channel Types.................................................................................4.4-1

4.4.3 Design Criteria .........................................................................................................4.4-3
4.4.3.1 General Criteria .........................................................................................4.4-3
4.4.3.2 Velocity Limitations....................................................................................4.4-3
4.4.4 Manning’s n Values .................................................................................................4.4-4
4.4.5 Uniform Flow Calculations .....................................................................................4.4-9
4.4.5.1 Design Charts............................................................................................4.4-9
4.4.5.2 Manning’s Equations .................................................................................4.4-9
4.4.5.3 Geometric Relationships ...........................................................................4.4-9
4.4.5.4 Direct Solutions .........................................................................................4.4-9
4.4.5.5 Trial and Error Solutions..........................................................................4.4-13
4.4.6 Critical Flow Calculations .....................................................................................4.4-15
4.4.6.1 Background .............................................................................................4.4-15
4.4.6.2 Semi-Empirical Equations .......................................................................4.4-15
4.4.7 Vegetative Design..................................................................................................4.4-18
4.4.7.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.4-18
4.4.7.2 Design Stability........................................................................................4.4-18
4.4.7.3 Design Capacity ......................................................................................4.4-19
4.4.8 Stone Riprap Design .............................................................................................4.4-21
4.4.8.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.4-21
4.4.8.2 Method #1: Maynord & Reese................................................................4.4-21
4.4.8.3 Method #2: Gregory................................................................................4.4-26
4.4.8.4 Culvert Outfall Protection ........................................................................4.4-27
4.4.9 Gabion Design........................................................................................................4.4-38
4.4.9.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.4-38
4.4.9.2 Design .....................................................................................................4.4-39
4.4.10 Uniform Flow - Example Problems ......................................................................4.4-42
4.4.11 Gradually Varied Flow ...........................................................................................4.4-44
4.4.12 Rectangular, Triangular and Trapezoidal Open Channel Design .....................4.4-45
4.4.12.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.4-45
4.4.12.2 Description of Figures..............................................................................4.4-45
4.4.12.3 Instructions for Rectangular and Trapezoidal Figures ............................4.4-45
4.4.12.4 Grassed Channel Figures .......................................................................4.4-51
4.4.12.5 Description of Figures..............................................................................4.4-51
4.4.12.6 Instructions for Grassed Channel Figures...............................................4.4-51
4.5 Storage Design

4.5.1 General Storage Concepts .....................................................................................4.5-1
4.5.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................4.5-1
4.5.1.2 Storage Classification................................................................................4.5-2
4.5.1.3 Stage-Storage Relationship ......................................................................4.5-3
4.5.1.4 Stage-Discharge Relationship...................................................................4.5-4
4.5.3 General Storage Design Procedures .....................................................................4.5-6
4.5.3.1 Introduction................................................................................................4.5-6
4.5.3.2 Data Needs................................................................................................4.5-6

4.5.3.3 Design Procedure......................................................................................4.5-6

4.5.4 Preliminary Detention Calculations .......................................................................4.5-7
4.5.4.1 Introduction................................................................................................4.5-7
4.5.4.2 Storage Volume.........................................................................................4.5-7
4.5.4.3 Alternative Method.....................................................................................4.5-8
4.5.4.4 Peak Flow Reduction.................................................................................4.5-9
4.6 Outlet Structures

4.6.2 Primary Outlets ........................................................................................................4.6-1
4.6.2.1 Introduction................................................................................................4.6-1
4.6.2.2 Outlet Structure Types...............................................................................4.6-2
4.6.2.3 Orifices ......................................................................................................4.6-3
4.6.2.4 Perforated Risers.......................................................................................4.6-6
4.6.2.5 Pipes and Culverts ....................................................................................4.6-6
4.6.2.6 Sharp-Crested Weirs .................................................................................4.6-7
4.6.2.7 Broad-Crested Weirs .................................................................................4.6-8
4.6.2.8 V-Notch Weirs ...........................................................................................4.6-9
4.6.2.9 Proportional Weirs ...................................................................................4.6-10
4.6.2.10 Combination Outlets ................................................................................4.6-10
4.6.3 Extended Detention (Water Quality and Streambank Protection) Outlet
Design .....................................................................................................................4.6-12
4.6.3.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.6-12
4.6.3.2 Method 1: Maximum Hydraulic Head with Routing .................................4.6-12
4.6.3.3 Method 2: Average Hydraulic Head and Average Discharge..................4.6-13
4.6.4 Multi-Stage Outlet Design.....................................................................................4.6-13
4.6.4.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.6-13
4.6.4.2 Multi-Stage Outlet Design Procedure......................................................4.6-14
4.6.5 Extended Detention Outlet Protection.................................................................4.6-16
4.6.6 Trash Racks and Safety Grates............................................................................4.6-18
4.6.6.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.6-18
4.6.6.2 Trash Rack Design ..................................................................................4.6-19
4.6.7 Secondary Outlets .................................................................................................4.6-21
4.6.7.1 Introduction..............................................................................................4.6-21
4.6.7.2 Emergency Spillway Design....................................................................4.6-22
4.7 Energy Dissipation

4.7.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................4.7-1
4.7.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................4.7-1
4.7.1.2 General Criteria .........................................................................................4.7-1
4.7.1.3 Recommended Energy Dissipators...........................................................4.7-1
4.7.3 Design Guidelines ...................................................................................................4.7-2
4.7.4 Riprap Aprons ..........................................................................................................4.7-4
4.7.4.1 Description.................................................................................................4.7-4
4.7.4.3 Design Considerations ..............................................................................4.7-8

4.7.4.4 Example Designs.......................................................................................4.7-8

4.7.5 Riprap Basins...........................................................................................................4.7-9
4.7.5.1 Description.................................................................................................4.7-9
4.7.5.2 Basin Features ..........................................................................................4.7-9
4.7.5.4 Design Considerations ............................................................................4.7-15
4.7.5.5 Example Designs.....................................................................................4.7-15
4.7.6 Baffled Outlets .......................................................................................................4.7-20
4.7.6.1 Description...............................................................................................4.7-20
4.7.6.3 Example Design ......................................................................................4.7-22
4.7.7 Grade Control Structures......................................................................................4.7-23
List of Tables
4.2-1 Symbols and Definitions ............................................................................................4.2-1
4.2-2 Inlet Coefficients ........................................................................................................4.2-5
4.2-3 Manning’s n Values ...................................................................................................4.2-6
4.2-4 Inlet Control Design Equations ..................................................................................4.2-9
4.2-5 Constants for Inlet Control Design Equations............................................................4.2-9
4.3-1 Recommended Loss Coefficients for Bridges ...........................................................4.3-6
4.4-2 Roughness Coefficients (Manning’s n) and Allowable Velocities for
Natural Channels .......................................................................................................4.4-4
4.4-3 Maximum Velocities for Vegetative Channel Linings.................................................4.4-5
4.4-4 Manning’s Roughness Coefficients (n) for Artificial Channels...................................4.4-6
4.4-5 Manning’s Roughness Coefficients for Design..........................................................4.4-6
4.4-6 Classification of Vegetal Covers as to Degrees of Retardance.................................4.4-8
4.4-7 Critical Depth Equations for Uniform Flow in Selected Channel Cross
Sections…................................................................................................................4.4-16
4.4-8 Values of K1 For Various Size Slopes .....................................................................4.4-40
4.4-9 Stone Sizes and Allowable Velocities for Gabions ..................................................4.4-40
4.6-2 Circular Perforation Sizing .........................................................................................4.6-5
4.6-3 Broad-Crested Weir Coefficient (C) Values...............................................................4.6-9
List of Figures
4.1-1 Compound Channel...................................................................................................4.1-4
4.2-1 Culvert Flow Conditions.............................................................................................4.2-7
4.2-2(a) Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culvert with Inlet Control ...............................4.2-11
4.2-2(b) Head for Concrete Pipe Culverts Flowing Full.........................................................4.2-12
4.2-3 Discharge Coefficients for Roadway Overtopping...................................................4.2-15
4.2-4 Culvert Design Calculation Form .............................................................................4.2-18
4.3-1 Flow Zones at Bridges ...............................................................................................4.3-4
4.3-2 Effective Geometry for Bridge (Section 2 shown, Section 3 similar) .........................4.3-4
4.4-1 Manning's n Values for Vegetated Channels ............................................................4.4-7
4.4-2 Nomograph for the Solution of Manning's Equation ................................................4.4-11
4.4-3 Solution of Manning’s Equation for Trapezoidal Channels......................................4.4-12
4.4-4 Trapezoidal Channel Capacity Chart.......................................................................4.4-14

4.4-5 Open Channel Geometric Relationships for Various Cross Sections .....................4.4-17
4.4-6 Protection Length, Lp, Downstream of Channel Bend ............................................4.4-20
4.4-7 Riprap Lining Bend Correction Coefficient ..............................................................4.4-22
4.4-8 Riprap Lining Specific Weight Correction Coefficient ..............................................4.4-23
4.4-9 Riprap Lining d30 Stone Size – Function of Mean Velocity and Depth ....................4.4-24
4.4-10 Riprap Lining Thickness Adjustment for d85/d15 = 1.0 to 2.3....................................4.4-25
4.4-11 Grain Size Curve for 8” Riprap and 6” Bedding.......................................................4.4-28
4.4-12 Grain Size Curve for 12” Riprap and 6” Bedding.....................................................4.4-29
4.4-17 Riprap Gradation Tables for 6”, 8”, 9”, and 12” Thickness of Riprap ......................4.4-34
4.4-18 Riprap Gradation Tables for 18”, 24”, 30”, and 36” Thickness of Riprap ................4.4-35
4.4-19 Typical Riprap Design Cross-Section......................................................................4.4-36
4.4-20 Typical Riprap Design for Revetment Toe Protection .............................................4.4-37
4.4-21 Gabion Basket Installed for Slope Stabilization Along a Stream.............................4.4-38
4.4-22 Gabion Mattress showing Deformation of Mattress Pockets Under High
Velocities..................................................................................................................4.4-40
4.4-23 Front-Step and Rear-Step Gabion Layout...............................................................4.4-41
4.4-24 Example Nomograph #1 ..........................................................................................4.4-47
4.5-1 Examples of Typical Storm Water Storage Facilities.................................................4.5-1
4.5-2 On-Line versus Off-Line Storage ...............................................................................4.5-2
4.5-3 Stage-Storage Curve .................................................................................................4.5-3
4.5-4 Double-End Area Method ..........................................................................................4.5-3
4.5-5 Stage-Discharge Curve .............................................................................................4.5-5
4.5-6 Triangular-Shaped Hydrographs ...............................................................................4.5-8
4.6-1 Typical Primary Outlets..............................................................................................4.6-2
4.6-2 Orifice Definitions.......................................................................................................4.6-4
4.6-3 Perforated Riser.........................................................................................................4.6-4
4.6-4 Schematic of Orifice Plate Outlet Structure ...............................................................4.6-6
4.6-5 Sharp-Crested Weir ...................................................................................................4.6-7
4.6-6 Broad-Crested Weir ...................................................................................................4.6-8
4.6-7 V-Notch Weir..............................................................................................................4.6-9
4.6-8 Proportional Weir Dimensions .................................................................................4.6-10
4.6-9 Schematic of Combination Outlet Structure ............................................................4.6-11
4.6-10 Composite Stage-Discharge Curve .........................................................................4.6-11
4.6-11 Riser Flow Diagrams ...............................................................................................4.5-15
4.6-12 Weir and Orifice Flow ..............................................................................................4.6-16
4.6-13 Reverse Slope Pipe Outlet ......................................................................................4.6-16
4.6-14 Hooded Outlet..........................................................................................................4.6-17
4.6-15 Half-Round CMP Orifice Hood.................................................................................4.6-17
4.6-16 Internal Control for Orifice Protection ......................................................................4.6-18
4.6-17 Example of Various Trash Racks Used on a Riser Outlet Structure .......................4.6-19
4.6-18 Minimum Rack Size vs. Outlet Diameter .................................................................4.6-21
4.6-19 Emergency Spillway ................................................................................................4.6-22
4.7-1 Riprap Size for Use Downstream of Energy Dissipator.............................................4.7-3
4.7-2 Design of Riprap Apron under Minimum Tailwater Conditions..................................4.7-5
4.7-3 Design of Riprap Apron under Maximum Tailwater Conditions.................................4.7-6
4.7-4 Riprap Apron..............................................................................................................4.7-7
4.7-5 Details of Riprap Outlet Basin..................................................................................4.7-11

4.7-6 Dimensionless Rating Curves for the Outlets of Rectangular Culverts

on Horizontal and Mild Slopes .................................................................................4.7-12
4.7-7 Dimensionless Rating Curves for the Outlets of Circular Culverts on
Horizontal and Mild Slopes ......................................................................................4.7-13
4.7-8 Relative Depth of Scour Hole Versus Froude Number at Brink of
Culvert with Relative Size of Riprap as a Third Variable.........................................4.7-14
4.7-9 Distribution of Centerline Velocity for Flow from Submerged Outlets to
be Used for Predicting Channel Velocities Downstream from Culvert
Outlet Where High Tailwater Prevails......................................................................4.7-16
4.7-10 Riprap Basin Design Form.......................................................................................4.7-19
4.7-11 Schematic of Baffled Outlet .....................................................................................4.7-21

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CHAPTER
4
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF OPEN
CHANNELS, CULVERTS, BRIDGES,
AND DETENTION STRUCTURES
Section 4.1
Open Channels, Bridges, and
Detention Structure Design Overview
4.1.1 Storm Water System Design
4.1.1.1 Introduction
Storm water system design is an integral component of both site and overall storm water management
design. Good drainage design must strive to maintain compatibility and minimize interference with
existing drainage patterns; control flooding of property, structures, and roadways for design flood events;
and minimize potential environmental impacts on storm water runoff.
Storm water collection systems must be designed to provide adequate surface drainage while at the
same time meeting other storm water management goals such as water quality, streambank protection,
habitat protection, and groundwater recharge.
4.1.1.2 System Components

The storm water system components consist of all the integrated site design practices and storm water
controls utilized on the site. Three considerations largely shape the design of the storm water systems:
water quality, streambank protection, and flood control.
The on-site flood control systems are designed to remove storm water from areas such as streets and
sidewalks for public safety reasons. The drainage system can consists of inlets, street and roadway
gutters, roadside ditches, small channels and swales, storm water ponds and wetlands, and small
underground pipe systems which collect storm water runoff from mid-frequency storms and transport it to
structural control facilities, pervious areas, and/or the larger storm water systems (i.e., natural waterways,
large man-made conduits, and large water impoundments).
The storm water (major) system consists of natural waterways, open channels, large man-made conduits,
and large water impoundments. In addition, the major system includes some less obvious drainageways
such as overload relief swales and infrequent temporary ponding areas. The storm water system
includes not only the trunk line system that receives the water, but also the natural overland relief which
iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development 4.1-1

4.1.2 Key Issues in Storm Water System Design January 2006
functions in case of overflow from or failure of the on-site flood control system. Overland relief must not
flood or damage houses, buildings or other property.
This chapter is intended to provide design criteria and guidance on several on-site flood control system
components, including culverts (Section 4.2), bridges (Section 4.3), vegetated and lined open channels
(Section 4.4), storage design (Section 4.5), outlet structures (Section 4.6), and energy dissipation devices
for outlet protection (Section 4.7). The rest of this section covers important considerations to keep in
mind in the planning and design of storm water drainage facilities.
4.1.1.3 Checklist for Planning and Design

The following is a general procedure for drainage system design on a development site.
A. Analyze topography, including:
1. Check off-site drainage pattern. Where is water coming onto the site? Where is water leaving
the site?
2. Check on-site topography for surface runoff and storage, and infiltration
a. Determine runoff pattern: high points, ridges, valleys, streams, and swales. Where is the
water going?
b. Overlay the grading plan and indicate watershed areas: calculate square footage (acreage),
points of concentration, low points, etc.
B. Analyze other site conditions, including:
1. Land use and physical obstructions such as walks, drives, parking, patios, landscape edging,
fencing, grassed area, landscaped area, tree roots, etc.
2. Soil type (infiltration rates).
3. Vegetative cover (slope protection).
C. Check potential drainage outlets and methods, including:
1. On-site (structural control, receiving water)
2. Off-site (highway, storm drain, receiving water, regional control)
3. Natural drainage system (swales)
4. Existing drainage system (drain pipe)
D. Analyze areas for probable location of drainage structures and facilities.
E. Identify the type and size of drainage system components required. Design the drainage system and
integrate with the overall storm water management system and plan.
4.1.2 Key Issues in Storm Water System Design
The traditional design of storm water systems has been to collect and convey storm water runoff as
rapidly as possible to a suitable location where it can be discharged. This manual takes a different
approach wherein the design methodologies and concepts of drainage design are to be integrated with
the objectives for water quantity and quality control. This means:
• Storm water systems are to remove water efficiently enough to meet flood protection criteria and level
of service requirements, and
• These systems are to complement the ability of the site design and structural storm water controls to
mitigate the major storm water impacts of urban development.
4.1-2 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development

January 2006 4.1.2 Key Issues in Storm Water System Design
The following are some of the key issues in integrating water quantity and quality control consideration in
storm water system design.
4.1.2.2 General Design Considerations

• Storm water systems should be planned and designed so as to generally conform to natural drainage
patterns and discharge to natural drainage pathways within a drainage basin. These natural drainage
pathways should only be modified as a last resort to contain and safely convey the peak flows
generated by the development.
• Runoff must be discharged in a manner that will not cause adverse impacts on downstream
properties or storm water systems. In general, runoff from development sites within a drainage basin
should be discharged at the existing natural drainage outlet or outlets. If the developer wishes to
change discharge points he or she must demonstrate that the change will not have any adverse
impacts on downstream properties or storm water (minor) systems.
• It is important to ensure that the combined on-site flood control system and major storm water system
can handle blockages and flows in excess of the design capacity to minimize the likelihood of
nuisance flooding or damage to private properties. If failure of minor storm water systems and/or
major storm water structures occurs during these periods, the risk to life and property could be
significantly increased.
• In establishing the layout of storm water systems, it is essential to ensure that flows are not diverted
onto private property during flows up to the major storm water system design capacity.
4.1.2.3 Culverts
• Culverts can serve double duty as flow retarding structures in grass channel design. Care should be
taken to design them as storage control structures if depths exceed several feet, and to ensure safety
during flows.
• Improved entrance designs can absorb considerable slope and energy for steeper sloped designs,
thus helping to protect channels.
4.1.2.4 Bridges
• Bridges enable streams to maintain flow conveyance.
• Bridges are usually designed so that they are not submerged.
• Bridges may be vulnerable to failure from flood-related causes.
• Flow velocities through bridge openings should not cause scour within the bridge opening or in the
stream reaches adjacent to the bridge.
4.1.2.5 Open Channels

• Open channels provide opportunities for reduction of flow peaks and pollution loads. They may be
designed as wet or dry enhanced swales or grass channels.
• Channels can be designed with natural meanders improving both aesthetics and pollution removal
through increased contact time.
• Grass channels generally provide better habitat than hardened channel sections, though studies have
shown that riprap interstices provide significant habitat as well. Velocities should be carefully
checked at design flows and the outer banks at bends should be specifically designed for increased
shear stress and super elevation.

4.1.2 Key Issues in Storm Water System Design January 2006
• Compound sections can be developed to carry the annual flow in the lower section and higher flows
above them. Figure 4.1-1 illustrates a compound section that carries the 2-year and 100-year flows
within banks. This reduces channel erosion at lower flows, and meandering, self-forming low flow
channels that attack banks. The shelf in the compound section should have a minimum 1:12 slope to
ensure drainage.
10-year storm
100
2-year storm
Figure 4.1-1 Compound Channel
• Flow control structures can be placed in the channels to increase residence time. Higher flows
should be calculated using a channel slope from the top of the cross piece to the next one if it is
significantly different from the channel bottom for normal depth calculations. Channel slope stability
can also be ensured through the use of grade control structures that can serve as pollution reduction
enhancements if they are set above the channel bottom. Regular maintenance is necessary to
remove sediment and keep the channels from aggrading and losing capacity for larger flows.
4.1.2.6 Storage Design

• Storm water storage within a storm water system is essential to providing the extended detention of
flows for water quality treatment and downstream streambank protection, as well as for peak flow
attenuation of larger flows for flood protection.
• Runoff storage can be provided within an on-site flood control system through the use of structural
storm water controls and/or nonstructural features.
• Storm water storage can be provided by detention, extended detention, or retention.
• Storage facilities may be provided on-site, or as regional facilities designed to manage storm water
runoff from multiple projects.
4.1.2.7 Outlet Structures

• Outlet structures provide the critical function of the regulation of flow for structural storm water
controls.
• Outlet structures may consist of a single stage outlet structure, or several outlet structures combined
to provide multi-stage outlet control.
• Smaller, more protected outlet structures should be used for water quality and streambank protection
flows.
• Large flows, such as flood flows, are typically handled through a broad crested weir, a riser with
different sized openings, a drop inlet structure, or a spillway through an embankment.

January 2006 4.1.3 Design Storm Recommendations
4.1.2.8 Energy Dissipators

• Energy dissipators should be designed to return flows to non-eroding velocities to protect
downstream channels.
• Care must be taken during construction that design criteria are followed exactly. The designs
presented in this Manual have been carefully developed through model and full-scale tests. Each
part of the criteria is important to their proper function.
4.1.3 Design Storm Recommendations

Listed below are the design storm recommendations for various storm water drainage system
components to be designed and constructed in accordance with the minimum storm water management
standards. Some jurisdictions may require that the design of storm water conveyance systems be sized
for other storm frequencies. Please consult your local review authority to determine the local
requirements. It is recommended that the full build-out conditions be used to calculate flows for the
design storm frequencies below.
Storm Drainage Systems

Including storm drainage systems and pipes that do not convey runoff under public roadways, sometimes
called lateral closed systems.
• 10- to 25-year design storm (for pipe and culvert design)
• 10- to 25-year design storm (for inlet design)
• 100-year design storm (for sumped inlets, unless overflow facilities are provided)
Roadway Culvert Design

Cross drainage facilities that transport runoff under roadways.
• 25- to 100-year design storm, or in accordance with TxDOT requirements, whichever is more
stringent. (Criteria to be taken into consideration when selecting design flow include: roadway type,
tailwater or depth of flow over road, structures, and property subject to flooding, emergency access,
and road replacement costs.)
Bridge Design
Cross drainage facilities with a span of 20 feet or larger.
• 100-year design storm
Open Channel Design

Open channels include all channels, swales, etc.
Channels may be designed with multiple stages (e.g., a low flow channel section containing the
2-year to 5-year flows, and a high flow section that contains the design discharge) to improve stability and
better mimic natural channel dimensions. Where flow easements can be obtained and structures kept
clear, overbank areas may also be designed as part of a conveyance system wherein floodplain areas
are designed for storage and/or conveyance of larger storms.

4.1.3 Design Storm Recommendations January 2006
Energy Dissipation Design

Includes all outlet protection facilities. All drainage system outlets, whether for closed conduits, culverts,
bridges, open channels, or storage facilities, should provide energy dissipation to protect the receiving
conveyance element from erosion.
• 100-year design storm (major systems)
Check Storm
Used to estimate the runoff that is routed through the drainage system and storm water management
facilities to determine the effects on the facilities, adjacent property, floodplain encroachment, and
downstream areas.

January 2006 Section 4.1 References
References
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia, River Engineering Division, 2000. Urban Stormwater
Management Manual for Malaysia (Draft).
Prince George’s County, MD, 1999. Low-Impact Development Design Strategies,

An Integrated Design Approach.
The Dewberry Companies, 2002, 2nd Edition, Land Development Handbook, McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., New York, NY.
American Society of Civil Engineers, 1993, Design and Construction of Urban Stormwater Management
Systems, Manual and Report No. 77.
Larry W. Mays, Editor, 2001, Stormwater Collection Systems Design Handbook, McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., New York, NY.

Section 4.1 References January 2006

CHAPTER
4
Section 4.2
Culvert Design
4.2.1 Overview
A culvert is a short, closed (covered) conduit that conveys storm water runoff under an embankment or
away from the street right-of-way. The primary purpose of a culvert is to convey surface water, but
properly designed it may also be used to restrict flow and reduce downstream peak flows.
The hydraulic and structural designs of a culvert must be such that minimal risks to traffic, property
damage, and failure from floods prove the results of good engineering practice and economics. For
economy and hydraulic efficiency, engineers should design culverts to operate with the inlet submerged
during flood flows, if conditions permit. Design considerations include site and roadway data, design
parameters (including shape, material, and orientation), hydrology (flood magnitude versus frequency
relation), and channel analysis (stage versus discharge relation).
4.2.2 Symbols and Definitions

To provide consistency within this section as well as throughout this Manual the symbols listed in Table
4.2-1 will be used. These symbols were selected because of their wide use.
Table 4.2-1 Symbols and Definitions

Symbol Definition Units
A Area of cross section of flow ft2
B Barrel width ft
Cd Overtopping discharge coefficient -
D Culvert diameter or barrel depth in or ft
d Depth of flow ft
dc Critical depth of flow ft
du Uniform depth of flow ft
g Acceleration of gravity ft/s
Hf Depth of pool or head, above the face section of invert ft
ho Height of hydraulic grade line above outlet invert ft
Headwater depth above invert of culvert (depth from inlet
HW ft
invert to upstream total energy grade line)
Ke Inlet loss coefficient -
L Length of culvert ft
N Number of barrels -
Q Rate of discharge cfs
S Slope of culvert ft/f
TW Tailwater depth above invert of culvert ft
V Mean velocity of flow ft/s
Vc Critical velocity ft/s

4.2.3 Design Criteria January 2006
4.2.3 Design Criteria

The design of a culvert should take into account many different engineering and technical aspects at the
culvert site and adjacent areas. The following design criteria should be considered for all culvert designs
as applicable.
4.2.3.1 Frequency Flood

See Section 4.1 or the local review authority for design storm requirements for the sizing of culverts.
The 100-year frequency storm shall be routed through all culverts to be sure building structures (e.g.,
houses, commercial buildings) are not flooded or increased damage does not occur to the highway or
adjacent property for this design event.
4.2.3.2 Velocity Limitations

Both minimum and maximum velocities should be considered when designing a culvert. The maximum
velocity should be consistent with channel stability requirements at the culvert outlet. The maximum
allowable velocity for corrugated metal pipe is 15 feet per second. There is no specified maximum
allowable velocity for reinforced concrete pipe, but outlet protection shall be provided where discharge
velocities will cause erosion problems. To ensure self-cleaning during partial depth flow, a minimum
velocity of 2.5 feet per second, for the 1-year flow, when the culvert is flowing partially full is required
4.2.3.3 Buoyancy Protection

Headwalls, endwalls, slope paving, or other means of anchoring to provide buoyancy protection should
be considered for all flexible culverts.
4.2.3.4 Length and Slope

The culvert length and slope should be chosen to approximate existing topography and, to the degree
practicable, the culvert invert should be aligned with the channel bottom and the skew angle of the
stream, and the culvert entrance should match the geometry of the roadway embankment. The maximum
slope using concrete pipe is 10% and for CMP is 14% before pipe-restraining methods must be taken.
Maximum vertical distance from throat of intake to flowline in a drainage structure is 10 feet. Drops
greater than 4 feet will require additional structural design.
4.2.3.5 Debris Control

In designing debris control structures, it is recommended that the Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9
entitled Debris Control Structures be consulted.
4.2.3.6 Headwater Limitations

Headwater is water above the culvert invert at the entrance end of the culvert. The allowable headwater
elevation is that elevation above which damage may be caused to adjacent property and/or the roadway
and is determined from an evaluation of land use upstream of the culvert and the proposed or existing
roadway elevation. It is this allowable headwater depth that is the primary basis for sizing a culvert.
The following criteria related to headwater should be considered:

• The allowable headwater is the depth of water that can be ponded at the upstream end of the culvert
during the design flood, which will be limited by one or more of the following constraints or conditions:
1. Headwater be non-damaging to upstream property
2. Ponding depth be no greater than the low point in the road grade unless overflow has been
allowed by the roadway design or at the applicable design criteria, such as the 5-year or 10-year
flood level.

