SFD SP-16-13330-2017

Steel Frame
Design Manual
SP 16.13330.2011
For ETABS®
ETA073120M21 Rev. 0
Proudly developed in the United States of America July 2020
Copyright
Copyright  Computers & Structures, Inc., 1978-2020

All rights reserved.
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permission of the publisher.
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Computers & Structures, Inc.

http://www.csiamerica.com/
[email protected] (for general information)

[email protected] (for technical support)
DISCLAIMER
CONSIDERABLE TIME, EFFORT AND EXPENSE HAVE GONE INTO THE

DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF THIS SOFTWARE. HOWEVER, THE USER
ACCEPTS AND UNDERSTANDS THAT NO WARRANTY IS EXPRESSED OR
IMPLIED BY THE DEVELOPERS OR THE DISTRIBUTORS ON THE ACCURACY
OR THE RELIABILITY OF THIS PRODUCT.
THIS PRODUCT IS A PRACTICAL AND POWERFUL TOOL FOR STRUCTURAL

DESIGN. HOWEVER, THE USER MUST EXPLICITLY UNDERSTAND THE BASIC
ASSUMPTIONS OF THE SOFTWARE MODELING, ANALYSIS, AND DESIGN
ALGORITHMS AND COMPENSATE FOR THE ASPECTS THAT ARE NOT
ADDRESSED.
THE INFORMATION PRODUCED BY THE SOFTWARE MUST BE CHECKED BY
A QUALIFIED AND EXPERIENCED ENGINEER. THE ENGINEER MUST
INDEPENDENTLY VERIFY THE RESULTS AND TAKE PROFESSIONAL
RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE INFORMATION THAT IS USED.
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Organization 1-2
1.2 Recommended Reading/Practice 1-3
2 Modeling, Analysis and Design Prerequisites

2.1 Check and Design Capability 2-1
2.2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections 2-2
2.3 Design and Check Stations 2-3
2.4 Demand/Capacity Ratios 2-4
2.5 Design Load Combinations 2-5
2.6 Second Order P-Delta Effects 2-6
2.7 Member Unsupported Lengths 2-8
2.8 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 2-10
2.9 Effective Length Factor (μ) 2-11
2.10 Frame Design Procedure Overwrites 2-14
Contents - i
Steel Frame Design SP 16.13330.2017
2.11 Interactive Design 2-14
3 Design
3.1 Notations 3-1
3.2 Design Preferences 3-7
3.3 Overwrites 3-8
3.4 Design Loading Combinations 3-12
3.5 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling 3-13
3.6 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments 3-21
3.7 Calculation of Design Strengths 3-21
3.8 Checking Members for Combined Forces 3-22

3.8.1 Axial Compression with or without Flexure 3-23
3.8.2 Axial Tension with or without Flexure 3-41
3.8.3 Shear Stresses 3-50
Bibliography
ii - Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction
The design/check of steel frames is seamlessly integrated within the program.

Automated design at the object level is available for any one of a number of
user-selected design codes, as long as the structures have first been modeled
and analyzed by the program. Model and analysis data, such as material prop-
erties and member forces, are recovered directly from the model database, and
no additional user input is required if the design defaults are acceptable.
The design is based on a set of user-specified loading combinations. However,

the program provides default load combinations for each supported design
code. If the default load combinations are acceptable, no definition of addition-
al load combinations is required.
Steel frame design/check consists of calculating the flexural, axial, and shear
forces or stresses at several locations along the length of a member, and then
comparing those calculated values with acceptable limits. That comparison
produces a demand/capacity ratio, which typically should not exceed a value of
one if code requirements are to be satisfied. The program follows the same re-
view procedures when it is checking a user-specified shape or when checking a
shape selected by the program from a predefined list.
1-1
Program output can be presented graphically on the model, in tables for both
input and output data, or in calculation sheets prepared for each member. For
each presentation method, the output is in a format that allows the engineer to
quickly study the stress conditions that exist in the structure, and in the event
the member is not adequate, aid the engineer in taking appropriate remedial
measures, including altering the design member without re-running the entire
analysis.
The program supports a wide range of steel frame design codes, including
many national building codes. This manual is dedicated to the use of the menu
option “SP 16.13330.2017.” This option covers the “Code of Rules SP
16.13330.2017 – Steel Structures Revised Edition SNiP II-23-81* Official Edi-
tion; Russian Federation, Ministry of Regional Development, Moscow” (SP16
2017). The implementation covers loading and load combinations from “Code
of Practice SP 20.13330.2017 – Loads and Actions, Updated Version SNiP
2.01.07-85* Official Edition; Russian Federation, Ministry of Regional Devel-
opment, Moscow” (SP20 2017).
The design codes supported under “SP 16.13330.2017” are written in Newton-
millimeter units. All the associated equations and requirements have been im-
plemented in the program in Newton-millimeter units. The program has been
enabled with unit conversion capability. This allows the users to enjoy the flex-
ibility of choosing any set of consistent units during creating and editing mod-
els, exporting and importing the model components, and reviewing the design
results.
1.1 Organization
This manual is designed to help you quickly become productive using the SP
16.13330.2017 steel frame design option. Chapter 2 addresses prerequisites re-
lated to modeling and analysis for a successful design in accordance with SP
16.13330.2017. Chapter 3 provides detailed descriptions of the specific re-
quirements as implemented in SP 16.13330.2017.
1-2 Organization
Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.2 Recommended Reading/Practice

It is strongly recommended that you read this manual and review any applica-
ble “Watch & Learn” SeriesTM tutorials, which are found on our web site,
http://www.csiamerica.com, before attempting to design a steel frame. Addi-
tional information can be found in the on-line Help facility available from
within the program.
Recommended Reading/Practice 1-3

Chapter 2
Modeling, Analysis and Design Prerequisites
This chapter provides an overview of the basic assumptions, design precondi-

tions, and some of the design parameters that affect the design of steel frames.
For referring to pertinent sections of the corresponding code, a unique prefix is

assigned for each code.
• The SP 16.13330.2017 code is referenced with the prefix “SP16.”
2.1 Check and Design Capability

The program has the ability to check adequacy of a section (shape) in accord-
ance with the requirements of the selected design code. Also, the program can
automatically choose (i.e., design) the optimal (i.e., least weight) sections from
a predefined list that satisfies the design requirements.
To check adequacy of a section, the program checks the demand/capacity

(“D/C”) ratios at a predefined number of stations for each design load combi-
nation. It calculates the envelope of the D/C ratios. It also checks the other
requirements on a pass or fail basis. If the capacity ratio remains less than or
equal to the D/C ratio limit, which is a number close to 1.0, and if the section
2-1
passes all of the special requirements, the section is considered to be adequate,

else the section is considered to be failed. The D/C ratio limit is taken as 0.95
by default. However, this value can be overwritten in the Preferences (Chapter
3).
To choose (design) the optional section from a predefined list, the program first
orders the list of sections in increasing order of weight per unit length. Then it
starts checking each section from the ordered list, starting with the one with
least weight. The procedure for checking each section in this list for adequacy
is exactly the same as described in the preceding paragraph. The program will
evaluate each section in the list until it finds the least weight section that passes
the code checks. If no section in the list is acceptable, the program will use the
heaviest section but flag it as being overstressed.
To check adequacy of an individual section, the user must assign the section
using the Assign menu. In that case, both the analysis and design section will
be changed.
To choose the optimal section, the user must first define a list of steel sections,
the Auto Select sections list. The user must next assign this list, in the same
manner as any other section assignment, to the frame members to be optimized.
The program will use the median section by weight when doing the initial
analysis. Refer to the program Help for more information about Auto Select
section lists.
2.2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections

Analysis sections are those section properties used to analyze the model when
the analysis is run. The design section is whatever section is used in the steel
frame design. It is possible for the last used analysis section and the current de-
sign section to be different. For example, an analysis may be run using a
W18X35 beam, and then in the design, it may be found that a W16X31 beam
worked. In that case, the last used analysis section is the W18X35 and the cur-
rent design section is the W16X31. Before the design process is complete, veri-
fy that the last used analysis section and the current design section are the
same. Refer to the program Help for more information about completing this
task.
2-2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections

Chapter 2 - Modeling, Analysis and Design Prerequisites
The program keeps track of the analysis section and the design section sepa-
rately. Note the following about analysis and design sections:
 Assigning a frame section property assigns the section as both the analysis
section and the design section.
 Running an analysis always sets the analysis section to be the same as the
current design section.
 Assigning an Auto Select section list to a frame object initially sets the
analysis and design section to be the section in the list with the median
weight.
 Unlocking a model deletes the design results, but it does not delete or
change the design section.
 Altering the Design Combinations in any way deletes the design results,
but does not delete or change the design section.
 Altering any of the steel frame design preferences deletes the design re-
sults, but does not delete or change the design section.
2.3 Design and Check Stations

For each design combination, steel frame members (beams, columns, and brac-
es) are designed (optimized) or checked at a number of locations (stations)
along the length of the object. The stations are located at equally spaced seg-
ments along the clear length of the object. By default, at least three stations will
be located in a column or brace member, and the stations in a beam will be
spaced at most 0.5 meter apart (2 feet if the model has been created in US
units). The user can overwrite the number of stations in an object before the
analysis is made using the Assign menu. The user can refine the design along
the length of a member by requesting more stations.
Design and Check Stations 2-3

2.4 Demand/Capacity Ratios

Determination of the controlling D/C ratios for each steel frame member indi-
cates the acceptability of the member for the given loading conditions. The
steps for calculating the D/C ratios are as follows:
 The factored forces are calculated for axial, flexural, and shear at each de-
fined station for each design combination. The bending moments are calcu-
lated about the principal axes. For I-Shape, Box, Channel, T-Shape, Dou-
ble-Angle, Pipe, Circular, and Rectangular sections, the principal axes co-
incide with the geometric axes. For Single-Angle sections, the design con-
siders the principal properties. For General sections, it is assumed that all
section properties are given in terms of the principal directions.
For Single-Angle sections, the shear forces are calculated for directions
along the geometric axes. For all other sections, the program calculates the
shear forces along the geometric and principal axes.
 The design strengths are calculated for compression, tension, bending and
shear based on the equations provided later in this manual. For flexure, the
design strengths are calculated based on the principal axes of bending. For
the I-Shape, Box, Channel, Circular, Pipe, T-Shape, Double-Angle and
Rectangular sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric axes.
For the Angle sections, the principal axes are determined and all computa-
tions related to flexural stresses are based on that.
The design strength for shear is calculated along the geometric axes for all
sections. For I-Shape, Box, Channel, T-Shape, Double-Angle, Pipe, Circu-
lar, and Rectangular sections, the principal axes coincide with their geo-
metric axes. For Single-Angle sections, principal axes do not coincide with
the geometric axes.
 Factored forces are compared to design strengths to determine D/C ratios.

