Content

5 Energy Equation of Fluid Motion

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Continuity Equation

5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

5.4 Flow Measurement

5.4.1 Stagnation Tube and Pitot Tube

5.4.2 Small Orifice

5.4.3 Venturi Meter

1
5 Energy Equation of Fluid Motion

5.1 Introduction

Concept.
Assume that fluids are following to these laws of physics:

1 Conservation of mass
2 Conservation of energy
3 Conservation of momentum

But these laws are not suitable for a flowing fluid. Therefore, the equations should be
modified before these laws can be applied in a flowing fluid.

5.2 Continuity Equation

Concept.
The principle of conservation of mass can be applied to a flowing fluid.
M entering=M leaving + M increase ∈the control volume

For steady flow, the mass of fluid in the control volume keeps constant.

M entering=M leaving

If there is no flow coming out from the stream tube except at the outlet section2, then

Q= ρV 1 A 1=ρ V 2 A 2
Q=V 1 A1=V 2 A2
V 1 ,V 2 are the mean velocities at section 1 and 2 respectively.

2
Concept.
The continuity equation for liquids:
Q=V 1 A1=V 2 A2

V = The velocity of flow

A = The area normal to the flow

This equation can also be applied to find the relation between the flows into and out of a
junction.

For steady condition,

Total inflow ¿ juction=Total outflow ¿ junction

ρ1 Q 1=ρ2 Q 2+ ρ3 Q3

3
Concept.
For an incompressible flow,

ρ1=ρ2= ρ3
{ Q1=Q2 +Q3

❑ A 1 V 1= A 2 V 2 + A3 V 3
⇒

If fluid flow toward the junction as positive, and flow away as negative, for steady flow at
any junction the sum of all mass flow must be zero.

∑ ρQ=0

4
Concept.
For an incompressible flow,

The Continuity Equation

∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂
+ ( ρ v x) + ( ρ v y ) + ( ρ v z ) =0
∂t ∂ x ∂y ∂z

If the density of the fluid is constant

∂vx ∂vy ∂vz

+ + =0∨∇ ∙ V =0
∂ x ∂ y ∂z

5
Training 1

Example.
Water flows through a pipe AB of diameter d 1=50 mm , which is in series with a pipe BC
2 m . At C, the pipe forks and one
of diameter d 2=75 mm in which the mean velocity V 2=
s
1.5 m . The other branch CE
branch CD is of diameter d 3 such that the mean velocity V 3 is
s
d
is of diameter 4 =30 mm and conditions are such that the discharges Q 2 from BC divides
1
so that Q 4 = Q 3.
2

(a) Calculate Q 1

(b) Calculate V 1

(c) Calculate Q 2

(d) Calculate Q 3

(e) Calculate d 3

(f) Calculate Q 4

(g) Calculate V 4
Ans: (a)8.836 ×10−3 m3 / s (b)4.5 m/ s (c)8.836 ×10−3 m3 / s (d)5.891× 10−3 m 3 /s (e)
0.071 m (f)2.945 ×10−3 m3 /s (g)4.17 m/s

6
7
5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

Concept.
There is a small stream tube element of cylindrical section with uniform cross-sectional
area.

The fluid is accelerating in the direction of the flow.

Taking the fluid as a control volume at an instant in the time.

Forces acting on the element in the s direction:

(I) Pressure(P)

Upstream end= p ∙ d A

{ Downstramend=− p+
∂p
(
∂s
ds d A )
(II) Gravity force(W)
d W ∙ sinα=γ ∙ d s ∙ d A ∙ sinα

(III)The angle
∂z
sinα=
∂s

By Newton’s second law in the s direction

∑ F s =M ∙ as

M = Mass of the cylindrical element = ρ ∙ d s ∙ d A

a s = Acceleration in the s direction

8
Concept.
Therefore, the equation

p ∙ d A−( p+ dp ) ∙ d A−d W ∙ sinα=ρ ∙ d s ∙ d A ∙ a s

∂z
dp ∙ dA−γ ∙ ds ∙ dA ∙ = ρ∙ ds ∙ dA ∙ a s
∂s

Divide the equation by ds ∙ dA . Taking the limit as ds → 0.