January 2006 4.2.3 Design Criteria
3. Ponding depth be no greater than the elevation where flow diverts around the culvert
4. Elevations established to delineate floodplain zoning
5. 18-inch (or applicable) freeboard requirements
• The headwater should be checked for the 100-year flood to ensure compliance with flood plain
management criteria and for most facilities the culvert should be sized to maintain flood-free
conditions on major thoroughfares with 18-inch freeboard at the low-point of the road.
• The maximum acceptable outlet velocity should be identified (see subsection 4.4.3).
• Either the headwater should be set to produce acceptable velocities, or stabilization or energy
dissipation should be provided where these velocities are exceeded.
• In general, the constraint that gives the lowest allowable headwater elevation establishes the criteria
for the hydraulic calculations.
• Other site-specific design considerations should be addressed as required.
4.2.3.7 Tailwater Considerations

The hydraulic conditions downstream of the culvert site must be evaluated to determine a tailwater depth
for a range of discharge. At times there may be a need for calculating backwater curves to establish the
tailwater conditions. The following conditions must be considered:
• If the culvert outlet is operating with a free outfall, the critical depth and equivalent hydraulic grade
line should be determined.
• For culverts that discharge to an open channel, the stage-discharge curve for the channel must be
determined. See Section 4.4, Open Channel Design.
• If an upstream culvert outlet is located near a downstream culvert inlet, the headwater elevation of the
downstream culvert may establish the design tailwater depth for the upstream culvert.
• If the culvert discharges to a lake, pond, or other major water body, the expected high water elevation
of the particular water body may establish the culvert tailwater.
4.2.3.8 Storage
If storage is being assumed or will occur upstream of the culvert, refer to subsection 4.2.4.6 regarding
storage routing as part of the culvert design.
4.2.3.9 Culvert Inlets

Hydraulic efficiency and cost can be significantly affected by inlet conditions. The inlet coefficient Ke, is a
measure of the hydraulic efficiency of the inlet, with lower values indicating greater efficiency.
Recommended inlet coefficients are given in Table 4.2-2.
4.2.3.10 Inlets with Headwalls

Headwalls may be used for a variety of reasons, including increasing the efficiency of the inlet, providing
embankment stability, providing embankment protection against erosion, providing protection from
buoyancy, and shortening the length of the required structure. Headwalls are required for all metal
culverts and where buoyancy protection is necessary. If high headwater depths are to be encountered, or
the approach velocity in the channel will cause scour, a short channel apron should be provided at the toe
of the headwall.
This apron should extend at least one pipe diameter upstream from the entrance, and the top of the apron
should not protrude above the normal streambed elevation.

4.2.3.11 Wingwalls and Aprons

Wingwalls are used where the side slopes of the channel adjacent to the entrance are unstable or where
the culvert is skewed to the normal channel flow.
4.2.3.12 Improved Inlets

Where inlet conditions control the amount of flow that can pass through the culvert, improved inlets can
greatly increase the hydraulic performance of the culvert.
4.2.3.13 Material Selection

Reinforced concrete pipe (RCP), pre-cast and cast in place concrete boxes are recommended for use (1)
under a roadway, (2) when pipe slopes are less than 1%, or (3) for all flowing streams. RCP and fully
coated corrugated metal pipe can be used in all other cases. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe
may also be used as specified in the municipal regulations. Table 4.2-3 gives recommended Manning's n
values for different materials.
4.2.3.14 Culvert Skews

Culvert skews shall not exceed 45 degrees as measured from a line perpendicular to the roadway
centerline without approval.
4.2.3.15 Culvert Sizes

The minimum allowable pipe diameter shall be 18 inches.
4.2.3.16 Weep Holes

Weep holes are sometimes used to relieve uplift pressure on headwalls and concrete rip-rap. Filter
materials should be used in conjunction with the weep holes in order to intercept the flow and prevent the
formation of piping channels through the fill embankment. The filter materials should be designed as an
underdrain filter so as not to become clogged and so that piping cannot occur through the pervious
material and the weep hole.

Table 4.2-2 Inlet Coefficients
Type of Structure and Design of Entrance Coefficient Ke

Pipe, Concrete
Projecting from fill, socket end (grove-end) 0.2
Projecting from fill, square cut end 0.5
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls
Socket end of pipe (groove-end) 0.2
Square-edge 0.5
Rounded [radius = 1/12(D)] 0.2
Mitered to conform to fill slope 0.7
*End-Section conforming to fill slope 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7o or 45o bevels 0.2
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Pipe, or Pipe-Arch, Corrugated Metal1
Projecting form fill (no headwall) 0.9
Headwall or headwall and wingwalls square-edge 0.5
Mitered to fill slope, paved or unpaved slope 0.7
*End Section conforming to fill slope 0.5
Beveled edges, 33.7o or 45o bevels 0.2
Slide- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
Box, Reinforced Concrete
Headwall parallel to embankment (no wingwalls)
Square-edged on 3 edges 0.5
Rounded on 3 edges to radius of [1/12(D)] or [1/12(B)] or beveled edges on 3 sides 0.2
Wingwalls at 30o to 75o to barrel
Square-edged at crown 0.4
Crown edge rounded to radius of [1/12(D)] or beveled top edge 0.2
Wingwalls at 10o or 25o to barrel
Wingwalls parallel (extension of sides)
Side- or slope-tapered inlet 0.2
1
Although laboratory tests have not been completed on Ke values for High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) pipes, the Ke values for
corrugated metal pipes are recommended for HDPE pipes.
* Note: “End Section conforming to fill slope”, made of either metal or concrete, are the sections commonly available from
manufacturers. From limited hydraulic tests they are equivalent in operation to a headwall in both inlet and outlet control. Some
end sections incorporating a closed taper in their design have a superior hydraulic performance. These latter sections can be
designed using the information given for the beveled inlet.
Source: HDS No. 5, 2001

Table 4.2-3 Manning's n Values

Type of Conduit Wall & Joint Description Manning's n
Concrete Pipe Good joints, smooth walls 0.012
Good joints, rough walls 0.016
Poor joints, rough walls 0.017
Concrete Box Good joints, smooth finished walls 0.012
Poor joints, rough, unfinished walls 0.018
2 2/3- by ½-inch corrugations 0.024
6- by 1-inch corrugations 0.025
Corrugated Metal 5- by 1-inch corrugations 0.026
Pipes and Boxes
Annular Corrugations 3- by 1-inch corrugations 0.028
6-by 2-inch structural plate 0.035
9-by 2-1/2 inch structural plate 0.035
Corrugated Metal
Pipes, Helical
2 2/3-by ½-inch corrugated 24-inch plate width 0.012
Corrugations, Full
Circular Flow
Spiral Rib Metal Pipe 3/4 by 3/4 in recesses at 12 inch spacing, good joints 0.013
High Density Corrugated Smooth Liner 0.015
Polyethylene (HDPE) Corrugated 0.020
Polyvinyl Chloride
0.011
(PVC)
Source: HDS No. 5, 2001
Note: For further information concerning Manning n values for selected conduits consult Hydraulic Design of Highway
Culverts, Federal Highway Administration, 2001, HDS No. 5, pages 201 - 208.
4.2.3.17 Outlet Protection

See Section 4.5 for information on the design of outlet protection.
4.2.3.18 Erosion and Sediment Control

Erosion and sediment control shall be in accordance with the latest approved Soil Erosion and Sediment
Control Ordinance for the municipality.
4.2.3.19 Environmental Considerations

Where compatible with good hydraulic engineering, a site should be selected that will permit the culvert to
be constructed to cause the least impact on the stream or wetlands. This selection must consider the
entire site, including any necessary lead channels.
4.2.3.20 Safety Considerations

Roadside safety should be considered for culverts crossing under roadways. Guardrails or safety end
treatments may be needed to enhance safety at culvert crossings. The AASHTO roadside design guide
should be consulted for culvert designs under and adjacent to roadways.

January 2006 4.2.4 Design Procedures
4.2.4 Design Procedures
4.2.4.1 Types of Flow Control

There are two types of flow conditions for culverts that are based upon the location of the control section
and the critical flow depth:
Inlet Control – Inlet control occurs when the culvert barrel is capable of conveying more flow than the inlet
will accept. This typically happens when a culvert is operating on a steep slope. The control section of a
culvert is located just inside the entrance. Critical depth occurs at or near this location, and the flow
regime immediately downstream is supercritical.
Outlet Control – Outlet control flow occurs when the culvert barrel is not capable of conveying as much
flow as the inlet opening will accept. The control section for outlet control flow in a culvert is located at
the barrel exit or further downstream. Either subcritical or pressure flow exists in the culvert barrel under
these conditions.
Inlet Control Flow Condition Outlet Control Flow Condition
Water Surface Water Surface

Water Surface
Water Surface
HW
HW
TW Control
TW
Section
dc [Control Section] Downstream
A. Submerged
Water Surface
HW – Headwater H
TW – Tailwater HW
dc – Critical Depth
H – Losses Through Culvert
B. Unsubmerged dc [Control Section]
Figure 4.2-1 Culvert Flow Conditions

(Adapted from: HDS-5, 2001)
Proper culvert design and analysis requires checking for both inlet and outlet control to determine which
will govern particular culvert designs. For more information on inlet and outlet control, see the FHWA
Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, HDS-5, 2001.
4.2.4.2 Procedures
The culvert design process includes the following basic stages:
1. Define the location, orientation, shape, and material for the culvert to be designed. In many
instances, consider more than single shape and material.
2. With consideration of the site data, establish allowable outlet velocity and maximum allowable
depth of barrel.
3. Based on upon subject discharges, associated tailwater levels, and allowable headwater level,
define an overall culvert configuration to be analyzed (culvert hydraulic length, entrance
conditions, and conduit shape and material).
4. Determine the flow type (supercritical or subcritical) to establish the proper path for determination
of headwater and outlet velocity.
5. Optimize the culvert configuration.
6. Treat any excessive outlet velocity separately from headwater.

4.2.4 Design Procedures January 2006
There are three procedures for designing culverts: inlet control design equations, manual use of inlet and
outlet control nomographs, and the use computer programs such as HY8. It is recommended that the
HY8 computer model or equivalent be used for culvert design. The computer software package
HYDRAIN, which includes HY8, uses the theoretical basis from the nomographs to size culverts. In
addition, this software can evaluate improved inlets, route hydrographs, consider road overtopping, and
evaluate outlet streambed scour. By using water surface profiles, this procedure is more accurate in
predicting backwater effects and outlet scour.
4.2.4.3 Inlet Control Design Equations

This section contains explanations of the equations and methods used to develop the design charts in
HDS No. 5, where those equations and methods are not fully described in the main text. The following
topics are discussed: the design equations for the unsubmerged and submerged inlet control
nomographs, the dimensionless design curves for culvert shapes and sizes without nomographs, and the
dimensionless critical depth charts for long span culverts and corrugated metal box culverts.
Inlet Control Nomograph Equations: The design equations used to develop the inlet control
nomographs are based on the research conducted by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) under the
sponsorship of the Bureau of Public Roads (now the Federal Highway Administration). Seven progress
reports were produced as a result of this research. Of these, the first and fourth through seventh reports
dealt with the hydraulics of pipe and box culvert entrances, with and without tapered inlets (4, 7, to 10).
These reports were one source of the equation coefficients and exponents, along with other references
and unpublished FHWA notes on the development of the nomographs (56 and 57).
The two basic conditions on inlet control depend upon whether the inlet end of the culvert is or is not
submerged by the upstream headwater. If the inlet is not submerged, the inlet performs as a weir. If the
inlet is submerged, the inlet performs as an orifice. Equations are available for each of the above
conditions.
Between the unsubmerged and the submerged conditions, there is a transition zone for which the NBS
research provided only limited information. The transition zone is defined empirically by drawing a curve
between and tangent to the curves defined by the unsubmerged and submerged equations. In most
cases, the transition zone is short and the curve is easily constructed.
Table 4.2-4 contains the unsubmerged and submerged inlet control design equations. Note that there are
two forms of the unsubmerged equation. Form (1) is based on the specific head at critical depth,
adjusted with tow correction factors. Form (2) is an exponential equation similar to a weir equation. Form
(1) is preferable from a theoretical standpoint, but Form (2) is easier to apply and is the only documented
form of equation for some of the inlet control nomographs.
The constants and the corresponding equation form are given in Table 4.2-5. Table 4.2-5 is arranged in
the same order as the design nomographs in section 4.2.4.4, and provides the unsubmerged and
submerged equation coefficients for each shape, material, and edge configuration. For the unsubmerged
equations, the form of the equation is also noted.
The equations may be used to develop design curves for any conduit shape or size. Careful examination
of the equation constants for a given form of equation reveals that there is very little difference between
the constants for a given inlet configuration. Therefore, given the necessary conduit geometry for a new
shape from the manufacturer, a similar shape is chosen from Table 4.2-5, and the constants are used to
develop new design curves. The curves may be quasi-dimensionless, in terms of Q/AD0.5 and HWi/D, or
dimensional, in terms of Q and HWi for a particular conduit size. To make the curves truly dimensionless,
Q/AD0.5 must be divided by g0.5, but this results in small decimal numbers. Note that coefficients for
rectangular (Box) shapes should not be used for nonrectangular (circular, arch, pipe-arch, etc.) shapes
and vice-versa. A constant slope value of 2 percent (0.02) is usually selected for the development of

design curves. This is because the slope effect is small and the resultant headwater is conservatively
high for sites with slopes exceeding 2 percent (except for mitered inlets).
Table 4.2-4 Inlet Control Design Equations

Unsubmerged*
M
HWi H c ⎛ K Q ⎞
Form (1) = + K ⎜ u 0.5 ⎟ − 0.5S *** (4.2.1)
D D ⎝ AD ⎠
M
HWi ⎛ K Q ⎞
Form (2) = K ⎜ u 0.5 ⎟ (4.2.2)
D ⎝ AD ⎠
Submerged**
2
HWi ⎛ K Q ⎞
= c⎜ u 0.5 ⎟ + Y − 0.5S *** (4.2.3)
D ⎝ AD ⎠
Definitions
HWi Headwater depth above inlet control section invert, m (ft)
D Interior height of culvert barrel, m (ft)
Hc Specific head at critical depth (dc + Vc2/2g), m2 (ft2)
Q Discharge, m3/s (ft3/s)
A Full cross sectional area of culvert barrel, m2 (ft2)
S Culvert barrel slope, m/m (ft/ft)
K, M, c, Y Constants from Table 4.2-5
Ku 1.811 Sl (1.0 English)
* Equations 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 (unsubmerged) apply to about Q/AD0.5 = 1.93 (3.5 English)
** Equation 4.2.3 (submerged) above applies to about Q/AD0.5 = 2.21 (4.0 English)
*** For mitered inlets use +0.7 S instead of -0.5 S as the slope correction factor.
Table 4.2-5 Constants for Inlet Control Design Equations
Chart Shape and Nomograph Equation Unsubmerged Submerged

Inlet Edge Description References*
No. Material Scale Form K M c Y
1 Circular 1 Square edge w/ headwall 1 .0098 2.0 .0398 .67 56/57

Concrete 2 Groove end w/ headwall .0018 2.0 .0292 .74
3 Groove end projecting .0045 2.0 .0317 .69
2 Circular 1 Headwall 1 .0078 2.0 .0379 .69 56/57
CMP 2 Mitered to slope .0210 1.33 .0463 .75
3 Projecting .0340 1.50 .0553 .54
3 Circular A Beveled ring, 45o bevels 1 .0018 2.50 .0300 .74 57
o
B Beveled ring, 33.7 bevels .0018 2.50 .0243 .83
8 Rectangular 1 30o to 75o wingwall flares 1 .026 1.0 .0347 .81 56
Box 2 90o and 15o wingwall flares .061 .75 .0400 .80 56
o
3 0 wingwall flares .061 .75 .0423 .82 8
9 Rectangular 1 45o wingwall flare d = .043D 2 .510 .667 .0309 .80 8
Box 2 18o to 33.7o wingwall flare d = .083D .486 .667 .0249 .83
10 Rectangular 1 90o headwall w/ 3/4” chamfers 2 .515 .667 .0375 .79 8
o o
Box 2 90 headwall w/ 45 bevels .495 .667 .0314 .82
3 90 headwall w/ 33.7o bevels
o
.486 .667 .0252 .865

Table 4.2-5 Constants for Inlet Control Design Equations
Chart Shape and Nomograph Equation Unsubmerged Submerged

Inlet Edge Description References*
No. Material Scale Form K M c Y
11 Rectangular 1 3/4” chamfers; 45o skewed headwall 2 .545 .667 .04505 .73 8
Box 2 3/4” chamfers; 30o skewed headwall .533 .667 .0425 .705
o
3 3/4” chamfers; 15 skewed headwall .522 .667 .0402 .68
4 45 bevels; 10 -45o skewed headwall
o o
.498 .667 .0327 .75
12 Rectangular 1 45o non-offset wingwall flares 2 .497 .667 .0339 .803 8

Box 3/4” 2 18.4o non-offset wingwall flares .493 .667 .0361 .806
o
chamfers 3 18.4 non-offset wingwall flares .495 .667 .0386 .71
30o skewed barrel
13 Rectangular 1 45o wingwall flares - offset 2 .497 .667 .0302 .835 8

o
Box Top 2 33.7 wingwall flares - offset .495 .667 .0252 .881
Bevels 3 18.4o wingwall flares - offset .493 .667 .0227 .887
16-19 CM Boxes 2 90o headwall 1 .0083 2.0 .0379 .69 57
3 Thick wall projecting .0145 1.75 .0419 .64
5 Thin wall projecting .0340 1.5 .0496 .57
29 Horizontal 1 Square edge w/ headwall 1 .0100 2.0 .0398 .67 57
Ellipse 2 Groove end w/ headwall .0018 2.5 .0292 .74
Concrete 3 Groove end projecting .0045 2.0 .0317 .69
30 Vertical 1 Square edge w/ headwall 1 .0100 2.0 .0398 .67 57
Ellipse 2 Groove end w/ headwall .0018 2.5 .0292 .74
Concrete 3 Groove end projecting .0095 2.0 .0317 .69
34 Pipe Arch 1 90o headwall 1 .0083 2.0 .0379 .69 57
18” Corner 2 Mitered to slope .0300 1.0 .0463 .75
Radius CM 3 Projecting .0340 1.5 .0496 .57
35 Pipe Arch 1 Projecting 1 .0300 1.5 .0496 .57 56
18” Corner 2 No Bevels .0088 2.0 .0368 .68
Radius CM 3 33.7o Bevels .0030 2.0 .0269 .77
36 Pipe Arch 1 Projecting 1 .0300 1.5 .0496 .57 56
31” Corner No Bevels .0088 2.0 .0368 .68
Radius CM 33.7o Bevels .0030 2.0 .0269 .77
41-43 Arch CM 1 90o headwall 1 .0083 2.0 .0379 .69 57
2 Mitered to slope .0300 1.0 .0463 .75
3 Thin wall projecting .0340 1.5 .0496 .57
55 Circular 1 Smooth tapered inlet throat 2 .534 .555 .0196 .90 3
2 Rough tapered inlet throat .519 .64 .0210 .90
56 Elliptical Inlet 1 Tapered inlet-beveled edges 2 .536 .622 .0368 .83 3
Face 2 Tapered inlet-square edges .5035 .719 .0478 .80
3 Tapered inlet-thin edge projecting .547 .80 .0598 .75
57 Rectangular 1 Tapered inlet throat 2 .475 .667 .0179 .97 3

58 Rectangular 1 Side tapered-less favorable edges 2 .56 .667 .0446 .85 3
Concrete 2 Side tapered-more favorable edges .56 .667 .0378 .87
59 Rectangular 1 Slope tapered-less favorable edges 2 .50 .667 .0446 .65 3
Concrete Slope tapered-more favorable edges .50 .667 .0378 .71
* These references are cited in FHWA, 2001, HYD-5. They can be accessed at the Federal Highway Administration web site:
www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/hydpub.htm.

4.2.4.4 Nomographs
The use of culvert design nomographs requires a trial and error solution. Nomograph solutions provide
reliable designs for many applications. It should be remembered that velocity, hydrograph routing,
roadway overtopping, and outlet scour require additional, separate computations beyond what can be
obtained from the nomographs. Figures 4.2-2(a) and (b) show examples of an inlet control and outlet
control nomographs for the design of concrete pipe culverts. For other culvert designs, refer to the
complete set of nomographs in FHWA Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, HDS-5, 2001, Second
Edition.
This section presents design guidance for culverts originally published in HEC-12, Drainage of Highway
Pavements and AASHTO's Model Drainage Manual.
Figure 4.2-2(a) Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culvert with Inlet Control

Figure 4.2-2(b) Head for Concrete Pipe Culverts Flowing Full

4.2.4.5 Design Procedure

The following design procedure requires the use of inlet and outlet nomographs.
Step 1 List design data:
Q = discharge (cfs)
L = culvert length (ft)
S = culvert slope (ft/ft)
TW = tailwater depth (ft)
V = velocity for trial diameter (ft/s)
Ke = inlet loss coefficient
HW = allowable headwater depth for the design storm (ft)
Step 2 Determine trial culvert size by assuming a trial velocity of 3 to 5 ft/s and computing the culvert
area, A = Q/V. Determine the culvert diameter (inches).
Step 3 Find the actual HW for the trial size culvert for both inlet and outlet control.
• For inlet control, enter inlet control nomograph with D and Q and find HW/D for the proper
entrance type.
• Compute HW and, if too large or too small, try another culvert size before computing HW
for outlet control.
• For outlet control enter the outlet control nomograph with the culvert length, entrance loss
coefficient, and trial culvert diameter.
• To compute HW, connect the length scale for the type of entrance condition and culvert
diameter scale with a straight line, pivot on the turning line, and draw a straight line from
the design discharge through the turning point to the head loss scale H. Compute the
headwater elevation HW from the equation:
HW = H + ho - LS (4.2.4)
where:
ho = ½ (critical depth + D), or tailwater depth, whichever is greater
L = culvert length
S = culvert slope
Step 4 Compare the computed headwaters and use the higher HW nomograph to determine if the
culvert is under inlet or outlet control.
• If inlet control governs, then the design is complete and no further analysis is required.
• If outlet control governs and the HW is unacceptable, select a larger trial size and find
another HW with the outlet control nomographs. Since the smaller size of culvert had been
selected for allowable HW by the inlet control nomographs, the inlet control for the larger
pipe need not be checked.
Step 5 Calculate exit velocity and if erosion problems might be expected, refer to Section 4.7 for
appropriate energy dissipation designs. Energy dissipation designs may affect the outlet
hydraulics of the culvert.

4.2.4.6 Performance Curves - Roadway Overtopping

A performance curve for any culvert can be obtained from the nomographs by repeating the steps
outlined above for a range of discharges that are of interest for that particular culvert design. A graph is
then plotted of headwater versus discharge with sufficient points so that a curve can be drawn through
the range of interest. These curves are applicable through a range of headwater, velocities, and scour
depths versus discharges for a length and type of culvert. Usually charts with length intervals of 25 to 50
feet are satisfactory for design purposes. Such computations are made much easier by the use of
computer programs.
To complete the culvert design, roadway overtopping should be analyzed. A performance curve showing
the culvert flow as well as the flow across the roadway is a useful analysis tool. Rather than using a trial
and error procedure to determine the flow division between the overtopping flow and the culvert flow, an
overall performance curve can be developed.
The overall performance curve can be determined as follows:

Step 1 Select a range of flow rates and determine the corresponding headwater elevations for the
culvert flow alone. The flow rates should fall above and below the design discharge and cover
the entire flow range of interest. Both inlet and outlet control headwaters should be calculated.
Step 2 Combine the inlet and outlet control performance curves to define a single performance curve
for the culvert.
Step 3 When the culvert headwater elevations exceed the roadway crest elevation, overtopping will
begin. Calculate the equivalent upstream water surface depth above the roadway (crest of
weir) for each selected flow rate. Use these water surface depths and Equation 4.2.5 to
calculate flow rates across the roadway.
Q = CdL(HW)1.5 (4.2.5)
where:
Q = overtopping flow rate (ft3/s)
Cd = overtopping discharge coefficient
L = length of roadway (ft)
HW = upstream depth, measured from the roadway crest to the water surface
upstream of the weir drawdown (ft)
Note: See Figure 4.2-3 on the next page for guidance in determining a value for Cd. For more
information on calculating overtopping flow rates see pages 38 - 44 in HDS No. 5, 2001.
Step 4 Add the culvert flow and the roadway overtopping flow at the corresponding headwater
elevations to obtain the overall culvert performance curve.
4.2.4.7 Storage Routing

A significant storage capacity behind a highway embankment attenuates a flood hydrograph. Because of
the reduction of the peak discharge associated with this attenuation, the required capacity of the culvert,
and its size, may be reduced considerably. If significant storage is anticipated behind a culvert, the
design should be checked by routing the design hydrographs through the culvert to determine the
discharge and stage behind the culvert. See subsection 4.2.7 and Section 2.2 for more information on
routing. Additional routing procedures are outlined in Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, Section V -
Storage Routing, HDS No. 5, 2001, Federal Highway Administration, pages 123 - 142.
Note: Storage should be taken into consideration only if the storage area will remain available for the life
of the culvert as a result of purchase of ownership or right-of-way or an easement has been acquired.

January 2006 4.2.5 Culvert Design Example
Figure 4.2-3 Discharge Coefficients for Roadway Overtopping

(Source: HDS No. 5, 2001)
4.2.5 Culvert Design Example
The following example problem illustrates the procedures to be used in designing culverts using the
nomographs.
4.2.5.2 Example
Size a culvert given the following example data, which were determined by physical limitations at the
culvert site and hydraulic procedures described elsewhere in this handbook.

4.2.5 Culvert Design Example January 2006
4.2.5.3 Example Data

Input Data
Discharge for 2-yr flood = 35 cfs
Discharge for 25-yr flood = 70 cfs
Allowable Hw for 25-yr discharge = 5.25 ft
Length of culvert = 100 ft
Natural channel invert elevations - inlet = 15.50 ft, outlet = 14.30 ft
Culvert slope = 0.012 ft/ft
Tailwater depth for 25-yr discharge = 3.5 ft
Tailwater depth is the normal depth in downstream channel
Entrance type = Groove end with headwall
4.2.5.4 Computations
1. Assume a culvert velocity of 5 ft/s. Required flow area = 70 cfs/5 ft/s = 14 ft2 (for the 25-yr recurrence
flood).
2. The corresponding culvert diameter is about 48 in. This can be calculated by using the formula for
area of a circle: Area = (3.14D2)/4 or D = (Area times 4/3.14)0.5. Therefore: D = ((14 sq ft x 4)/3.14)
0.5
x 12 in/ft) = 50.7 in
3. A grooved end concrete culvert with a headwall is selected for the design. Using the inlet control
nomograph (Figure 4.2-2(a)), with a pipe diameter of 48 inches and a discharge of 70 cfs; read a
HW/D value of 0.93.
4. The depth of headwater (HW) is (0.93) x (4) = 3.72 ft, which is less than the allowable headwater of
5.25 ft. Since 3.72 ft is considerably less than 5.25 try a small culvert.
5. Using the same procedures outlined in steps 4 and 5 the following results were obtained.
42-inch culvert – HW = 4.13 ft
36-inch culvert – HW = 5.04 ft
Select a 36-inch culvert to check for outlet control.
6. The culvert is checked for outlet control by using Figure 4.2-2(b).
With an entrance loss coefficient Ke of 0.20, a culvert length of 100 ft, and a pipe diameter of 36 in.,
an H value of 2.8 ft is determined. The headwater for outlet control is computed by the equation: HW
= H + ho - LS
Compute ho
ho = Tw or ½ (critical depth in culvert + D), whichever is greater.
ho = 3.5 ft or ho = ½ (2.7 + 3.0) = 2.85 ft
Note: critical depth is obtained from Figure 3.2-18(b).
Therefore: ho = 3.5 ft
The headwater depth for outlet control is:
HW = H + ho - LS = 2.8 + 3.5 - (100) x (0.012) = 5.10 ft
7. Since HW for outlet control (5.10 ft) is greater than the HW for inlet control (5.04 ft), outlet control
governs the culvert design. Thus, the maximum headwater expected for a 25-year recurrence flood
is 5.10 ft, which is less than the allowable headwater of 5.25 ft.

January 2006 4.2.5 Culvert Design Example
8. Estimate outlet exit velocity. Since this culvert is an outlet control and discharges into an open
channel downstream with tailwater above culvert, the culvert will be flowing full at the flow depth in
the channel. Using the design peak discharge of 70 cfs and the area of a 36-inch or 3.0-foot diameter
culvert the exit velocity will be:
Q = VA
Therefore: V = 70 / (3.14(3.0)2)/4 = 9.9 ft/s
With this high velocity, consideration should be given to provide an energy dissipator at the culvert
outlet. See Section 4.7 (Energy Dissipation Design).
9. Check for minimum velocity using the 2-year flow of 35 cfs.
Therefore: V = 35 / (3.14(3.0)2/4 = 5.0 ft/s > minimum of 2.5 - OK
10. The 100-year flow should be routed through the culvert to determine if any flooding problems will be
associated with this flood.
Figure 4.2-4 provides a convenient form to organize culvert design calculations.