In either case, design codes typically require that the ratios not exceed a
value of one. A capacity ratio greater than one indicates a member that has
exceeded a limit state.
2-4 Demand/Capacity Ratios

2.5 Design Load Combinations

The design load combinations are the various combinations of the prescribed
analysis cases for which the structure needs to be checked. The program creates
a number of default design load combinations for steel frame design. Users can
add their own design combinations as well as modify or delete the program de-
fault design load combinations. An unlimited number of design load combina-
tions can be specified.
To define a design load combination, simply specify one or more analysis cas-
es, each with its own scale factor. The scale factors are applied to the forces
and moments from the analysis cases to form the factored design forces and
moments for each design load combination.
For normal loading conditions involving static dead load (DL), live load (LL),
wind load (WL), earthquake load (EL), notional load (NL), and dynamic re-
sponse spectrum load (EL), the program has built-in default design combina-
tions for the design code. These are based on the code recommendations.
The default design combinations assume all static load response cases declared
as dead or live to be additive. However, each static load case declared as wind,
earthquake, or response spectrum cases, is assumed to be non-additive with
other loads of its class and produces multiple lateral combinations. Also static
wind, earthquake and notional load responses produce separate design combi-
nations with the sense (positive or negative) reversed. The notional load cases
are added to load combinations involving gravity loads only.
For other loading conditions involving moving load, time history, pattern live
load, separate consideration of roof live load, snow load, and the like, the user
must define the design load combinations in lieu of or in addition to the default
design load combinations. If notional loads are to be combined with other load
combinations involving wind or earthquake loads, the design load combina-
tions should be defined in lieu of or in addition to the default design load com-
binations.
For multi-valued design combinations, such as those involving response spec-

trum, time history, moving loads and envelopes, where any correspondence
between forces is lost, the program automatically produces sub-combinations
using the maxima/minima values of the interacting forces. Separate combina-
Design Load Combinations 2-5

tions with negative factors for response spectrum analysis cases are not
required because the program automatically takes the minima to be the nega-
tive of the maxima response when preparing the sub-combinations described
previously.
The program allows live load reduction factors to be applied to the member
forces of the reducible live load case on a member-by-member basis to reduce
the contribution of the live load to the factored responses.
2.6 Second Order P-Delta Effects

Modern design provisions are based on the principle that the member forces are
calculated by a second-order elastic analysis, where the equilibrium is satisfied
on the deformed geometry of the structure. The effects of the loads acting on
the deformed geometry of the structure are known as the second-order or the
P-Delta effects.
The P-Delta effects come from two sources: global lateral translation of the
frame and the local deformation of members within the frame.
Consider the frame object shown in Figure 2-1, which is extracted from a story
level of a larger structure. The overall global translation of this frame object is
indicated by ∆. The local deformation of the member is shown as δ. The total
second order P-Delta effects on this frame object are those caused by both ∆
and δ.
The program has an option to consider P-Delta effects in the analysis. When
you consider P-Delta effects in the analysis, the program does a good job of
capturing the effect due to the ∆ deformation (P-∆ effect) shown in Figure
2-1, but it does not typically capture the effect of the δ deformation (P-δ
effect), unless, in the model, the frame object is broken into multiple elements
over its length.
In design codes, required strengths are usually required to be determined using

a second-order analysis that considers both P-∆ and P-δ effects. Approximate
second-order analysis procedures based on amplification of responses from
first-order analysis for calculating the required flexural and axial strengths are
common in current design codes and have the following general form:
2-6 Second Order P-Delta Effects

Original position of frame Final deflected position of

element shown by vertical frame element that
line includes the global lateral
δ translation, ∆, and the
Position of frame element local deformation of the
as a result of global lateral element, δ
translation, ∆, shown by
dashed line
Figure 2-1 P-∆ and P-δ effects
M CAP U1 ( M nt + U 2 M lt )
=
where,
M CAP = Required flexural design capacities
M nt = Required flexural capacities from first-order analysis of the

member assuming there is no translation of the frame (i.e., asso-
ciated with the δ deformation in Figure 2-1)
M lt = Required flexural capacities from first-order analysis of the

member as a result of lateral translation of the frame only (i.e.,
associated with the ∆ deformation in Figure 2-1)
U1 = Unitless amplification factor multiplying M nt
U2 = Unitless amplification factor multiplying ( M nt + U 2 M lt )
A rigorous second order analysis or the amplification of first order analysis

results to estimate the effect of second order effects is required (SP16 4.2.4,
4.2.5).
Second Order P-Delta Effects 2-7

To properly capture the P-δ effect in a finite element analysis, each element,
especially column elements, must be broken into multiple finite elements,
which is not really desired for other reasons. Although a single element per
member can capture the P-δ effect to some extent, the program considers that
inadequate.
Thus, in general, the steel frame design feature requires consideration of

P-Delta effects in the analysis before the check/design is performed. Although
one element per line object is generally adequate to capture the P-∆ effect, it is
recommended to use more than one element per line object for the cases where
both P-∆ and P-δ effects are to be considered. However, explicit manual break-
ing of the member into elements has other consequences related to member end
moments and unbraced segment end moment. It is recommended that the
members be broken internally by the program. In this way, the member is
recognized as one unit, end of the members are identified properly, and P-∆
and P-δ effects are captured better.
2.7 Member Unsupported Lengths

The column unsupported lengths are required to account for column slender-
ness effects for flexural buckling and for lateral-torsional buckling. The pro-
gram automatically determines the unsupported length ratios, which are speci-
fied as a fraction of the frame object length. Those ratios times the frame ob-
ject lengths give the unbraced lengths for the member. Those ratios also can be
overwritten by the user on a member-by-member basis, if desired, using the de-
sign overwrite option. The unsupported length for minor direction bending or
for lateral-torsional buckling also can be defined more precisely by using pre-
cise bracing points in the Lateral Bracing option; refer to the program Help for
more information about lateral bracing. If the unsupported length is defined us-
ing the precise bracing point definition and if it is also overwritten in the over-
writes, the value used in the design overwrites prevails.
Two unsupported lengths, L33 and L22, as shown in Figure 2-2 are to be consid-
ered for flexural buckling. These are the lengths between support points of the
member in the corresponding directions. The length L33 corresponds to insta-
bility about the 3-3 axis (major axis), and L22 corresponds to instability about
the 2-2 axis (minor axis). The length LLTB (also termed Lz), not shown in the
2-8 Member Unsupported Lengths

figure, is also used for lateral-torsional buckling caused by major direction

bending (i.e., about the 3-3 axis).
In determining the values for L22 and L33 of the members, the program recog-
nizes various aspects of the structure that have an effect on these lengths, such
as member connectivity, diaphragm constraints, and support points. The pro-
gram automatically locates the member support points and evaluates the corre-
sponding unsupported length.
Figure 2-2 Unsupported lengths L33 and L22
It is possible for the unsupported length of a frame object to be evaluated by

the program as greater than the corresponding member length. For example, as-
sume a column has a beam framing into it in one direction, but not the other, at
a floor level. In that case, the column is assumed to be supported in one direc-
tion only at that story level, and its unsupported length in the other direction
will exceed the story height.
By default, the unsupported length for lateral-torsional buckling, LLTB, is taken

to be equal to the L22 factor. Similar to L22 and L33, LLTB can be overwritten.
Member Unsupported Lengths 2-9

2.8 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements

The preferred method is to model a beam, column or brace member as one sin-
gle element. However, the user can request that the program break a member
internally at framing intersections and at specified intervals. In this way, accu-
racy in modeling can be maintained at the same time that design/check specifi-
cations can be applied accurately. There is special emphasis on the end forces
(moments in particular) for many different aspects of beam, column, and brace
design. If the member is manually meshed (broken) into segments, maintaining
the integrity of the design algorithm becomes difficult.
Manually breaking a column member into several elements can affect many
things during design in the program.
1. The unbraced length: The unbraced length is really the unsupported length
between braces. If no intermediate brace is present in the member, the un-
braced length is typically calculated automatically by the program from the
top of the flange of the beam framing the column at the bottom to the bot-
tom of the flange of the beam framing the column at the top. The automati-
cally calculated length factor typically becomes less than 1. If there are in-
termediate bracing points, the user should overwrite the unbraced length
factor in the program. The user should choose the critical (larger) one.
Even if the user breaks the element, the program typically picks up the un-
braced length correctly, provided that there is no intermediate bracing
point.
2. µ -factor: Even if the user breaks the member into pieces, the program typ-
ically can pick up the µ -factors correctly. However, sometimes it can not.
The user should note the µ -factors. All segments of the member should
have the same µ -factor and that factor should be calculated based on the
entire member. If the calculated µ -factor is not reasonable, the user can
overwrite the µ -factors for all the segments.
3. φb -factor: The φb factor should be based on the end moments of unbraced

lengths of each segment and should not be based on the end moments of
the member (SP16 App. G, Table G1). The program already calculates the
φb factors based on the end moments of unbraced lengths of each segment.
If the break-up points are the brace points, no action is required by the user.
2 - 10 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements

If the broken segments do not represent the brace-to-brace unsupported

length, the program calculated φb factor is conservative. If this conserva-
tive value is acceptable, no action is required by the user. If it is not ac-
ceptable, the user can calculate the φb factor manually for the critical com-
bination and overwrite its value for that segment.
4. φe factor: The logic is similar to that for the ω1 factor.
If the user models a column with a single element and makes sure that the
L-factors and µ -factors are correct, the effect of U1 and U2 will be picked up
correctly. The factors φb and φe will be picked up correctly if there is no in-
termediate bracing point. The calculated φb and φe factors will be slightly con-
servative if there are intermediate bracing points.
If the user models a column with multiple elements and makes sure that
L-factors and µ -factor are correct, the effect of φb and φe will be picked up
correctly. The factors φb and φe will be picked up correctly if the member is
broken at the bracing points. The calculated φb and φe factors will be conserva-
tive if the member is not broken at the bracing points.
2.9 Effective Length Factor (μ)

The effective length method for calculating member axial compressive strength
has been used in various forms in several stability based design codes. The
method originates from calculating effective buckling lengths, µ L , and is
based on elastic/inelastic stability theory. The effective buckling length is used
to calculate an axial compressive strength factor, φ , through an empirical col-
umn curve that accounts for geometric imperfections, distributed yielding, and
residual stresses present in the cross-section.
The µ -factor is used for calculating the Euler axial capacity assuming that all
the beam-column joints are free to sway, i.e., lateral translation is allowed. The
resulting axial capacity is used in calculating φ factor. The µ -factor is always
greater than 1 if the frame is a sway frame. The program calculates the µ -
factor automatically based on sway condition. The program also allows the us-
er to overwrite µ -factors on a member-by-member basis. The same µ -factor
Effective Length Factor (μ) 2 - 11

is supposed to be used in calculation of φb and φe factors. If the frame is not

really a sway frame, the user should overwrite the µ -factors.
µ has two values: one for major direction, µmajor , and the other for minor di-
rection, µminor .
There is another µ -factor. µ LTB for lateral torsional buckling. By default,

µ LTB is taken as equal to µminor . However, the user can overwrite this on a
member-by-member basis.
The rest of this section is dedicated to the determination of µ -factors.
The µ -factor algorithm has been developed for building-type structures, where
the columns are vertical and the beams are horizontal, and the behavior is basi-
cally that of a moment-resisting frame for which the µ -factor calculation is
relatively complex. For the purpose of calculating µ -factors, the objects are
identified as columns, beam and braces. All frame objects parallel to the Z-axis
are classified as columns. All objects parallel to the X-Y plane are classified as
beams. The remainders are considered to be braces.
The beams and braces are assigned µ -factors of unity. In the calculation of the
µ -factors for a column object, the program first makes the following four
stiffness summations for each joint in the structural model:
EI EI
Scx = ∑  c c  Sbx = ∑  b b 
 Lc  x  Lb  x
EI EI
Scy = ∑  c c  Sb y = ∑  b b 
 Lc  y  Lb  y
where the x and y subscripts correspond to the global X and Y directions and
the c and b subscripts refer to column and beam. The local 2-2 and 3-3 terms
EI 22 L22 and EI 33 L33 are rotated to give components along the global X and
Y directions to form the ( EI L ) x and ( EI L ) y values. Then for each column,
the joint summations at END-I and the END-J of the member are transformed
back to the column local 1-2-3 coordinate system, and the G-values for END-I
2 - 12 Effective Length Factor (μ)

and the END-J of the member are calculated about the 2-2 and 3-3 directions as
follows:
S I c 22 S J c 22
G I 22 = G J 22 =
S I b 22 S J b 22
S I c 33 S J c 33
G I 33 = G J 33 =
S I b 33 S J b 33
If a rotational release exists at a particular end (and direction) of an object, the

corresponding value of G is set to 10.0. If all degrees of freedom for a particu-
lar joint are deleted, the G-values for all members connecting to that joint will
be set to 1.0 for the end of the member connecting to that joint. Finally, if G I
and G J are known for a particular direction, the column µ -factor for the cor-
responding direction is calculated by solving the following relationship for α:
α 2 G I G J − 36 α
=
I
6(G + G ) J
tan α
π
from which µ = . This relationship is the mathematical formulation for the
α
evaluation of µ -factors for moment-resisting frames assuming sidesway to be
uninhibited. For other structures, such as braced frame structures, the µ -
factors for all members are usually unity and should be set so by the user. The
following are some important aspects associated with the column µ -factor al-
gorithm:
 An object that has a pin at the joint under consideration will not enter the
stiffness summations calculated previously. An object that has a pin at the
far end from the joint under consideration will contribute only 50% of the
calculated EI value. Also, beam members that have no column member at
the far end from the joint under consideration, such as cantilevers, will not
enter the stiffness summation.
 If there are no beams framing into a particular direction of a column mem-

ber, the associated G-value will be infinity. If the G-values at both ends of
a column for a particular direction are infinity, the µ -factor corresponding
to that direction is set equal to unity.
Effective Length Factor (μ) 2 - 13

 If rotational releases exist at both ends of an object for a particular direc-

tion, the corresponding µ -factor is set to unity.
 The automated µ -factor calculation procedure occasionally can generate

artificially high µ -factors, specifically under circumstances involving
skewed beams, fixed support conditions, and under other conditions where
the program may have difficulty recognizing that the members are laterally
supported and µ -factors of unity are to be used.
 All µ -factor produced by the program can be overwritten by the user.