The equation name as Euler’s Equation.

−∂
( p+ γz )= p ∙ as
∂s

Acceleration a s

DV ∂ V ∂ V ds
a s= = +
Dt ∂ t ∂ s dt

For steady flow

∂V ⇒
∂V
=0❑ as=V
∂t ∂s

Rewrite Euler’s Equation

−∂ ∂V
( p+ γz )=ρ ∙ V
∂s ∂s

9
Concept.
Assuming the density of the fluid keeps unchanged.

ρ ∂ ∂p ∂z
∙ ( V 2 )+ +γ =0
2 ∂s ∂s ∂s

Taking integrating

ρ 2 p V2
V + p+γz=Constant= + z +
2 γ 2g
p
=¿ Pressure Head
γ

z=¿ Potential Head

V2
=¿ Velocity Head
2g

Concept.
Therefore, Bernoulli’s Equation

p1 V 21 p 2 V 22
+ z 1+ = + z 2 +
γ 2g γ 2g

Bernoulli’s Equation is suitable the flow, which is steady, non-viscous, and incompressible
with the constant density.

10
Training 2

Example.
Determine the velocity of the water flowing at point 1 and 2 of the pipe shown below, with
the following data. Neglect all losses in heads.

p1=120 kPa
p2=200 kPa
d 1=0.4 m
d 2=0.6 m

m
Ans: V 2=6.3 ; V 1=14.2 m/s
s

11
 Example.
For a 50 mm diameter siphon drawing oil (S.G=0.82) from the oil reservoir as shown
below, the head loss from point 1 to point 2 is 1.5m and from point 2 to point 3 is 2.40m.

(a) Find the discharge of oil from the siphon.

(b) Find the oil pressure at point 2.

3
Ans: ( a ) Q= 0.00912 m ( b ) p 2=−36.9 kPa
s

12
5.4 Flow Measurement

Concept.
Pressure, velocity, and discharge of flow are three common parameters for flow
measurement. The relationships between these parameters are defined through the
Continuity and Bernoulli’s Equation.

5.4.1 Stagnation Tube and Pitot Tube

Concept.
If there is an L shaped tube is placed in a flow field, it can be used to measure the velocity
of flow.

Stagnation Tube is a tube, which the flow is brought to a standstill at the front end of the
tube.

For stagnation tube, the velocity o flow measured by Torricelli’s Formula.

V = √2 gh
V = The velocity of flow
h = The level of fluid in the tube above the free surface

The stagnation point and any other point upstream of stagnation tube also can be measured
Bernoulli’s Equation.

If a point at the same level as the stagnation point, the velocity of fluid flow at the
stagnation point is zero.

13
Concept.
By Bernoulli’s Equation,

p1 V 21 p 2 V 22
+ z 1+ = + z 2 +
γ 2g γ 2g

For stagnation point(i.e. z a=z b∧V B=0)

V 22 p2 p1
= −
2g γ γ

This equation can be applied to flow in closed or open conduits.

Since p A =γz ∧p B =γ ( z+ h),

V A =√ 2 gh

V A = The velocity of flow, which is measured by the stagnation tube.

Pitot Tubes are often used in pressure pipes.

14
Training 3

Example.
Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in figure below. For the given 0.2m
difference in manometer level, determine the flow rate when the diameter of the small pipe,
D is 0.05m

Ans: Q=3.888 L/ s

15
 Example.
Water is siphoned from a tank as shown below.

(a) Determine the flow rate at point A.

(b) Determine the pressure at point A, a stagnation point.
Ans: ( a ) Q=9.64 ×10−3 m 3 /s ( b ) 29.43 kPa

16
5.4.2 Small Orifice

Concept.
Orifice: A geometric opening in the side of a wall and tank, through which fluid can flow.

There is a circular shape edged orifice.

Assume the size of orifice area(A) is small than the depth of water(H).

The volume rate of flow discharged through an orifice will depend upon the head of the
fluid above the level of the orifice.

The volume rate of flow can be used as a means of flow measurement.