4.2.5 Culvert Design Example January 2006
Figure 4.2-4 Culvert Design Calculation Form

(Source: HDS No. 5, 2001)

January 2006 4.2.6 Design Procedures for Beveled Edged Inlets
4.2.6 Design Procedures for Beveled-Edged Inlets
Improved inlets include inlet geometry refinements beyond those normally used in conventional culvert
design practice. Several degrees of improvements are possible, including bevel-edged, side-tapered,
and slope-tapered inlets. Those designers interested in using side- and slope-tapered inlets should
consult the detailed design criteria and example designs outlined in the U. S. Department of
Transportation publication Hydraulic Design Series No. 5 entitled, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts.
4.2.6.2 Design Figures

Four inlet control figures for culverts with beveled edges are found in Appendix D of HDS No. 5.
Chart Page Use for
3 D-3A & B circular pipe culverts with beveled rings

10 D-10A & B 90o headwalls (same for 90 o wingwalls)
11 D-11A & B skewed headwalls
112 D-12A & B wingwalls with flare angles of 18 to 45 degrees
The following symbols are used in these figures:

B – Width of culvert barrel or diameter of pipe culvert
D – Height of box culvert or diameter of pipe culvert
Hf – Depth of pool or head, above the face section of invert
N – Number of barrels
Q – Design discharge

The figures for bevel-edged inlets are used for design in the same manner as the conventional inlet
design nomographs discussed earlier. Note that Charts 10, 11, and 12 in subsection 4.2.8 apply only to
bevels having either a 33o angle (1.5:1) or a 45o angle (1:1).
For box culverts the dimensions of the bevels to be used are based on the culvert dimensions. The top
bevel dimension is determined by multiplying the height of the culvert by a factor. The side bevel
dimensions are determined by multiplying the width of the culvert by a factor. For a 1:1 bevel, the factor
is 0.5 inch/ft. For a 1.5:1 bevel the factor is 1 inch/ft. For example, the minimum bevel dimensions for an
8 ft x 6 ft box culvert with 1:1 bevels would be:
Top Bevel = d = 6 ft x 0.5 inch/ft = 3 inches
Side Bevel = b = 8 ft x 0.5 inch/ft = 4 inches
For a 1.5:1 bevel computations would result in d = 6 and b = 8 inches.
4.2.6.4 Design Figure Limits

The improved inlet design figures are based on research results from culvert models with barrel width, B,
to depth, D, ratios of from 0.5:1 to 2:1. For box culverts with more than one barrel, the figures are used in
the same manner as for a single barrel, except that the bevels must be sized on the basis of the total
clear opening rather than on individual barrel size.

4.2.7 Flood Routing and Culvert Design January 2006
For example, in a double 8 ft by 8 ft box culvert:

Top Bevel is proportioned based on the height of 8 feet, which results in a bevel of 4 in. for the 1:1 bevel
and 8 in. for the 1.5:1 bevel.
Side Bevel is proportioned based on the clear width of 16 feet, which results in a bevel of 8 in. for the 1:1
bevel and 16 in. for the 1.5:1 bevel.
4.2.6.5 Multibarrel Installations

For multibarrel installations exceeding a 3:1 width to depth ratio, the side bevels become excessively
large when proportioned on the basis of the total clear width. For these structures, it is recommended
that the side bevel be sized in proportion to the total clear width, B, or three times the height, whichever is
smaller.
The top bevel dimension should always be based on the culvert height.
The shape of the upstream edge of the intermediate walls of multibarrel installations is not as important to
the hydraulic performance of a culvert as the edge condition of the top and sides. Therefore, the edges of
these walls may be square, rounded with a radius of one-half their thickness, chamfered, or beveled. The
intermediate walls may also project from the face and slope downward to the channel bottom to help
direct debris through the culvert.
Multibarrel pipe culverts should be designed as a series of single barrel installations since each pipe
requires a separate bevel.
4.2.6.6 Skewed Inlets

It is recommended that Chart 11 for skewed inlets not be used for multiple barrel installations, as the
intermediate wall could cause an extreme contraction in the downstream barrels. This would result in
underdesign due to a greatly reduced capacity. Skewed inlets (at an angle with the centerline of the
stream) should be avoided whenever possible and should not be used with side- or slope-tapered inlets.
It is important to align culverts with streams in order to avoid erosion problems associated with changing
the direction of the natural stream flow.
4.2.7 Flood Routing and Culvert Design
Flood routing through a culvert is a practice that evaluates the effect of temporary upstream ponding
caused by the culvert's backwater. By not considering flood routing it is possible that the findings from
culvert analyses will be conservative. If the selected allowable headwater is accepted without flood
routing, then costly over-design of both the culvert and outlet protection may result, depending on the
amount of temporary storage involved. However, if storage is used in the design of culverts,
consideration should be given to:
• The total area of flooding,
• The average time that bankfull stage is exceeded for the design flood up to 48 hours in rural areas or
6 hours in urban areas, and
• Ensuring that the storage area will remain available for the life of the culvert through the purchase of
right-of-way or easement.

January 2006 4.2.7 Flood Routing and Culvert Design

The design procedure for flood routing through a culvert is the same as for reservoir routing. The site
data and roadway geometry are obtained and the hydrology analysis completed to include estimating a
hydrograph. Once this essential information is available, the culvert can be designed. Flood routing
through a culvert can be time consuming. It is recommended that a computer program be used to
perform routing calculations; however, an engineer should be familiar with the culvert flood routing design
process.
A multiple trial and error procedure is required for culvert flood routing. In general:
Step 1 A trial culvert(s) is selected
Step 2 A trial discharge for a particular hydrograph time increment (selected time increment to
estimate discharge from the design hydrograph) is selected
Step 3 Flood routing computations are made with successive trial discharges until the flood routing
equation is satisfied
Step 4 The hydraulic findings are compared to the selected site criteria
Step 5 If the selected site criteria are satisfied, then a trial discharge for the next time increment is
selected and this procedure is repeated; if not, a new trial culvert is selected and the entire
procedure is repeated.
4.2.7.3 Comprehensive Design Guidance

Comprehensive design discussions and guidance may be found in the Federal Highway Administration,
National Design Series No. 5, document entitled Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, Second Edition,
published in 2001. This document is available from the National Technical Information Service as Item
Number PB2003102411*DL. (http://www.ntis.gov/search.htm) Search for this document using the Item
Number.

References
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 1982. Highway Drainage
Guidelines.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 1998. Model Drainage Manual.
Debo, Thomas N. and Andrew J. Reese, 1995. Municipal Storm Water Management. Lewis Publishers.
Federal Highway Administration, 1978. Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways. Hydraulic Design Series No. 1.
Federal Highway Administration, 2001. Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts. Hydraulic Design Series
No. 5. (Downloadable from the Internet http://www.ntis.gov/search.htm, Item Number
PB2003102411*DL)
Federal Highway Administration, 1971. Debris-Control Structures. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9.
Federal Highway Administration, 1987. HY8 Culvert Analysis Microcomputer Program Applications
Guide. Hydraulic Microcomputer Program HY8.
Federal Highway Administration, 2001. Urban Drainage Design Manual, Second Edition. Hydraulic
Engineering Circular No. 22.
Federal Highway Administration Internet Site for Publications,

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/hypub.htm#hds.
HYDRAIN Culvert Computer Program (HY8). Available from McTrans Software, University of Florida, 512
Weil Hall, Gainesville, Florida 32611.
HYDRAIN for Windows available at GKY and Associates, Inc., Springfield, Virginia
(http://www.gky.com/HFW/.)
U. S. Department of Interior, 1983. Design of Small Canal Structures.

CHAPTER
4
Section 4.3
Bridge Design
4.3.1 Overview
Bridges enable streams to maintain flow conveyance and to sustain aquatic life. They are important and
expensive highway hydraulic structures vulnerable to failure from flood related causes. In order to
minimize the risk of failure, the hydraulic requirements of a stream crossing must be recognized and
considered during the development, construction, and maintenance phases.
This section addresses structures designed hydraulically as bridges, regardless of length. For economy
and hydraulic efficiency, engineers should design culverts to operate with the inlet submerged during
flood flows, if conditions permit. Bridges, on the other hand, are not covered with embankment or
designed to take advantage of submergence to increase hydraulic capacity, even though some are
designed to be inundated under flood conditions. This discussion of bridge hydraulics considers the total
crossing, including approach embankments and structures on the floodplains.
The following subsections present considerations related to the hydraulics of bridges. It is generally
excerpted from Chapter 9 of the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) Hydraulics Design Manual
dated March 2004.
4.3.1.1 Bridge Hydraulics Considerations

When beginning analysis for a cross-drainage facility, the flood frequency and stage-discharge curves
should first be established, as well as the type of cross-drain facility. The choice is usually between a
bridge and a culvert. Bridges are usually chosen if the discharge is significant or if the stream to be
crossed is large in extent. Both types of facilities should be evaluated and a choice made based on
performance and economics. If the stream crossing is wide with multiple concentrations of flow, a
multiple opening facility may be in order.
4.3.1.2 Highway-Stream Crossing Analysis

The hydraulic analysis of a highway-stream crossing for a particular flood frequency involves:
• Determining the backwater associated with each alternative profile and waterway opening(s)
• Determining the effects on flow distribution and velocities
• Estimating scour potential
The hydraulic design of a bridge over a waterway involves the following such that the risks associated
with backwater and increased velocities are not excessive:
• Establishing a location
• Bridge length
• Orientation
• Roadway and bridge profiles

4.3.1 Overview January 2006
A hydrologic and hydraulic analysis is recommended for designing all new bridges over waterways,
bridge widening, bridge replacement, and roadway profile modifications that may adversely affect the
floodplain, even if no structural modifications are necessary. Typically, this should include the following:
• An estimate of peak discharge (sometimes complete runoff hydrographs)

• Existing and proposed condition water surface profiles for design and check flood conditions
• Consideration of the potential for stream stability problems and scour potential.
4.3.1.3 Freeboard
Navigational clearance and other reasons notwithstanding, the low chord elevation is defined as the sum
of the design normal water surface elevation (high water) and a freeboard. For on system TxDOT
bridges, TxDOT recommends a minimum freeboard of 2 ft to allow for passage of floating debris and to
provide a safety factor for design flood flow. Higher freeboards may be appropriate over streams that are
prone to heavy debris loads, such as large tree limbs, and to accommodate other clearance needs.
Other constraints may make lower freeboards desirable, but the low chord should not impinge on the
design high water. Generally, for off-system bridge replacement structures, the low chord should
approximate that of the structure to be replaced, unless the results of a risk assessment indicate a
different structure is the most beneficial option.
4.3.1.4 Roadway/Bridge Profile

A bridge is integrated into both the stream and the roadway and must be fully compatible with both.
Therefore, the alignment of the roadway and the bridge are the same between the ends of the bridge.
Hydraulically, the complete bridge profile can be any part of the structure that stream flow can strike or
impact in its movement downstream. If the stream gets high enough to inundate the structure, then all
parts of the roadway and the bridge become part of the complete bridge profile.
For TxDOT design, the roadway must not be inundated by the design flood, but inundation by the 100-
year flood is allowed. Unless the route is an emergency escape route, it is often desirable to allow floods
in excess of the design flood to overtop the road. This helps minimize both the backwater and the
required length of structure.
Several vertical alignment alternatives are available for consideration, depending on site topography,
traffic requirements, and flood damage potential. The alternatives range from crossings that are designed
to overtop frequently to crossings that are designed to rarely or never overtop.
4.3.1.5 Crossing Profile

The horizontal alignment of a highway at a stream crossing should be taken into consideration when
selecting the design and location of the waterway opening as well as the crossing profile. Every effort
should be made to align the highway so that the crossing will be normal to the stream flow direction
(highway centerline perpendicular to the streamline).
Often, this is not possible because of the highway or stream configuration. When a skewed structure is
necessary, it should be ensured that substructure fixtures such as foundations, columns, piers, and bent
caps offer minimum resistance to the stream flow.
Bent caps should be oriented as near to the skew of the streamlines at flood stage as possible. Headers
should be skewed to minimize eddy-causing obstructions. A relief opening may be provided to reduce
the likelihood of trapped flow and minimize the amount of flow that would have to travel up against the
general direction of flow along the embankment.

January 2006 4.3.2 Symbols and Definitions
4.3.1.6 Single Versus Multiple Openings

For a single structure, the flow will find its way to an opening until the roadway is overtopped. If two or
more structures have flow area available, after accumulating a head, the flow will divide and proceed to
the structures offering the least resistance. The point of division is called a stagnation point.
In usual practice, the TxDOT recommends that the flood discharge be forced to flow parallel to the
highway embankment for no more than about 800 ft. If flow distances along the embankment are greater
than recommended, an additional relief structure or opening should be considered. A possible alternative
to the provision of an additional structure is a guide bank (spur dike) to control the turbulence at the
header. Also, natural vegetation between the toe of slope and the right-of-way line is useful in controlling
flow along the embankment. Therefore, special efforts should be made to preserve any natural
vegetation in such a situation.
4.3.1.7 Factors Affecting Bridge Length

The discussions of bridge design assume normal cross sections and lengths (perpendicular to flow at
flood stage). Usually one-dimensional flow is assumed, and cross sections and lengths are considered
90° to the direction of stream flow at flood stage.
If the crossing is skewed to the stream flow at flood stage, all cross sections and lengths should be
normalized before proceeding with the bridge length design. If the skew is severe and the floodplain is
wide, the analysis may need to be adjusted to offset the effects of elevation changes within the same
cross section.
The following examples illustrate various factors that can cause a bridge opening to be larger than that
required by hydraulic design.
• Bank protection may be placed in a certain location due to local soil instability or a high bank.
• Bridge costs may be cheaper than embankment costs.
• A highway profile grade line might dictate an excessive freeboard allowance. For sloping
abutments, a higher freeboard will result in a longer bridge.
• High potential for meander to migrate, or other channel instabilities may warrant a longer
opening.

The hydraulics of bridge openings are basically the same as those of open channel flow. Therefore, the
symbols and definitions are essentially the same as those of Section 4.4.2 presented in Table 4.4-1.
There are other definitions unique to bridges which are presented here. They are defined in the TxDOT
Hydraulic Design Manual.
4.3.2.1 Flow Zones and Energy Losses

Figure 4.3-1 shows a plan of typical cross section locations that establish three flow zones that should be
considered when estimating the effects of bridge openings.
Zone 1 represents the area between the downstream face of the bridge and a cross section downstream
of the bridge within which expansion of flow from the bridge is expected to occur. The distance over
which this expansion occurs can vary depending on the flow rate and the floodplain characteristics. No
detailed guidance is available, but a distance equal to about four times the length of the average
embankment constriction is reasonable for most situations. Section 1 represents the effective channel
flow geometry at the end of the expansion zone, which is also called the “exit” section. Cross sections 2
and 3 are at the toe of roadway embankment and represent the portion of unconstricted channel
geometry that approximates the effective flow areas near the bridge opening as shown in Figure 4.3-2.

4.3.2 Symbols and Definitions January 2006
Zone 2 represents the area under the bridge opening through which friction, turbulence, and drag losses
are considered. Generally, the bridge opening is obtained by superimposing the bridge geometry on
cross sections 2 and 3.
Zone 3 represents an area from the upstream face of the bridge to a distance upstream where the
contraction of flow must occur. A distance upstream of the bridge equal to the length of the average
embankment constriction is a reasonable approximation of the location at which contraction begins.
Cross section 4 represents the effective channel flow geometry where contraction begins. This is
sometimes referred to as the “approach” cross section.
Figure 4.3-1 Flow Zones at Bridges

(TxDOT Hydraulic Design Manual)
Figure 4.3-2 Effective Geometry for Bridge (Section 2 shown, Section 3 similar)
(TxDOT Hydraulic Design Manual)

4.3.2.2 Bridge Flow Class

The losses associated with flow through bridges depend on the hydraulic conditions of low or high flow.
Low flow describes hydraulic conditions in which the water surface between Zones 1, 2, and 3 is open to
atmospheric pressure. That means the water surface does not impinge upon the superstructure. (This
condition should exist for the design frequency of all new on-system bridges.) Low flow is divided into
categories as described in the “Low Flow Classes” table below Type I is the most common in Texas,
although severe constrictions compared to the flow conditions could result in Types IIA and IIB. Type III
is likely to be limited to steep hills and mountainous regions.
Low
Flow Description
Class
I Subcritical flow through all Zones
IIA Subcritical flow through Zones 1 and 3; flow through critical depth in Zone 2
IIB Subcritical flow through Zone 3; flow through critical depth in Zone 2, hydraulic jump in Zone 1
III Supercritical flow through all Zones
High flow refers to conditions in which the water surface impinges on the bridge superstructure:
• When the tailwater does not submerge the low chord of the bridge, the flow condition is
comparable to a pressure flow sluice gate.
• When the tailwater submerges the low chord but does not exceed the elevation of critical depth
over the road, the flow condition is comparable to orifice flow.
• If the tailwater overtops the roadway, neither sluice gate flow nor orifice flow is reasonable, and
the flow is either weir flow or open flow.

The design of a bridge should take into account many different engineering and technical aspects at the
bridge site and adjacent areas. The following design criteria should be considered for all bridge designs
as applicable. See the Local Criteria section of this manual for additional considerations.
4.3.3.1 Frequency Flood

Design discharges chosen by TxDOT for bridges vary with the functional classification and structure type.
For major river crossings, a return period of 50 years is recommended. Flow small bridges, the
recommended return period is 25 years. In all cases the check flood is for the 100-year return period.
4.3.3.2 Freeboard
Typical freeboard, the length between the computed design water surface and the low chord, is two feet.
In urban settings, it may be prudent to use the 100-year fully-developed discharge to check the bridge
design. The 100-year flood discharge, assuming blockage of outlet works, with 6” of freeboard. Some
municipalities may specify different design storms and freeboard requirements.
4.3.3.3 Loss Coefficients

The contraction and expansion of water through the bridge opening creates hydraulic losses. These
losses are accounted for through the use of loss coefficients. Table 4.3-1 gives recommended values for
the Contraction (Kc) and Expansion (Ke) Coefficients.

Table 4.3-1 Recommended Loss Coefficients for Bridges
Transition Type Contraction (Kc) Expansion (Ke)
No losses computed 0.0 0.0

Gradual transition 0.1 0.3
Typical bridge 0.3 0.5
Severe transition 0.6 0.8
4.3.4 Design Procedures

The following is a general bridge hydraulic design procedure.
1. Determine the most efficient alignment of proposed roadway, attempting to minimize skew at the
proposed stream crossing.
2. Determine design discharge from hydrologic studies or available data (City, Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA), US Army Corp of Engineers (USACE), TxDOT, or similar
sources).
3. If available, obtain effective FEMA hydraulic backwater model. It is assumed that if a bridge is
required instead of a culvert, the drainage area would exceed one square mile and could already
be included in a FEMA study. If an effective FEMA model or other model is not available, a basic
hydrologic model and backwater analysis for the stream must be prepared. The HEC-RAS
computer model is routinely used to compute backwater water surface profiles.
4. Using USACE or FEMA guidelines, compute or duplicate an existing conditions water surface
profile for the design storm(s). Compute a profile for the fully-developed watershed to use as a
baseline for design of a new bridge/roadway crossing.
5. Use the design discharge to compute an approximate opening that will be needed to pass the
design storm (for preliminary sizing, use a normal-depth design procedure, or simply estimate a
required trapezoidal opening.
6. Prepare a bridge crossing data set in the hydraulic model to reflect the preliminary design
opening, which includes the required freeboard and any channelization upstream or downstream
to transition the floodwaters through the proposed structure.
7. Compute the proposed bridge flood profile and design parameters (velocities, flow distribution,
energy grade, etc.). Review for criteria on velocities and freeboard, and revise model as needed
to accommodate design flows.
8. Review the velocities and determine erosion control requirements downstream, through the
structure, and upstream.
9. Finalize the design size and erosion control features, based on comparing the proposed model
with the existing conditions profiles, impacts on other properties, FEMA guidelines, and Local
Criteria.
10. Exceptions/Other Issues
A. Conditional Letter of Map Amendment (CLOMR) may be needed for new crossings of
streams studied by FEMA.
B. If applicable, coordinate with USACE Regulatory Permit requirements.
C. Evaluate the project with respect to iSWM policy regarding downstream impacts.
D. Design should be for fully developed watershed conditions. If the available discharges
are from FEMA existing conditions hydrology, the following options are available: (1)
obtain new hydrology, (2) extrapolate fully-developed from existing data, or (3) variance
from the local jurisdiction on design discharges
E. Freeboard criteria may require an unusually expensive bridge or impracticable roadway
elevation. A reasonable variance in criteria from the local jurisdiction may be available.

References
Texas Department of Transportation, March 2004. Hydraulic Design Manual. Available at
http://manuals.dot.state.tx.us/dynaweb/colbridg/hyd/@Generic__BookView.


CHAPTER
4
Section 4.4
Open Channel Design
4.4.1 Overview
Open channel systems and their design are an integral part of storm water drainage design, particularly
for development sites utilizing better site design practices and open channel structural controls. Open
channels include drainage ditches, grass channels, dry and wet enhanced swales, stone riprap channels
and concrete-lined channels.
The purpose of this section is to provide an overview of open channel design criteria and methods,
including the use of channel design nomographs.
4.4.1.2 Open Channel Types

The three main classifications of open channel types according to channel linings are vegetated, flexible,
and rigid. Vegetated linings include grass with mulch, sod and lapped sod, and wetland channels. Stone
riprap and some forms of flexible man-made linings or gabions are examples of flexible linings, while rigid
linings are generally concrete or rigid block.
Vegetative Linings – Vegetation, where practical, is the most desirable lining for an artificial channel. It
stabilizes the channel body, consolidates the soil mass of the bed, checks erosion on the channel
surface, provides habitat, and provides water quality benefits (see Section 1.4 and Chapter 3 for more
details on using enhanced swales and grass channels for water quality purposes).
Conditions under which vegetation may not be acceptable include but are not limited to:
• High velocities
• Standing or continuously flowing water
• Lack of regular maintenance necessary to prevent growth of taller or woody vegetation
• Lack of nutrients and inadequate topsoil
• Excessive shade
Proper seeding, mulching, and soil preparation are required during construction to assure establishment
of healthy vegetation.
If low flows are prevalent, a hard lined pilot channel may be needed, and it should be wide enough to
accommodate maintenance equipment. Whether to allow pilot channels should be included in the local
criteria section.
Flexible Linings – Rock riprap, including rubble and gabion baskets, is the most common type of flexible
lining for channels. It presents a rough surface that can dissipate energy and mitigate increases in
erosive velocity. These linings are usually less expensive than rigid linings and have self-healing qualities

4.4.2 Symbols and Definitions January 2006
that reduce maintenance. However, they may require the use of a filter fabric depending on the
underlying soils, and the growth of grass, weeds, and trees may present maintenance problems.
Rigid Linings – Rigid linings are generally constructed of concrete and used where high flow capacity is
required. Higher velocities, however, create the potential for scour at channel lining transitions and
channel headcutting.

To provide consistency within this section as well as throughout this Manual, the symbols listed in Table
4.4-1 will be used. These symbols were selected because of their wide use. In some cases, the same
symbol is used in existing publications for more than one definition. Where this occurs in this section, the
symbol will be defined where it occurs in the text or equations.

α Energy coefficient -
A Cross-sectional area ft2
b Bottom width ft
Cg Specific weight correction factor -
D or d Depth of flow ft
d Stone diameter ft
delta d Super-elevation of the water surface profile ft
Diameter of stone for which x percent, by weight,
dx ft
of the gradation is finer
E Specific energy ft
Fr Froude Number -
g Acceleration of gravity 32.2 ft/s2
hloss Head loss ft
K Channel conveyance -
ke Eddy head loss coefficient ft
KT Trapezoidal open channel conveyance factor -
L Length of channel ft
Lp Length of downstream protection ft
n Manning's roughness coefficient -
P Wetted perimeter ft
Q Discharge rate cfs
R Hydraulic radius of flow ft
Rc Mean radius of the bend ft
S Slope ft/ft
SWs Specific weight of stone lbs/ft3
T Top width of water surface ft
V or v Velocity of flow ft/s
w Stone weight lbs
yc Critical depth ft

yn Normal depth ft
z Critical flow section factor -
4.4.3.1 General Criteria

The following criteria should be followed for open channel design:
• Channels with bottom widths greater than 10 feet shall be designed with a minimum bottom cross
slope of 12 to 1, or with compound cross sections.
• Channel side slopes shall be stable throughout the entire length and the side slope shall depend on
the channel material. A maximum of 2:1 should be used for channel side slopes, unless otherwise
justified by calculations. Roadside ditches should have a maximum side slope of 3:1.
• Trapezoidal or parabolic cross sections are preferred over triangular shapes.
• For vegetative channels, design stability should be determined using low vegetative retardance
conditions (Class D) and for design capacity higher vegetative retardance conditions (Class C) should
be used.
• For vegetative channels, flow velocities within the channel should not exceed the maximum
permissible velocities given in Tables 4.4-2 and 4.4-3.
• If relocation of a stream channel is unavoidable, the cross-sectional shape, meander, pattern,
roughness, sediment transport, and slope should conform to the existing conditions insofar as
practicable. Some means of energy dissipation may be necessary when existing conditions cannot
be duplicated.
• Streambank stabilization should be provided, when appropriate, as a result of any stream disturbance
such as encroachment and should include both upstream and downstream banks as well as the local
site.
• Open channel drainage systems are typically sized to handle a 25-year design storm. The 100-year
design storm should be routed through the channel system to determine if the 100-year plus
applicable building elevation restrictions are exceeded, structures are flooded, or flood damages
increased.
• HEC-RAS is typically used to confirm the water surface profiles in open channels, and due to the
complexity of hydraulic elements in roadside ditches (open channels), it should be used to evaluate
water surface profiles in roadside ditches as well.
4.4.3.2 Velocity Limitations

The final design of artificial open channels should be consistent with the velocity limitations for the
selected channel lining. Recommended maximum velocity values for selected lining categories are
presented in Table 4.4-2. Seeding and mulch should only be used when the design value does not
exceed the allowable value for bare soil. Velocity limitations for vegetative linings are reported in Table
4.4-3. Vegetative lining calculations are presented in Section 4.4.7 and stone riprap procedures are
presented in Section 4.4.8.
Typically, local design limits the velocity to 15 fps in concrete lined channels. For gabions typical design
velocities range from 10 fps for 6-inch mattresses up to 15 fps for 1-foot mattresses. Some
manufacturers indicate that velocities of 20 fps are allowable for basket installations. No specific velocity
limit is appropriate for rock riprap. The design of stable riprap lining depends upon the intersection of the
velocity (local boundary shear) and the size and gradation of the riprap material. In general, velocity
limitations should be set by the local jurisdiction.