These values should be reviewed, and any unacceptable values should be
replaced.
 The beams and braces are assigned µ -factors of unity.
2.10 Frame Design Procedure Overwrites

The structural model may contain frame elements made of several structural
materials: steel, concrete, aluminum, cold-formed steel and other materials.
The program supports separate design procedures for each material type. By
default, the program determines the design procedure from the material of the
frame member.
The program allows the user to turn the design of specific members off and on
by selecting No Design or Default from material. Refer to the program Help
form more information about overwriting the design procedure.
2.11 Interactive Design

Interactive Design is a powerful mode that allows the user to review the design
results for any steel frame design and interactively revise the design assump-
tions and immediately review the revised results. Note that a design must have
been run for the interactive design mode to be available. Refer to the program
Help for more information about interactive design.
2 - 14 Frame Design Procedure Overwrites

Chapter 3
Design
This chapter provides a detailed description of the algorithms used by the pro-
grams in the design/check of structures in accordance with “Code of Rules SP
16.13330.2017 – Steel Structures Revised Edition SNiP II-23-81* Official Edi-
tion; Russian Federation, Ministry of Regional Development, Moscow” (SP16
2017). The implementation covers load combinations from “SP 20.13330.2017,”
which is described in Section 3.4 Design Loading Combinations in this chapter.
The loading based on “Code of Practice SP 20.13330.2017 – Loads and Actions,
Updated Version SNiP 2.01.07-85* Official Edition; Russian Federation, Min-
istry of Regional Development, Moscow” (SP20 2017).
For referring to pertinent sections of the corresponding code, a unique prefix is

assigned for each code.

3.1 Notations
The various notations used in this manual are described herein.
3-1
Please note that the code uses the x and y axes as the major and minor principal
axes, respectively. Whereas the program uses the 3 and 2 axes as the major and
minor principal axes (local axes), respectively. This documentation tried to write
the equations in the same manner as done in the code itself. However in certain
situations, the indices x and 3 are used synonymously. Similarly, the indices y
and 2 are used synonymously. This is displayed in Table 3.1.
A Gross cross-sectional area, mm2

Abn Net cross-sectional area of bolt, mm2
Ad Diagonal cross-sectional area, mm2
Af Cross-sectional area of flange (belt), mm2
An Net cross-sectional area, mm2
Aw Wall cross-sectional area, mm2
Awf Cross-sectional area of weld fillet metal, mm2
Awz Cross-sectional area of weld metal zone, mm2
E Modulus of elasticity, MPa
F Force, N
G Shear modulus, MPa
I Moment of inertia of gross cross-section, mm4
Ib Moment of inertia of branch cross-section, mm4
Im; Id Moments of inertia of belt cross-section and diagonal web elements,
mm4
Ir Moment of inertia of rib and rail cross-section, mm4
Irl Moment of inertia of longitudinal rib cross-section, mm4
It Moment of inertia under free torsion, mm4
I x; I y Moment of inertia about x – x and y – y axis respectively, mm4
Ixn; Iyn As above, net cross-section, mm4
Iω Cross-sectional sectorial moment of inertia, mm4
M Moment, bending moment, N-mm
3-2 Notations
Chapter 3 - Design
Mx; My Moments about x – x and y – y axes respectively, N-mm

N Longitudinal force, N
Nad Additional stress, N-mm2
Nbm Longitudinal force from moment in stanchion line, N
Q Transverse force, shear force, N
Qfic Conventional transverse force for connectives, N
Qs Conventional transverse force per plate system arranged in one
plane, N
Rba Design strength of tension of footing bolts, N-mm2
Rbh Design strength of tension of high-strength bolts, N-mm2
Rbp Design strength of bearing stress of pin joint, N-mm2
Rbs Design strength of pin joint cross-section, N-mm2
Rbt Design strength of tension of pin joint, N-mm2
Rbun Characteristic strength of bolt steel that shall be taken equal to the
breaking strength σv in conformance with State standards and speci-
fications for bolts, N-mm2
Rbu Characteristic strength of tension of U-shaped bolts, N-mm2
Rbyn Characteristic strength of bolt steel that shall be taken equal to the
liquid limit σt in conformance with State standards and specifications
for bolts, N-mm2
Rcd Characteristic strength of diametric compression of rollers (during
free contact in limited mobility constructions), N-mm2
Rdh Characteristic strength of high-tensile wire, N-mm2
Rlp Characteristic strength of local collapse in hinge-joints (spigot) dur-
ing close contact, N-mm2
Rp Characteristic strength of steel to butt end collapse (if matching is
available), N-mm2
Rs Characteristic strength of steel for shearing, N-mm2
Ru Characteristic strength of steel for tension, collapse, bending of
breaking strength, N-mm2
Notations 3-3
Run Characteristic strength of steel that shall be taken equal to minimal

value σv in conformance with the State standards and specifications
on steel, N-mm2
Rv Design fatigue resistance of steel, N-mm2
Rwf Design strength of corner joints to weld metal cross-section (conven-
tional), N-mm2
Rwu Design tension, collapse, bending strength of butt weld across break-
ing strength, N-mm2
Rwun Characteristic strength of weld metal across breaking strength, N-
mm2
Rws Design shear strength of butt weld, N-mm2
Rwy Design tensile, collapse and bending strength of butt welds at liquid
limit, N-mm2
Rwz Design cross-sectional (conventional) strength of corner joints at
metal welding line, N-mm2
Ry Design tensile, collapse, bending strength at liquid limit, N-mm2
Ryf As above, for flange (belt), N-mm2
Ryw As above, for flange, N-mm2
Ryn Steel liquid limit that shall be taken equal to liquid limit value al in
conformance with State standards and specifications on steel, N-mm2
S Static moment of gross cross-sectional shift along zero axis, N-mm
Wx; Wy Gross resistance of cross-sectional moments along x-x and y-y axis
respectively, N-mm
Wc; Wt Moment cross-sectional resistance for collapsed and tension flange
respectively, N-mm
Wxn; Wyn Net resistance of cross-sectional moments along x – x and y – y axis
respectively, N-mm
b Width, mm
bef Effective width, mm
bf Flange (belt) width, mm
3-4 Notations
Chapter 3 - Design
br Width of projected arch band, overhang, mm

cx; cy Factors of inelastic flexural strain along x – x, y – y axis respectively
d Bolt hole diameter, mm
db Full diameter of bolt shaft, mm
e Eccentricity of normal force, mm
h Height, mm
hef Design height of wall, mm
hw Wall height, mm
i Radius of cross-sectional inertia, mm
imin Minimum radius of cross-sectional inertia, mm
ix; iy Inertia radius of cross-section along x – x and y – y axis respectively,
mm
kf Leg fillet weld, mm
l Length, span, mm
lc Length of stand, rack, bar, mm
ld Length of diagonal rod, mm
lef Effective length, mm
lm Flange (rack) span length, mm
ls Jointing length, mm
lw Weld length, mm
l x; l y Effective length of elements in planes perpendicular to x – x and y –
y axis respectfully, mm
m Eccentricity ratio m = eA/Wc
r Radius, mm
t Thickness, mm
tf Flange (belt) thickness, mm
tw Wall thickness, mm
Notations 3-5
αf Ratio of flange (belt) cross-section and wall αf = Af/Aw

βf; βz Factors of fillet weld across weld metal and metal line, mm
γb Service factor of bolt joint
γc Service factor
γf Partial safety factor for loads
γm Partial safety factor for material
γn Importance safety factor
γu Safety factor for breaking strength
γs Safety factor for system stability
η Factor of cross-section form impact
λ Elasticity λ = lef/i, N-mm2
λ Conventional elasticity 𝜆𝜆̅ = 𝜆𝜆�𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 ⁄𝐸𝐸 , N-mm2
λef Equated slenderness of end-to-end cross-section
λef Conventional equated slenderness of end-to-end cross-section, 𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝜆𝜆�𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 ⁄𝐸𝐸
λf Conventional slenderness of belt-overhang, 𝜆𝜆𝑓𝑓̅ = (𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⁄𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 ) 𝜆𝜆�𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 ⁄𝐸𝐸
λf,1 ̅ = (𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,1 ⁄𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 ) 𝜆𝜆�𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 ⁄𝐸𝐸

Conventional slenderness of flange plate, 𝜆𝜆𝑓𝑓,1
λw Conventional slenderness of wall, 𝜆𝜆̅𝑤𝑤 = (ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ⁄𝑡𝑡𝑤𝑤 ) 𝜆𝜆�𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 ⁄𝐸𝐸
λuf Limit conventional slenderness of belt-overhang (flange plate)
λuw Limit conventional slenderness of wall
λx; λy Rated element slenderness in planes perpendicular to x – x and y – y
axes respectively
|σ| Absolute value of normal stress, N-mm2
σloc Local stress, N-mm2
σx; σy Normal stress parallel to x – x and y – y axes respectively, N-mm2
τ Shear stress, N-mm2
φ Stability coefficient at axial compression
3-6 Notations
Chapter 3 - Design
φx(y) Stability coefficient at compression

φb Stability coefficient at bending
φe Compression coefficient with bending
φexy Stability coefficient at bending in two planes
3.2 Design Preferences

The steel frame design preferences are basic assignments that apply to all of the
steel frame members. Table 3-1 lists steel frame design preferences for “SP
16.13330.2017.” Default values are provided for all preference items. Thus, it is
not necessary to specify or change any of the preferences. However, at least re-
view the default values to ensure they are acceptable. Some of the preference
items also are available as member-specific Overwrite items. The overwrites are
described in the next section. Overwritten values take precedence over the pref-
erences. Refer to the program Help for information about changing Preferences.
Table 3-1: Steel Frame Design Preferences

Item Possible Values Default Value Description
Design Code Design codes AISC360-10/ The selected design code. Subsequent design is based
available in the IBC 2006 on this selected code.
current version
Multi-Response Case Envelopes, Envelopes Select to indicate how results for multivalued cases
Design Step-by-Step, Last (Time history, Nonlinear static or Multi-step static)
Step, Envelopes, are considered in the design. - Envelope - considers
All, Step-by-Step - enveloping values for Time History and Multi-step
All static and last step values for Nonlinear static. Step-
by-Step - considers step by step values for Time His-
tory and Multi-step static and last step values for
Nonlinear static. Last Step - considers last values for
Time History, Multi-step static and Nonlinear static.
Envelope - All - considers enveloping values for
Step-by-Step - All - considers step by step values for
Step-by-Step and Step-by-Step - All default to the
corresponding Envelope if more than one multi-
valued case is present in the combo.
Section Class Class 1, Class 2, Class 1 The section class requested. This is either “Class 1",
Class 3, Class 4 "Class 2", "Class 3", or "Class 4". It determines the
interaction equations to be used. If not overwritten,
it is taken from the preference of the code of the
code, "SP 16.13330.2017."
Design Preferences 3-7