17
Concept.
Assume there is no loss of energy and apply Bernoulli’s Equation.

p1 V 21 p 2 V 22
+ z 1+ = + z 2 +
γ 2g γ 2g
Sub
z A− z B=H
V A =0
V B =V
p A = pB

V = √2 gH
V = The velocity of jet

Theoretically, if the A is the cross-sectional area of the orifice, Q is discharge.

Q= A ∙ √ 2 gH
In real life, the actual discharge is fairly less than the theoretical discharge.

Coefficient of discharge C d

Q Actual =Cd × Q Th eoretical=C d × A ∙ √ 2 gH

18
Concept.
There are two reasons for this phenomenon, which the actual discharge is fairly less than
the theoretical discharge.

1. There is a loss of energy between A and B.

Q Actual , B =CV ∙ V =C V ∙ √ 2 gH
C V = Coefficient of velocity ≈ 0.97

2. The particles of the fluid converge on the orifice, and the area of issuing jet at B is less
than the area of the orifice A at C.

In the plane of the orifice, the particles have a component of velocity towards the centre.
The pressure at C is greater than atmospheric pressure.

Vena Contracta is a place, which the streamlines will converge at a short downstream of
the orifice, and the area of minimum flow. It is smaller than the cross-sectional are of the
orifice.

Coefficient of Contraction C C: The ratio of the cross-sectional area of the vena contracta to
that of the orifice.

Actual areaof the jet at B=CC ∙ A

∴ Actual Discharge=Actual area at B ∙ Actual velocity at B

¿(C C ∙ A)(C V √ 2 gH)

C d=C C ∙C V

19
Concept.
Evaluation of the actual velocity from the displacement of the jet.

For horizontal motion:

s=V × t

For vertical motion:

1
y= g t 2
2
Therefore,

g x2
V=
√ 2y
V = Actual velocity at vena contracta

20
Training 4

Example.
Oil of specific gravity 0.82 discharges from an open tank through an orifice of diameter 14
mm. The coefficient of velocity is 0.88 and the coefficient of contraction is 0.62. The
centre of the orifice is at a depth of 0.9m from the surface of the oil. Determine the
diameter of the vena contracta and the discharge of oil through the orifice.

Ans: 11.02mm; 0.353L/s

21
 Example.
If viscous effects are neglected and the tank is large, determine the flow rate from the tank
as shown below. (Neglect all losses)

Ans: 0.0132 m 3 /s

22
5.4.3 Venturi Meter

Concept.
Venturi meter is the most commonly used equipment for flow measurement. It is designed
with a streamlined throat, which can

(I) Reduce the overall head loss

(II) Reduce the normal mechanical wear of the equipment.

For venturi meter, the discharge equation is same as for an orifice meter.

But the flow coefficient value of a venturi meter is generally higher than orifice meter, and
a flow nozzle. It is because that the coefficient of contraction of a venturi meter is unity.

Concept.
Consider the pressure difference between point 1 and 2 as measured by U-tube manometer.

P1−P2= ( γ m−γ ) h

By Continuity Equation and Bernoulli’s equation between point 1 and 2.

A2 ∧p 1 V 21 p2 V 22
V 1 A 1=V 2 + z 1+ = + z 2 +
γ 2g γ 2g

( γ m −γ ) h V 21
A1 2 V 12
∴
γ
+ =
2g ( )
A2 2 g

γm

√
2 gh( −1)
γ
❑V 1 =
⇒ A1 2
( )
A2
−1

23
 Concept.

Training 5

Example.
The flow of kerosene is measure using a venturi meter. The diameter of the pipe and the
throat are 50 mm and 25mm, respectively. A differential manometer shows a deflection, h’
of 55 mm of mercury. The coefficient of discharge is 0.96.

Determine the flow rate of kerosene. Take the S.G. of kerosene as 0.82.

Ans: 1.99L/S

24
25
 Example.
The water supply to a gas water heater contracts from 10 mm in diameter at 1 to 7 mm in
diameter at 2 (figure below). If the pipe is horizontal, calculate the difference in pressure
between 1 and 2 when the velocity of the water at 1 is 4.5 m/s. The pressure difference
operates the gas control through connections which are taken to horizontal cylinder in
which a piston of 20 mm diameter moves. Ignoring friction and the area of the piston
connecting rod, what is the force on the piston?