4.4.4 Manning’s n Values January 2006
4.4.4 Manning's n Values

The Manning's n value is an important variable in open channel flow computations. Variation in this
variable can significantly affect discharge, depth, and velocity estimates. Since Manning's n values
depend on many different physical characteristics of natural and man-made channels, care and good
engineering judgment must be exercised in the selection process.
Recommended Manning's n values for artificial channels with rigid, unlined, temporary, and stone riprap
linings are given in Table 4.4-4. Recommended values for vegetative linings should be determined using
Figure 4.4-1, which provides a graphical relationship between Manning's n values and the product of
velocity and hydraulic radius for several vegetative retardance classifications (see Table 4.4-6). Figure
4.4-1 is used iteratively as described in Section 4.4.6. Recommended Manning's values for natural
channels that are either excavated or dredged, and natural are given in Table 4.4-2. For natural
channels, Manning's n values should be estimated using experienced judgment and information
presented in publications such as the Guide for Selecting Manning's Roughness Coefficients for Natural
Channels and Flood Plains, FHWA-TS-84-204, 1984, FHWA HEC-15, 1988, or Chow, 1959. Some of
these values are given in Table 4.4-2 below.
Table 4.4-2 Roughness Coefficients (Manning’s n) and Allowable Velocities for Natural
Channels
Maximum
Permissible
Channel Description Manning’s n
Channel Velocity
(ft/s)
MINOR NATURAL STREAMS
Fairly regular section
1. Some grass and weeds; little or no brush 0.030 3 to 6
2. Dense growth of weeds, depth of flow
0.035 3 to 6
materially greater than weed height
3. Some weeds, light brush on banks 0.035 3 to 6
4. Some weeds, heavy brush on banks 0.050 3 to 6
5. Some weeds, dense willows on banks 0.060 3 to 6
For trees within channels with branches submerged at
0.010
high stage, increase above values by
Irregular section with pools, slight channel meander,
0.010
increase above values by
Floodplain – Pasture
1. Short grass 0.030 3 to 6
2. Tall grass 0.035 3 to 6
Floodplain – Cultivated Areas
1. No crop 0.030 3 to 6
2. Mature row crops 0.035 3 to 6
3. Mature field crops 0.040 3 to 6
Floodplain – Uncleared
1. Heavy weeds scattered brush 0.050 3 to 6
2. Wooded 0.120 3 to 6
MAJOR NATURAL STREAMS
Roughness coefficient is usually less than for minor Range from
streams of similar description on account of less 0.028 to 3 to 6
effective resistance offered by irregular banks or 0.060

January 2006 4.4.4 Manning’s n Values
Table 4.4-2 Roughness Coefficients (Manning’s n) and Allowable Velocities for Natural
Channels
Maximum
Permissible
Channel Description Manning’s n
Channel Velocity
(ft/s)
vegetation on banks. Values of “n” for larger streams
of mostly regular sections, with no boulders or brush
UNLINED VEGETATED CHANNELS
Clays (Bermuda Grass) 0.035 5 to 6
Sandy and Silty Soils (Bermuda Grass) 0.035 3 to 5
UNLINED NON-VEGETATED CHANNELS
Sandy Soils 0.030 1.5 to 2.5
Silts 0.030 0.7 to 1.5
Sandy Silts 0.030 2.5 to 3.0
Clays 0.030 3.0 to 5.0
Coarse Gravels 0.030 5.0 to 6.0
Shale 0.030 6.0 to 10.0
Rock 0.025 15
Table 4.4-3 Maximum Velocities for Vegetative Channel Linings
Vegetation Type Slope Range (%)1 Maximum Velocity2 (ft/s)

Bermuda grass 0-5 6
Bahia 4
Tall fescue grass mixtures3 0-10 4
Kentucky bluegrass 0-5 6
5-10 5
Buffalo grass
>10 4
0-51 4
Grass mixture
5-10 3
Sericea lespedeza, Weeping
0-54 3
lovegrass, Alfalfa
Annuals5 0-5 3
Sod 4
Lapped sod 5
1
Do not use on slopes steeper than 10% except for side-slope in combination channel.
2
Use velocities exceeding 5 ft/s only where good stands can be maintained.
3
Mixtures of Tall Fescue, Bahia, and/or Bermuda
4
Do not use on slopes steeper than 5% except for side-slope in combination channel.
5
Annuals - used on mild slopes or as temporary protection until permanent covers are
established.
Source: Manual for Erosion and Sediment Control in Georgia, 1996

Table 4.4-4 Manning's Roughness Coefficients (n) for Artificial Channels

Depth Ranges
Category Lining Type 0-0.5 ft 0.5-2.0 ft >2.0 ft
Rigid Concrete 0.015 0.013 0.013
Grouted Riprap 0.040 0.030 0.028
Stone Masonry 0.042 0.032 0.030
Soil Cement 0.025 0.022 0.020
Asphalt 0.018 0.016 0.016
Unlined Bare Soil 0.023 0.020 0.020
Rock Cut 0.045 0.035 0.025
Temporary* Woven Paper Net 0.016 0.015 0.015
Jute Net 0.028 0.022 0.019
Fiberglass Roving 0.028 0.022 0.019
Straw with Net 0.065 0.033 0.025
Curled Wood Mat 0.066 0.035 0.028
Synthetic Mat 0.036 0.025 0.021
Gravel Riprap 1-inch D50 0.044 0.033 0.030
2-inch D50 0.066 0.041 0.034
Rock Riprap 6-inch D50 0.104 0.069 0.035
12-inch D50 – 0.078 0.040
Note: Values listed are representative values for the respective depth ranges. Manning's
roughness coefficients, n, vary with the flow depth.
*Some "temporary" linings become permanent when buried.
Source: HEC-15, 1988.
When designing open channels, the usual choice of Manning’s roughness coefficients may be found in
Table 4.4-5. The local jurisdiction may choose to vary from these values.
Table 4.4-5 Manning’s Roughness Coefficients for Design
Lining Type Manning’s n Comments

Grass Lined 0.035 Use for velocity check.
0.050 Use for channel capacity check (freeboard check)
Concrete Lined 0.015
Gabions 0.030
n = 0.0395d501/6 where d50 is the stone size of which 50%
Rock Riprap 0.040
of the sample is smaller
Grouted Riprap 0.028 FWHA

January 2006 4.4.4 Manning’s n Values
Figure 4.4-1 Manning's n Values for Vegetated Channels

(Source: USDA, TP-61, 1947)

Table 4.4-6 Classification of Vegetal Covers as to Degrees of Retardance
Retardance Cover Condition

Weeping Lovegrass Excellent stand, tall (average 30")
A
Yellow Bluestem Ischaemum Excellent stand, tall (average 36")
Kudzu Very dense growth, uncut
Bermuda grass Good stand, tall (average 12”)
Native grass mixture
Little bluestem, bluestem, blue gamma Good stand, unmowed
other short and long stem Midwest
grasses
B
Weeping lovegrass Good stand, tall (average 24”)
Laspedeza sericea Good stand, not woody, tall (average 19”)
Alfalfa Good stand, uncut (average 11”)
Weeping lovegrass Good stand, unmowed (average 13”)
Kudzu Dense growth, uncut
Blue gamma Good stand, uncut (average 13”)
Crabgrass Fair stand, uncut (10 – 48”)
Bermuda grass Good stand, mowed (average 6”)
Common lespedeza Good stand, uncut (average 11”)
C Grass-legume mixture:
summer (orchard grass redtop, Italian Good stand, uncut (6 – 8 “)
ryegrass, and common lespedeza)
Centipede grass Very dense cover (average 6”)
Kentucky bluegrass Good stand, headed (6 – 12”)
Bermuda grass Good stand, cut to 2.5”
Common lespedeza Excellent stand, uncut (average 4.5”)
Buffalo grass Good stand, uncut (3 – 6”)
D Grass-legume mixture:
fall, spring (orchard grass, redtop, Good stand, uncut (4 – 5”)
Italian ryegrass, and common
lespedeza)
Lespedeza serices After cutting to 2” (very good before cutting)
Bermuda grass Good stand, cut to 1.5”
E
Bermuda grass Burned stubble
Note: Covers classified have been tested in experimental channels. Covers were green and generally uniform.
Source: HEC-15, 1988

January 2006 4.4.5 Uniform Flow Calculations
4.4.5 Uniform Flow Calculations
4.4.5.1 Design Charts

Following is a discussion of the equations that can be used for the design and analysis of open channel
flow. The Federal Highway Administration has prepared numerous design charts to aid in the design of
rectangular, trapezoidal, and triangular open channel cross sections. In addition, design charts for grass-
lined channels have been developed. Examples of these charts and instructions for their use are given in
subsection 4.4.12.
4.4.5.2 Manning's Equation

Manning's Equation, presented in three forms below, is recommended for evaluating uniform flow
conditions in open channels:
v = (1.49/n) R2/3 S1/2 (4.4.1)
Q = (1.49/n) A R2/3 S1/2 (4.4.2)
2/3 2
S = [Qn/(1.49 A R )] (4.4.3)
where:
v = average channel velocity (ft/s)
Q = discharge rate for design conditions (cfs)
n = Manning's roughness coefficient
A = cross-sectional area (ft2)
R = hydraulic radius A/P (ft)
P = wetted perimeter (ft)
S = slope of the energy grade line (ft/ft)
For prismatic channels, in the absence of backwater conditions, the slope of the energy grade line, water
surface and channel bottom are assumed to be equal.
For a more comprehensive discussion of open channel theory and design, see the reference USACE,
1991/1994.
4.4.5.3 Geometric Relationships

Area, wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius, and channel top width for standard channel cross sections can
be calculated from geometric dimensions. Irregular channel cross sections (i.e., those with a narrow
deep main channel and a wide shallow overbank channel) must be subdivided into segments so that the
flow can be computed separately for the main channel and overbank portions. This same process of
subdivision may be used when different parts of the channel cross section have different roughness
coefficients. When computing the hydraulic radius of the subsections, the water depth common to the
two adjacent subsections is not counted as wetted perimeter.
4.4.5.4 Direct Solutions

When the hydraulic radius, cross-sectional area, and roughness coefficient and slope are known,
discharge can be calculated directly from equation 4.4.2. The slope can be calculated using equation
4.4.3 when the discharge, roughness coefficient, area, and hydraulic radius are known.

4.4.5 Uniform Flow Calculations January 2006
Nomographs for obtaining direct solutions to Manning's Equation are presented in Figures 4.4-2 and 4.4-
3. Figure 4.4-2 provides a general solution for the velocity form of Manning's Equation, while Figure 4.4-3
provides a solution of Manning's Equation for trapezoidal channels.
General Solution Nomograph

The following steps are used for the general solution nomograph in Figure 4.4-2:
Step 1 Determine open channel data, including slope in ft/ft, hydraulic radius in ft, and Manning's n
value.
Step 2 Connect a line between the Manning's n scale and slope scale and note the point of
intersection on the turning line.
Step 3 Connect a line from the hydraulic radius to the point of intersection obtained in Step 2.
Step 4 Extend the line from Step 3 to the velocity scale to obtain the velocity in ft/s.
Trapezoidal Solution Nomograph

The trapezoidal channel nomograph solution to Manning's Equation in Figure 4.4-3 can be used to find
the depth of flow if the design discharge is known or the design discharge if the depth of flow is known.
Determine input data, including slope in ft/ft, Manning's n value, bottom width in ft, and side slope in ft/ft.
1. Given Q, find d.
a. Given the design discharge, find the product of Q times n, connect a line from the slope scale to
the Qn scale, and find the point of intersection on the turning line.
b. Connect a line from the turning point from Step 2a to the b scale and find the intersection with the
z = 0 scale.
c. Project horizontally from the point located in Step 2b to the appropriate z value and find the value
of d/b.
d. Multiply the value of d/b obtained in Step 2c by the bottom width b to find the depth of uniform
flow, d.
2. Given d, find Q
Given the depth of flow, find the ratio d divided by b and project a horizontal line from the d/b ratio
at the appropriate side slope, z, to the z = 0 scale.
Connect a line from the point located in Step 3a to the b scale and find the intersection with the
turning line.
Connect a line from the point located in Step 3b to the slope scale and find the intersection with
the Qn scale.
Divide the value of Qn obtained in Step 3c by the n value to find the design discharge, Q.

Figure 4.4-2 Nomograph for the Solution of Manning's Equation

Figure 4.4-3 Solution of Manning's Equation for Trapezoidal Channels

4.4.5.5 Trial and Error Solutions

A trial and error procedure for solving Manning's Equation is used to compute the normal depth of flow in
a uniform channel when the channel shape, slope, roughness, and design discharge are known. For
purposes of the trial and error process, Manning's Equation can be arranged as:
AR2/3 = (Qn)/(1.49 S1/2) (4.4.4)
where:
A = cross-sectional area (ft)
R = hydraulic radius (ft)
To determine the normal depth of flow in a channel by the trial and error process, trial values of depth are
used to determine A, P, and R for the given channel cross section. Trial values of AR2/3 are computed
until the equality of equation 4.4.4 is satisfied such that the design flow is conveyed for the slope and
selected channel cross section.
Graphical procedures for simplifying trial and error solutions are presented in Figure 4.4-4 for trapezoidal
channels. Computer programs are also available for these calculations.
Step 1 Determine input data, including design discharge, Q, Manning's n value, channel bottom width,
b, channel slope, S, and channel side slope, z.
Step 2 Calculate the trapezoidal conveyance factor using the equation:

KT = (Qn)/(b8/3S1/2) (4.4.5)
where:
KT = trapezoidal open channel conveyance factor
b = bottom width (ft)
Step 3 Enter the x-axis of Figure 4.4-4 with the value of KT calculated in Step 2 and draw a line
vertically to the curve corresponding to the appropriate z value from Step 1.
Step 4 From the point of intersection obtained in Step 3, draw a horizontal line to the y-axis and read
the value of the normal depth of flow over the bottom width, d/b.
Step 5 Multiply the d/b value from Step 4 by b to obtain the normal depth of flow.
Note: If bends are considered, refer to equation 4.4.11

KT =
Figure 4.4-4 Trapezoidal Channel Capacity Chart

(Source: Nashville Storm Water Management Manual, 1988)

January 2006 4.4.6 Critical Flow Calculations
4.4.6 Critical Flow Calculations
4.4.6.1 Background
In the design of open channels, it is important to calculate the critical depth in order to determine if the
flow in the channel will be subcritical or supercritical. If the flow is subcritical it is relatively easy to handle
the flow through channel transitions because the flows are tranquil and wave action is minimal. In
subcritical flow, the depth at any point is influenced by a downstream control, which may be either the
critical depth or the water surface elevation in a pond or larger downstream channel. In supercritical flow,
the depth of flow at any point is influenced by a control upstream, usually critical depth. In addition, the
flows have relatively shallow depths and high velocities. Hydraulic jumps are possible under these
conditions and consideration should be given to stabilizing the channel.
Critical depth depends only on the discharge rate and channel geometry. The general equation for
determining critical depth is expressed as:
Q2/g = A3/T (4.4.6)
where:
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
A = cross-sectional area (ft2)
T = top width of water surface (ft)
Note: A trial and error procedure is needed to solve equation 4.4-6.
4.4.6.2 Semi-Empirical Equations

Semi-empirical equations (as presented in Table 4.4-7) or section factors (as presented in Figure 4.4-5)
can be used to simplify trial and error critical depth calculations. The following equation is used to
determine critical depth with the critical flow section factor, Z:
Z = Q/(g0.5) (4.4.7)
where:
Z = critical flow section factor
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.3 ft/sec2)
The following guidelines are given for evaluating critical flow conditions of open channel flow:
1. A normal depth of uniform flow within about 10% of critical depth is unstable and should be avoided in
design, if possible.
3. If the velocity head is less than one-half the mean depth of flow, the flow is subcritical.
4. If the velocity head is equal to one-half the mean depth of flow, the flow is critical.
5. If the velocity head is greater than one-half the mean depth of flow, the flow is supercritical.
Note: The head is the height of water above any point, plane, or datum of reference. The velocity head
in flowing water is calculated as the velocity squared divided by 2 times the gravitational constant (V2/2g).

4.4.6 Critical Flow Calculations January 2006
The Froude number, Fr, calculated by the following equation, is useful for evaluating the type of flow
conditions in an open channel:
Fr = v/(gA/T)0.5 (4.4.8)
where:
Fr = Froude number (dimensionless)
v = velocity of flow (ft/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
A = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2)
T = top width of flow (ft)
If Fr is greater than 1.0, flow is supercritical; if it is under 1.0, flow is subcritical. Fr is 1.0 for critical flow
conditions.
Table 4.4-7 Critical Depth Equations for Uniform Flow in Selected Channel Cross
Sections
Semi-Empirical Equations2 for

Channel Type1 Range of Applicability
Estimating Critical Depth
1. Rectangular3 dc = [Q2/(gb2)]1/3 N/A
0.1 < 0.5522 Q/b2.5 < 0.4
3 2 0.75b1.25 0.27
2. Trapezoidal dc = 0.81[Q /(gz )] - b/30z For 0.5522 Q/b2.5 < 0.1, use
rectangular channel equation
3. Triangular3 dc = [(2Q2)/(gz2)]1/5 N/A
4 2/3
4. Circular dc = 0.325(Q/D) + 0.083D 0.3 < dc/D < 0.9
5 3 2
5. General (A /T) = (Q /g) N/A
where:
dc = critical depth (ft)
Q = design discharge (cfs)
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.3 ft/s2)
b = bottom width of channel (ft)
z = side slopes of a channel (horizontal to vertical)
D = diameter of circular conduit (ft)
A = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2)
T = top width of water surface (ft)
1
See Figure 4.4-5 for channel sketches
2
Assumes uniform flow with the kinetic energy coefficient equal to 1.0
3
Reference: French (1985)
4
Reference: USDOT, FHWA, HDS-4 (1965)
5
Reference: Brater and King (1976)
If the water surface profile in a channel transitions from supercritical flow to subcritical flow, a hydraulic
jump must occur. The location of the hydraulic jump and its sequent depth are critical to proper design of
free flow conveyances. To determine the location of a hydraulic jump, the standard step method is used
to compute the water surface profile and specific force (momentum principle) and specific energy
relationships are used. For computational methods refer to Chow, 1959, TxDOT, 2002, and Mays, 1999.
The HEC-RAS computer program can be used to compute water surface profiles for both subcritical and
supercritical flow regimes.

January 2006 4.4.6 Critical Flow Calculations
Figure 4.4-5 Open Channel Geometric Relationships for Various Cross Sections

4.4.7 Vegetative Design January 2006
4.4.7 Vegetative Design
A two-part procedure is recommended for final design of temporary and vegetative channel linings. Part
1, the design stability component, involves determining channel dimensions for low vegetative retardance
conditions, using Class D as defined in Table 4.4-6. Part 2, the design capacity component, involves
determining the depth increase necessary to maintain capacity for higher vegetative retardance
conditions, using Class C as defined in Table 4.4-6. If temporary lining is to be used during construction,
vegetative retardance Class E should be used for the design stability calculations.
If the channel slope exceeds 10%, or a combination of channel linings will be used, additional procedures
not presented below are required. References include HEC-15 (USDOT, FHWA, 1986) and HEC-14
(USDOT, FHWA, 1983).
4.4.7.2 Design Stability

The following are the steps for design stability calculations:
Step 1 Determine appropriate design variables, including discharge, Q, bottom slope, S, cross section
parameters, and vegetation type.
Step 2 Use Table 4.4-3 to assign a maximum velocity, vm based on vegetation type and slope range.
Step 3 Assume a value of n and determine the corresponding value of vR from the n versus vR curves
in Figure 4.4-1. Use retardance Class D for permanent vegetation and E for temporary
construction.
Step 4 Calculate the hydraulic radius using the equation:
R = (vR)/vm (4.4.9)
where:
R = hydraulic radius of flow (ft)
vR = value obtained from Figure 4.4-1 in Step 3
vm = maximum velocity from Step 2 (ft/s)
Step 5 Use the following form of Manning's Equation to calculate the value of vR:
vR = (1.49 R5/3 S1/2)/n (4.4.10)
where:
vR = calculated value of vR product
R = hydraulic radius value from Step 4 (ft)
S = channel bottom slope (ft/ft)
n = Manning's n value assumed in Step 3
Step 6 Compare the vR product value obtained in Step 5 to the value obtained from Figure 4.4-1 for
the assumed n value in Step 3. If the values are not reasonably close, return to Step 3 and
repeat the calculations using a new assumed n value.
Step 7 For trapezoidal channels, find the flow depth using Figures 4.4-3 or 4.4-4, as described in
Section 4.4.4.4. The depth of flow for other channel shapes can be evaluated using the trial
and error procedure described in Section 4.4.4.5.
Step 8 If bends are considered, calculate the length of downstream protection, Lp, for the bend, using
Figure 4.4-6. Provide additional protection, such as gravel or riprap in the bend and extending
downstream for length, Lp.

January 2006 4.4.7 Vegetative Design
4.4.7.3 Design Capacity

The following are the steps for design capacity calculations:
Step 1 Assume a depth of flow greater than the value from Step 7 above and compute the waterway
area and hydraulic radius (see Figure 4.4-5 for equations).
Step 2 Divide the design flow rate, obtained using appropriate procedures from Chapter 2, by the
waterway area from Step 1 to find the velocity.
Step 3 Multiply the velocity from Step 2 by the hydraulic radius from Step 1 to find the value of vR.
Step 4 Use Figure 4.4-1 to find a Manning's n value for retardance Class C based on the vR value
from Step 3.
Step 5 Use Manning's Equation (equation 4.4.1) or Figure 4.4-2 to find the velocity using the hydraulic
radius from Step 1, Manning's n value from Step 4, and appropriate bottom slope.
Step 6 Compare the velocity values from Steps 2 and 5. If the values are not reasonably close, return
to Step 1 and repeat the calculations.
Step 7 Add an appropriate freeboard to the final depth from Step 6. Generally, 20% is adequate.
Step 8 If bends are considered, calculate super-elevation of the water surface profile at the bend using
the equation:
∆d = (v2T)/(gRc) (4.4.11)
where:
∆d = super-elevation of the water surface profile due to the bend (ft)
v = average velocity from Step 6 (ft/s)
T = top width of flow (ft)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
Rc = mean radius of the bend (ft)
Note: Add freeboard consistent with the calculated ∆d.

4.4.7 Vegetative Design January 2006
Figure 4.4-6 Protection Length, Lp, Downstream of Channel Bend

January 2006 4.4.8 Stone Riprap Design
4.4.8 Stone Riprap Design
A number of agencies and researchers have studied and developed empirical equations to estimate the
required size of rock riprap to resist various hydraulic conditions, including the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers (USACE), Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), and the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA). As with all empirical equations based on the results of laboratory experiments,
they must be used with an understanding of the range of data on which they are based.
Sections 4.4.8.2 and 4.4.8.3 give design guidance for designing stone riprap for open channels. Section
4.4.8.4 gives design guidance for designing stone riprap for culvert outfall protection. Section 4.7.4 gives
additional guidance on the design of riprap aprons for erosion protection at outfalls, and Section 4.7.5
gives guidance on the design of riprap basins for energy dissipation.
4.4.8.2 Method #1: Maynord & Reese

The following procedure is based on results and analysis of laboratory and field data (Maynord, 1987;
Reese, 1984; Reese, 1988). This procedure applies to riprap placement in both natural and prismatic
channels and has the following assumptions and limitations:
• Minimum riprap thickness equal to d100
• The value of d85/d15 less than 4.6
• Froude number less than 1.2
• Side slopes up to 2:1
• A safety factor of 1.2
• Maximum velocity less than 18 feet per second
• If significant turbulence is caused by boundary irregularities, such as vertical drops, obstructions, or
structures, this procedure is not applicable.
Procedure
Following are the steps in the procedure for riprap design using the method by Maynord & Reese:
Step 1 Determine the average velocity in the main channel for the design condition. Manning's n
values for riprap can be calculated from the equation:
n = 0.0395 (d50)1/6 (4.4.12)
where:
n = Manning's roughness coefficient for stone riprap
d50 = diameter of stone for which 50%, by weight, of the gradation is finer (ft)
Step 2 If rock is to be placed at the outside of a bend, multiply the velocity determined in Step 1 by the
bend correction coefficient, Cb, given in Figure 4.4-7 for either a natural or prismatic channel.
This requires determining the channel top width, T, just upstream from the bend and the
centerline bend radius, Rb.
Step 3 If the specific weight of the stone varies significantly from 165 pounds per cubic foot, multiply
the velocity from Step 1 or 2 (as appropriate) by the specific weight correction coefficient, Cg,
from Figure 4.4-8.
Step 4 Determine the required minimum d30 value from Figure 4.4-9, or from the equation:
d30/D = 0.193 Fr2.5 (4.4.13)

4.4.8 Stone Riprap Design January 2006
where:
d30 = diameter of stone for which 30%, by weight, of the gradation is finer (ft)
D = depth of flow above stone (ft)
Fr = Froude number (see equation 4.4.8), dimensionless
v = mean velocity above the stone (ft/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec)
Figure 4.4-7 Riprap Lining Bend Correction Coefficient

Figure 4.4-8 Riprap Lining Specific Weight Correction Coefficient

(Source: Nashville Storm Water Management Manual, 1988)

Figure 4.4-9 Riprap Lining d30 Stone Size – Function of Mean Velocity and Depth
Step 5 Determine available riprap gradations. A well graded riprap is required. The diameter of the
largest stone, d100, should not be more than 1.5 times the d50 size. Blanket thickness should be
greater than or equal to d100 except as noted below. Sufficient fines (below d15) should be
available to fill the voids in the larger rock sizes. The stone weight for a selected stone size can
be calculated from the equation:
W = 0.5236 SWs d3 (4.4.14)
where:
W = stone weight (lbs)
d = selected stone diameter (ft)
SWs = specific weight of stone (lbs/ft3)

Filter fabric or a filter stone layer should be used to prevent turbulence or groundwater seepage
from removing bank material through the stone or to serve as a foundation for unconsolidated
material. Layer thickness should be increased by 50% for underwater placement.
Step 6 If d85/d15 is between 2.0 and 2.3 and a smaller d30 size is desired, a thickness greater than d100
can be used to offset the smaller d30 size. Figure 4.4-10 can be used to make an approximate
adjustment using the ratio of d30 sizes. Enter the y-axis with the ratio of the desired d30 size to
the standard d30 size and find the thickness ratio increase on the x-axis. Other minor gradation
deficiencies may be compensated for by increasing the stone blanket thickness.
Step 7 Perform preliminary design, ensuring that adequate transition is provided to natural materials
both up and downstream to avoid flanking and that toe protection is provided to avoid riprap
undermining.
Figure 4.4-10 Riprap Lining Thickness Adjustment for d85/d15 = 1.0 to 2.3
(Source: Maynord, 1987)

4.4.8.3 Method #2: Gregory

The following procedure is based on excerpts from a paper prepared by Garry Gregory (June, 1987) and
has been widely used in the Dallas-Fort Worth area for riprap design.
Procedure
Following are the steps in the procedure for riprap design using the method by Gregory:
Step 1 Calculate the boundary shear (tractive stress or tractive force) by:
To = UwRS (4.4.15)
where:
To = average tractive stress on channel bottom (lb/ft2)
Uw = unit weight of water (62.4 lb/ft3)
R = hydraulic radius of channel (ft)
S = slope of energy gradient (ft/ft)
To‘ = To((1-sin2F)/sin2Q)0.5 (4.4.16)
where:
To‘ = average tractive stress on channel side slopes (lb/ft2)
F = angle of side slope with the horizontal
Q = angle of repose of riprap (approximately 40°)
The greater value of To or To‘ governs.
Step 2 Determine the tractive stress in a bend in the channel by:
Tb = 3.15T(r/w)-0.5 (4.4.17)
where:
Tb = local tractive stress in the bend (lb/ft2)
T = the greater of To or To‘ from equations 4.4.15 and 4.4.16
r = center-line radius of the bend (ft)
w = water surface width at upstream end of bend (ft)
Step 3 Determine D50 size of riprap stone (size at which 50% of the gradation is finer weight) from:
D50 = T/0.04(Us-Uw) (4.4.18)
where:
D50 = required average size of riprap stone (ft)
T = the greater of To or To‘ from equations 4.4.15 and 4.4.16
Us = saturated surface dry (SSD) unit weight of stone (lb/ft3)
Step 4 Select minimum riprap thickness required from grain size curves in Figures 4.4-11 through 4.4-
16. Select from smaller side of band at 50% finer gradation.
Step 5 Select riprap gradations table (Figures 4.4-17 and 4.4-18) based on riprap thickness selected in
Step 4.
Step 6 Select bedding thickness from grain size curves in Figures 4.4-11 through 4.4-16, which was
used to select the riprap thickness in Step 4. Note: The bedding thicknesses included in
Figures 4.4-11 through 4.4-16 are based on using a properly designed geotextile underneath

the bedding. If a geotextile is not used, the bedding thickness must be increased to a minimum
of 9 inches for 24 inch and 30 inch riprap and a minimum of 12 inches for the 36 inch riprap.
Step 7 To provide stability in the riprap layer the riprap gradations should meet the following criteria for
GRADATION INDEX:
GRADATION INDEX: [D85/D50 + D50/D15] ≤ 5.5 (4.4.19)
where: D85, D50, and D15 are the riprap grain sizes (mm) of which 85%, 50%, and 15%
respectively are finer by weight.
Step 8 To provide stability of the bedding layer the bedding should meet the following filter criteria with
respect to the riprap:
D15/d85 <5 < D15/d15 < 40 (4.4.20)
D50/d50 < 40 (4.4.21)
where: D refers to riprap sizes, and d refers to bedding sizes, both in mm.
Step 9 The geotextile underneath the bedding should be designed as a filter to the soil.
Step 10 Typical riprap design sections are shown in Figures 4.4-19 and 4.4-20, from the USACE
publication EM1110-2-160.
4.4.8.4 Culvert Outfall Protection

The following procedure is used to design riprap for protection at culvert outfalls.
Step 1 Determine D50 size of riprap determined from:

D50 = √V/[1.8√(2g(Us-Uw)/Uw)] (4.4.22)
Step 2 Select riprap and bedding from Figures 4.4-11 through 4.4-16 using D50 from equation 4.4.22.
Step 3 Select gradations from tables in Figures 4.4-17 and 4.4-18

Figure 4.4-11 Grain Size Curve for 8” Riprap and 6” Bedding






Figure 4.4-17 Riprap Gradation Tables for 6”, 8”, 9”, and 12” Thickness of Riprap

Figure 4.4-18 Riprap Gradation Tables for 18”, 24”, 30”, and 36” Thickness of Riprap