Table 3-1: Steel Frame Design Preferences

The partial safety factor for material (SP
GammaM ≥0 1.1
16.13330.2017 6.1, Table 3).
The service factor for structural members and con-
GammaC ≥0 1.0
nections (SP 16.13330.2017 4.3.2, Table 1).
The safety factor for breaking strength of structural
GammaU ≥0 1.3 members designed in terms of their behavior with the
use of design strength Ru (SP 16.13330.2017 4.3.2).
The service factor for structural single angle mem-
GammaC1 ≥0 1.0
bers in tension (SP 16.13330.2017 7.1.2).
Consider Yes, No Yes Toggle to consider the deflection limit (Yes) or to not
Deflection? consider the deflection limit (No).
DL Limit, L/ ≥0 120 Deflection limit for dead load. Inputting 120 means
that the limit is L/120. Inputting zero means no check
will be made of this item.
Super DL+LL Limit, L/ ≥0 120 Deflection limit for superimposed dead plus live
load. Inputting 120 means that the limit is L/120. In-
putting zero means no check will be made of this
item.
Live Load Limit, L/ ≥0 360 Deflection limit for superimposed live load. Inputting
360 means that the limit is L/360. Inputting zero
means no check will be made of this item.
Total Limit, L/ ≥0 240 Deflection limit for total load. Inputting 240 means
that the limit is L/240. Inputting zero means no check
Total-Camber Limit, L/ ≥0 240 Limit for net deflection. Camber is subtracted from
the total load deflection to get net deflection. Input-
ting 240 means that the limit is L/240. Inputting zero
Pattern Live Load ≤1.0 0.75 The live load factor for automatic generation of load
Factor combinations involving pattern live loads and dead
loads.
Demand/Capacity Ra- ≤1.0 0.95 The demand/capacity ratio limit to be used for ac-
tio Limit ceptability. D/C ratios that are less than or equal to
this value are considered acceptable.
3.3 Overwrites
The steel frame design Overwrites are basic assignments that apply only to those
elements to which they are assigned. Table 3-2 lists steel frame design over-
writes for “SP 16.13330.2017.” Default values are provided for all Overwrite
3-8 Overwrites
Chapter 3 - Design
items. Thus, it is not necessary to specify or change any of the Overwrites. How-
ever, at least review the default values to ensure they are acceptable. When
changes are made to Overwrite items, the program applies the changes only to
the elements to which they are specifically assigned. Overwritten values take
precedence over the Preferences. Refer to the program Help for information
about changing Overwrites.
Table 3-2 Steel Frame Design Overwrites

Current Design Sec- Any defined steel Analysis The design section for the selected frame object.
tion section section When this Overwrite is applied, any previous auto
select section assigned to the frame object is
removed.
Fame Type Moment Frame, From This item is used for ductility and stability considera-
Braced Frame Preferences tions in the design.
Section Class Class 1, Class 2, Program Section class to be used. This is either "Class 1",
Class 3, Class 4 determined "Class 2", "Class 3", or "Class 4". It determines the
interaction equations to be used.
Program The service factor for structural members and con-
GammaC ≥0
determined nections (SP 16.13330.2017 4.3.2, Table 1).
The safety factor for breaking strength of structural
Program
GammaU ≥0 members designed in terms of their behavior with the
determined
use of design strength Ru (SP 16.13330.2017 4.3.2).
Program The service factor for structural single angle mem-
GammaC1 ≥0
determined bers in tension (SP 16.13330.2017 7.1.2).
Column Buckling a, b, or c Program Column buckling curve to be used. This is either "a",
Curve (x-x) determined "b", or "c". It determines the imperfection factors for
buckling curve. It is used to find the alpha and beta
factors, and to eventually delta and phi factors, for
compression capacity per SP 16.13330.2017 7.1.3,
Table 7. If not overwritten, it is taken from the Table
7 of the code, "SP 16.13330.2017."
Column Buckling a, b, or c Program Column buckling curve to be used. This is either "a",
Curve (y-y) determined "b", or "c". It determines the imperfection factors for
buckling curve. It is used to find the alpha and beta
factors, and to eventually delta and phi factors, for
compression capacity per SP 16.13330.2017 7.1.3,
Table 7. If not overwritten, it is taken from the Table
7 of the code, "SP 16.13330.2017."
Is Rolled Section? Yes/No Program It might affect the column buckling curve determina-
determined tion.
Consider Deflection? Yes/No No Toggle to consider (Yes) or not consider (No) deflec-
tion.
Overwrites 3-9

Deflection Check Ratio, Absolute, Program Choose to consider deflection limitations as absolute,
Type Both Determined as a divisor of the beam length (relative), as both.
DL Limit, L/ ≥0 Program Deflection limit for dead load. Inputting 120 means
Determined that the limit is L/120. Inputting zero means no check
Super DL+LL ≥0 Program Deflection limit for superimposed dead plus live
Limit, L/ Determined load. Inputting 120 means that the limit is L/120. In-
putting zero means no check will be made of this
item.
Live Load Limit, L/ ≥0 Program Deflection limit for superimposed live load. Inputting
Determined 360 means that the limit is L/360. Inputting zero
Total Limit, L/ ≥0 Program Deflection limit for total load. Inputting 240 means
Determined that the limit is L/240. Inputting zero means no check
Total-Camber Limit, ≥0 Program Limit for net deflection. Camber is subtracted from
L/ Determined the total load deflection to get net deflection. Input-
ting 240 means that the limit is L/240. Inputting zero
DL Limit, abs ≥0 Program Deflection limit for dead load. Inputting zero means
Determined no check will be made of this item.
Super DL+LL Limit, ≥0 Program Deflection limit for superimposed dead plus live
abs Determined load. Inputting zero means no check will be made of
this item.
Live Load Limit, abs ≥0 Program Deflection limit for superimposed live load. Inputting
Determined zero means no check will be made of this item.
Total Limit, abs ≥0 Program Deflection limit for total load. Inputting zero means
Determined no check will be made of this item.
Total–Camber Limit, ≥0 Program Deflection limit for net deflection. Camber is sub-
abs Determined tracted from the total load deflection to get net
deflection. Inputting a value of 240 means that the
limit is L/240. Inputting zero means no check will be
made of this item.
Specified Camber ≥0 Program The specified amount of camber to be reported in the
Determined design output and to be used in the net deflection
check.
Net Area to Total ≥0 Program The ratio of the net area at the design section to gross
Area Ratio Determined cross-sectional area of the section. This ratio affects
the design of axial tension members. Specifying 0
means the value is program default which is 1.
Live Load Reduction ≥0 Program The reducible live load is multiplied by this factor to
Factor Determined obtain the reduced live load for the frame object.
Specifying zero means the value is program deter-
mined.
3 - 10 Overwrites
Chapter 3 - Design

Unbraced Length ≥0 Program Unbraced length factor for buckling about the frame
Ratio (Major) Determined object major axis; specified as a fraction of the frame
object length. This factor times the frame object
length gives the unbraced length for the object. Spec-
ifying zero means the value is program determined.
Unbraced Length ≥0 Program Unbraced length factor for buckling about the frame
Ratio (Minor) Determined object minor axis; specified as a fraction of the frame
object length. This factor times the frame object
length gives the unbraced length for the object. Spec-
Unbraced Length ≥0 Program Unbraced length factor for lateral-torsional buckling
Ratio (LTB) Determined for the frame object; specified as a fraction of the
frame object length. This factor times the frame ob-
ject length gives the unbraced length for the object.
Specifying zero means the value is program deter-
mined.
Effective Length ≥0 Program Effective length factor for buckling about the frame
Factor Braced ( Determined object major axis; specified as a fraction of the frame
µbraced Major) object length. This factor times the frame object
length gives the effective length for the object. Spec-
For beam design, this factor is always taken as 1, re-
gardless of any other value specified in the Over-
writes. This factor is used for the B1 factor.
Factor Braced ( Determined object minor axis; specified as a fraction of the frame
µbraced Minor) object length. This factor times the frame object
writes. This factor is used for the U1 factor.
Factor Unbraced ( Determined object major axis; specified as a fraction of the frame
µunbraced Major) object length. This factor times the frame object
writes. This factor is used for the B1 factor.
Factor Unbraced ( Determined object minor axis; specified as a fraction of the frame
µunbraced Minor) object length. This factor times the frame object
writes. This factor is used for the U1 factor.
Overwrites 3 - 11

Effective Length ≥0 Program Effective length factor for lateral-torsional buckling;
Factor (LTB) Determined specified as a fraction of the frame object length.
This factor times the frame object length gives the ef-
fective length for the object. Specifying zero means
the value is program determined. For beam design,
this factor is taken as 1 by default. The values should
be set by the user.
Design Yield ≥0 Program Material yield strength used in the design/check.
Strength, Ry Determined Specifying zero means the value is program deter-
mined. The program determined value is taken from
the material property assigned to the frame object.
Design Fracture ≥0 Program Material yield strength used in the design/check.
Strength, Ru Determined Specifying zero means the value is program deter-
Design Shear ≥0 Program Material yield strength used in the design/check.
Strength, Ru Determined Specifying zero means the value is program deter-
Demand/Capacity ≥0 Program The stress ratio limit to be used for acceptability.
Ratio Limit Determined Stress ratios that are less than or equal to this value
are considered acceptable. Program determined value
means it is taken from the steel preferences. Specify-
ing 0 means the value is program determined.
3.4 Design Loading Combinations

The structure is to be designed so that its design strength equals or exceeds the
effects of factored loads stipulated by the applicable design code. The default
design combinations are the various combinations of the already defined analy-
sis cases, such as dead load (DL), live load (LL), wind load (WL), and horizontal
earthquake load (EL).
For the SP 16.13330.2017 code, the following default design combinations are
generated by the program (SP20 6.2, 6.4, 7.3, Table 7.1, 7.4, 8.2.2, Table 8.2,
10.12, 11.1.12):
1.1 DL (SP20 6.2(a))

1.1 DL + (1.3*1.0) LL + (1.4*0.9) SL (SP20 6.2(a))
1.1 DL + (1.3*0.9) LL + (1.4*1.0) SL (SP20 6.2(a))
3 - 12 Design Loading Combinations

Chapter 3 - Design
0.9 DL ± (1.4*1.0) WL (SP20 6.2(a))

1.1 DL + (1.3*1.0) LL ± (1.4*0.9) WL (SP20 6.2(a))
1.1 DL + (1.4*0.9) SL ± (1.4*1.0) WL (SP20 6.2(a))
1.1 DL + (1.3*0.9) LL+ (1.4*1.0) SL ± (1.4*0.7) WL (SP20 6.2(a))
0.9 DL ± (1.0*1.0) EL (SP20 6.2(b))

1.1 DL + (1.3*0.8) LL+ (1.4*0.8) SL± (1.3*1.0) EL (SP20 6.2(b))
The combinations described herein are the default loading combinations only.
They can be deleted or edited as required by the design code or engineer-of-
record. The program allows live load reduction factors to be applied to the mem-
ber forces of the reducible live load case on a member-by-member basis to re-
duce the contribution of the live load to the factored responses.
3.5 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling

The nominal strengths for flexure are dependent on the classification of the
section as Seismically Compact, Compact, Noncompact, Slender, or Too
Slender. Compact or Seismically Compact sections are capable of developing
the full plastic strength before local buckling occurs. Non-compact sections can
develop partial yielding in compression, and buckle inelastically before reach-
ing to a fully plastic stress distribution. Slender sections buckle elastically before
any of the elements yield under compression. Seismically Compact sections are
capable of developing the full plastic strength before local buckling occurs when
the section goes through low cycle fatigue and withstands reversal of load under
seismic conditions.
Sections are classified as Compact, Noncompact, or Slender sections in

accordance with the code (SP16 7.1.3, 7.3.3, 7.3.11, Table 9, Table 10). For a
section to qualify as Compact, its flanges must be continuously connected to the
web or webs and the width-thickness ratios of its compression elements must not
exceed the limiting width-thickness ratios λp from Tables 9 and 10 of the code.
If the width-thickness ratio of one or more compression elements exceeds λp, but
does not exceed λr from Tables 9 and 10, the section is Noncompact. If the
width-thickness ratio of any element exceeds λr but does not exceeds λs, the
section is Slender. If the width-thickness ratio of any element exceeds λs, the
section is considered Too Slender. The expressions of λp, λr, andλs, as
implemented in the program, are reported in Table 3-1 (SP16 7.1.3, 7.3.3, 7.3.11,
Classification of Sections for Local Buckling 3 - 13

Table 9, Table 10). The limit demarcating Slender and Too Slender has been
identified as λs in this document.
For compression, sections are classified as nonslender element or slender

element sections as reported in Table 3-2 (SP16 7.1.3, 7.3.3, 7.3.11, Table 9,
Table 10). For a nonslender element section, the width-to-thickness ratios of its
compression elements shall not exceed λr from Table 3-2. If the width-to-
thickness ratio of any compression element exceeds λr, the section is a slender
element section.
The table uses the variables kc, FL, h, hp, hc, bf, tf, tw, b, t, D, d, and so on. The
variables b, d, D and t are explained in the respective figures inside the table.
The variables bf, tf, h, hp, hc, and tw are explained in Figure 3-1. For Doubly Sym-
metric I-Shapes, h, hp, and hc are all equal to each other.
For unstiffened elements supported along only one edge parallel to the direction
of compression force, the width shall be taken as follows:
(a) For flanges of I-shaped members and tees, the width b is one-half the full-
flange width, bf.
(b) For legs of angles and flanges of channels and zees, the width b is the full
nominal dimension.
(c) For plates, the width b is the distance from the free edge to the first row of
fasteners or line of welds.
(d) For stems of tees, d is taken as the full nominal depth of the section.
Refer to Table 3-1 (SP16 7.1.3, 7.3.3, 7.3.11, Table 9, Table 10) for the graphic
representation of unstiffened element dimensions.
For stiffness elements supported along two edges parallel to the direction of the
compression force, the width shall be taken as follows:
(a) For webs of rolled or formed sections, h is the clear distance between flanges
less the fillet or corner radius at each flange; hc is twice the distance from
the centroid to the inside face of the compression flange less the fillet or
corner radius.
3 - 14 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling

Chapter 3 - Design
(b) For webs of built-up sections, h is the distance between adjacent lines of
fasteners or the clear distance between flanges when welds are used, and hc
is twice the distance from the centroid to the nearest line of fasteners at the
compression flange or the inside face of the compression flange when welds
are used; hp is twice the distance from the plastic neutral axis to the nearest
line of fasteners at the compression flange or the inside face of the compres-
sion flange when welds are used.
(c) For flange or diaphragm plates in built-up sections, the width b is the dis-
tance between adjacent lines of fasteners or lines of welds.
(d) For flanges of rectangular hollow structural sections (HSS), the width b is
the clear distance between webs less the inside corner radius on each side.
For webs of rectangular HSS, h is the clear distance between the flanges less
the inside corner radius on each side. If the corner radius is not known, b and
h shall be taken as the corresponding outside dimension minus three times
the thickness.
representation of stiffened element dimensions.
Table 3-3 Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios of Compression Elements for
Classification Sections Subjected to Axial Compression
Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios for Compres-
Width- sion Element
Thickness
NonSlender Limit
Ratio,
Section
Type
Description of
Element Example Eqn. (λ) (λ uw , λ uf )
Axial only compres- 
(
 0.36 + 0.10 ( 0.8 ) , if ) λ ≤ 0.8,
Doubly Symmetric I-Shape
sion in flanges of
rolled
37 b f 2t f =


(
λ uf  0.36 + 0.10 λ , ) if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤ 4,
I-Shapes
(
 0.36 + 0.10 ( 4.0 ) , if
 ) λ > 4.

(
 0.36 + 0.10 ( 0.8 ) , if ) λ ≤ 0.8,
sion in flanges of
built-up
37 b f 2t f =


(
λ uf  0.36 + 0.10 λ , ) if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤ 4,
I-Shapes
(
 0.36 + 0.10 ( 4.0 ) , if
 ) λ > 4.


Width- sion Element
Thickness
NonSlender Limit
Ratio,
Section
Type
Description of
1.30 + 0.15 λ 2 , if λ ≤ 2,
Web in axial only 23, 
h tw λ uw =

compression 34 1.20 + 0.35 λ ≤ 2.3, if λ > 2.

(
 0.36 + 0.10 ( 0.8 ) , if ) λ ≤ 0.8,
sion in flanges of 
( )
Singly Symmetric I-Shapes
37 b f 2t f λ uf  0.36 + 0.10 λ ,
= if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤ 4,
rolled 
I-Shapes
(
 0.36 + 0.10 ( 4.0 ) , if
 ) λ > 4.

(
 0.36 + 0.10 ( 0.8 ) , if ) λ ≤ 0.8,
sion in flanges of
built-up
37 b f 2t f =


(
λ uf  0.36 + 0.10 λ , ) if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤ 4,
I-Shapes
(
 0.36 + 0.10 ( 4.0 ) , if
 ) λ > 4.
(
 0.43 + 0.08 ( 0.8 ) , if

) λ ≤ 0.8,
Axial only compres-
sion in flanges
38 bf t f =


(
λ uf  0.43 + 0.08 λ , ) if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤ 4,
(
 0.43 + 0.08 ( 4.0 ) , if )
Channel
λ > 4.

1.0, if λ ≤ 0.8,
Web in axial only 27, h tw λ uw =
compression 28 0.85 + 0.19 λ ≤ 1.6, if λ > 0.8.
(
 0.43 + 0.08 ( 0.8 ) , if

) λ ≤ 0.8,
( )
Double Channel
38 bf t f λ uf  0.43 + 0.08 λ ,
= if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤ 4,
sion in flanges 
(
 0.43 + 0.08 ( 4.0 ) , if
 ) λ > 4.
1.0, if λ ≤ 0.8,
Web in axial only 27, h tw λ uw =
compression 28 0.85 + 0.19 λ ≤ 1.6, if λ > 0.8.

Chapter 3 - Design

Width- sion Element
Thickness
NonSlender Limit
Ratio,
Section
Type
Description of
1.2, if λ ≤ 1,
λ uf = 
bt 1.0 + 0.20 λ ≤ 1.6, if λ > 1.
Axial 25,
Box
compression 26
h tw 1.2, if λ ≤ 1,
λ uw =
1.0 + 0.20 λ ≤ 1.6, if λ > 1.
(
 0.36 + 0.10 ( 0.8 ) , if

) λ ≤ 0.8,
Axial
compression in
flanges
37 b f 2t f =


(
λ uf  0.36 + 0.10 λ , )
if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤ 4,
(
 0.36 + 0.10 ( 4.0 ) , if
 ) λ > 4.
λ uw =
T-Shape
  b 
( 0.85 + 0.19 x .8 ) 1 + 0.25 2 − f  , if λ ≤ 0.8,
  hef 
  
Compression in d tw   
29
stems (


)
 0.85 + 0.19 λ 1 + 0.25 2 −

bf
h
,

if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤
 ef


  bf 
( 0.85 + .19 x(4) ) 1 + 0.25 2 −  , if λ > 4.
  hef 
 
(
 0.40 + 0.19 ( 0.8 ) , if

) λ ≤ 0.8,
Any type of compres-
sion in leg
39 b t =


(
λ uf  0.40 + 0.19 λ , )
if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤ 4,
Double Angle
(
 0.40 + 0.19 ( 4.0 ) , if
 ) λ > 4.
( 0.40 + 0.19 ( 0.8 ) ) , if λ ≤ 0.8,


Any type of compres-
sion in leg
39 b t =


(
λ uf  0.40 + 0.19 λ , )
if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤ 4,
(
 0.40 + 0.19 ( 4.0 ) , if
 ) λ > 4.
( 0.40 + 0.19 ( 0.8 ) ) , if λ ≤ 0.8,


( )
Angle
39 b t λ uf  0.40 + 0.19 λ ,
= if 0.8 ≤ λ ≤ 4,
sion in any leg 
(
 0.40 + 0.19 ( 4.0 ) , if
 ) λ > 4.


Width- sion Element
Thickness
NonSlender Limit
Ratio,
Section
Type
Description of
A
Axial only compres- I
Pipe
D t 0.11 E Ry
sion S
C
Round Bar ――― ――― ―― ――― Assumed NonSlender

Rectan-gu-
――― ――― ―― ――― Assumed NonSlender
lar
General ――― ――― ―― ――― Assumed NonSlender
SD
――― ――― ―― ――― Assumed NonSlender
Section
In classifying web slenderness of I-Shapes, Box, Channel, Double Channel, and

all other sections, it is assumed that there are no intermediate stiffeners. Double
angles and channels are conservatively assumed to be separated.
For the determination of the nominal strengths for axial compression and flex-
ure, the sections are classified as Class 1 (Plastic), Class 2 (Compact), Class 3
(Noncompact), or Class 4 (Slender). The program classifies the individual sec-
tions in accordance with Table 3-3 (SP16 7.1.3, 7.3.3, 7.3.11, Table 9, Table 10).
As specified in that table, a section is classified as Class 1, Class 2, Class 3 or
Class 4 as applicable.
For elements supported along only one edge parallel to the direction of compres-
sion force, the width shall be taken as follows:
(a) For flanges of I-shaped members and tees, the width bel is one-half the full
nominal dimension, bf.
(b) For legs of angles and flanges of channels and zees, the width bel is the full
nominal dimension.
(c) For plates, the width bel is the distance from the free edge to the first row of
fasteners or line of welds.
(d) For webs of hot rolled sections, h is the clear distance between flanges.

Chapter 3 - Design
representation of element dimensions.
For elements supported along two edges parallel to the direction of the compres-
sion force, the width shall be taken as follows:
(a) For webs of rolled or formed sections, h is the clear distance between flanges
less the fillet or corner radius at each flange; hc is twice the distance from
the centroid to the inside face of the compression flange less the fillet or
corner radius.
(b) For webs of built-up sections, h is the distance between adjacent lines of
fasteners or the clear distance between flanges when welds are used.
(c) For flange or diaphragm plates in built-up sections, the width b is the dis-
tance between adjacent lines of fasteners or lines of welds.
(d) For flanges of rectangular hollow structural sections (HSS), the width b is
the nominal outside dimension less four times the wall thickness. For webs
of rectangular HSS, h is the nominal outside dimension less four times the
wall thickness. The thickness, t, shall be taken as the design wall thickness.

bf bf b ft
k
hp 2
hc 2
PNA
d h= h= hp h
tw h= h=
c hp tw c NA
tw
tf tf
b b b fc
s bf bf
k k
b
tw b b b f − 3tw
=
h= h= hp h= h= hp hc d hc= d − 3t f
tw
c
c tw
tw
tf tf
tf
bf bf
bf
b
bf bf
s
tf
t tf
d h
tw b d
b
tw
Axes Conventions
2, y
2-2 is the cross section axis
parallel to the webs, the
t longer dimension of tubes,
D dd 3, x 3, x
the longer leg of single
angles, or the side by side
legs of double anges. This is
the same as the y-y axis.
2, y
3-3 is orthogonal to 2-2. This is
the same as the x-x axis.
Figure 3-1 SP 16.13330.2017 Definition of Geometric Properties

Chapter 3 - Design
In classifying web slenderness of I-Shapes, Box, Channel, Double Channel, and

all other sections, it is assumed that there are no intermediate stiffeners. Double
Angles and Channels are conservatively assumed to be separated. When slen-
derness parameters are larger than the limits for Class 4 sections, the section is
classified as Too Slender. Stress check of Too Slender sections is beyond the
scope of this program.
3.6 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments

The factored member loads that are calculated for each load combination are N
, M x (or M 33 ) , M y (or M 22 ) , Qx (or Q22 ) , Qy (or Q33 ) , and T corresponding to
factored values of the axial compression, the major and minor moments and
shears, and torsion, respectively. These factored loads are calculated at each of
the previously defined stations.
3.7 Calculation of Design Strengths

For all sections, the design strengths for tension, compression, flexure, fracture,
and shear are calculated based on SP16 6.1 as following.
Ryn
Ry = (SP16 6.1, Table 2)
γm
Run
Ru = (SP16 6.1, Table 2)
γm
Ryn
Rs = 0.58 (SP16 6.1, Table 2)
γm
where,
Ry is the design yield strength for tension, compression, and flexure (SP16
6.1, Table 2)
Ru is the design fracture strength for tension, compression, and flexure

(SP16 6.1, Table 2)
Rs is the design strength for shear (SP16 6.1, Table 2)
Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments 3 - 21

Ryn is the characteristic yield strength (SP16 6.1, Table C.5, C.6)
Run is the characteristic fracture strength (SP16 6.1, Table C.5, C.6)
γ m is the partial safety factor for material strength (SP16 6.1, Table 3)
The partial safety factor for material strength, γ m , can be chosen for different
materials satisfying the state standards and specifications for the rolled structural
shapes, sheets, and pipes from the SP16 Table 3 (SP16 6.1, Table 3). However,
the program allows the user to choose the value of γ m in the preferences form.
Its defaults value is 1.025 which is typical for rolled structural shapes (SP16
Table C.5).
The characteristics yield and fracture strengths, Ryn and Run , respectively, can
be chosen for different materials and different thicknesses satisfying the state
standards and specifications for the rolled structural shapes, sheets, and pipes
from the SP16 Tables C.5 and C.6. However, the program allows the user to
choose the value of Ryn and Run directly and expects to be input in the materials
definition form.
The design yield and fracture strengths, Ry and Ru , respectively, are calculated
by dividing characteristic strength values by reliability coefficients of the mate-
rial using the equation given above. Unlike in the SP16 Tables C5 and C6, these
values are NOT rounded up to 5 N/mm2 in the program.
3.8 Checking Members for Combination Forces