Ans: 32.045kPa, 0.01kN

26
27
 Example.
Air flows through the device shown below. If the flow rate is large enough, the pressure
within the construction will be low enough to draw the water up into the tube. Determine
the flow rate, Q and the pressure needed at section 1 to draw the water into section 2.
Neglect compressibility and viscous effects.

Ans: 0.0351 m 3 /s, 0kPa

28
29
 Example.
Water flows down the ramp in the channel as shown below. The channel width decreases
from 4.5 m at section 1 to 2.5 m at section 2. For the conditions shown, determine the flow
rate

Ans: 14.12 m3 /s

30
31
 Example.
The water in a tank is 1.8 m deep and over the surface is air at pressure 70 kPa (gauge).
Find the flow rate from an orifice of 50 mm in the bottom of the tank if the C d= 0.6

Ans: 0.0156 m 3 /s

32
33
 Example.
A horizontal venturi tube, 280 mm diameter at the entrance and 140 mm diameter at the
throat, has a discharge coefficient of 0.97. A U-tube manometer filled with mercury is
connected between the entrance and the throat to measure the water flow between them.

Calculate the flowrate when the difference in the mercury level is 50 mm.

Ans: 0. 0542 m3 / s

34
35
All Training of Chapter 5

Example.
Water flows from the faucet on the first floor of the building shown below with a
maximum velocity of 6.5 m/s. For steady inviscid flow, determine the maximum water
velocity from the basement faucet and from the faucet on the second floor. Assume only
two taps will be opened at each time and each floor is 4 m tall.

11 m
Ans: ¿ basement , v= ; ¿ 2 nd floor , no flow
s

36
37
 Example.
For the water shooting out of the pipe and nozzle under the conditions shown in figure
below, find the height, h about the nozzle to which the water jet will shoot. Assume
negligible head loss.

Ans: 4.807 m

38
39
 Example.
Oil (S.G = 0.86) flows through the system as shown in figure below. A manometer is used
to measure the flowrate of the oil. By neglecting any losses, determine the flowrate of the
oil.

Ans: 36.7 L/s

40
41
 Example.
An oil of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing upwards through a vertical pipeline, which tapers
from 400 mm to 200 mm diameter. A mercury manometer is connected to the pipeline to
measure the flow as shown in the figure below. The distance between the manometer is 1
m and the reading is 250 mm. By neglecting the losses between the tappings, determine

(a) The pressure between the two taped points

(b) The flow rate of the pipeline.

Ans: ( a ) 39.24 kPa , ( b ) 0.287 m 3 /s

42
43
 Example.
Water flows through a venturi meter which contracts from D = 300 mm to d = 150 mm at
the rate of 0.0037 m 3 /s and the differential gauge has a deflection, h of 1 m, as shown in
the figure below. Specific gravity of the gauge liquid is 1.25. Determine the coefficient of
discharge of the meter.

Ans: 0.092

44
45
 Example.
The actual velocity in the contracted section of a jet of liquid flowing from a 50 mm orifice
is 8.5 m/s under a head of 4.5 m. Determine
(a) The coefficient of velocity
(b) The coefficients of contraction and discharge if the actual discharge is 11 L/s.

Ans:
( a ) C V =0.905 ( b ) C d =0.596

46
47
 Example.
Oil flows through a standard 25 mm diameter orifice under 5.5 m head at a measured rate
of 3 L/s. The jet strikes a wall 1.5 m away and 0.12 m vertically below the centreline of the
contracted section of the jet. Determine all the coefficients of the orifice.

Ans: C V =0.9 23 , C c =0.637 ,C d =0.5 88

48
49
 Example.
A pitot tube is used to measure the air flow rate of a pipe as shown in the figure below.
Determine the velocity and hence the flow rate of the oil in the tube. The S.G. of the
manometer liquid is 0.827 and density of air is 1.2 kg /m 3

Ans: 23.2 m/s

50
51