Figure 4.4-19 Typical Riprap Design Cross Sections

Figure 4.4-20 Typical Riprap Design for Revetment Toe Protection

4.4.9 Gabion Design January 2006
4.4.9 Gabion Design
Gabions come in three basic forms, the gabion basket, gabion mattress, and sack gabion. All three types
consist of wire mesh baskets filled with cobble or small boulder material. The fill normally consists of rock
material but other materials such as bricks have been used to fill the baskets. The baskets are used to
maintain stability and to protect streambanks and beds.
The difference between a gabion basket and a gabion mattress is the thickness and the aerial extent of
the basket. A sack gabion is, as the name implies, a mesh sack that is filled with rock material. The
benefit of gabions is that they can be filled with rocks that would individually be too small to withstand the
erosive forces of the stream. The gabion mattress is shallower (0.5 to 1.5 ft) than the basket and is
designed to protect the bed or banks of a stream against erosion.
Gabion baskets are normally much thicker (about 1.5 to 3 ft) and cover a much smaller area. They are
used to protect banks where mattresses are not adequate or are used to stabilize slopes (Figure 4.4-21),
construct drop structures, pipe outlet structures, or nearly any other application where soil must be
protected from the erosive forces of water. References to gabions in this manual refer generally to both
mattresses and baskets. Sack gabions are rarely used in the United States and are not discussed.
Gabion baskets can be made from either welded or woven wire

mesh. The wire is normally galvanized to reduce corrosion but
may be coated with plastic or other material to prevent corrosion
and/or damage to the wire mesh containing the rock fill. New
materials such as Tensar, a heavy-duty polymer plastic material,
have been used in some applications in place of the wire mesh. If
the wire baskets break, either through corrosion, vandalism, or
damage from debris or bed load, the rock fill in the basket can be
lost and the protective value of the method endangered. Gabions
are often used where available rock size is too small to withstand
the erosive and tractive forces present at a project site. The
available stone size may be too small due to the cost of
transporting larger stone from remote sites, or the desire to have
Figure 4.4-21 Gabion Baskets Installed for Slope Stabilization along a Stream
a project with a smoother appearance than obtained from riprap or other methods. Gabions also require
about one third the thickness of material when compared to riprap designs. Riprap is often preferred,
however, due to the low labor requirements for its placement.
The science behind gabions is fairly well established, with numerous manufacturers providing design
methodology and guidance for their gabion products. Dr. Stephen T. Maynord of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Research and Development Center in Vicksburg, Mississippi, has also conducted research to
develop design guidance for the installation of gabions. Two general methods are typically used to
determine the stability of gabion baskets in stream channels, the critical shear stress calculation and the
critical velocity calculation. A software package known as CHANLPRO has been developed by Dr.
Maynord (Maynord et al. 1998).
Manufacturers have generated extensive debate regarding the use and durability of welded wire baskets
versus woven wire baskets in project design and construction. Project results seem to indicate that
performance is satisfactory for both types of mesh.
The rocks contained within the gabions provide substrates for a wide variety of aquatic organisms.
Organisms that have adapted to living on and within the rocks have an excellent home, but vegetation

January 2006 4.4.9 Gabion Design
may be difficult to establish unless the voids in the rocks contained within the baskets are filled with soil or
a planting bed mixture.
If large woody vegetation is allowed to grow in the gabions, there is a risk that the baskets will break
when the large woody vegetation is uprooted or as the root and trunk systems grow. Thus, it is normally
not acceptable to allow large woody vegetation to grow in the baskets. The possibility of damage must be
weighed against the desirability of vegetation on the area protected by gabions and the stability of the
large woody vegetation. If large woody vegetation is kept out of the baskets, grasses and other desirable
vegetation types may be established and provide a more aesthetic and ecologically desirable project than
gabions alone.
4.4.9.2 Design
Primary design considerations for gabions and mattresses are: 1) foundation stability; 2) sustained
velocity and shear-stress thresholds that the gabions must withstand; and 3) toe and flank protection. The
base layer of gabions should be placed below the expected maximum scour depth. Alternatively, the toe
can be protected with mattresses that will fall into any scoured areas without compromising the stability of
the bank or bed protection portion of the project. If bank protection does not extend above the expected
water surface elevation for the design flood, measures such as tiebacks to protect against flanking should
be installed.
The use of a filter fabric behind or under the gabion baskets to prevent the movement of soil material
through the gabion baskets is an extremely important part of the design process. This migration of soil
through the baskets can cause undermining of the supporting soil structure and failure of the gabion
baskets and mattresses.
Primary Design Considerations
The major consideration in the design of gabion structures is the expected velocity at the gabion face.
The gabion must be designed to withstand the force of the water in the stream.
Since gabion mattresses are much shallower and more subject to movement than gabion baskets, care
should be taken to design the mattresses such that they can withstand the forces applied to them by the
water. However, mattresses have been used in application where very high velocities are present and
have performed well. But, projects using gabion mattresses should be carefully designed.
The median stone size for a gabion mattress can be determined from the following equation:
dm = SfCsCvd[(Uw/(Us - Uw ))0.5(V/√(gdK1))]2.5 (4.4.23)
where:
dm = average rock diameter in gabions (ft)
Sf = safety factor (1.1 minimum)
Cs = stability coefficient (usually 0.1)
Cv = velocity distribution coefficient = 1.283-0.2log(r/w) (minimum of 1.0) and equals 1.25 at
end of dikes and concrete channels
r = center-line bend radius of main channel flow (ft)
w = water surface width of main channel (ft)
d = local flow depth at V (ft)
2
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/s )
V = depth-averaged velocity (ft/s)
K1 = side slope correction factor (Table 4.4-8)
Us = unit weight of stone (lb/ft3)

4.4.9 Gabion Design January 2006
Table 4.4-8 Values of K1 for various Side Slopes to

be used in Equation 4.4-23
Side Slope K1
1V : 1H 0.46
1V : 1.5H 0.71
1V : 2H 0.88
1V : 3H 0.98
<1V : 4H 1.0
Equation 4.4-23 was developed to design stone size such that

the movement of filler stone in the mattresses is prevented.
This eliminates deformation that can occur when stone sizes
are not large enough to withstand the forces of the water. The
result of mattresses deformation is stress on the basket wire
and increases in resistance to flow and the likelihood of basket
failure. The upper portion of Figure 4.4-22 shows an
undeformed gabion, while the lower portion shows how gabions
deform under high-velocity conditions. Maccaferri Gabions
gives guidance on sizing stone and allowable velocities for
gabion baskets and mattresses, shown in Table 4.4-9.
Figure 4.4-22 Gabion Mattress Showing Deformation of Mattress Pockets under High Velocities
Table 4.4-9 Stone Sizes and Allowable Velocities for Gabions

Critical
Type Thickness (ft) Filling Stone Range D50 Limit Velocity
Velocity
Mattress 0.5 3 – 4” 3.4” 11.5 13.8
0.5 3 – 6” 4.3” 13.8 14.8
0.75 3 – 4” 3.4” 14.8 16
0.75 3 – 6” 4.7” 14.8 20
1.0 3 – 5” 4” 13.6 18
1.0 4 – 6” 5” 16.4 21
Basket 1.5 4 – 8” 6” 19 24.9
1.5 5 – 10” 7.5” 21 26.2
When the data in Table 4.4-9 are compared to Equation 4.4-22, if V = 11.5, Cs = 0.1, Cv = 1.0, K1 = 0.71,
,Us = 150 lb/ft3 and Sf = 1.1, the local flow depth must be on the order of 25 ft in order to arrive at the
stone diameter of 3.4 in. shown in Table 4.4-9. Designers should use Equation 4.4-23 to take the depth of
flow into account. Table 4.4-9 does, however, give some general guidelines for fill sizes and is a quick
reference for maximum allowable velocities.

January 2006 4.4.9 Gabion Design
Maccaferri also gives guidance on the stability of gabions in terms of shear stress limits. The following
equation gives the shear for the bed of the channel as:
tb = UwSd (4.4.24)
where S = bed or water surface slope through the reach (ft/ft)
The bank shear is generally taken as 75 percent of the bed shear, i.e.,
tm = 0.75 tm (4.4.25)
These values are then compared to the critical stress for the bed calculated by the following equation:
tc = 0.10(Us-Uw)dm (4.4.26)
with critical shear stress for the banks given as:
ts = tc√(1-(sin2Q/0.4304)) (4.4.27)
where Q = angle of the bank rotated up from horizontal.
A design is acceptable if tb < tc and tm < ts. If either tb > tc or tm > ts then a check must be made to
see if they are less than 120 percent of tb and ts. If the values are less than 120 percent of tb and ts
the gabions will not be subject to more than what Maccaferri defines as “acceptable” deformation.
However it is recommended that the stone size be increased to limit deformation if possible.
Research has indicated that stone in the gabion mattress should be sized such that the largest stone
diameter is not more than about two times the diameter of the smallest stone diameter and the mattress
should be at least twice the depth of the largest stone size. The size range should, however, vary by
about a factor of two to ensure proper packing of the stone material into the gabions. Since the
mattresses normally come in discrete sizes, i.e. 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 ft in depth, normal practice is to size the
stone and then select the basket depth that is deep enough to be at least two times the largest stone
diameter. The smallest stone should also be sized such that it cannot pass through the wire mesh.
Stability of Underlying Bed and Bank Material
Another critical consideration is the stability of the gabion foundation. This includes both geotechnical
stability and the resistance of the soil under the gabions to the erosive forces of the water moving
through the gabions. If there is any question regarding the stability of the foundation, i.e. possibility of
rotational failures, slip failures, etc., a qualified geotechnical engineer should be consulted prior to and
during the design of the bank/channel protection. Several manufacturers give guidance on how to check
for geotechnical failure.
One of the critical factors in determining

stability is the velocity of the water that
passes through the gabions and reaches the
soil behind the gabion. The water velocity
under the filter fabric, i.e. water that moves
through the gabions and filter fabric, is
estimated to be one-fourth to one-half of the
velocity at the mattress/filter interface.
Figure 4.4-23 Front-step and Rear-step Gabion Layout
The velocity at the mattress/filter interface, Vb, is estimated to be

Vb = 1.486√S(dm/2)2/3/nf (4.4.28)
where nf = 0.02 for filter fabric, 0.022 for gravel filter material

4.4.10 Uniform Flow – Example Problems January 2006
If the underlying soil material is not stable, additional filter material must be installed under the gabions to
ensure soil stability.
The limit for velocity on the soil is different for each type of soil. The limit for cohesive soils is obtained
from a chart, while maximum allowable velocities for other soil types are obtained by calculating Ve, the
maximum velocity allowable at the soil interface, and comparing it to V" the residual velocity on the bed,
i.e. under the gabion mattress and under the filter fabric. Ve for loose soils is equal to 16.1d2 while Vf is
calculated by:
Vf = 1.486S√Va(dm/2)2/3/nf (4.4.29)
where Va = average channel velocity (ft/s)
If Vf is larger than two to four times Ve, a gravel filter is required to further reduce the water velocity at the
soil interface under the gabions until Vf is in an acceptable range. To check for the acceptability of the
filter use the average gravel size for dm in equation 4.4-28. If the velocity Vf is still too high, the gravel size
should be reduced to obtain an acceptable value for Vf.
Other Design Considerations
It may be possible to combine gabions with less harsh methods of bank protection on the upper bank and
still achieve the desired result of a stable channel. Provisions for large woody vegetation and a more
aesthetically pleasing project may also be used on the upper banks or within the gabions. However, the
stability of vegetation or other upper bank protection should be carefully analyzed to ensure stability of the
upper bank area. A failure in the upper bank region can adversely affect gabion stability and lead to
project failure.
4.4.10 Uniform Flow – Example Problems

Example 1 -- Direct Solution of Manning's Equation
Use Manning's Equation to find the velocity, v, for an open channel with a hydraulic radius value of 0.6 ft,
an n value of 0.020, and slope of 0.003 ft/ft. Solve using Figure 4.4-2:
1. Connect a line between the slope scale at 0.003 and the roughness scale at 0.020 and note the
intersection point on the turning line.
2. Connect a line between that intersection point and the hydraulic radius scale at 0.6 ft and read the
velocity of 2.9 ft/s from the velocity scale.
Example 2 -- Grassed Channel Design Stability

A trapezoidal channel is required to carry 50 cfs at a bottom slope of 0.015 ft/ft. Find the channel
dimensions required for design stability criteria (retardance Class D) for a grass mixture.
1. From Table 4.4-3, the maximum velocity, vm, for a grass mixture with a bottom slope less than 5% is
4 ft/s.
2. Assume an n value of 0.035 and find the value of vR from Figure 4.4-1, vR = 5.4
3. Use equation 4.4.9 to calculate the value of R: R = 5.4/4 = 1.35 ft

4. Use equation 4.4.10 to calculate the value of vR:
vR = [1.49 (1.35)5/3 (0.015)1/2]/0.035 = 8.60
5. Since the vR value calculated in Step 4 is higher than the value obtained from Step 2, a higher n
value is required and calculations are repeated. The results from each trial of calculations are
presented below:

January 2006 4.4.10 Uniform Flow – Example Problems
Assumed vR R vR
n Value (Figure 4.4-1) (eq. 4.4.9) (eq. 4.4.10)
0.035 5.40 1.35 8.60
0.038 3.8 0.95 4.41
0.039 3.4 0.85 3.57
0.040 3.2 0.80 3.15
Select n = 0.040 for stability criteria.
6. Use Figure 4.4-3 to select channel dimensions for a trapezoidal shape with 3:1 side slopes.
Qn = (50) (0.040) = 2.0, S = 0.015
For b = 10 ft, d = (10) (0.098) = 0.98 ft, b = 8 ft, d = (8) (0.14) = 1.12 ft
Select:
b = 10 ft, such that R is approximately 0.80 ft
z = 3
d = 1 ft
v = 3.9 ft/s (equation 4.4.1)
Fr = 0.76 (equation 4.4.8)
Flow is subcritical
Design capacity calculations for this channel are presented in Example 3 below.
Example 3 -- Grassed Channel Design Capacity
Use a 10-ft bottom width and 3:1 side-slopes for the trapezoidal channel sized in Example 2 and find the
depth of flow for retardance Class C.
Assume a depth of 1.0 ft and calculate the following (see Figure 4.4-5):
A = (b + zd) d = [10 + (3) (1)] (1) = 13.0 square ft
R = [(b + zd) d]/{b + [2d(1 + z2)0.5]} = {[10+(3)(1)]1}/{10+[(2)(1)(1+32)0.5]}
R = 0.796 ft
Find the velocity: v = Q/A = 50/13.0 = 3.85 ft/s
Find the value of vR: vR = (3.85) (0.796) = 3.06
Using the vR product from Step 3, find Manning's n from Figure 4.4-1 for retardance Class C (n =
0.047)
Use Figure 4.4-2 or equation 4.4.1 to find the velocity for S = 0.015, R = 0.796, and n = 0.047: v =
3.34 ft/s
Since 3.34 ft/s is less than 3.85 ft/s, a higher depth is required and calculations are repeated. Results
from each trial of calculations are presented below:
Assumed Velocity Manning's
Depth Area R Q/A vR n Velocity
(ft) (ft2) (ft) (ft/sec) (Fig. 4.4-1) (Eq. 4.4.1)
1.0 13.00 0.796 3.85 3.06 0.047 3.34
1.05 13.81 0.830 3.62 3.00 0.047 3.39
1.1 14.63 0.863 3.42 2.95 0.048 3.45
1.2 16.32 0.928 3.06 2.84 0.049 3.54

4.4.11 Gradually Varied Flow January 2006
7. Select a depth of 1.1 with an n value of 0.048 for design capacity requirements. Add at least 0.2 ft for
freeboard to give a design depth of 1.3 ft. Design data for the trapezoidal channel are summarized as
follows:
Vegetation lining = grass mixture, vm = 4 ft/s
Q = 50 cfs
b = 10 ft, d = 1.3 ft, z = 3, S = 0.015
Top width = (10) + (2) (3) (1.3) = 17.8 ft
n (stability) = 0.040, d = 1.0 ft, v = 3.9 ft/s, Froude number = 0.76 (equation 4.4.8)
n (capacity) = 0.048, d = 1.1 ft, v = 3.45 ft/s, Froude number = 0.64 (equation 4.4.8)
Example 4 -- Riprap Design

A natural channel has an average bankfull channel velocity of 8 ft per second with a top width of 20 ft and
a bend radius of 50 ft. The depth over the toe of the outer bank is 5 ft. Available stone weight is 170
lbs/ft3. Stone placement is on a side slope of 2:1 (horizontal:vertical). Determine riprap size at the
outside of the bend.
1. Use 8 ft/s as the design velocity, because the reach is short and the bend is not protected.
2. Determine the bend correction coefficient for the ratio of Rb/T = 50/20 = 2.5. From Figure 4.4-7, Cb =
1.55. The adjusted effective velocity is (8) (1.55) = 12.4 ft/s.
3. Determine the correction coefficient for the specific weight of 170 lbs from Figure 4.4-8 as 0.98. The
adjusted effective velocity is (12.4) (0.98) = 12.15 ft/s.
4. Determine minimum d30 from Figure 4.4-9 or equation 4.4.13 as about 10 inches.
5. Use a gradation with a minimum d30 size of 10 inches.
6. (Optional) Another gradation is available with a d30 of 8 inches. The ratio of desired to standard
stone size is 8/10 or 0.8. From Figure 4.4-10, this gradation would be acceptable if the blanket
thickness was increased from the original d100 (diameter of the largest stone) thickness by 35% (a
ratio of 1.35 on the horizontal axis).
7. Perform preliminary design. Make sure that the stone is carried up and downstream far enough to
ensure stability of the channel and that the toe will not be undermined. The downstream length of
protection for channel bends can be determined using Figure 4.4-6.
4.4.11 Gradually Varied Flow

The most common occurrence of gradually varied flow in storm drainage is the backwater created by
culverts, storm sewer inlets, or channel constrictions. For these conditions, the flow depth will be greater
than normal depth in the channel and the water surface profile should be computed using backwater
techniques.
Many computer programs are available for computation of backwater curves. The most general and
widely used programs are, HEC-RAS, developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Bridge
Waterways Analysis Model (WSPRO) developed for the Federal Highway Administration. These
programs can be used to compute water surface profiles for both natural and artificial channels.
For prismatic channels, the backwater calculation can be computed manually using the Direct Step
method (Chow, 1959, TxDOT, 2002). In the Direct Step method an increment of water depth is chosen,
and the distance over which the depth change occurs is computed. This method is often used in
association with culvert hydraulics. It is most accurate when the slope and depth increments are small. It
is appropriate for prismatic channel sections which occur in most conduits, and can be useful when

January 2006 4.4.12 Rectangular, Triangular and Trapezoidal Open Channel Design
estimating both supercritical and subcritical profiles. For supercritical flow, the water surface profile is
computed downstream. For subcritical flow, the water surface profile is computed upstream.
For an irregular nonuniform channel, the Standard Step method is recommended, although it is a more
tedious and iterative process. The use of HEC-RAS is recommended for Standard Step calculations.
Cross sections for water surface profile calculations should be normal to the direction of flood flow. The
number of sections required will depend on the irregularity the designed waterway. Channel cross
sections will be required at each location along the waterway where there are changes in channel shape
or dimension, changes in the flowline slope, and changes in vegetation or channel lining. These sections
are in addition to any sections necessary to define obstructions such as culverts, bridges, damns, energy
dissipation features, or aerial crossings (pipelines). Sections should usually be no more than 4 to 5
channel widths apart or 100 feet apart for ditches or streams and 500 feet apart for floodplains, unless the
channel is very regular.
4.4.12 Rectangular, Triangular and Trapezoidal Open Channel

Design
The Federal Highway Administration has prepared numerous design figures to aid in the design of open
channels. Copies of these figures, a brief description of their use, and several example design problems
are presented. For design conditions not covered by the figures, a trial and error solution of Manning’s
Equation must be used. However, it is anticipated that available software programs will be the first choice
for solving these design computations.
4.4.12.2 Description of Figures

Figures given in FHWA, HDS No. 3, 1973 and Atlanta Regional Commission, 2001 are for the direct
solution of the Manning’s Equation for various sized open channels with rectangular, triangular, and
trapezoidal cross sections. Each figure (except for the triangular cross section) is prepared for a channel
of given bottom width and a particular value of Manning's n.
The figures for rectangular and trapezoidal cross section channels are used the same way. The abscissa
scale of discharge in cubic feet per second (cfs), and the ordinate scale is velocity in feet per second
(ft/s). Both scales are logarithmic. Superimposed on the logarithmic grid are steeply inclined lines
representing depth (ft), and slightly inclined lines representing channel slope (ft/ft). A heavy dashed line
on each figure shows critical flow conditions. Auxiliary abscissa and ordinate scales are provided for use
with other values of n and are explained in the example problems. In the figures, interpolations may be
made not only on the ordinate and abscissa scales but also between the inclined lines representing depth
and slope.
The chart for a triangular cross section (see Figure 3.2-1) is in nomograph form. It may be used for street
sections with a vertical (or nearly vertical) curb face. The nomograph also may be used for shallow
V-shaped sections by following the instructions on the chart.
4.4.12.3 Instructions for Rectangular and Trapezoidal Figures

Figures such as Figure 4.4-24 provide a solution of the Manning equation for flow in open channels of
uniform slope, cross section, and roughness, provided the flow is not affected by backwater and the
channel has a length sufficient to establish uniform flow.

4.4.12 Rectangular, Triangular and Trapezoidal Open Channel Design January 2006
For a given slope and channel cross section, when n is 0.015 for rectangular channels or 0.03 for
trapezoidal channels, the depth and velocity of uniform flow may be read directly from the figure for that
size channel. The initial step is to locate the intersection of a vertical line through the discharge
(abscissa) and the appropriate slope line. At this intersection, the depth of flow is read from the depth
lines, and the mean velocity is read on the ordinate scale.
The procedure is reversed to determine the discharge at a given depth of flow. Critical depth, slope, and
velocity for a given discharge can be read on the appropriate scale at the intersection of the critical curve
and a vertical line through the discharge.
Auxiliary scales, labeled Qn (abscissa) and Vn (ordinate), are provided so the figures can be used for
values of n other than those for which the charts were basically prepared. To use these scales, multiply
the discharge by the value of n and use the Qn and Vn scales instead of the Q and V scales, except for
computation of critical depth or critical velocity. To obtain normal velocity V from a value on the Vn scale,
divide the value by n. The following examples will illustrate these points.
Example Design Problem 1

Given: A rectangular concrete channel 5 ft wide with n = 0.015, .06 percent slope (S = .0006),
discharging 60 cfs.
Find: Depth, velocity, and type of flow
Procedure:
1. From subsection 4.4.12, select the rectangular figure for a 5-ft width (Figure 4.4-24).
2. From 60 cfs on the Q scale, move vertically to intersect the slope line S = .0006, and from the
depth lines read dn = 3.7 ft.
3. Move horizontally from the same intersection and read the normal velocity, V = 3.2 ft/s, on the
ordinate scale.
4. The intersection lies below the critical curve, and the flow is therefore in the subcritical range.

Figure 4.4-24 Example Nomograph #1


Given: A trapezoidal channel with 2:1 side slopes and a 4 ft bottom width, with n = 0.030, 0.2% slope (S
= 0.002), discharging 50 cfs.
Find: Depth, velocity, type flow.
Procedure:
1. Select the trapezoidal figure for b = 4 ft (see Figure 4.4-25).
2. From 50 cfs on the Q scale, move vertically to intersect the slope line S = 0.002 and from the
depth lines read dn = 2.2 ft.
3. Move horizontally from the same intersection and read the normal velocity, V = 2.75 ft/s, on the
ordinate scale. The intersection lies below the critical curve, and the flow is therefore subcritical.

Given: A rectangular cement rubble masonry channel 5 ft wide, with n = 0.025, 0.5% slope
(S = 0.005), discharging 80 cfs.
Find: Depth velocity and type of flow
Procedure:
1. Select the rectangular figure for a 5 ft width (Figure 4.4-26).
2. Multiply Q by n to obtain Qn: 80 x 0.025 = 2.0.
3. From 2.0 on the Qn scale, move vertically to intersect the slope line, S = 0.005, and at the
intersection read dn = 3.1 ft.
4. Move horizontally from the intersection and read Vn = .13, then Vn/n = 0.13/0.025 = 5.2 ft/s.
5. Critical depth and critical velocity are independent of the value of n so their values can be read at
the intersection of the critical curve with a vertical line through the discharge. For 80 cfs, on
Figure 4.4-13, dc = 2.0 ft and Vc = 7.9 ft/s. The normal velocity, 5.2 ft/s (from step 4), is less than
the critical velocity, and the flow is therefore subcritical. It will also be noted that the normal
depth, 3.0 ft, is greater than the critical depth, 2.0 ft, which also indicates subcritical flow.
6. To determine the critical slope for Q = 80 cfs and n = 0.025, start at the intersection of the critical
curve and a vertical line through the discharge, Q = 80 cfs, finding dc (2.0 ft) at this point. Follow
along this dc line to its intersection with a vertical line through Qn = 2.0 (step 2), at this
intersection read the slope value Sc = 0.015.



4.4.12.4 Grassed Channel Figures

The Manning equation can be used to determine the capacity of a grass-lined channel, but the value of n
varies with the type of grass, development of the grass cover, depth, and velocity of flow. The variable
value of n complicates the solution of the Manning equation. The depth and velocity of flow must be
estimated and the Manning equation solved using the n value that corresponds to the estimated depth
and velocity. The trial solution provides better estimates of the depth and velocity for a new value of n
and the equation is again solved. The procedure is repeated until a depth is found that carries the design
discharge.
To prevent excessive erosion, the velocity of flow in a grass-lined channel must be kept below some
maximum value (referred to as permissible velocity). The permissible velocity in a grass-lined channel
depends upon the type of grass, condition of the grass cover, texture of the soil comprising the channel
bed, channel slope, and to some extent the size and shape of the drainage channel. To guard against
overtopping, the channel capacity should be computed for taller grass than is expected to be maintained,
while the velocity used to check the adequacy of the protection should be computed assuming a lower
grass height than will likely be maintained.
To aid in the design of grassed channels, the Federal Highway Administration has prepared numerous
design figures. Copies of these figures are in subsection 4.4.14. Following is a brief description of
general design criteria, instructions on how to use the figures, and several example design problems. For
design conditions not covered by the figures, a trial-and-error solution of the Manning equation must be
used.
4.4.12.5 Description of Figures

A set of figures in FHWA, NDS No. 3, 1973 and Atlanta Regional Commission, 2001 are designed for use
in the direct solution of the Manning equation for various channel sections lined with grass. The figures
are similar in appearance and use to those for trapezoidal cross sections described earlier. However,
their construction is much more difficult because the roughness coefficient (n) changes as higher
velocities and/or greater depths change the condition of the grass. The effect of velocity and depth of
flow on n is evaluated by the product of velocity and hydraulic radius V times R. The variation of
Manning's n with the retardance (Table 4.4-6) and the product V times R is shown in Figure 4.4-1. As
indicated in Table 4.4-6, retardance varies with the height of the grass and the condition of the stand.
Both of these factors depend upon the type of grass, planting conditions, and maintenance practices.
Table 4.4-6 is used to determine retardance classification.
The grassed channel figures each have two graphs, the upper graph for retardance Class D and the
lower graph for retardance Class C. The figures are plotted with discharge in cubic feet per second on
the abscissa and slope in feet per foot on the ordinate. Both scales are logarithmic.
Superimposed on the logarithmic grid are lines for velocity in feet per second and lines for depth in feet.
A dashed line shows the position of critical flow.
4.4.12.6 Instructions for Grassed Channel Figures

The grassed channel figures like those in Figure 4.4-11 provide a solution of the Manning equation for
flow in open grassed channels of uniform slope and cross section. The flow should not be affected by
backwater and the channel should have length sufficient to establish uniform flow. The figures are
sufficiently accurate for design of drainage channels of fairly uniform cross section and slope, but are not
appropriate for irregular natural channels.
The design of grassed channels requires two operations: (1) selecting a section that has the capacity to
carry the design discharge on the available slope and (2) checking the velocity in the channel to ensure
that the grass lining will not be eroded. Because the retardance of the channel is largely beyond the
control of the designer, it is good practice to compute the channel capacity using retardance Class C and

the velocity using retardance Class D. The calculated velocity should then be checked against the
permissible velocities listed in Tables 4.4-2 and 4.4-3. The use of the figures is explained in the following
steps:
Step 1 Select the channel cross section to be used and find the appropriate figure.
Step 2 Enter the lower graph (for retardance Class C) on the figure with the design discharge value on
the abscissa and move vertically to the value of the slope on the ordinate scale. As this
intersection, read the normal velocity and normal depth and note the position of the critical
curve. If the intersection point is below the critical curve, the flow is subcritical; if it is above, the
flow is supercritical.
Step 3 To check the velocity developed against the permissible velocities (Tables 4.4-2 and 4.4-3),
enter the upper graph on the same figure and repeat Step 2. Then compare the computed
velocity with the velocity permissible for the type of grass, channel slope, and erosion
resistance of the soil. If the computed velocity is less, the design is acceptable. If not, a
different channel section must be selected and the process repeated.

Given: A trapezoidal channel in easily eroded soil, lined with a grass mixture with 4:1 side slopes, and a
4 ft bottom width on slope of 0.02 ft per foot (S=.02), discharging 20 cfs.
Find: Depth, velocity, type of flow, and adequacy of grass to prevent erosion
Procedure:
1. From subsection 4.4.13 select figure for 4:1 side slopes (see Figure 4.4-27).
2. Enter the lower graph with Q = 20 cfs, and move vertically to the line for S=0.02. At this
intersection read dn = 1.0 ft, and normal velocity Vn 2.6 ft/s.
3. The velocity for checking the adequacy of the grass cover should be obtained from the upper
graph, for retardance Class D. Using the same procedure as in step 2, the velocity is found to be
3.0 ft/s. This is about three-quarters of that listed as permissible, 4.0 ft/s in Table 4.4-3.