This section addresses the checking of members subject to individual forces or
a combination of two or more of the individual forces. The member state of fail-
ure is represented by the demand/capacity (D/C) ratios.
In the calculation of the demand/capacity (D/C) ratios, first, for each station
along the length of the member, the actual member force/moment components
are calculated for each design combination. Then, the corresponding capacities
are calculated. Then, the D/C ratios are calculated at each station for each mem-
ber under the influence of each of the design combinations. The controlling D/C
ratio is then obtained, along with the associated station and design combination.
3 - 22 Checking Members for Combination Forces

Chapter 3 - Design
A D/C ratio greater than the D/C ratio limit (whose default value is 1.0) indicates
exceeding a limit state.
The design flexural resistance for all shapes of sections are calculated based on
their principal axes of bending. For the Rectangular, I-Shape, Box, Channel,
Double Channel, Circular, Pipe, T-Shape, and Double Angle sections, the prin-
cipal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For the Single Angle sections, the
principal axes are determined and all computations except shear are based on
that.
For all sections, the nominal shear strengths are calculated for directions aligned
with the geometric axes, which typically coincide with the principal axes. Again,
the exception is the Single Angle section.
During the design, the effect of the presence of bolts or welds is not consid-
ered.
3.8.1 Members Subjected to Axial Compression with or without Flex-

ure
The factored strengths for axial compression and major and minor axis bending,
a D/C ratio is produced at each station for each of the load combinations as
follows:
3.8.1.1 Members Subjected to Axial Compression Only

If the axial load is compressive, the D/C ratio for sections with standard strength
( Ryn ≤ 440 N/mm2) is given by:
N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 7.1.1)
An Ry γ c
If the axial load is compressive, the D/C ratio for sections with higher character-
istic strength ( Ryn > 440 N/mm2) is given by:
N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 7.1.1)
An ( Ru γ u ) γ c
If the axial load is compressive, the D/C ratio for all sections is given by:
Checking Members for Combination Forces 3 - 23

N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 7.1.3)
φARy γ c
where,
N is the factored axial compressive loading, including P-∆ effects,
A is the gross area of cross section,
An is the net area of cross section, an overwrite controls the ratio of net to
gross area of the cross section, An A ,
Ryn is the characteristic yield strength (SP16 6.1, Table C.5, C.6, C.7),
Ry is the design yield strength for tension, compression, and flexure

(SP16 6.1, Table 2)

(SP16 6.1, Table 2)
γ c is the service factor for structural members and connections (SP16

4.3.2, Table 1, 16.1, Table 45)
γ u is the safety factor for structure members designed in terms of their

behavior with the use of design strengths Ru (SP16 4.3.2)
φ is the stability coefficient at axial compression determined using equa-

tions as given in SP16 7.1.3
For all types of cross-sections, the stability coefficient at axial compression, φ ,

is determined as follows.
  2 2 
0.5  δ − δ − 39.48λ  ≤ 7.6 , if λ > 0.4,

φ =  λ
2  λ2 , (SP16 7.1.3)
  
 1, if λ ≤ 0.4.
where,

Chapter 3 - Design
= (
δ 9.87 1 − α + βλ + λ , ) 2
(SP16 7.1.3)
Ry
λ =λ , (SP16 7.1.3)
E
Klef
λ= , (SP16 7.1.3)
r

0.03, for Pipe and box shapes,

α =0.04, for I-Shape, Double Channel, welded-box,
 for Angle, Channel, Tee, Double-Angle,
0.04,
 and all other sections, and
(SP16 7.1.3, Table 7)


β =0.09, for I-Shape, Double Channel, welded-box,
0.14,
 and all other sections.
(SP16 7.1.3, Table 7)
3.8.1.2 Members Subjected to Flexure Only

For Class 1 members, if the member is loaded with moment in one of the prin-
cipal planes only, the D/C ratio is given by:
Mx
≤ 1.0 for Class 1 (SP16 8.2.1)
Wxn ,min Ry γ c
My
≤ 1.0 for Class 1 (SP16 8.2.1)
Wyn ,min Ry γ c
For Class 1 members, if the member is loaded with bi-axial moment about both
the principal planes, the D/C ratio is given by:

Mxy Myx Bω
± ± ≤ 1.0 , for Class 1 (SP16 8.2.1)
I xn Ry γ c I yn Ry γ c I ω Ry γ c
For Class 2 and Class 3 members, if the member is loaded with moment in one
of the principal planes only, the D/C ratio is given by:
Mx
≤ 1.0 , for Class 2 and Class 3 (SP16 8.2.3)
cxβWxn ,min Ry γ c
My
≤ 1.0 , for Class 2 and Class 3 (SP16 8.2.3)
c yWyn ,min Ry γ c
For Class 2 and Class 3 members, if the member is loaded with bi-axial moment
about both the principal planes, the D/C ratio is given by:
Mx My
+ ≤ 1.0 , for Class 2 and 3 (SP16 8.2.3)
cxβWxn ,min Ry γ c c yWyn ,min Ry γ c
For Class 1 members, if the member is loaded with moment in the major princi-
pal plane only, the D/C ratio is given by:
Mx
≤ 1.0 , for Class 1 (SP16 8.4.1)
φbWcx Ry γ c
Mx My B
+ + ≤ 1.0 , for Class 1 (SP16 8.4.1)
φbWcx Ry γ c Wcy Ry γ c Wω Ry γ c
where,
M x is the factored moment about the major principal axis, x
M y is the factored moment about the minor principal axis, y
B is the bi-moment. It is assumed to be zero throughout the program

Chapter 3 - Design
Wcx is the section modulus of cross section about the principal axis, x, com-
puted for the compression flange
Wcy is the section modulus of cross section about the principal axis, y,
computed for the compression side
Wxn ,min is the minimum section modulus of cross section about the princi-
pal axis, x
Wyn ,min is the minimum section modulus of cross section about the princi-
pal axis, y
I xn is the moment of inertia of cross section about the principal axis, x
I yn is the moment of inertia of cross section about the principal axis, y
I ω is the cross-sectional sectorial moment of inertia. It is not really used in

the program as the bi-moment, B, is assumed to be zero
6.1, Table 2)

4.3.2, Table 1)
cx and c y are the coefficients for the calculation of structural elements tak-
ing into account the development of plastic deformations for Class 2
and Class 3 sections (SP16 Annex F, Table F.1)
β is the coefficient that takes the effect of average shear stress on the mo-
ment capacity for Class 2 and Class 3 sections
φb is the stability factor in bending to be calculated based on SP16 Annex

G.
For Circular and Pipe sections, an SRSS combination is first made of the two
bending components before adding the axial load component instead of the sim-
ple algebraic addition implied by the preceding interaction formulas.

The coefficients cx and c y for the calculation of structural elements taking into
account the development of plastic deformations for Class 2 and Class 3 sections
for doubly-symmetric I-Shape, singly-symmetric I-Shape, Channel, double-
Channel, Box, Pipe, Tee, Angle, Double-Angle, and Solid Rectangular shapes
are calculated based on the SP16 Table F.1 given in Annex F. The values of cx
and c y are interpolated for A f Aw when needed. For all other shapes including
Solid Circular sections and SD-Sections, cx and c y are calculated assuming the
shape is similar to the solid rectangular section as for the item 5 in the table.
The coefficient, β , that takes the effect of average shear stress on the moment
capacity for Class 2 and Class 3 sections is calculated as follows:
 τ
 1, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.5,
Rs

β = 4 , (SP16 8.5.18)
1 −  0.2   τ x  , if 0.5 ≤ τ x ≤ 0.9,
  α + 0.25   R  Rs
  f  s 
where,
Q
τx = x , (SP16 8.2.3)
Aw
Af
αf = , (SP16 8.2.3)
Aw
Rs is the design shear strength (SP16 6.1, Table 2).
A f is the area of a single flange. For singly-symmetric I-shape it is the area

of the smaller flange (SP16 8.2.3).
Aw is the area of area of the webs. For box sections it is the area of the two
webs together (SP16 8.2.3).

Chapter 3 - Design
The stability factor in bending, φb , is calculated based on SP16 Annex G. The

coefficient φb is determined depending on the arrangement of supports, un-
braced compressed zone, and type of load applications. It is assumed that the
load is applied in the plane of minor axis strength---in the plane of maximum
strength, and that the supporting section fixed against lateral displacement and
rotation. For members with doubly-symmetric I-sections the coefficient φb is
calculated as follows. For all other cases see the section SP16 Annex G.
 φ1 , if φ1 ≤ 0.85,
φb = (SP16 8.4.1, G.1)
0.68 + 0.21φ1 , if φ1 > 0.85,
where,
2
Iy  h  E
φ1 =ψ   (SP16 G.1)
I x  lef  Ry

h is full height of the rolled cross-section (SP16 G.1),
lef is the estimated length of the member determined in accordance with

the requirements of SP16 8.4.2. It is the distance between two bracing
points in the compression zone (SP16 8.2.3, G.1),
ψ is the coefficient determined using the section SP16 G.3 (SP16 G.1).
The value of coefficient ψ in the above formula is calculated by for-
mulas of SP16 Tables G.1 and G.2 depending on the number of brac-
ing points of the compressed zone, type of load space, and its applica-
tions, as well as on the coefficient α , which is given below,
2
I  lef 
α =1.54 t   (SP16 G.4)
Iy  h 

3.8.1.3 Members Subjected to Flexure and Compression

If the axial load is compressive, the section characteristic yield strength is less
than 440 N/mm2 ( Ryn ≤ 440 N/mm2), the average shear stress for major and mi-
nor principal directions are small ( τ x Rs ≤ 0.5 and τ y Rs ≤ 0.5 ), and significant
axial force ( N An > 0.1 ), the D/C ratio is given by:
n
 N  Mx My B
  + + + ≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.1.1)
 An Ry γ c  cxWxn ,min Ry γ c c yWyn ,min Ry γ c Wωn ,min Ry γ c
 
If the axial load is compressive but the above conditions are not met, the D/C
ratio is given by:
N Mxy Myx Bω
± ± ± ≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.1.1)
An Ry γ c I xn Ry γ c I yn Ry γ c I ωn Ry γ c
If the axial load is compressive, the section characteristic yield strength is more
than 440 N/mm2 ( Ryn > 440 N/mm2), the D/C ratio considering the tension
flange yielding for singly symmetric sections including singly-symmetric I-
shape, Channel, Tee, and Double Angle sections is given by the following:
N Mx
− ≤ 1.0 , (SP16 9.1.3)
An ( Ru γ u ) γ c δWtx ( Ru γ u ) γ c
where,
M x is the factored moment about the major principal axis, x.
M y is the factored moment about the minor principal axis, y.
B is the bi-moment. It is assumed to be zero throughout the program
puted for the compression flange.
computed for the compression side.

Chapter 3 - Design
Wtx is the section modulus of cross section about the principal axis, x, com-
puted for the tension flange.
Wty is the section modulus of cross section about the principal axis, y, com-
puted for the tension side.
pal axis, x.
pal axis, y.
I xn is the moment of inertia of cross section about the principal axis, x.
I yn is the moment of inertia of cross section about the principal axis, y.
I ω is the cross-sectional sectorial moment of inertia. It is not really used

in the program as the bi-moment, B, is assumed to be zero.

(SP16 6.1, Table 2).

(SP16 6.1, Table 2).

4.3.2, Table 1).

behavior with the use of design strengths Ru (SP16 4.3.2).
cx and c y are the coefficients for the calculation of structural elements

taking into account the development of plastic deformations for Class
2 and Class 3 sections (SP16 Annex F, Table F.1) and it is described
in more details in the previous section.
n is the coefficient that is used as a power for the calculation of structural

elements taking into account the development of plastic deformations
for Class 2 and Class 3 sections (SP16 Annex F, Table F.1).

δ is the amplification coefficient that is used to amplify the moment.
 
