Korean War - 1

15/06/2021 Korean War -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
Korean War
Korean War, conflict between the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea)
and the Republic of Korea (South Korea) in which at least 2.5 million persons lost their
lives. The war reached international proportions in June 1950 when North Korea, supplied
and advised by the Soviet Union, invaded the South. The United Nations, with the United
States as the principal participant, joined the war on the side of the South Koreans, and the
People’s Republic of China came to North Korea’s aid. After more than a million combat
casualties had been suffered on both sides, the fighting ended in July 1953 with Korea still
divided into two hostile states. Negotiations in 1954 produced no further agreement, and the
front line has been accepted ever since as the de facto boundary between North and South
Korea.
zoom_in
Korean War, June–August
1950Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
zoom_in
battle casualties of the Korean
War (1950–53)Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc.
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Revolution, division, and partisan warfare, 1945–50
The Korean War had its immediate origins in the collapse of the Japanese empire at the end
of World War II in September 1945. Unlike China, Manchuria, and the former Western
https://www.britannica.com/print/article/322419 1/13
colonies seized by Japan in 1941–42, Korea, annexed to Japan since 1910, did not have a
native government or a colonial regime waiting to return after hostilities ceased. Most
claimants to power were harried exiles in China, Manchuria, Japan, the U.S.S.R., and the
United States. They fell into two broad categories. The first was made up of committed
Marxist revolutionaries who had fought the Japanese as part of the Chinese-dominated
guerrilla armies in Manchuria and China. One of these exiles was a minor but successful
guerrilla leader named Kim Il-sung, who had received some training in Russia and had been
made a major in the Soviet army. The other Korean nationalist movement, no less
revolutionary, drew its inspiration from the best of science, education, and industrialism in
Europe, Japan, and America. These “ultranationalists” were split into rival factions, one of
which centred on Syngman Rhee, educated in the United States and at one time the
president of a dissident Korean Provisional Government in exile.
In their hurried effort to disarm the Japanese army and repatriate the Japanese population in
Korea (estimated at 700,000), the United States and the Soviet Union agreed in August
1945 to divide the country for administrative purposes at the 38th parallel (latitude 38° N).
At least from the American perspective, this geographic division was a temporary
expedient; however, the Soviets began a short-lived reign of terror in northern Korea that
quickly politicized the division by driving thousands of refugees south. The two sides could
not agree on a formula that would produce a unified Korea, and in 1947 U.S. President
Harry S. Truman persuaded the United Nations (UN) to assume responsibility for the
country, though the U.S. military remained nominally in control of the South until 1948.
Both the South Korean national police and the constabulary doubled in size, providing a
southern security force of about 80,000 by 1947. In the meantime, Kim Il-sung
strengthened his control over the Communist Party as well as the northern administrative
structure and military forces. In 1948 the North Korean military and police numbered about
100,000, reinforced by a group of southern Korean guerrillas based at Haeju in western
Korea.
The creation of an independent South Korea became UN policy in early 1948. Southern
communists opposed this, and by autumn partisan warfare had engulfed parts of every
Korean province below the 38th parallel. The fighting expanded into a limited border war
between the South’s newly formed Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) and the North Korean
border constabulary as well as the North’s Korean

People’s Army (KPA). The North launched 10 cross-
border guerrilla incursions in order to draw ROKA
units away from their guerrilla-suppression campaign
in the South.
zoom_in
38th parallel
Military vehicles crossing the 38th In its larger purpose the partisan uprising failed: the
parallel during the Korean War. Republic of Korea (ROK) was formed in August
NARA
1948, with Syngman Rhee as president. Nevertheless,
almost 8,000 members of the South Korean security forces and at least 30,000 other
Koreans lost their lives. Many of the victims were not security forces or armed guerrillas at
all but simply people identified as “rightists” or “reds” by the belligerents. Small-scale
atrocities became a way of life.
The partisan war also delayed the training of the South Korean army. In early 1950,
American advisers judged that fewer than half of the ROKA’s infantry battalions were even
marginally ready for war. U.S. military assistance consisted largely of surplus light weapons
and supplies. Indeed, General Douglas MacArthur, commander of the United States’ Far
East Command (FECOM), argued that his Eighth Army, consisting of four weak divisions
in Japan, required more support than the Koreans.
Invasion and counterinvasion, 1950–51