Given: The channel and discharge of Example 1.
Find: The maximum grade on which the 20 cfs could safely be carried
Procedure:
With an increase in slope (but still less than 5%), the allowable velocity is estimated to be 4 ft/s (see
Table 4.4-3). On the upper graph of Figure 4.4-28 for short grass, the intersection of the 20 cfs line
and the 4 ft/s line indicates a slope of 3.7% and a depth of 0.73 ft.



References
Atlanta Regional Commission, 2001, Georgia Stormwater Management Manual, Volume 2, Technical
Handbook, First Edition, pages 4.4-40 through 4.4-73 (http://www.georgiastormwater.com/vol2/4-4.pdf).
Chow, V. T., 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York, New York.
French, R. H., 1985. Open Channel Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York, New York.
Federal Highway Administration, 1989. Bridge Waterways Analysis Model (WSPRO), Users Manual,
FHWA IP-89-027.
Gregory, G.T., June 1987. Stone Riprap Design Guidelines. Unpublished paper, Fort Worth, Texas.
Harza Engineering Company, 1972. Storm Drainage Design Manual. Prepared for the Erie and Niagara
Counties Regional Planning Bd. Harza Engineering Company, Grand Island, NY.
Maynord, S. T., 1987. Stable Riprap Size for Open Channel Flows. Ph.D. Dissertation. Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, CO.
Mays, L. W., ed, 1999. Hydraulic Design Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York, New York.
Morris, J. R., 1984. A Method of Estimating Floodway Setback Limits in Areas of Approximate Study. In
Proceedings of 1984 International Symposium on Urban Hydrology, Hydraulics and Sediment Control.
Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky.
Peterska, A. J., 1978. Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipators. Engineering
Monograph No. 25. U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation. Washington, DC.
Reese, A. J., 1984. Riprap Sizing, Four Methods. In Proceedings of ASCE Conference on Water for
Resource Development, Hydraulics Division, ASCE. David L. Schreiber, ed.
Reese, A. J., 1988. Nomographic Riprap Design. Miscellaneous Paper HL 88-2. Vicksburg, Mississippi:
U. S. Army Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station.
Texas Department of Transportation, 2002, Hydraulic Design Manual, Revision 2002-2, Austin, Texas
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1991/1994, Hydraulic Design of Flood Control Channels, Engineer
Manual, EM 1110-2-1601 (htt;://www.usace.army.mil/usace-docs/).
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Research and Development Center, 2000. Gabions for Streambank
Erosion Control, ERDC TN-EMRRP-SR-22, Vicksburg, Mississippi.
U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1961. Design Charts For Open
Channel Flow. Hydraulic Design Series No. 3. Washington, DC.
U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1983. Hydraulic Design of Energy

Dissipators for Culverts and Channels. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 14. Washington, DC.
U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1984. Guide for Selecting

Manning's Roughness Coefficients For Natural Channels and Flood Plains. FHWA-TS-84-204.
Washington, DC.

U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 1988. Design of Stable Channels

with Flexible Linings. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 15. Washington, DC.
Wright-McLaughlin Engineers, 1969. Urban Storm Drainage Criteria Manual, Vol. 2. Prepared for the
Denver Regional Council of Governments. Wright-McLaughlin Engineers, Denver, CO

CHAPTER
4
Section 4.5
Storage Design
4.5.1 General Storage Concepts
This section provides general guidance on storm water runoff storage for meeting storm water
management control objectives (i.e., water quality protection, downstream streambank protection, and
flood control).
Storage of storm water runoff within a storm water management system is essential to providing the
extended detention of flows for water quality protection and downstream streambank protection, as well
as for peak flow attenuation of larger flows for flood protection. Runoff storage can be provided within an
on-site system through the use of structural storm water controls and/or nonstructural features and
landscaped areas. Figure 4.5-1 illustrates various storage facilities that can be considered for a
development site.
Flood Level
Dry Basin
Flood Level
Permanent Pool
Stormwater Pond or Wetland

Rooftop Storage
Parking Lot
Storage Landscaped
Area
Underground Vault Underground

Pipe Storage
Figure 4.5-1 Examples of Typical Storm Water Storage Facilities

4.5.1 General Storage Concepts January 2006
4.5.1.2 Storage Classification

Storm water storage(s) can be classified as either detention, extended detention or retention. Some
facilities include one or more types of storage.
Storm water detention is used to reduce the peak discharge and detain runoff for a specified short period
of time. Detention volumes are designed to completely drain after the design storm has passed.
Detention is used to meet streambank protection criteria, and flood criteria where required.
Extended detention (ED) is used to drain a runoff volume over a specified period of time, typically 24
hours, and is used to meet streambank protection criteria. Some structural control designs (wet ED pond,
micropool ED pond, and shallow ED marsh) also include extended detention storage of a portion of the
water quality protection volume.
Retention facilities are designed to contain a permanent pool of water, such as storm water ponds and
wetlands, which is used for water quality protection.
Storage facilities are often classified on the basis of their location and size. On-site storage is
constructed on individual development sites. Regional storage facilities are constructed at the lower end
of a subwatershed and are designed to manage storm water runoff from multiple projects and/or
properties. A discussion of regional storm water controls is found in Section 5.1.
Storage can also be categorized as on-line or off-line. On-line storage uses a structural control facility
that intercepts flows directly within a conveyance system or stream. Off-line storage is a separate storage
facility to which flow is diverted from the conveyance system. Figure 4.5-2 illustrates on-line versus off-
line storage.
Stormwater
Conveyance Flow Diversion
Structure
Storage Storage
Facility Facility
On-Line Storage Off-Line Storage
Figure 4.5-2 On-Line versus Off-Line Storage

January 2006 4.5.1 General Storage Concepts
4.5.1.3 Stage-Storage Relationship

A stage-storage curve defines the relationship between the depth of water and storage volume in a
storage facility (see Figure 4.5-3). The volume of storage can be calculated by using simple geometric
formulas expressed as a function of depth.
12.0
10.0
Storage (ac-ft)
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Stage (ft)
Figure 4.5-3 Stage-Storage Curve
The storage volume for natural basins may be developed using a topographic map and the double-end
area, frustum of a pyramid, prismoidal or circular conic section formulas.
The double-end area formula (see Figure 4.5-4) is expressed as:

V1,2 = [(A1 + A2)/2]d (4.5.1)
Figure 4.5-4 Double-End Area Method

4.5.1 General Storage Concepts January 2006
where:
V1,2 = storage volume (ft3) between elevations 1 and 2
A1 = surface area at elevation 1 (ft2)
d = change in elevation between points 1 and 2 (ft)
The frustum of a pyramid formula is expressed as:

V = d/3 [A1 + (A1 x A2)0.5 + A2]/3 (4.5.2)
where:
V = volume of frustum of a pyramid (ft3)
d = change in elevation between points 1 and 2 (ft)
The prismoidal formula for trapezoidal basins is expressed as:

V = LWD + (L + W) ZD2 + 4/3 Z2 D3 (4.5.3)
where:
V = volume of trapezoidal basin (ft3)
L = length of basin at base (ft)
W = width of basin at base (ft)
D = depth of basin (ft)
Z = side slope factor, ratio of horizontal to vertical
The circular conic section formula is:

V = 1.047 D (R12 + R22 + R1R2) (4.5.4)
V = 1.047 D (3 R12 +3ZDR1 + Z2D ) 2
(4.5.5)
where:
R1, R2 = bottom and surface radii of the conic section (ft)
D = depth of basin (ft)
Z = side slope factor, ratio of horizontal to vertical
4.5.1.4 Stage-Discharge Relationship

A stage-discharge curve defines the relationship between the depth of water and the discharge or outflow
from a storage facility (see Figure 4.5-5). A typical storage facility has two outlets or spillways: a principal
outlet and a secondary (or emergency) outlet. The principal outlet is usually designed with a capacity
sufficient to convey the design flows without allowing flow to enter the emergency spillway. A pipe
culvert, weir, or other appropriate outlet can be used for the principal spillway or outlet.
The emergency spillway is sized to provide a bypass for floodwater during a flood that exceeds the
design capacity of the principal outlet. This spillway should be designed taking into account the potential
threat to downstream areas if the storage facility were to fail. The stage-discharge curve should take into
account the discharge characteristics of both the principal spillway and the emergency spillway. For more
details, see Section 4.6, Outlet Structures.

January 2006 4.5.2 Symbols and Definitions
300
250
Discharge (cfs)
200
150
100
50
0
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
Stage (ft)
Figure 4.5-5 Stage-Discharge Curve

4.5-1 will be used. These symbols were selected because of their wide use in technical publications. In
some cases, the same symbol is used in existing publications for more than one definition. Where this
occurs in this section, the symbol will be defined where it occurs in the text or equations.

A Cross sectional or surface area ft2
Am Drainage area mi2
C Weir coefficient -
d Change in elevation ft
D Depth of basin or diameter of pipe ft
t Routing time period sec
g Acceleration due to gravity ft/s2
H Head on structure ft
HC Height of weir crest above channel bottom ft
K Coefficient -
I Inflow rate cfs
L Length ft
Q, q Peak inflow or outflow rate cfs, in
R Surface Radii ft
S, VS Storage volume ft3
tb Time base on hydrograph hrs
TI Duration of basin inflow hrs
tP Time to peak hrs
VS, S Storage volume ft3, in, acre-ft
Vr Volume of runoff ft3, in, acre-ft
W Width of basin ft
Z Side slope factor -

4.5.3 General Storage Design Procedures January 2006
4.5.3 General Storage Design Procedures
This section discusses the general design procedures for designing storage to provide standard detention
of storm water runoff for flood control (Qf).
The design procedures for all structural control storage facilities are the same whether or not they include
a permanent pool of water. In the latter case, the permanent pool elevation is taken as the “bottom” of
storage and is treated as if it were a solid basin bottom for routing purposes.
It should be noted that the location of structural storm water controls is very important as it relates to the
effectiveness of these facilities to control downstream impacts. In addition, multiple storage facilities
located in the same drainage basin will affect the timing of the runoff through the conveyance system,
which could decrease or increase flood peaks in different downstream locations. Therefore, a
downstream peak flow analysis should be performed as part of the storage facility design process (see
subsection 2.1.9).
In multi-purpose multi-stage facilities such as storm water ponds, the design of storage must be
integrated with the overall design for water quality protection objectives. See Chapter 5 for further
guidance and criteria for the design of structural storm water controls.
4.5.3.2 Data Needs

The following data are needed for storage design and routing calculations:
• Inflow hydrograph for all selected design storms
• Stage-storage curve for proposed storage facility
• Stage-discharge curve for all outlet control structures

A general procedure for using the above data in the design of storage facilities is presented below.
Step 1 Compute inflow hydrograph for runoff from the “Conveyance” (e.g., Qp25) and 100-year (Qp100)
design storms using the hydrologic methods outlined in Section 2.1. Both existing- and post-
development hydrographs are required for both the “Conveyance” and 100-year design
storms.
Step 2 Perform preliminary calculations to evaluate detention storage requirements for the
hydrographs from Step 1 (see subsection 4.5.4).
Step 3 Determine the physical dimensions necessary to hold the estimated volume from Step 2,
including freeboard. The maximum storage requirement calculated from Step 2 should be
used. From the selected shape determine the maximum depth in the pond.
Step 4 Select the type of outlet and size the outlet structure. The estimated peak stage will occur for
the estimated volume from Step 2. The outlet structure should be sized to convey the
allowable discharge at this stage.
Step 5 Perform routing calculations using inflow hydrographs from Step 1 to check the preliminary
design using a storage routing computer model. If the routed post-development peak
discharges from the “Conveyance” design storm exceed the existing-development peak
discharges, then revise the available storage volume, outlet device, etc., and return to Step 3.

January 2006 4.5.4 Preliminary Detention Calculations
Step 6 Perform routing calculations using the 100-year hydrograph to determine if any increases in
downstream flows from this hydrograph will cause damages and/or drainage and flooding
problems. If problems will be created (e.g., flooding of habitable dwellings, property damage,
or public access and/or utility interruption) then the storage facility must be designed to
control the increased flows from the 100-year storm. If not then consider emergency overflow
from runoff due to the 100-year (or larger) design storm and established freeboard
requirements.
Step 7 Evaluate the downstream effects of detention outflows for the “Conveyance” and 100-year
storms to ensure that the routed hydrograph does not cause downstream flooding problems.
The exit hydrograph from the storage facility should be routed though the downstream
channel system to the location where the discharge from the proposed development no
longer has a significant impact upon the receiving stream or storm drainage system (see
subsection 2.1.9).
Step 8 Evaluate the control structure outlet velocity and provide channel and bank stabilization if the
velocity will cause erosion problems downstream.
Routing of hydrographs through storage facilities is critical to the proper design of these facilities.
Although storage design procedures using inflow/outflow analysis without routing have been developed,
their use in designing detention facilities has not produced acceptable results in many areas of the
country, including North Central Texas.
Although hand calculation procedures are available for routing hydrographs through storage facilities,
they are very time consuming, especially when several different designs are evaluated. Many standard
hydrology and hydraulics textbooks give examples of hand-routing techniques. For this Manual, it
assumed that designers will be using one of the many computer programs available for storage routing
and thus other procedures and example applications will not be given here.
4.5.4 Preliminary Detention Calculations
Procedures for preliminary detention calculations are included here to provide a simple method that can
be used to estimate storage needs and also provide a quick check on the results of using different
computer programs. Standard routing should be used for actual (final) storage facility calculations and
design.
4.5.4.2 Storage Volume

For small drainage areas, a preliminary estimate of the storage volume required for peak flow attenuation
may be obtained from a simplified design procedure that replaces the actual inflow and outflow
hydrographs with the standard triangular shapes shown in Figure 4.5-6.
The required storage volume may be estimated from the area above the outflow hydrograph and inside
the inflow hydrograph, expressed as:
VS = 0.5Ti (Qi - QO) (4.5.6)
where:
VS = storage volume estimate (ft3)
Qi = peak inflow rate (cfs)
QO = peak outflow rate (cfs)
Ti = duration of basin inflow (s)

4.5.4 Preliminary Detention Calculations January 2006
Figure 4.5-6 Triangular-Shaped Hydrographs

(For Preliminary Estimate of Required Storage Volume)
4.5.4.3 Alternative Method

An alternative preliminary estimate of the storage volume required for a specified peak flow reduction can
be obtained by the following regression equation procedure (Wycoff and Singh, 1976).
Determine input data, including the allowable peak outflow rate, QO, the peak flow rate of the inflow
hydrograph, Qi, the time base of the inflow hydrograph, tb, and the time to peak of the inflow hydrograph,
tp.
Calculate a preliminary estimate of the ratio VS/Vr using the input data from Step 1 and the following
equation:
Qo 0.753
Vs 1.291 1 - Q
=
i (4.5.7)
Vr
tp 0.753
tb
where:
VS = volume of storage (in)
Vr = volume of runoff (in)
QO = outflow peak flow (cfs)
Qi = inflow peak flow (cfs)
tb = time base of the inflow hydrograph (hr) [Determined as the time from the beginning of rise
to a point on the recession limb where the flow is 5% of the peak]
tp = time to peak of the inflow hydrograph (hr)
Multiply the volume of runoff, Vr, times the ratio VS/Vr, calculated in Step 2 to obtain the estimated storage
volume VS.

January 2006 4.5.4 Preliminary Detention Calculations
4.5.4.4 Peak Flow Reduction

A preliminary estimate of the potential peak flow reduction for a selected storage volume can be obtained
by the following procedure.
Determine volume of runoff, Vr, peak flow rate of the inflow hydrograph, Qi, time base of the inflow
hydrograph, tb, time to peak of the inflow hydrograph, tp, and storage volume VS.
Calculate a preliminary estimate of the potential peak flow reduction for the selected storage volume
using the following equation (Wycoff and Singh, 1976):
QO/Qi = 1 - 0.712(VS/Vr)1.328(tb/tp)0.546 (4.5.8)
where:
QO = outflow peak flow (cfs)
Qi = inflow peak flow (cfs)
VS = volume of storage (in)
Vr = volume of runoff (in)
tb = time base of the inflow hydrograph (hr) [Determined as the time from the beginning of rise
to a point on the recession limb where the flow is 5 percent of the peak]
tp = time to peak of the inflow hydrograph (hr)
Multiply the peak flow rate of the inflow hydrograph, Qi, times the potential peak flow reduction calculated
from Step 2 to obtain the estimated peak outflow rate, QO, for the selected storage volume.

References
Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County, 1988. Storm Water Management Manual -
Volume 2 Procedures. Prepared by AMEC, Inc. (formerly The Edge Group) and CH2M Hill.
Wycoff, R. L. and U. P. Singh, 1976. Preliminary Hydrologic Design of Small Flood Detention Reservoirs.
Water Resources Bulletin. Vol. 12, No. 2, pp 337-49.

CHAPTER
4
Section 4.6
Outlet Structures
4.6-1 will be used. These symbols were selected because of their wide use in technical publications. In
some cases, the same symbol is used in existing publications for more than one definition. Where this
occurs in this section, the symbol will be defined where it occurs in the text or equations.

A, a Cross sectional or surface area ft2
Am Drainage area mi2
B Breadth of weir ft
C Weir coefficient -
d Change in elevation ft
D Depth of basin or diameter of pipe ft
g Acceleration due to gravity ft/s2
H Head on structure ft
HC Height of weir crest above channel bottom ft
K, k Coefficient -
L Length ft
n Manning’s n -
Q, q Peak inflow or outflow rate cfs, in
Vu Approach velocity ft/s
WQv Water quality protection volume ac ft
w Maximum cross sectional bar width facing the flow in
x Minimum clear spacing between bars in
θ Angle of v-notch degrees
θg Angle of the grate with respect to the horizontal degrees
4.6.2 Primary Outlets
Primary outlets provide the critical function of the regulation of flow for structural storm water controls.
There are several different types of outlets that may consist of a single stage outlet structure, or several
outlet structures combined to provide multi-stage outlet control.
For a single stage system, the storm water facility can be designed as a simple pipe or culvert. For
multistage control structures, the inlet is designed considering a range of design flows.

4.6.2 Primary Outlets January 2006
A stage-discharge curve is developed for the full range of flows that the structure would experience. The
outlets are housed in a riser structure connected to a single outlet conduit. An alternative approach would
be to provide several pipe or culvert outlets at different levels in the basin that are either discharged
separately or are combined to discharge at a single location.
This section provides an overview of outlet structure hydraulics and design for storm water storage
facilities. The design engineer is referred to an appropriate hydraulics text for additional information on
outlet structures not contained in this section.
(a) PIPE OR BOX CULVERT (d) WEIR OVERFLOW SPILLWAY
Side Elevation
(b) RISER STRUCTURE
(single and multi-level outlets)
Front Elevation
(e) SLOTTED OUTLET
(c) DROP INLET
Figure 4.6-1 Typical Primary Outlets
4.6.2.2 Outlet Structure Types

There are a wide variety of outlet structure types, the most common of which are covered in this section.
Descriptions and equations are provided for the following outlet types for use in storm water facility
design:
• Orifices
• Perforated risers
• Pipes / Culverts
• Sharp-crested weirs
• Broad-crested weirs
• V-notch weirs
• Proportional weirs
• Combination outlets

January 2006 4.6.2 Primary Outlets
The design professional must pay attention to material types and construction details when designing an
outlet structure or device. Non-corrosive material and mounting hardware are key to device longevity,
ease of operation, and low cost maintenance. Special attention must also be paid to not placing
dissimilar metal materials together where a cathodic reaction will cause deterioration and destruction of
metal parts.
Protective coatings, paints, and sealants must also be chosen carefully to prevent contamination of the
storm water flowing through the structure/device. This is not only important while they are being applied,
but also as these coating deteriorate and age over the functional life of the facility.
Each of these outlet types has a different design purpose and application:
• Water quality and streambank protection flows are normally handled with smaller, more protected
outlet structures such as reverse slope pipes, hooded orifices, orifices located within screened pipes
or risers, perforated plates or risers, and V-notch weirs.
• Larger flows, such as flood flows, are typically handled through a riser with different sized openings,
through an overflow at the top of a riser (drop inlet structure), or a flow over a broad crested weir or
spillway through the embankment. Overflow weirs can also be of different heights and configurations
to handle control of multiple design flows.
4.6.2.3 Orifices
An orifice is a circular or rectangular opening of a prescribed shape and size. The flow rate depends on
the height of the water above the opening and the size and edge treatment of the orifice.
For a single orifice, as illustrated in Figure 4.6-2(a), the orifice discharge can be determined using the
standard orifice equation below.
Q = CA (2gH)0.5 (4.6.1)
where:
Q = the orifice flow discharge (cfs)
C = discharge coefficient
A = cross-sectional area of orifice or pipe (ft2)
D = diameter of orifice or pipe (ft)
H = effective head on the orifice, from the center of orifice to the water surface
If the orifice discharges as a free outfall, then the effective head is measured from the center of the orifice
to the upstream (headwater) surface elevation. If the orifice discharge is submerged, then the effective
head is the difference in elevation of the headwater and tailwater surfaces as shown in Figure 4.6-2(b).

H
D
(a)
Headwater
H Tailwater
(b)
H1
H2
D
H3
(c)
Figure 4.6-2 Orifice Definitions Figure 4.6-3 Perforated Riser
When the material is thinner than the orifice diameter, with sharp edges, a coefficient of 0.6 should be
used. For square-edged entrance conditions the generic orifice equation can be simplified:
Q = 0.6A (2gH)0.5 = 3.78D2H0.5 (4.6.2)
where:
D = diameter of orifice or pipe (ft)
When the material is thicker than the orifice diameter a coefficient of 0.80 should be used. If the edges
are rounded, a coefficient of 0.92 can be used.
Flow through multiple orifices, such as the perforated plate shown in Figure 4.6-2(c), can be computed by
summing the flow through individual orifices. For multiple orifices of the same size and under the
influence of the same effective head, the total flow can be determined by multiplying the discharge for a
single orifice by the number of openings.
Perforated orifice plates for the control of discharge can be of any size and configuration. However, the
Denver Urban Drainage and Flood Control District has developed standardized dimensions that have
worked well. Table 4.6-2 gives appropriate dimensions. The vertical spacing between hole centerlines is
always 4 inches.

Table 4.6-2 Circular Perforation Sizing

Hole Flow Area per Row (in2)
Minimum Column Hole
Diameter
Centerline Spacing (in) 1 column 2 columns 3 columns
(in)
1/4 1 0.05 0.1 0.15
5/16 2 0.08 0.15 0.23
3/8 2 0.11 0.22 0.33
7/16 2 0.15 0.3 0.45
1/2 2 0.2 0.4 0.6
9/16 3 0.25 0.5 0.75
5/8 3 0.31 0.62 0.93
11/16 3 0.37 0.74 1.11
3/4 3 0.44 0.88 1.32
13/16 3 0.52 1.04 1.56
7/8 3 0.6 1.2 1.8
15/16 3 0.69 1.38 2.07
1 4 0.79 1.58 2.37
1 1/16 4 0.89 1.78 2.67
1 1/8 4 0.99 1.98 2.97
1 3/16 4 1.11 2.22 3.33
1 1/4 4 1.23 2.46 3.69
1 5/16 4 1.35 2.7 4.05
1 3/8 4 1.48 2.96 4.44
1 7/16 4 1.62 3.24 4.86
1 1/2 4 1.77 3.54 5.31
1 9/16 4 1.92 3.84 5.76
1 5/8 4 2.07 4.14 6.21
1 11/16 4 2.24 4.48 6.72
1 3/4 4 2.41 4.82 7.23
1 13/16 4 2.58 5.16 7.74
1 7/8 4 2.76 5.52 8.28
1 15/16 4 2.95 5.9 8.85
2 4 3.14 6.28 9.42
Number of columns refers to parallel columns of holes
Minimum plate thickness 1/4” 5/16” 3/8”
Source: Urban Drainage and Flood Control District, Denver, CO

For rectangular slots the height is normally 2 inches with variable width. Only one column of rectangular
slots is allowed.
Figure 4.6-4 provides a schematic of an orifice plate outlet structure for a wet extended detention pond
showing the design pool elevations and the flow control mechanisms.
Trash Racks
100-Yr
Spillway
25-Yr
Channel Protection
Streambank CP
S v
Water Quality ED
Protection ED
Permanent Pool
Perforated Orifice Plates

25-Yr Orifice
Figure 4.6-4 Schematic of Orifice Plate Outlet Structure
4.6.2.4 Perforated Risers

A special kind of orifice flow is a perforated riser as illustrated in Figure 4.6-3. In the perforated riser, an
orifice plate at the bottom of the riser, or in the outlet pipe just downstream from the elbow at the bottom
of the riser, controls the flow. It is important that the perforations in the riser convey more flow than the
orifice plate so as not to become the control.
Referring to Figure 4.6-3, a shortcut formula has been developed to estimate the total flow capacity of the
perforated section (McEnroe, 1988):
2 Ap 3
(4.6.3)
Q = C p 2g H 2
3H s
where:
Q = discharge (cfs)
Cp = discharge coefficient for perforations (normally 0.61)
Ap = cross-sectional area of all the holes (ft2)
Hs = distance from S/2 below the lowest row of holes to S/2 above the top row (ft)
4.6.2.5 Pipes and Culverts

Discharge pipes are often used as outlet structures for storm water control facilities. The design of these
pipes can be for either single or multi-stage discharges. A reverse-slope underwater pipe is often used
for water quality or streambank protection outlets.
Pipes smaller than 12 inches in diameter may be analyzed as a submerged orifice as long as H/D is
greater than 1.5. Note: For low flow conditions when the flow reaches and begins to overflow the pipe,
weir flow controls (see subsection 4.6.2.6). As the stage increases the flow will transition to orifice flow.

Pipes greater than 12 inches in diameter should be analyzed as a discharge pipe with headwater and
tailwater effects taken into account. The outlet hydraulics for pipe flow can be determined from the outlet
control culvert nomographs and procedures given in Section 4.3, Culvert Design, or by using equation
4.6.4 (NRCS, 1984).
The following equation is a general pipe flow equation derived through the use of the Bernoulli and
continuity principles.
Q = a[(2gH) / (1 + km + kpL)]0.5 (4.6.4)
where:
Q = discharge (cfs)
a = pipe cross sectional area (ft2)
g = acceleration of gravity (ft/s2)
H = elevation head differential (ft)
km = coefficient of minor losses (use 1.0)
kp = pipe friction coefficient = 5087n2/D4/3
L =pipe length (ft)
4.6.2.6 Sharp-Crested Weirs

If the overflow portion of a weir has a sharp, thin leading edge such that the water springs clear as it
overflows, the overflow is termed a sharp-crested weir. If the sides of the weir also cause the through
flow to contract, it is termed an end-contracted sharp-crested weir. Sharp-crested weirs have stable
stage-discharge relations and are often used as a measurement device. A sharp-crested weir with
compensation for end contractions is illustrated in Figure 4.6-5(a). The discharge equation for this
configuration is (Chow, 1959) which can also be used for circular pipe risers:
Q = [(3.27 + 0.4(H/HC)] LH1.5 (4.6.5)
were:
Q = discharge (cfs)
H = head above weir crest excluding velocity head (ft)
HC = height of weir crest above channel bottom (ft)
L = horizontal weir length (ft)
4
1
L L
(a) Cipolletti Weir (b) With end contractions

end contraction
compensation
H H1
H2
Hc Hc
Figure 4.6-5 Sharp-Crested Weir

The discharge equation for the Cipolletti Weir is Q = 3.367 LH1/2

A sharp-crested weir with two end contractions is illustrated in Figure 4.6-5(b). The discharge equation
for this configuration is (Chow, 1959) which can also be used for circular pipe risers:
Q = [(3.27 + 0.4(H/HC)] (L - 0.2H) H1.5 (4.6.6)
where:
Q = discharge (cfs)
H = head above weir crest excluding velocity head (ft)
HC = height of weir crest above channel bottom (ft)
L = horizontal weir length (ft)
A sharp-crested weir will be affected by submergence when the tailwater rises above the weir crest
elevation. The result will be that the discharge over the weir will be reduced. The discharge equation for
a sharp-crested submerged weir is (Brater and King, 1976):
QS = Qf (1 - (H2/H1)1.5)0.385 (4.6.7)
where:
QS = submergence flow (cfs)
Qf = free flow (cfs)
H1 = upstream head above crest (ft)
H2 = downstream head above crest (ft)
4.6.2.7 Broad-Crested Weirs

A weir in the form of a relatively long raised channel control crest section is a broad-crested weir. The
flow control section can have different shapes, such as triangular or circular. True broad-crested weir
flow occurs when upstream head above the crest is between the limits of about 1/20 and 1/2 the crest
length in the direction of flow. For example, a thick wall or a flat stop log can act like a sharp-crested weir
when the approach head is large enough that the flow springs from the upstream corner. If upstream
head is small enough relative to the top profile length, the stop log can act like a broad-crested weir
(USBR, 1997).
The equation for the broad-crested weir is (Brater and King, 1976):
Q = CLH1.5 (4.6.8)
where:
Q = discharge (cfs)
C = broad-crested weir coefficient
L = broad-crested weir length perpendicular to flow (ft)
H = head above weir crest (ft)
If the upstream edge of a broad-crested weir is so rounded as to prevent contraction and if the slope of
the crest is as great as the loss of head due to friction, flow will pass through critical depth at the weir
crest; this gives the maximum C value of 3.087. For sharp corners on the broad-crested weir, a minimum
C value of 2.6 should be used. Information on C values as a function of weir crest breadth and head is
given in Table 4.6-3.
H
Figure 4.6-6 L
Broad-Crested Weir b

Table 4.6-3 Broad-Crested Weir Coefficient (C) Values
Measure
d Head Weir Crest Breadth (b) in feet
(H)*
In feet 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.00 10.00 15.00
0.2 2.80 2.75 2.69 2.62 2.54 2.48 2.44 2.38 2.34 2.49 2.68
0.4 2.92 2.80 2.72 2.64 2.61 2.60 2.58 2.54 2.50 2.56 2.70
0.6 3.08 2.89 2.75 2.64 2.61 2.60 2.68 2.69 2.70 2.70 2.70
0.8 3.30 3.04 2.85 2.68 2.60 2.60 2.67 2.68 2.68 2.69 2.64
1.0 3.32 3.14 2.98 2.75 2.66 2.64 2.65 2.67 2.68 2.68 2.63
1.2 3.32 3.20 3.08 2.86 2.70 2.65 2.64 2.67 2.66 2.69 2.64
1.4 3.32 3.26 3.20 2.92 2.77 2.68 2.64 2.65 2.65 2.67 2.64
1.6 3.32 3.29 3.28 3.07 2.89 2.75 2.68 2.66 2.65 2.64 2.63
1.8 3.32 3.32 3.31 3.07 2.88 2.74 2.68 2.66 2.65 2.64 2.63
2.0 3.32 3.31 3.30 3.03 2.85 2.76 2.72 2.68 2.65 2.64 2.63
2.5 3.32 3.32 3.31 3.28 3.07 2.89 2.81 2.72 2.67 2.64 2.63
3.0 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.20 3.05 2.92 2.73 2.66 2.64 2.63
3.5 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.19 2.97 2.76 2.68 2.64 2.63
4.0 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.07 2.79 2.70 2.64 2.63
4.5 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 2.88 2.74 2.64 2.63
5.0 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.07 2.79 2.64 2.63
5.5 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 3.32 2.88 2.64 2.63
* Measured at least 2.5H upstream of the weir.