N
δ = 1− 0.1  (SP16 9.1.3)
 AR λ 2 
 y 
Ry
λ =λ (SP16 7.1.3)
E
Klef
λ= (SP16 7.1.3)
r
3.8.1.4 Member Stability Subjected to Flexure and Compression

The design of beam column stability loaded in one of principal moment planes
is carried out both in plane (plane mode of stability loss) and out of plane (flex-
ural-torsional instability) with the following interaction equations.
If the axial load is compressive, the D/C ratio considering the integral beam-
column stability in moment plane coinciding with symmetry plane is given by
the following:
N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.2.2)
φex ARy γ c
N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.2.2)
φey ARy γ c
N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.2.8)
φ x ARy γ c
If the axial load is compressive, the D/C ratio considering the integral beam-
column stability in out of moment plane is given by the following:

Chapter 3 - Design
N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.2.4)
cφ y ARy γ c
If the axial load is compressive and the member is bent under bi-axial moments
in two principal planes, the D/C ratio considering the integral beam-column sta-
bility is given by the following:
N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.2.9)
φexy ARy γ c
If the axial load is compressive and the member is bent under uniaxial moment
or bi-axial moments in two principal planes, the D/C ratio considering the beam-
column stability is given by the following:
N Mx
+ ≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.2.10)
φey ARy γ c cx δ xWxn ,min Ry γ c
N My
+ ≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.2.10)
φex ARy γ c c y δ xWyn ,min Ry γ c
where,
N is the factored axial compressive loading, including P-∆ effects,
gross area of the cross section, A An ,

(SP16 6.1, Table 2),

4.3.2, Table 1),


tions as given in SP16 7.1.3. It can have two values, φ x and φ y , for
buckling about two principal axes,
φex is the stability coefficient for axial compression with uniaxial buckling
about the major principal axis, x , determined using SP16 9.2.1 and
Table E.3,
φey is the stability coefficient for axial compression with uniaxial buckling
about the minor principal axis, y , determined using SP16 9.2.1 and
Table E.3,
φ x is the stability coefficient at axial compression for buckling about the

major principal axis, x , determined using equations as given in SP16
7.1.3,
φ y is the stability coefficient at axial compression for buckling about the

minor principal axis, y , determined using equations as given in SP16
7.1.3,
φexy is the stability coefficient for axial compression with biaxial bending
determined using equations as given in SP16 7.1.3,
c is the stability related coefficient used for lateral-torsional buckling

stability check and determined using equations as given in SP16 9.2.5,
δ x and δ y are the moment amplification factors for axial compression

determined using equations as given in SP16 9.2.10 as follows:
 1, if λ x ≤ 1,

δ x = 2 N (SP16 9.2.5)
1 − 0.1 λ x AR , if λ x > 1,
 y
 1, if λ y ≤ 1,

δ y = 2 N (SP16 9.2.5)
1 − 0.1 λ y AR , if λ y > 1,
 y

Chapter 3 - Design
The stability coefficients for axial compression with uniaxial buckling, 𝜙𝜙𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 and
𝜙𝜙𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 , about the major and minor principal axis, x and y , respectively, are deter-
mined from the Table SP16 E.3 based on λ and mef for the appropriate direction
(SP16 9.2.2, Table E.3).
Ry
λ =λ (SP16 7.1.3)
E
Klef
λ= (SP16 7.1.3)
r
mef = ηm (SP16 9.2.2)
=m
(=
M Wc ) eA
(SP16 9.2.2,
( N A) Wc
9.2.3)
M
e= (SP16 9.2.2)
N
Wc is the section modulus of cross section about the appropriate axis com-
puted for the compression flange,
η is the influence coefficient for cross-sectional shape as given in SP16

Table E.2,
N is the factored axial compressive loading in the member taken for the
same load combination as that for M . It can differ slightly from station
to station, and
M is the factored equivalent moment about the appropriate axis of bend-

ing axis. It is determined based on the boundary conditions as follows:

 M max of full span , if both ends are fixed,

M , if only left end is fixed,

M =  max of one third span near left support
 M max of one third span near right support if only right end is fixed,
 M Table 20 , if both ends are hinged,
(SP16 9.2.3)
where,
 M 2 > 0.5M max , if λ < 4, and 0 ≤ mmax ≤ 3,


 M + mmax − 3 ( M
 2 max − M 2 ) , if λ < 4, and 3<mmax ≤ 20.
17
M Table 20 =
M1 if λ > 4, and 0 ≤ mmax ≤ 3,
 m −3
 M 1 + max ( M max − M1 ) , if λ > 4, and 3 < mmax ≤ 20,
 17
(SP16 9.2.3, Table 20)
M max is the maximum bending moment within the member length (SP16
9.2.3, Table 20),
M 1 is the maximum bending moment within the middle third of the mem-
ber length, but not less than 0.5M max (SP16 9.2.3, Table 20),
M 2 = M max − 0.25λ ( M max − M 1 ) > 0.5M max (SP16 9.2.3, Table 20), and
=mmax
(=
M max Wc ) emax A
(SP16 9.2.3, Table 20).
( N A) Wc
The influence coefficient, η , for cross-sectional shape is calculated for different

sections from the SP16 Table E.2 using the parameters A f Aw , λ , and m where
the parameters are defined as follows:
=m
(=
M Wc ) eA
(SP16 9.2.2, 9.2.3)
( N A) Wc

Chapter 3 - Design
Ry
λ =λ (SP16 7.1.3)
E
Klef
λ= (SP16 7.1.3)
r
In the above expression, the terms λ , λ , lef , r , K , mef , m , e , M , Wc , and η

are to be used with appropriate direction.
The Table SP16 E.3 provides the value of φe for the range of 0.1 ≤ mef ≤ 20 . If
mef ≤ 0.1 then the moment is insignificant. In this case this limit state is not
needed to be checked as other interaction equation involving predominantly ax-
ial force will cover this case. If mef > 20 then the axial force is insignificant. In
this case this limit state is not needed to be checked as other interaction equation
involving predominantly bending moment will cover this case (SP16 9.2.2).
However the interaction equation is checked anyway with the assumption that
φe =φ where φe is calculated per SP16 7.1.3.
The stability coefficients for axial compression, φ y , for buckling about the mi-
nor principal axis, y , is determined from the SP16 7.1.3 based on λ = λ y = λ 22
(SP16 9.2.4, 7.1.3) as follows:
  2 2 
0.5  δ − δ − 39.48λ  ≤ 7.6 , if λ > 0.4,

φ =  λ
2  λ2 (SP16 7.1.3)
  
 1, if λ ≤ 0.4.
where,
= (
δ 9.87 1 − α + βλ + λ ) 2
(SP16 7.1.3)
Ry
λ =λ (SP16 7.1.3)
E
Klef
λ= (SP16 7.1.3)
r

0.03, for Pipe and box shapes,

0.04, for I-Shape, Double Channel, welded-box,

α = (SP16 7.1.3, Table 7)
0.04, for Angle, Channel, Tee, Double-Angle,
0.04, for all other sections,
0.06, for Pipe and box shapes,

0.09, for I-Shape, Double Channel, welded-box,

β = (SP16 7.1.3, Table 7)
0.14, for Angle, Channel, Tee, Double-Angle,
0.14, for all other sections,
The stability coefficients for axial compression, φ x , for buckling about the major
principal axis, x , is determined from the SP16 7.1.3 based on λ = λ x = λ 33
(SP16 9.2.8, 7.1.3) using the same procedure as stated above.
The stability coefficient for axial compression with biaxial bending, φexy , is de-
termined from the SP16 9.2.9 as follows:
(
φey 0.6 3 c + 0.4 4 c
φexy = ) (SP16 7.1.3)
where,
Table E.3 and its calculation procedure has been described earlier in
this section,
c is the stability related coefficient used for lateral-torsional buckling sta-

bility check and determined using equations as given in SP16 9.2.5.
The stability related coefficient, c , used for lateral-torsional buckling stability

check is determined using equations as given in SP16 9.2.5 as follows:

Chapter 3 - Design
 β
 ≤ 1, if mx ≤ 5,
1 + αmx

c= c5 (2 − 0.2mx ) + c10 (0.2mx − 1), if 5 < mx ≤ 10, (SP16 9.2.5)
 1
 , if mx > 10,
(
1 + φ y φb mx
 )
c ≤ cmax (SP16 9.2.5)
where,
β
=c5 ≤1 (SP16 9.2.5)
1 + α(5.0)
1
c10 = (SP16 9.2.5)
( )
1 + φ y φb ( 5.0 )
=m
(=
M x Wc ) eA
(SP16 9.2.2, 9.2.5)
( N A) Wc
Mx
e= (SP16 9.2.2)
N
φ y is the stability coefficient at axial compression for buckling about the

minor principal axis, y , determined using equations as given in SP16
7.1.3 and its calculation procedure has been described previously,

G and its calculation procedure has been described previously,
M x is the factored equivalent moment about the major principal axis of

bending. For members with both ends fixed against lateral movement,
M x is the maximum moment within a middle third but not less than half
in the overall maximum moment. For members with one fixed and one
free ends, M x is taken the fixed end moment but not less than the mo-
ment at a section at a distance of one third length from the fixed end.

( )
max M max of middle 1/3 span , (1 2 ) M max of full span , if

both ends are fixed,
M , if only left end is fixed,
M =  max of one third span near left support
 M max of one third span near right support if only right end is fixed,
max M
 ( )
max of middle 1/3 span , (1 2 ) M max of full span , if both ends are hinged,
(SP16 9.2.6)
Table E.3 and its calculation procedure has been described earlier in
this section,
cmax is the stability related coefficient used for lateral-torsional buckling

stability check and determined using equations as given in SP16 E.1.
For all shapes except doubly-symmetric I-shape, cmax , is taken as
2
cmax = (SP16 E)
2
16  e 
1 + δΒ + (1 − δΒ ) +  α − x 
2
µ h
For all doubly-symmetric I-shapes, cmax , is taken as
Ix α
1+ +
I y 9.87
cmax = (SP16 E)
 ix2 + i y2  ex 
1 + 4  2 + 
 h  h
 
where,
4ρ
δ= (SP16 E)
µ
 β  e 
B= 1+ 2  x  (SP16 E)
 ρ  h 

Chapter 3 - Design
It
µ = 8ω + 0.156 2
λ y2 (SP16 E)
Ah
α , β , and ω are the parameters in the expression cmax . They are deter-
mined using equations as given in Table SP16 E.6.
δ x and δ y are the moment amplification factors for axial compression

determined using equations as given in SP16 9.2.10.
3.8.2 Members Subjected to Axial Tension with or without Flexure

The factored strengths for axial tension and major and minor axis bending, a D/C
ratio is produced at each station for each of the load combinations as follows:
3.8.2.1 Members Subjected to Axial Tension Only

If the axial load is tensile, the D/C ratio for sections with standard strength (
Ryn ≤ 440 N/mm2) is given by:
N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 7.1.1)
An Ry γ c
If the axial load is tensile, the D/C ratio for sections with higher characteristic
strength ( Ryn > 440 N/mm2) is given by:
N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 7.1.1)
An ( Ru γ u ) γ c
If the axial load is tensile, the D/C ratio for all sections is given by:
N
≤ 1.0 (SP16 7.1.3)
φARy γ c
where,
N is the factored axial tensile loading, including P-∆ effects,

gross area of the cross section, A An ,
Ryn is the characteristic yield strength (SP16 6.1, Table C.5, C.6, C.7),

(SP16 6.1, Table 2),

(SP16 6.1, Table 2),

4.3.2, Table 1),
γ u is the safety factor for structure members designed in terms of their be-
havior with the use of design strengths Ru (SP16 4.3.2),

tions as given in SP16 7.1.3.
For all types of cross-sections, the stability coefficient at axial compression, φ ,

is determined as follows.
  2 2 
0.5  δ − δ − 39.48λ  ≤ 7.6 , if λ > 0.4,

φ =  λ
2  λ2 (SP16 7.1.3)
  
 1, if λ ≤ 0.4.
where,
= (
δ 9.87 1 − α + βλ + λ ) 2
(SP16 7.1.3)
Ry
λ =λ (SP16 7.1.3)
E
Klef
λ= (SP16 7.1.3)
r

Chapter 3 - Design


α =0.04, for I-Shape, Double Channel, welded-box, (SP16 7.1.3, Table 7)
0.04,
 and all other sections, and


β =0.09, for I-Shape, Double Channel, welded-box, (SP16 7.1.3,Table
0.14,
 and all other sections.
7)
3.8.2.2 Members Subjected to Flexure Only

For Class 1 members, if the member is loaded with moment in one of the prin-
cipal plane only, the D/C ratio is given by:
Mx
≤ 1.0 for Class 1 (SP16 8.2.1)
Wxn ,min Ry γ c
My
≤ 1.0 for Class 1 (SP16 8.2.1)
Wyn ,min Ry γ c
Mxy Myx Bω
± ± ≤ 1.0 for Class 1 (SP16 8.2.1)
I xn Ry γ c I yn Ry γ c I ω Ry γ c
For Class 2 and Class 3 members, if the member is loaded with moment in one
of the principal plane only, the D/C ratio is given by:
Mx
≤ 1.0 for Class 2 and Class 3 (SP16 8.2.3)
cxβWxn ,min Ry γ c

My
≤ 1.0 for Class 2 and Class 3 (SP16 8.2.3)
c yWyn ,min Ry γ c
For Class 2 and Class 3 members, if the member is loaded with bi-axial moment
about both the principal planes, the D/C ratio is given by:
Mx My
+ ≤ 1.0 for Class 2 and 3 (SP16 8.2.3)
cxβWxn ,min Ry γ c c yWyn ,min Ry γ c
For Class 1 members, if the member is loaded with moment in the major princi-
pal plane only, the D/C ratio is given by:
Mx
≤ 1.0 for Class 1 (SP16 8.4.1)
φbWcx Ry γ c
Mx My B
+ + ≤ 1.0 for Class 1 (SP16 8.4.1)
φbWcx Ry γ c Wcy Ry γ c Wω Ry γ c
where,
M x is the factored moment about the major principal axis, x,
M y is the factored moment about the minor principal axis, y,
B is the bi-moment. It is assumed to be zero throughout the program,
computed for the compression side,
pal axis, x,

Chapter 3 - Design
pal axis, y,
I xn is the moment of inertia of cross section about the principal axis, x,
I yn is the moment of inertia of cross section about the principal axis, y,
I ω is the cross-sectional sectorial moment of inertia. It is not really used in

the program as the bi-moment, B, is assumed to be zero,
6.1, Table 2),

4.3.2, Table 1),
and Class 3 sections (SP16 Annex F, Table F.1),
β is the coefficient that takes the effect of average shear stress on the mo-
ment capacity for Class 2 and Class 3 sections,

G.
The coefficients cx and c y for the calculation of structural elements taking into
account the development of plastic deformations for Class 2 and Class 3 sections
for doubly-symmetric I-Shape, singly-symmetric I-Shape, Channel, double-
Channel, Box, Pipe, Tee, Angle, Double-Angle, and Solid Rectangular shapes
are calculated based on the SP16 Table F.1 given in Annex F. The values of cx
and c y are interpolated for A f Aw when needed. For all other shapes including
Solid Circular sections and SD-Sections, cx and c y are calculated assuming the
shape is similar to the solid rectangular section as for the item 5 in the table.

The coefficient, β , that takes the effect of average shear stress on the moment
capacity for Class 2 and Class 3 sections is calculated as follows:
 τ
 1, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 0.5,
Rs

β = 4 (SP16 8.5.18)
1 −  0.2   τ x  , if 0.5 ≤ τ x ≤ 0.9,
  α + 0.25   R  Rs
  f  s 
where,
Q
τx = x (SP16 8.2.3)
Aw
Af
αf = (SP16 8.2.3)
Aw
Rs is the design shear strength (SP16 6.1, Table 2),
A f is the area of a single flange. For singly-symmetric I-shape it is the area

of the smaller flange (SP16 8.2.3), and
Aw is the area of area of the webs. For box sections it is the area of the two
webs together (SP16 8.2.3).
The stability factor in bending, φb , is calculated based on SP16 Annex G. The

coefficient φb is determined depending on the arrangement of supports, un-
braced compressed zone, and type of load applications. It is assumed that the
load is applied in the plane of minor axis strength---in the plane of maximum
strength, and that the supporting section fixed against lateral displacement and
rotation. For members with doubly-symmetric I-sections the coefficient φb is
calculated as follows. For all other cases see the section SP16 Annex G.
 φ1 , if φ1 ≤ 0.85,
φb = (SP16 8.4.1,
0.68 + 0.21φ1 , if φ1 > 0.85,
G.1)

Chapter 3 - Design
where,
2
Iy  h  E
φ1 =ψ   (SP16 G.1)
I x  lef  Ry

h is full height of the rolled cross-section (SP16 G.1),
lef is the estimated length of the member determined in accordance with

the requirements of SP16 8.4.2. It is the distance between two bracing
points in the compression zone (SP16 8.2.3, G.1),
ψ is the coefficient determined using the section SP16 G.3 (SP16 G.1).
The value of coefficient ψ in the above formula is calculated by formu-
las of SP16 Tables G.1 and G.2 depending on the number of bracing
points of the compressed zone, type of load space, and its applications,
as well as on the coefficient α , which is given below,
2
I  lef 
α =1.54 t   (SP16 G.4)
Iy  h 
3.8.2.3 Members Subjected to Flexure and Tension

If the axial load is tensile, the section characteristic yield strength is less than
440 N/mm2 ( Ryn ≤ 440 N/mm2), the average shear stress for major and minor
principal directions are small ( τ x Rs ≤ 0.5 and τ y Rs ≤ 0.5 ), and significant
axial force ( N An > 0.1 ), the D/C ratio is given by:
n
 N  Mx My B
  + + + ≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.1.1)
 An Ry γ c  cxWxn ,min Ry γ c c yWyn ,min Ry γ c Wωn ,min Ry γ c
 
If the axial load is tensile but the above conditions are not met, the D/C ratio is
given by:
N Mxy Myx Bω
± ± ± ≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.1.1)
An Ry γ c I xn Ry γ c I yn Ry γ c I ωn Ry γ c

If the axial load is tensile, the section characteristic yield strength is more than
440 N/mm2 ( Ryn > 440 N/mm2), the D/C ratio considering the tension flange
yielding for singly symmetric sections including singly-symmetric I-shape,
Channel, Tee, and Double Angle sections is given by the following:
N Mx
− ≤ 1.0 (SP16 9.1.3)
An ( Ru γ u ) γ c δWtx ( Ru γ u ) γ c
where,
M x is the factored moment about the major principal axis, x,
M y is the factored moment about the minor principal axis, y,
B is the bi-moment. It is assumed to be zero throughout the program,
Wcy is the section modulus of cross section about the principal axis, y, com-
puted for the compression side,
Wtx is the section modulus of cross section about the principal axis, x, com-
puted for the tension flange,
Wty is the section modulus of cross section about the principal axis, y, com-
puted for the tension side,
pal axis, x,
pal axis, y,
I xn is the moment of inertia of cross section about the principal axis, x,
I yn is the moment of inertia of cross section about the principal axis, y,

Chapter 3 - Design
I ω is the cross-sectional sectorial moment of inertia. It is not really used

in the program as the bi-moment, B, is assumed to be zero,

(SP16 6.1, Table 2),

(SP16 6.1, Table 2),

4.3.2, Table 1),

behavior with the use of design strengths Ru (SP16 4.3.2),
and Class 3 sections (SP16 Annex F, Table F.1) and it is described in
more details in the previous section,
n is the coefficient that is used as a power for the calculation of structural

elements taking into account the development of plastic deformations
for Class 2 and Class 3 sections (SP16 Annex F, Table F.1),
δ is the amplification coefficient that is used to amplify the moment,
2 N 
δ = 1− 0.1 λ   (SP16 9.1.3)
 ARy 
 
Ry
λ =λ (SP16 7.1.3)
E
Klef
λ= (SP16 7.1.3)
r

3.8.3 Shear Stresses

From the factored shear force values and the factored shear strength values at
each station, for each of the load combinations, D/C ratios for shear in major and
minor directions are produced as follows:
Qx
≤ 1.0 (SP16 8.2.3)
Aw Rs γ c
Qy
≤ 1.0 (SP16 8.2.3)
A fl Rs γ c
where,
Qx is the factored shear force causing bending of the about the major
principal axis, x ,
Qy is the factored shear force causing bending of the about the minor
principal axis, y ,
Aw is the total area of all the webs,
A fl is the total area of all the flanges,

(SP16 6.1, Table 2),
Rs is the design strength of steel for shearing (SP16 6.1, Table 2),

4.3.2, Table 1).
The total area of all the webs, Aw , and of all the flanges, A fl , are taken as fol-
lows:

Chapter 3 - Design
dtw for I-Shape sections,

dt for Channel sections,
 w
dtw for T-Shape sections,

2dtw for Double Channel sections,
2dtw for Box sections,
Aw =  (SP16 8.2.3)
dtw for Angle sections,
2dtw for Double Angle sections,

( 2 3) A for Rectangular solid sections,
( 3 4 ) A for Circular solid sections,

(1 2 ) A for Pipe sections.
2b f t f for I-Shape sections,

2b t for Channel sections,
 f f
b f t f for T-Shape sections,

4b f t f for Double Channel sections,
2b f t f for Box sections,
A fl =  (SP16 8.2.3)
b f t f for Angle sections,
2b f t f for Double Angle sections,

( 2 3) A for Rectangular solid sections,
( 3 4 ) A for Circular solid sections,

(1 2 ) A for Pipe sections.
For all other shapes Aw and A fl are based on elastic equivalent shear area.
The factored shear strengths are calculated for shears along the geometric axes
for all sections. For I-Shape, Box, Channel, Double Channel, T-Shape, Double
Angle, Pipe, Circular, and Rectangular sections, the principal axes coincide with
their geometric axes. For Angle sections, principal axes do not coincide with
their geometric axes.
In calculating D/C ratios for shear, it is assumed that there is no internal stiffen-
ers used to enhance shear strength of a section (SP16 8.2.3).

Bibliography
SP16, 2017. Code of Rules SP 16.13330.2017 – Steel Structures Revised Edition

SNiP II-23-81* Official Edition; Russian Federation, Ministry of Regional
Development, Moscow.
SP20, 2017. Code of Practice SP 20.13330.2017 – Loads and Actions, Updated

Version SNiP 2.01.07-85* Official Edition; Russian Federation, Ministry of
Regional Development, Moscow.
CSI, 2014. CSI Lateral Load Manual. Computers and Structures, Inc., 2014
1646 N. California Blvd., Walnut Creek, CA 94596.
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Copyright  Computers & Structures, Inc., 1978-2020

No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any

Further information and copies of this documentation may be obtained from:

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CONSIDERABLE TIME, EFFORT AND EXPENSE HAVE GONE INTO THE

THIS PRODUCT IS A PRACTICAL AND POWERFUL TOOL FOR STRUCTURAL

1.2 Recommended Reading/Practice 1-3

2 Modeling, Analysis and Design Prerequisites

2.2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections 2-2

2.3 Design and Check Stations 2-3

2.4 Demand/Capacity Ratios 2-4

2.5 Design Load Combinations 2-5

2.6 Second Order P-Delta Effects 2-6

2.7 Member Unsupported Lengths 2-8

2.8 Effects of Breaking a Member into Multiple Elements 2-10

2.9 Effective Length Factor (μ) 2-11

2.10 Frame Design Procedure Overwrites 2-14

2.11 Interactive Design 2-14

3.2 Design Preferences 3-7

3.3 Overwrites 3-8

3.4 Design Loading Combinations 3-12

3.5 Classification of Sections for Local Buckling 3-13

3.6 Calculation of Factored Forces and Moments 3-21

3.7 Calculation of Design Strengths 3-21

3.8 Checking Members for Combined Forces 3-22

The design/check of steel frames is seamlessly integrated within the program.

The design is based on a set of user-specified loading combinations. However,

1.2 Recommended Reading/Practice

Recommended Reading/Practice 1-3

This chapter provides an overview of the basic assumptions, design precondi-

For referring to pertinent sections of the corresponding code, a unique prefix is

• The SP 16.13330.2017 code is referenced with the prefix “SP16.”

• The SP 20.13330.2017 code is referenced with the prefix “SP20.”

2.1 Check and Design Capability

To check adequacy of a section, the program checks the demand/capacity

passes all of the special requirements, the section is considered to be adequate,

2.2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections

2-2 Analysis Sections vs. Design Sections

2.3 Design and Check Stations

Design and Check Stations 2-3

2.4 Demand/Capacity Ratios

 Factored forces are compared to design strengths to determine D/C ratios.

2-4 Demand/Capacity Ratios

2.5 Design Load Combinations

For multi-valued design combinations, such as those involving response spec-

Design Load Combinations 2-5

2.6 Second Order P-Delta Effects

In design codes, required strengths are usually required to be determined using

2-6 Second Order P-Delta Effects

Original position of frame Final deflected position of

Figure 2-1 P-∆ and P-δ effects

M CAP = Required flexural design capacities

M nt = Required flexural capacities from first-order analysis of the

M lt = Required flexural capacities from first-order analysis of the