Source: Brater and King (1976)
4.6.2.8 V-Notch Weirs

The discharge through a V-notch weir (Figure 4.6-7) can be calculated from the following equation (Brater
and King, 1976).
Q = 2.5 tan (θ/2) H2.5 (4.6.9)
where:
A
Q = discharge (cfs)
Θ/2
θ = angle of V-notch (degrees)
H = head on apex of notch (ft)
Section A-A
Figure 4.6-7 V-Notch Weir

4.6.2.9 Proportional Weirs

Although it may be more complex to design and construct, a proportional weir may significantly reduce
the required storage volume for a given site. The proportional weir is distinguished from other control
devices by having a linear head-discharge relationship achieved by allowing the discharge area to vary
nonlinearly with head. A typical proportional weir is shown in Figure 4.6-8. Design equations for
proportional weirs are (Sandvik, 1985):
Q = 4.97 a0.5 b (H - a/3) (4.6.10)
x/b = 1 - (1/3.17) (arctan (y/a)0.5) (4.6.11)
where:
Q = discharge (cfs)
Dimensions a, b, H, x, and y are shown in Figure 4.6-8
H
x
y
Figure 4.6-8 Proportional Weir Dimensions
4.6.2.10 Combination Outlets

Combinations of orifices, weirs, and pipes can be used to provide multi-stage outlet control for different
control volumes within a storage facility (i.e., water quality protection volume, streambank protection
volume, and flood control volume).
They are generally two types of combination outlets: shared outlet control structures and separate outlet
controls. Shared outlet control is typically a number of individual outlet openings (orifices), weirs, or drops
at different elevations on a riser pipe or box which all flow to a common larger conduit or pipe. Figure 4.6-
9 shows an example of a riser designed for a wet extended detention pond. The orifice plate outlet
structure in Figure 4.6-4 is another example of a combination outlet.
Separate outlet controls are less common and may consist of several pipe or culvert outlets at different
levels in the storage facility that are either discharged separately or are combined to discharge at a single
location.
The use of a combination outlet requires the construction of a composite stage-discharge curve (as
shown in Figure 4.6-10) suitable for control of multiple storm flows. The design of multi-stage
combination outlets is discussed later in this section.

SPv
Figure 4.6-9 Schematic of Combination Outlet Structure
103.5
103.0
102.5
Elevation (ft)
102.0
Secondary Outlet
101.5 (Spillway)
Riser Capacity
101.0
Primary Outlet
100.5
Total Outflow
100.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Discharge (cfs)
Figure 4.6-10 Composite Stage-Discharge Curve

4.6.3 Extended Detention Outlet Design January 2006
4.6.3 Extended Detention (Water Quality and Streambank

Protection) Outlet Design
Extended detention (ED) orifice sizing is required in design applications that provide extended detention
for downstream streambank protection or the ED portion of the water quality protection volume. The
release rate for both the WQv and SPv should be one that discharges the ED volume in a period of 24
hours or longer. In both cases an extended detention orifice or reverse slope pipe can be used for the
outlet. For a structural control facility providing both WQv extended detention and SPv control (wet ED
pond, micropool ED pond, and shallow ED wetland), there will be a need to design two outlet orifices –
one for the water quality control outlet and one for the streambank protection drawdown.
(The following procedures are based on the water quality outlet design procedures included in the Virginia
Stormwater Management Handbook, 1999)
The outlet hydraulics for peak control design (flood control) is usually straightforward in that an outlet is
selected to limit the peak flow to some predetermined maximum. Since volume and the time required for
water to exit the storage facility are not usually considered, the outlet design can easily be calculated and
routing procedures used to determine if quantity design criteria are met.
In an extended detention facility for water quality protection or downstream streambank protection,
however, the storage volume is detained and released for each over a specified amount of time (e.g., 24-
hours). The release period is a “brim” drawdown time, beginning at the time of peak storage of the WQv
or SPv until the entire calculated volume drains out of the basin. This assumes the brim volume is present
in the basin prior to any discharge. In reality, however, water is flowing out of the basin prior to the full or
brim volume being reached. Therefore, the extended detention outlet can be sized using either of the
following methods:
• Using the maximum hydraulic head associated with the brim storage volume and maximum
discharge, calculate the orifice size needed to achieve the required drawdown time. Route the
volume through the basin to verify the actual storage volume used and the drawdown time.
• Approximate the orifice size using the average hydraulic head associated with the storage volume
and the required drawdown time.
These two procedures are outlined in the examples below and can be used to size an extended detention
orifice for water quality and/or streambank protection.
4.6.3.2 Method 1: Maximum Hydraulic Head with Routing

A wet ED pond sized for the required water quality protection volume will be used here to illustrate the
sizing procedure for an extended-detention orifice.
Given the following information, calculate the required orifice size for water quality protection design.
Given: Water Quality Protection Volume (WQv) = 0.76 ac ft = 33,106 ft3
Maximum Hydraulic Head (Hmax) = 5.0 ft (from stage vs. storage data)
Step 1 Determine the maximum discharge resulting from the 24-hour drawdown requirement. It is
calculated by dividing the Water Quality Protection Volume (or Streambank Protection
Volume) by the required time to find the average discharge, and then multiplying by two to
obtain the maximum discharge.
Qavg = 33,106 ft3 / (24 hr)(3,600 s/hr) = 0.38 cfs
Qmax = 2 * Qavg = 2 * 0.38 = 0.76 cfs

January 2006 4.6.4 Multi-Stage Outlet Design
Step 2 Determine the required orifice diameter by using the orifice equation (4.6.8) and Qmax and
Hmax:
Q = CA(2gH)0.5, or A = Q / C(2gH)0.5
A = 0.76 / 0.6[(2)(32.2)(5.0)]0.5 = 0.071 ft2
Determine pipe diameter from A = 3.14d2/4, then d = (4A/3.14)0.5

D = [4(0.071)/3.14]0.5 = 0.30 ft = 3.61 in
Use a 3.6-inch diameter water quality protection orifice.
Routing the water quality protection volume of 0.76 ac ft through the 3.6-inch water quality protection
orifice will allow the designer to verify the drawdown time, as well as the maximum hydraulic head
elevation. The routing effect will result in the actual drawdown time being less than the calculated 24
hours. Judgment should be used to determine whether the orifice size should be reduced to achieve the
required 24 hours.
4.6.3.3 Method 2: Average Hydraulic Head and Average Discharge

Using the data from the previous example (4.6.3.2) use Method 2 to calculate the size of the outlet orifice.
Given: Water Quality Protection Volume (WQv) = 0.76 ac ft = 33,106 ft3
Average Hydraulic Head (havg) = 2.5 ft (from stage vs storage data)
Step 1 Determine the average release rate to release the water quality protection volume over a 24-
hour time period.
Q = 33,106 ft3 / (24 hr)(3,600 s/hr) = 0.38 cfs
Step 2 Determine the required orifice diameter by using the orifice equation (4.6.8) and the average
head on the orifice:
Q = CA(2gH)0.5, or A = Q / C(2gH)0.5
A = 0.38 / 0.6[(2)(32.2)(2.5)]0.5 = 0.05 ft3
Determine pipe diameter from A = 3.14r2 = 3.14d2/4, then d = (4A/3.14)0.5

D = [4(0.05)/3.14]0.5 = 0.252 ft = 3.03 in
Use a 3-inch diameter water quality protection orifice.
Use of Method 1, utilizing the maximum hydraulic head and discharge and routing, results in a 3.6-inch
diameter orifice (though actual routing may result in a changed orifice size) and Method 2, utilizing
average hydraulic head and average discharge, results in a 3.0-inch diameter orifice.
4.6.4 Multi-Stage Outlet Design
A combination outlet such as a multiple orifice plate system or multi-stage riser is often used to provide
adequate hydraulic outlet controls for the different design requirements (e.g., water quality protection,
streambank protection, and flood control) for storm water ponds, storm water wetlands and detention-only
facilities. Separate openings or devices at different elevations are used to control the rate of discharge

4.6.4 Multi-Stage Outlet Design January 2006
from a facility during multiple design storms. Figures 4.6-4 and 4.6-9 are examples of multi-stage
combination outlet systems.
A design engineer may be creative to provide the most economical and hydraulically efficient outlet
design possible in designing a multi-stage outlet. Many iterative routings are usually required to arrive at
a minimum structure size and storage volume that provides proper control. The stage-discharge table or
rating curve is a composite of the different outlets that are used for different elevations within the multi-
stage riser (see Figure 4.6-10)
4.6.4.2 Multi-Stage Outlet Design Procedure

Below are the steps for designing a multi-stage outlet. Note that if a structural control facility will not
control one or more of the required storage volumes (WQv, SPv, and Qf), then that step in the procedure is
skipped.
Step 1 Determine Storm Water Control Volumes. Using the procedures from Sections 2.1 and 2.2,
estimate the required storage volumes for water quality protection (WQv), streambank
protection (SPv), and flood control (Qf).
Step 2 Develop Stage-Storage Curve. Using the structure geometry and topography, develop the
stage-storage curve for the facility in order to provide sufficient storage for the control
volumes involved in the design.
Step 3 Design Water Quality Protection Outlet. Design the water quality protection extended
detention (WQv-ED) orifice using either Method 1 or Method 2 outlined in subsection 4.6.3. If
a permanent pool is incorporated into the design of the facility, a portion of the storage
volume for water quality protection will be above the elevation of the permanent pool. The
outlet can be protected using either a reverse slope pipe, a hooded protection device, or
another acceptable method (see subsection 4.6.5).
Step 4 Design Streambank Protection Outlet. Design the streambank protection extended detention
outlet (SPv-ED) using either method from subsection 4.6.3. For this design, the storage
needed for streambank protection will be greater than the water quality protection volume
storage elevation determined in Step 3. The total stage-discharge rating curve at this point
will include the water quality protection orifice and the outlet used for streambank protection.
The outlet should be protected in a manner similar to that for the water quality protection
orifice.
Step 5 Design Flood Control Outlet. The storage needed for flood control will be greater than the
water quality protection and streambank protection storage. Establish the Qf maximum water
surface elevation using the stage-storage curve and subtract the SPv elevation to find the
maximum head. Select an outlet type and calculate the initial size and geometry based upon
maintaining the predevelopment peak discharge rate. Develop a stage-discharge curve for
the combined set of outlets (WQv, SPv and Qf).
Step 6 Check Performance of the Outlet Structure. Perform a hydraulic analysis of the multi-stage
outlet structure using reservoir routing to ensure that all outlets will function as designed.
Several iterations may be required to calibrate and optimize the hydraulics and outlets that
are used. Also, the structure should operate without excessive surging, noise, vibration, or
vortex action at any stage. This usually requires that the outlet structure have a larger cross-
sectional area than the outlet conduit.
The hydraulic analysis of the design must take into account the hydraulic changes that will
occur as depth of storage changes for the different design storms. As shown in Figure 4.6-
11, as the water passes over the rim of a riser, the riser acts as a weir. However, when the
water surface reaches a certain height over the rim of a riser, the riser will begin to act as a
submerged orifice. The designer must compute the elevation at which this transition from
riser weir flow control to riser orifice flow control takes place for an outlet where this transition
will occur. Also note in Figure 4.6 -11 that as the elevation of the water increases further, the

January 2006 4.6.4 Multi-Stage Outlet Design
control can change from barrel inlet flow control to barrel pipe flow control. Figure 4.6-12
shows another condition where weir flow can change to orifice flow, which must be taken into
account in the hydraulics of the rating curve as different design conditions results in changing
water surface elevations.
Step 7 Size the Emergency Spillway. It is recommended that all storm water impoundment
structures have a vegetated emergency spillway (see subsection 4.6.7). An emergency
spillway provides a degree of safety to prevent overtopping of an embankment if the primary
outlet or principal spillway should become clogged, or otherwise inoperative. The 100-year
storm should be routed through the outlet devices and emergency spillway to ensure the
hydraulics of the system will operate as designed. Also check the dam safety requirements
to be sure of an adequate design.
Step 8 Design Outlet Protection. Design necessary outlet protection and energy dissipation facilities
to avoid erosion problems downstream from outlet devices and emergency spillway(s). See
Subsection 4.7, Energy Dissipation Design, for more information.
Step 9 Perform Buoyancy Calculations. Perform buoyancy calculations for the outlet structure and
footing. Flotation will occur when the weight of the structure is less than or equal to the
buoyant force exerted by the water.
Step 10 Provide Seepage Control. Seepage control should be provided for the outflow pipe or culvert
through an embankment. The two most common devices for controlling seepage are (1) filter
and drainage diaphragms and (2) anti-seep collars.
Figure 4.6-11 Riser Flow Diagrams

(Source: VDCR, 1999)

4.6.5 Extended Detention Outlet Protection January 2006
Figure 4.6-12 Weir and Orifice Flow

4.6.5 Extended Detention Outlet Protection

Small low flow orifices such as those used for extended detention applications can easily clog, preventing
the structural control from meeting its design purpose(s) and potentially causing adverse impacts.
Therefore, extended detention orifices need to be adequately protected from clogging. There are a
number of different anti-clogging designs, including:
The use of a reverse slope pipe attached to a riser for a storm water pond or wetland with a permanent
pool (see Figure 4.6-13). The inlet is submerged a minimum of 1 foot below the elevation of the
permanent pool to prevent floatables from clogging the pipe and to avoid discharging warmer water at the
surface of the pond.
The use of a hooded outlet for a storm water pond or wetland with a permanent pool (see Figures 4.6-14
and 4.6-15).
Internal orifice protection through the use of an over-perforated vertical stand pipe with ½-inch orifices or
slots that are protected by wirecloth and a stone filtering jacket (see Figure 4.6-16).
Internal orifice size requirements may be attained by the use of adjustable gate valves to achieve an
equivalent orifice diameter.
Figure 4.6-13 Reverse Slope Pipe Outlet

January 2006 4.6.5 Extended Detention Outlet Protection
Concrete
SPv
Figure 4.6-14 Hooded Outlet
HOOD
Figure 4.6-15 Half-Round CMP Orifice Hood

4.6.6 Trash Racks and Safety Grates January 2006
Figure 4.6-16 Internal Control for Orifice Protection
4.6.6 Trash Racks and Safety Grates
The susceptibility of larger inlets to clogging by debris and trash needs to be considered when estimating
their hydraulic capacities. In most instances trash racks will be needed. Trash racks and safety grates
are a critical element of outlet structure design and serve several important functions:
• Keeping debris away from the entrance to the outlet works where they will not clog the critical
portions of the structure
• Capturing debris in such a way that relatively easy removal is possible
• Ensuring that people and large animals are kept out of confined conveyance and outlet areas
• Providing a safety system that prevents anyone from being drawn into the outlet and allows them to
climb to safety
When designed properly, trash racks serve these purposes without interfering significantly with the
hydraulic capacity of the outlet (or inlet in the case of conveyance structures) (ASCE, 1985; Allred-
Coonrod, 1991). The location and size of the trash rack depends on a number of factors, including head
losses through the rack, structural convenience, safety and size of outlet. Well-designed trash racks can
also have an aesthetically pleasing appearance.
An example of trash racks used on a riser outlet structure is shown in Figure 4.6-17. Additional track rack
design can be found in Appendix C. The inclined vertical bar rack is most effective for lower stage

January 2006 4.6.6 Trash Racks and Safety Grates
outlets. Debris will ride up the trash rack as water levels rise. This design also allows for removal of
accumulated debris with a rake while standing on top of the structure.
Figure 4.6-17 Example of Various Trash Racks Used on a Riser Outlet Structure
4.6.6.2 Trash Rack Design

Trash racks must be large enough so that partial plugging will not adversely restrict flows reaching the
control outlet. There are no universal guidelines for the design of trash racks to protect detention basin
outlets, although a commonly used "rule-of-thumb" is to have the trash rack area at least ten times larger
than the control outlet orifice.
The surface area of all trash racks should be maximized and the trash racks should be located a suitable
distance from the protected outlet to avoid interference with the hydraulic capacity of the outlet. The
spacing of trash rack bars must be proportioned to the size of the smallest outlet protected. However,
where a small orifice is provided, a separate trash rack for that outlet should be used, so that a simpler,
sturdier trash rack with more widely spaced members can be used for the other outlets. Spacing of the
rack bars should be wide enough to avoid interference, but close enough to provide the level of clogging
protection required.
To facilitate removal of accumulated debris and sediment from around the outlet structure, the racks
should have hinged connections. If the rack is bolted or set in concrete it will preclude removal of
accumulated material and will eventually adversely affect the outlet hydraulics.

4.6.6 Trash Racks and Safety Grates January 2006
Since sediment will tend to accumulate around the lowest stage outlet, the inside of the outlet structure
for a dry basin should be depressed below the ground level to minimize clogging due to sedimentation.
Depressing the outlet bottom to a depth below the ground surface at least equal to the diameter of the
outlet is recommended.
Trash racks at entrances to pipes and conduits should be sloped at about 3H:1V to 5H:1V to allow trash
to slide up the rack with flow pressure and rising water level — the slower the approach flow, the flatter
the angle. Rack opening rules-of-thumb are found in literature. Figure 4.6-18 gives opening estimates
based on outlet diameter (UDFCD, 1992). Judgment should be used in that an area with higher debris
(e.g., a wooded area) may require more opening space.
The bar opening space for small pipes should be less than the pipe diameter. For larger diameter pipes,
openings should be 6 inches or less. Collapsible racks have been used in some places if clogging
becomes excessive or a person becomes pinned to the rack.
Alternately, debris for culvert openings can be caught upstream from the opening by using pipes placed in
the ground or a chain safety net (USBR, 1978; UDFCD, 1999). Racks can be hinged on top to allow for
easy opening and cleaning.
The control for the outlet should not shift to the grate, nor should the grate cause the headwater to rise
above planned levels. Therefore head losses through the grate should be calculated. A number of
empirical loss equations exist though many have difficult to estimate variables. Two will be given to allow
for comparison.
Metcalf & Eddy (1972) give the following equation (based on German experiments) for losses. Grate
openings should be calculated assuming a certain percentage blockage as a worst case to determine
losses and upstream head. Often 40 to 50% is chosen as a working assumption.
2
Hg = Kg1 (w/x)4/3 (Vu /2g) sin θg (4.6.12)
Where:
Hg = head loss through grate (ft)
Kg1 = bar shape factor:
2.42 - sharp edged rectangular
1.83 - rectangular bars with semicircular upstream faces
1.79 - circular bars
1.67 - rectangular bars with semicircular up- and downstream faces
w = maximum cross-sectional bar width facing the flow (in)
x = minimum clear spacing between bars (in)
Vu = approach velocity (ft/s)
θg = angle of the grate with respect to the horizontal (degrees)
The Corps of Engineers (HDC, 1988) has developed curves for trash racks based on similar and
additional tests. These curves are for vertical racks but presumably they can be adjusted, in a manner
similar to the previous equation, through multiplication by the sine of the angle of the grate with respect to
the horizontal.
Hg = Kg2Vu2 (4.6.13)
2g
Where:
Kg2 is defined from a series of fit curves as:
• sharp edged rectangular (length/thickness = 10)

January 2006 4.6.7 Secondary Outlets
Kg2 = 0.00158 - 0.03217 Ar + 7.1786 Ar2

• sharp edged rectangular (length/thickness = 5)
Kg2 = -0.00731 + 0.69453 Ar + 7.0856 Ar2
• round edged rectangular (length/thickness = 10.9)
Kg2 = -0.00101 + 0.02520 Ar + 6.0000 Ar2
• circular cross section
Kg2 = 0.00866 + 0.13589 Ar + 6.0357 Ar2
and Ar is the ratio of the area of the bars to the area of the grate section.
Figure 4.6-18 Minimum Rack Size vs. Outlet Diameter

(Source: UDCFD, 1992)
4.6.7 Secondary Outlets
The purpose of a secondary outlet (emergency spillway) is to provide a controlled overflow for flows in
excess of the maximum design storm for a storage facility. Figure 4.6-19 shows an example of an
emergency spillway.
In many cases, on-site storm water storage facilities do not warrant elaborate studies to determine
spillway capacity. While the risk of damage due to failure is a real one, it normally does not approach the
catastrophic risk involved in the overtopping or breaching of a major reservoir. By contrast, regional
facilities with homes immediately downstream could pose a significant hazard if failure were to occur, in
which case emergency spillway considerations are a major design factor.

4.6.7 Secondary Outlets January 2006
4.6.7.2 Emergency Spillway Design

Emergency spillway designs are open channels, usually trapezoidal in cross section, and consist of an
inlet channel, a control section, and an exit channel (see Figure 4.6-19). The emergency spillway is
proportioned to pass flows in excess of the design flood (typically the 100-year flood or greater) without
allowing excessive velocities and without overtopping of the embankment. Any dam, six feet or higher,
must meet appropriate state and federal design standards, especially those regarding spillway design
requirements related to passage of the probable maximum flood. In any case, the 100-year flood
discharge, assuming blockage of outlet works, must be conveyed with some freeboard as specified by
local criteria. Flow in the emergency spillway is open channel flow (see Section 4.4, Open Channel
Design, for more information). Normally, it is assumed that critical depth occurs at the control section.
NRCS (SCS) manuals provide guidance for the selection of emergency spillway characteristics for
different soil conditions and different types of vegetation. The selection of degree of retardance for a
given spillway depends on the vegetation. Knowing the retardance factor and the estimated discharge
rate, the emergency spillway bottom width can be determined. For erosion protection during the first
year, assume minimum retardance. Both the inlet and exit channels should have a straight alignment and
grade. Spillway side slopes should be no steeper the 3:1 horizontal to vertical.
The most common type of emergency spillway used is a broad-crested overflow weir cut through original
ground next to the embankment. The transverse cross section of the weir cut is typically trapezoidal in
shape for ease of construction. Such an excavated emergency spillway is illustrated below.
Figure 4.6-19 Emergency Spillway


References
Allred-Coonrod, J. E., 1991, Safety Grates in Open Channels, MS Prof. Paper, University of New Mexico,
Albuquerque.
Brater, E. F. and H. W. King, 1976. Handbook of Hydraulics. 6th ed. New York: McGraw Hill Book
Company.
Bureau of Reclamation. Flood Hydrology Manual, A Water Resources Technical Publication.
Chow, C. N., 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company.
Debo, Thomas N and Andrew J. Reese, 2003. Municipal Storm Water Management. Lewis Publishers:
CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.
McEnroe, B.M., J.M. Steichen and R. M. Schweiger, 1988. Hydraulics of Perforated Riser Inlets for
Underground Outlet Terraces, Trans ASAE, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1988.
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 1972, Wastewater Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
NRCS, 1984. Engineering Field Manual for Conservation Practices, Soil Conservation Service,
Engineering Division, Washington, D.C.
Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, 1999. Virginia Stormwater Management Handbook.
Sandvik, A., 1985. Proportional Weirs for Stormwater Pond Outlets. Civil Engineering, March 1985,
ASCE pp. 54-56.
Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County, 1988. Stormwater Management Manual -
Volume 2 Procedures. Prepared by AMEC, Inc. (formerly The Edge Group) and CH2M Hill.
United States Bureau of Reclamation, Water Measurement Manual, http://www.usbr.gov/wrrl/fmt/wmm/
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Engineers Manual (EM 1110-2-1405). Flood –Hydrograph Analysis and
Computations.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1988, Hydraulic Design Criteria (HDC), USAE Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Urban Drainage and Flood Control District, 1999. Criteria Manual, Denver, CO.
Wycuff, R. L. and U. P. Singh, 1976. Preliminary Hydrologic Design of Small Flood Detention Reservoirs.
Water Resources Bulletin. Vol. 12, No. 2, pp 337-49.


CHAPTER
4
Section 4.7
Energy Dissipation
4.7.1 Overview
The outlets of pipes and lined channels are points of critical erosion potential. Storm water transported
through man-made conveyance systems at design capacity generally reaches a velocity that exceeds the
capacity of the receiving channel or area to resist erosion. To prevent scour at storm water outlets,
protect the outlet structure and minimize the potential for downstream erosion, a flow transition structure
is needed to absorb the initial impact of flow and reduce the speed of the flow to a non-erosive velocity.
Energy dissipators are engineered devices such as rip-rap aprons or concrete baffles placed at the outlet
of storm water conveyances for the purpose of reducing the velocity, energy and turbulence of the
discharged flow.
4.7.1.2 General Criteria

Erosion problems at culvert, pipe and engineered channel outlets are common. Determination of the flow
conditions, scour potential, and channel erosion resistance shall be standard procedure for all designs.
Energy dissipators shall be employed whenever the velocity of flows leaving a storm water management
facility exceeds the erosion velocity of the downstream area channel system.
Energy dissipator designs will vary based on discharge specifics and tailwater conditions.
Outlet structures should provide uniform redistribution or spreading of the flow without excessive
separation and turbulence.
4.7.1.3 Recommended Energy Dissipators

For many designs, the following outlet protection devices and energy dissipators provide sufficient
protection at a reasonable cost:
• Riprap apron
• Riprap outlet basins
• Baffled outlets
• Grade Control Structures
This section focuses on the design on these measures. The reader is referred to the Federal Highway
Administration Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 14 entitled, Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for
Culverts and Channels, for the design procedures of other energy dissipators.

4.7.3 Design Guidelines January 2006

4.7-1 will be used. These symbols were selected because of their wide use. In some cases, the same
symbol is used in existing publications for more than one definition. Where this occurs in this section, the
symbol will be defined where it occurs in the text or equations.

A Cross-sectional area ft2
D Height of box culvert ft
d50 Size of riprap ft
dw Culvert width ft
Fr Froude Number -
g Acceleration of gravity ft/s2
hs Depth of dissipator pool ft
L Length ft
La Riprap apron length ft
LB Overall length of basin ft
Ls Length of dissipator pool ft
Pl Plasticity index -
Q Rate of discharge cfs
Sv Saturated shear strength lbs/in2
t Time of scour min.
tc Critical tractive shear stress lbs/in2
TW Tailwater depth ft
VL Velocity L feet from brink ft/s
Vo Normal velocity at brink ft/s
Vo Outlet mean velocity ft/s
Vs Volume of dissipator pool ft2
Wo Diameter or width of culvert ft
Ws Width of dissipator pool ft
ye Hydraulic depth at brink ft
yo Normal flow depth at brink ft
4.7.3 Design Guidelines

If outlet protection is required, choose an appropriate type. Suggested outlet protection facilities and
applicable flow conditions (based on Froude number and dissipation velocity) are described below:
a. Riprap aprons may be used when the outlet Froude number (Fr) is less than or equal to 2.5. In
general, riprap aprons prove economical for transitions from culverts to overland sheet flow at
terminal outlets, but may also be used for transitions from culvert sections to stable channel sections.
Stability of the surface at the termination of the apron should be considered.

January 2006 4.7.3 Design Guidelines
b. Riprap outlet basins may also be used when the outlet Fr is less than or equal to 2.5. They are
generally used for transitions from culverts to stable channels. Since riprap outlet basins function by
creating a hydraulic jump to dissipate energy, performance is impacted by tailwater conditions.
c. Baffled outlets have been used with outlet velocities up to 50 feet per second. Practical application
typically requires an outlet Fr between 1 and 9. Baffled outlets may be used at both terminal outlet
and channel outlet transitions. They function by dissipating energy through impact and turbulence
and are not significantly affected by tailwater conditions.
When outlet protection facilities are selected, appropriate design flow conditions and site-specific factors
affecting erosion and scour potential, construction cost, and long-term durability should be considered.
If outlet protection is not provided, energy dissipation will occur through formation of a local scourhole. A
cutoff wall will be needed at the discharge outlet to prevent structural undermining. The wall depth should
be slightly greater than the computed scourhole depth, hs. The scourhole should then be stabilized. If the
scourhole is of such size that it will present maintenance, safety, or aesthetic problems, other outlet
protection will be needed.
Evaluate the downstream channel stability and provide appropriate erosion protection if channel
degradation is expected to occur. Figure 4.7-1 provides the riprap size recommended for use
downstream of energy dissipators.
Figure 4.7-1 Riprap Size for Use Downstream of Energy Dissipator

(Source: Searcy, 1967)

4.7.4 Riprap Aprons January 2006
4.7.4 Riprap Aprons
4.7.4.1 Description
A riprap-lined apron is a commonly used practice for energy dissipation because of its relatively low cost
and ease of installation. A flat riprap apron can be used to prevent erosion at the transition from a pipe or
box culvert outlet to a natural channel. Protection is provided primarily by having sufficient length and
flare to dissipate energy by expanding the flow. Riprap aprons are appropriate when the culvert outlet Fr
is less than or equal to 2.5.

The procedure presented in this section is taken from USDA, SCS (1975). Two sets of curves, one for
minimum and one for maximum tailwater conditions, are used to determine the apron size and the
median riprap diameter, d50. If tailwater conditions are unknown, or if both minimum and maximum
conditions may occur, the apron should be designed to meet criteria for both. Although the design curves
are based on round pipes flowing full, they can be used for partially full pipes and box culverts. The
design procedure consists of the following steps:
If possible, determine tailwater conditions for the channel. If tailwater is less than one-half the discharge
flow depth (pipe diameter if flowing full), minimum tailwater conditions exist and the curves in Figure 4.7-2
apply. Otherwise, maximum tailwater conditions exist and the curves in Figure 4.7-3 should be used.
Determine the correct apron length and median riprap diameter, d50, using the appropriate curves from
Figures 4.7-2 and 4.7-3. If tailwater conditions are uncertain, find the values for both minimum and
maximum conditions and size the apron as shown in Figure 4.7-4.
a. For pipes flowing full:

Use the depth of flow, d, which equals the pipe diameter, in feet, and design discharge, in cfs, to
obtain the apron length, La, and median riprap diameter, d50, from the appropriate curves.
b. For pipes flowing partially full:

Use the depth of flow, d, in feet, and velocity, v, in ft/s. On the lower portion of the appropriate figure,
find the intersection of the d and v curves, and then find the riprap median diameter, d50, from the
scale on the right. From the lower d and v intersection point, move vertically to the upper curves until
intersecting the curve for the correct flow depth, d. Find the minimum apron length, La, from the scale
on the left.
c. For box culverts:

Use the depth of flow, d, in feet, and velocity, v, in feet/second. On the lower portion of the
appropriate figure, find the intersection of the d and v curves, and then find the riprap median
diameter, d50, from the scale on the right. From the lower d and v intersection point, move vertically
to the upper curve until intersecting the curve equal to the flow depth, d. Find the minimum apron
length, La, using the scale on the left.
If tailwater conditions are uncertain, the median riprap diameter should be the larger of the values for
minimum and maximum conditions. The dimensions of the apron will be as shown in Figure 4.7-4. This
will provide protection under either of the tailwater conditions.

January 2006 4.7.4 Riprap Aprons
Figure 4.7-2 Design of Riprap Apron under Minimum Tailwater Conditions

(Source: USDA, SCS, 1975)

Figure 4.7-3 Design of Riprap Apron under Maximum Tailwater Conditions

(Source: USDA, SCS, 1975)

January 2006 4.7.4 Riprap Aprons
Figure 4.7-4 Riprap Apron

(Source: Manual for Erosion and Sediment Control in Georgia, 1996)

4.7.4.3 Design Considerations

The following items should be considered during riprap apron design:
The maximum stone diameter should be 1.5 times the median riprap diameter.
dmax = 1.5 x d50 , d50 = the median stone size in a well-graded riprap apron.
The riprap thickness should be 1.5 times the maximum stone diameter or 6 inches, whichever is greater.
Apron thickness = 1.5 x dmax
(Apron thickness may be reduced to 1.5 x d50 when an appropriate filter fabric is used under the apron.)
The apron width at the discharge outlet should be at least equal to the pipe diameter or culvert width, dw.
Riprap should extend up both sides of the apron and around the end of the pipe or culvert at the
discharge outlet at a maximum slope of 2:1 and a height not less than the pipe diameter or culvert height,
and should taper to the flat surface at the end of the apron.
If there is a well-defined channel, the apron length should be extended as necessary so the downstream
apron width is equal to the channel width. The sidewalls of the channel should not be steeper than 2:1.
If the ground slope downstream of the apron is steep, channel erosion may occur. The apron should be
extended as necessary until the slope is gentle enough to prevent further erosion.
The potential for vandalism should be considered if the rock is easy to carry. If vandalism is a possibility,
the rock size must be increased or the rocks held in place using concrete or grout.
4.7.4.4 Example Designs

Example 1 Riprap Apron Design for Minimum Tailwater Conditions
A flow of 280 cfs discharges from a 66-in pipe with a tailwater of 2 ft above the pipe invert. Find the
required design dimensions for a riprap apron.
Minimum tailwater conditions = 0.5 do, do = 66 in = 5.5 ft; therefore, 0.5 do = 2.75 ft.
Since TW = 2 ft is less than 2.75 ft, use Figure 4.7-2 for minimum tailwater conditions.
By Figure 4.7-2, the apron length, La, and median stone size, d50, are 38 ft and 1.2 ft, respectively.
The downstream apron width equals the apron length plus the pipe diameter:
W = d + La = 5.5 + 38 = 43.5 ft
Maximum riprap diameter is 1.5 times the median stone size:

1.5 (d50) = 1.5 (1.2) = 1.8 ft
Riprap depth = 1.5 (dmax) = 1.5 (1.8) = 2.7 ft.

January 2006 4.7.5 Riprap Basins
Example 2 Riprap Apron Design for Maximum Tailwater Conditions
A concrete box culvert 5.5 ft high and 10 ft wide conveys a flow of 600 cfs at a depth of 5.0 ft. Tailwater
depth is 5.0 ft above the culvert outlet invert. Find the design dimensions for a riprap apron.
Minimum tailwater conditions = 0.5 do, do = 0.5 (5.0) = 2.5 ft.
Since TW = 5.0 ft is greater than 2.5 ft, use Figure 4.7-3 for maximum tailwater conditions.
v = Q/A = 600/[(5)(10)] = 12 ft/s
On Figure 4.7-3, at the intersection of the curve, do = 60 in and v = 12 ft/s, d50 = 0.4 ft. Reading up to the
intersection with d = 60 in, find La = 40 ft.
Apron width downstream = dw + 0.4 La = 10 + 0.4 (40) = 26 ft.
Maximum stone diameter = 1.5 d50 = 1.5 (0.4) = 0.6 ft.
Riprap depth = 1.5 dmax = 1.5 (0.6) = 0.9 ft.
4.7.5 Riprap Basins
4.7.5.1 Description
Another method to reduce the exit velocities from storm water outlets is through the use of a riprap basin.
A riprap outlet basin is a preshaped scourhole lined with riprap that functions as an energy dissipator by
forming a hydraulic jump.
4.7.5.2 Basin Features

General details of the basin recommended in this section are shown in Figure 4.7-5. Principal features of
the basin are:
The basin is preshaped and lined with riprap of median size (d50).
The floor of the riprap basin is constructed at an elevation of hs below the culvert invert. The dimension hs
is the approximate depth of scour that would occur in a thick pad of riprap of size d50 if subjected to
design discharge. The ratio of hs to d50 of the material should be between 2 and 4.
The length of the energy dissipating pool is 10 x hs or 3 x Wo, whichever is larger. The overall length of
the basin is 15 x hs or 4 x Wo, whichever is larger.

The following procedure should be used for the design of riprap basins.
Estimate the flow properties at the brink (outlet) of the culvert. Establish the outlet invert elevation such
that TW/yo < 0.75 for the design discharge.
For subcritical flow conditions (culvert set on mild or horizontal slope) use Figure 4.7-6 or Figure 4.7-7 to
obtain yo/D, then obtain Vo by dividing Q by the wetted area associated with yo. D is the height of a box
culvert. If the culvert is on a steep slope, Vo will be the normal velocity obtained by using the Manning
equation for appropriate slope, section, and discharge.

4.7.5 Riprap Basins January 2006
For streambank protection, compute the Froude number for brink conditions with ye = (A/2)1.5. Select
d50/ye appropriate for locally available riprap (usually the most satisfactory results will be obtained if 0.25 <
d50/ye < 0.45). Obtain hs/ye from Figure 4.7-8, and check to see that 2 < hs/d50 < 4. Recycle computations
if hs/d50 falls out of this range.
Size basin as shown in Figure 4.7-5.
Where allowable dissipator exit velocity is specified:
a. Determine the average normal flow depth in the natural channel for the design discharge.
b. Extend the length of the energy basin (if necessary) so the width of the energy basin at section A-A,
Figure 4.7-5, times the average normal flow depth in the natural channel is approximately equal to the
design discharge divided by the specified exit velocity.
In the exit region of the basin, the walls and apron of the basin should be warped (or transitioned) so the
cross section of the basin at the exit conforms to the cross section of the natural channel. Abrupt
transition of surfaces should be avoided to minimize separation zones and resultant eddies.
If high tailwater is a possibility and erosion protection is necessary for the downstream channel, the
following design procedure is suggested:
• Design a conventional basin for low tailwater conditions in accordance with the instructions above.
• Estimate centerline velocity at a series of downstream cross sections using the information shown in
Figure 4.7-9.
• Shape downstream channel and size riprap using Figure 4.7-1 and the stream velocities obtained
above.
Material, construction techniques, and design details for riprap should be in accordance with
specifications in the Federal Highway publication HEC No. 11 entitled Use of Riprap For Bank Protection.

Figure 4.7-5 Details of Riprap Outlet Basin

(Source: HEC-14, 1983)

Figure 4.7-6 Dimensionless Rating Curves for the Outlets of

Rectangular Culverts on Horizontal and Mild Slopes
(Source: USDOT, FHWA, HEC-14, 1983)

Figure 4.7-7 Dimensionless Rating Curves for the Outlets of

Circular Culverts on Horizontal and Mild Slopes

Figure 4.7-8 Relative Depth of Scour Hole Versus Froude Number at Brink of
Culvert with Relative Size of Riprap as a Third Variable

4.7.5.4 Design Considerations

Riprap basin design should include consideration of the following:
The dimensions of a scourhole in a basin constructed with angular rock can be approximately the same
as the dimensions of a scourhole in a basin constructed of rounded material when rock size and other
variables are similar.
When the ratio of tailwater depth to brink depth, TW/yo, is less than 0.75 and the ratio of scour depth to
size of riprap, hs/d50, is greater than 2.0, the scourhole should function very efficiently as an energy
dissipator. The concentrated flow at the culvert brink plunges into the hole, a jump forms against the
downstream extremity of the scourhole, and flow is generally well dispersed leaving the basin.
The mound of material formed on the bed downstream of the scourhole contributes to the dissipation of
energy and reduces the size of the scourhole; that is, if the mound from a stable scoured basin is
removed and the basin is again subjected to design flow, the scourhole will enlarge.
For high tailwater basins (TW/yo greater than 0.75), the high velocity core of water emerging from the
culvert retains its jet-like character as it passes through the basin and diffuses similarly to a concentrated
jet diffusing in a large body of water. As a result, the scourhole is much shallower and generally longer.
Consequently, riprap may be required for the channel downstream of the rock-lined basin.
It should be recognized that there is a potential for limited degradation to the floor of the dissipator pool
for rare event discharges. With the protection afforded by the 2(d50) thickness of riprap, the heavy layer
of riprap adjacent to the roadway prism, and the apron riprap in the downstream portion of the basin, such
damage should be superficial.
See Standards in the in FHWA HEC No. 11 for details on riprap materials and use of filter fabric.
Stability of the surface at the outlet of a basin should be considered using the methods for open channel
flow as outlined in Section 4.4, Open Channel Design.
4.7.5.5 Example Designs

Following are some example problems to illustrate the design procedures outlined.
Example 1
Given: Box culvert - 8 ft by 6 ft Design Discharge Q = 800 cfs

Supercritical flow in culvert Normal flow depth = brink depth
Yo = 4 ft Tailwater depth TW = 2.8 ft
Find: Riprap basin dimensions for these conditions
Solution: Definition of terms in Steps 1 through 5 can be found in Figures 4.7-5 and 4.7-8.
yo = ye for rectangular section; therefore, with yo given as 4 ft, ye = 4 ft.
Vo = Q/A = 800/(4 x 8) = 25 ft/s
Froude Number = Fr = V/(g x ye)0.5 (g = 32.2 ft/s2)

Fr = 25/(32.2 x 4)0.5 = 2.20 < 2.5 O.K.

Figure 4.7-9 Distribution of Centerline Velocity for Flow from Submerged Outlets to Be Used for
Predicting Channel Velocities Downstream from Culvert Outlet Where High Tailwater Prevails
TW/ye = 2.8/4.0 = 0.7 Therefore, TW/ye < 0.75 OK
Try d50/ye = 0.45, d50 = 0.45 x 4 = 1.80 ft

From Figure 4.7-8, hs/ye = 1.6, hs = 4 x 1.6 = 6.4 ft
hs/d50 = 6.4/1.8 = 3.6 ft, 2 < hs/d50 < 4 OK
Ls = 10 x hs = 10 x 6.4 = 64 ft (Ls = length of energy dissipator pool)

Ls min = 3 x Wo = 3 x 8 = 24 ft; therefore, use Ls = 64 ft
LB = 15 x hs= 15 x 6.4 = 96 ft (LB = overall length of riprap basin)

LB min = 4 x Wo = 4 x 8 = 32 ft; therefore, use LB = 96 ft
Thickness of riprap: On the approach = 3 x d50 = 3 x 1.8 = 5.4 ft

Remainder = 2 x d50 = 2 x 1.8 = 3.6 ft
Other basin dimensions designed according to details shown in Figure 4.7-5.
Example 2
Given: Same design data as Example 1 except:

Tailwater depth TW = 4.2 ft
Downstream channel can tolerate only 7 ft/s discharge
Find: Riprap basin dimensions for these conditions
Solutions: Note -- High tailwater depth, TW/yo = 4.2/4 = 1.05 > 0.75
From Example 1: d50 = 1.8 ft, hs = 6.4 ft, Ls = 64 ft, LB = 96 ft.

Design riprap for downstream channel. Use Figure 4.7-9 for estimating average velocity along the
channel. Compute equivalent circular diameter De for brink area from:
A = 3.14De2/4 = yo x Wo = 4 x 8 = 32 ft2
De = ((32 x 4)/3.14)0.5 = 6.4 ft
Vo = 25 ft/s (From Example 1)
Set up the following table:

Rock Size
L/De L (ft) VL/Vo v1 (ft/s) d50 (ft)
(Assume) (Compute) (Fig. 4.7-9) (Fig. 4.7-1) D e = Wo
10 64 0.59 14.7 1.4

15* 96 0.37 9.0 0.6
20 128 0.30 7.5 0.4
21 135 0.28 7.0 0.4
*L/Wo is on a logarithmic scale so interpolations must be done logarithmically.
Riprap should be at least the size shown but can be larger. As a practical consideration, the channel
can be lined with the same size rock used for the basin. Protection must extend at least 135 ft
downstream from the culvert brink. Channel should be shaped and riprap should be installed in
accordance with details shown in the HEC No. 11 publication.
Example 3
Given: 6-ft diameter CMC

Design discharge Q = 135 cfs
Slope channel So = 0.004
Manning's n = 0.024
Normal depth in pipe for Q = 135 cfs is 4.5 ft
Normal velocity is 5.9 ft/s
Flow is subcritical
Tailwater depth TW = 2.0 ft
Find: Riprap basin dimensions for these conditions.
Solution:
Determine yo and Vo
Q/D2.5= 135/62.5= 1.53
TW/D = 2.0/6 = 0.33
From Figure 4.7-7, yo/D = 0.45
yo = .45 x 6 = 2.7 ft
TW/yo = 2.0/2.7 = 0.74 TW/yo < 0.75 O.K.
Determine Brink Area (A) for yo/D = 0.45
From Uniform Flow in Circular Sections Table (from Section 4.3)

For yo/D = d/D = 0.45
A/D2 = 0.3428; therefore, A = 0.3428 x 62 = 12.3 ft2
Vo = Q/A = 135/12.3 = 11.0 ft/s

For Froude number calculations at brink conditions,

ye = (A/2)1/2 = (12.3/2)1/2 = 2.48 ft
Froude number = Fr = Vo/(32.2 x ye)1/2 = 11/(32.2 x 2.48)1/2 = 1.23 < 2.5 OK
For most satisfactory results, 0.25 < d50/ye < 0.45

Try d50/ye = 0.25
d50 = 0.25 x 2.48 = 0.62 ft
From Figure 4.7-8, hs/ye = 0.7; therefore, hs = 0.7 x 2.48 = 1.74 ft
Uniform Flow in Circular Sections Flowing Partly Full (From Section 4.3)
Check: hs/d50 = 1.74/0.62 = 2.8, 2 < hs/d50 < 4 OK
Ls = 10 x hs = 10 x 1.74 = 17.4 ft or Ls = 3 x Wo = 3 x 6 = 18 ft;

therefore, use Ls = 17.4 ft
LB = 15 x hs = 15 x 1.74 = 26.1 ft or LB = 4 x Wo = 4 x 6 = 24 ft;

therefore, use LB = 26.1 ft
d50 = 0.62 ft or use d50 = 8 in
Other basin dimensions should be designed in accordance with details shown on Figure 4.7-5. Figure
4.7-10 is provided as a convenient form to organize and present the results of riprap basin designs.
Note: When using the design procedure outlined in this section, it is recognized that there is some
chance of limited degradation of the floor of the dissipator pool for rare event discharges. With the
protection afforded by the 3 x d50 thickness of riprap on the approach and the 2 x d50 thickness of riprap
on the basin floor and the apron in the downstream portion of the basin, the damage should be
superficial.

Figure 4.7-10 Riprap Basin Design Form


4.7.6 Baffled Outlets January 2006
4.7.6 Baffled Outlets
4.7.6.1 Description
The baffled outlet (also known as the Impact Basin - USBR Type VI) is a boxlike structure with a vertical
hanging baffle and an end sill, as shown in Figure 4.7-11. Energy is dissipated primarily through the
impact of the water striking the baffle and, to a lesser extent, through the resulting turbulence. This type
of outlet protection has been used with outlet velocities up to 50 feet per second and with Froude
numbers from 1 to 9. Tailwater depth is not required for adequate energy dissipation, but a tailwater will
help smooth the outlet flow.

The following design procedure is based on physical modeling studies summarized from the U.S.
Department of Interior (1978). The dimensions of a baffled outlet as shown in Figure 4.7-11 should be
calculated as follows:
Determine input parameters, including:

h = Energy head to be dissipated, in ft (can be approximated as the difference between channel
invert elevations at the inlet and outlet)
Q = Design discharge (cfs)
v = Theoretical velocity (ft/s = 2gh)
A = Q/v = Flow area (ft2)
d = A0.5= Representative flow depth entering the basin (ft) assumes square jet
Fr = v/(gd)0.5 = Froude number, dimensionless
g = Acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/s)
Calculate the minimum basin width, W, in ft, using the following equation.
W/d = 2.88Fr0.566 or W = 2.88dFr0.566 (4.7.2)

Where:
W = minimum basin width (ft)
d = depth of incoming flow (ft)
Fr = v/(gd)0.5 = Froude number, dimensionless
The limits of the W/d ratio are from 3 to 10, which corresponds to Froude numbers 1
and 9. If the basin is much wider than W, flow will pass under the baffle and energy dissipation will
not be effective.
Calculate the other basin dimensions as shown in Figure 4.7-11, as a function of W. Construction
drawings for selected widths are available from the U.S. Department of the Interior (1978).
Calculate required protection for the transition from the baffled outlet to the natural channel based on
the outlet width. A riprap apron should be added of width W, length W (or a 5-foot minimum), and
depth f (W/6). The side slopes should be 1.5:1, and median rock diameter should be at least W/20.
Calculate the baffled outlet invert elevation based on expected tailwater. The maximum distance
between expected tailwater elevation and the invert should be b + f or some flow will go over the
baffle with no energy dissipation. If the tailwater is known and fairly controlled, the baffled outlet
invert should be a distance, b/2 + f, below the calculated tailwater elevation. If tailwater is
uncontrolled, the baffled outlet invert should be a distance, f, below the downstream channel invert.

January 2006 4.7.6 Baffled Outlets
Calculate the outlet pipe diameter entering the basin assuming a velocity of 12 ft/s flowing full.
Figure 4.7-11 Schematic of Baffled Outlet

(Source: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1978)
If the entrance pipe slopes steeply downward, the outlet pipe should be turned horizontal for at least 3
ft before entering the baffled outlet.
If it is possible that both the upstream and downstream ends of the pipe will be submerged, provide
an air vent approximately 1/6 the pipe diameter near the upstream end to prevent pressure
fluctuations and possible surging flow conditions.

4.7.6 Baffled Outlets January 2006
4.7.6.3 Example Design

A cross-drainage pipe structure has a design flow rate of 150 cfs, a head, h, of 15 ft from invert of pipe,
and a tailwater depth, TW, of 3 ft above ground surface. Find the baffled outlet basin dimensions and
inlet pipe requirements.
1. Compute the theoretical velocity from

v = (2gh)0.5 = [2(32.2 ft/sec2)(15 ft)]0.5 = 31.1 ft/s
This is less than 50 ft/s, so a baffled outlet is suitable.
2. Determine the flow area using the theoretical velocity as follows:

A = Q/v = 150 cfs/31.1 ft/sec = 4.8 ft2
3. Compute the flow depth using the area from Step 2.

d = (A)0.5 = (4.8 ft2)0.5 = 2.12 ft
4. Compute the Froude number using the results from Steps 1 and 3.
Fr = v/(gd)0.5 = 31.1 ft/sec/[(32.2 ft/sec2)(2.12 ft)]0.5 = 3.8
5. Determine the basin width using equation 4.7.2 with the Froude number from Step 4.
W = 2.88 dFr0.566 = 2.88 (2.12) (3.8)0.566 = 13.0 ft (minimum)
Use 13 ft as the design width.
6. Compute the remaining basin dimensions (as shown in Figure 4.7-11):

L = 4/3 (W) = 17.3 ft, use L = 17 ft, 4 in
f = 1/6 (W) = 2.17 ft, use f = 2 ft, 2 in
e = 1/12 (W) = 1.08 ft, use e = 1 ft, 1 in
H = 3/4 (W) = 9.75 ft, use H = 9 ft, 9 in
a = 1/2 (W) = 6.5 ft, use a = 6 ft, 6 in
b = 3/8 (W) = 4.88 ft, use b = 4 ft, 11 in
c = 1/2 (W) = 6.5 ft, use c = 6 ft, 6 in
Baffle opening dimensions would be calculated as shown in Figure 4.7-11.
7. Basin invert should be at b/2 + f below tailwater, or

(4 ft, 11 in)/2 + 2 ft, 2 in = 4.73 ft
Use 4 ft 8 in; therefore, invert should be 2 ft, 8 in below ground surface.
8. The riprap transition from the baffled outlet to the natural channel should be 13 ft long by 13 ft wide by
2 ft, 2 in deep (W x W x f). Median rock diameter should be of diameter W/20, or about 8 in.
9. Inlet pipe diameter should be sized for an inlet velocity of about 12 ft/s.
(3.14d)2 /4 = Q/v; d = [(4Q)/3.14v)]0.5 = [(4(150 cfs)/3.14(12 ft/sec)]0.5 = 3.99 ft
Use 48-in pipe. If a vent is required, it should be about 1/6 of the pipe diameter or 8 in.

January 2006 4.7.7 Grade Control Structures
4.7.7 Grade Control Structures

When channels are relocated through non-stable soils and stream gradients are increased, the stream
bottom may degrade or dig itself deeper. This can cause bank instability, increased upstream scouring,
and sloughing of natural slopes. The U.S. Soil Conservation Services (SCS) requires that streambed
stability be maintained in any of its stream projects. This can be accomplished by grade stabilization
structures; in essence a series of low-head weirs.
If designed and constructed with ecological values in mind, these structures can double as habitat
enhancement devices. If improperly planned however, they can atually degrade habitat values. The
most productive method of installing these structures is to use low weirs that pool water just a short
distance (approximately 100 feet) upstream. A plunge pool will form just below the structures, and a riffle
area should develop below this pool. The next structure should be located downstream a sufficient
distance to avoid impounding the riffle area below the pool at the base of the upstream weir.
Specific construction requirements and techniques can be obtained from the SCS or other agencies upon
request. The intent of this general discussion of grade stabilization structures is to promote consideration
of such measures early in the planning process.
Source: US Army Corp of Engineers, Nashville District, “Mitigating the Impacts of Stream Alterations”,
unkn.

References
Federal Highway Administration, 1983. Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for Culverts and
Channels. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 14.
Federal Highway Administration, 1967. Use of Riprap for Bank Protection. Hydraulic Engineering
Circular No. 11.
Searcy, James K., 1967. Use of Riprap for Bank Protection. Federal Highway Administration.
USDA, SCS, 1975. Standards and Specifications for Soil Erosion and Sediment Control in Developing
Areas, College Park, Maryland.
U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 1978. Design of Small Canal Structures.

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CHAPTER

4.2 Culvert Design

iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development TOC.4-1

4.2.3.19 Environmental Considerations ..................................................................4.2-6

4.3 Bridge Design

4.4 Open Channel Design

TOC.4-2 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development

4.4.1.2 Open Channel Types.................................................................................4.4-1

4.5 Storage Design

iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development TOC.4-3

4.5.3.3 Design Procedure......................................................................................4.5-6

4.6 Outlet Structures

4.7 Energy Dissipation

TOC.4-4 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development

4.7.4.4 Example Designs.......................................................................................4.7-8

iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development TOC.4-5

TOC.4-6 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development

4.7-6 Dimensionless Rating Curves for the Outlets of Rectangular Culverts

iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development TOC.4-7

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TOC.4-8 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development

4.1.1.2 System Components

iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development 4.1-1

4.1.1.3 Checklist for Planning and Design

4.1.2 Key Issues in Storm Water System Design

4.1-2 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development

4.1.2.2 General Design Considerations

4.1.2.5 Open Channels

iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development 4.1-3

Figure 4.1-1 Compound Channel

4.1.2.6 Storage Design

4.1.2.7 Outlet Structures

4.1-4 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development

4.1.2.8 Energy Dissipators

4.1.3 Design Storm Recommendations

Storm Drainage Systems

Roadway Culvert Design

Open Channel Design

iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development 4.1-5

Energy Dissipation Design

4.1-6 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development

Prince George’s County, MD, 1999. Low-Impact Development Design Strategies,

iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development 4.1-7

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4.1-8 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development

4.2.2 Symbols and Definitions

Table 4.2-1 Symbols and Definitions

iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development 4.2-1

4.2.3 Design Criteria

4.2.3.1 Frequency Flood

4.2.3.2 Velocity Limitations

4.2.3.3 Buoyancy Protection

4.2.3.4 Length and Slope

4.2.3.5 Debris Control

4.2.3.6 Headwater Limitations

The following criteria related to headwater should be considered:

4.2-2 iSWMTM Design Manual for Site Development