South to Pusan
In early 1949 Kim Il-sung pressed his case with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin that the time
had come for a conventional invasion of the South. Stalin refused, concerned about the
relative unpreparedness of the North Korean armed forces and about possible U.S.
involvement. In the course of the next year, the communist leadership built the KPA into a
formidable offensive force modeled after a Soviet mechanized army. The Chinese released
Korean veterans from the People’s Liberation Army, while the Soviets provided armaments.
By 1950 the North Koreans enjoyed substantial advantages over the South in every
category of equipment. After another Kim visit to Moscow in March–April 1950, Stalin
approved an invasion.
In the predawn hours of June 25, the North Koreans

zoom_in struck across the 38th parallel behind a thunderous
Korean War
South Korean soldiers at the 38th artillery barrage. The principal offensive, conducted
parallel, 1950.
U.S. Department of Defense
by the KPA I Corps (53,000 men), drove across the
Imjin River toward Seoul. The II Corps (54,000
soldiers) attacked along two widely separated axes, one through the cities of Ch’unch’ŏn
and Inje to Hongch’ŏn and the other down the east coast road toward Kangnŭng. The KPA
entered Seoul in the afternoon of June 28, but the North Koreans did not accomplish their
goal of a quick surrender by the Rhee government and the disintegration of the South
Korean army. Instead, remnants of the Seoul-area ROKA forces formed a defensive line
south of the Han River, and on the east coast road ROKA units gave ground in good order.
Still, if the South was to stave off collapse, it would need help—from the U.S. armed
forces.
Truman’s initial response was to order MacArthur to transfer munitions to the ROKA and
to use air cover to protect the evacuation of U.S. citizens. Instead of pressing for a
congressional declaration of war, which he regarded as too alarmist and time-consuming
when time was of the essence, Truman went to the United Nations for sanction. Under U.S.
guidance, the UN called for the invasion to halt (June 25), then for the UN member states to
provide military assistance to the ROK (June 27). By charter the Security Council
considered and passed the resolutions, which could have been vetoed by a permanent
member such as the Soviet Union. The Soviets, however, were boycotting the Council over
the issue of admitting communist China to the UN. Congressional and public opinion in the
United States, meanwhile, supported military intervention without significant dissent.
Having demonstrated its political will, the Truman administration faced the unhappy truth
that it did not have much effective military power to meet the invasion. MacArthur secured
the commitment of three divisions from Japan, but U.S. ground forces only expanded the
scope of defeat. For almost eight weeks, near Osan, along the Kum River, through Taejŏn,
and south to Taegu, U.S. soldiers fought and died—and some fled. Weakened by inadequate
weapons, limited numbers, and uncertain leadership, U.S. troops were frequently beset by
streams of refugees fleeing south, which increased the threat of guerrilla infiltration. These
conditions produced unfortunate attacks on Korean civilians, such as the firing on hundreds
of refugees at a railroad viaduct near the hamlet of Nogun-ri, west of the Naktong River,
during the last week in July.
It was not until the first weeks of August that the

zoom_in United Nations Command, or UNC, as MacArthur’s
Korean War: U.S. soldiers
U.S. soldiers operating a machine gun theatre forces had been redesignated, started to slow
during the Korean War, c. 1950.
Harry S. Truman Library/NARA
the North Koreans. The Eighth Army, commanded by
Lieutenant General Walton H. Walker, one of the best
corps commanders in Europe in 1944–45, and the ROKA, led by Major General Chung Il-
kwon, rallied and fought back with more success. Supplies came through the port at Pusan,
where the Eighth Army’s logistics system depended on Korean and Japanese technicians
and on thousands of Korean labourers. To stop the North Koreans’ tanks and supporting
artillery and infantry, Walker brought in Sherman and Pershing medium tanks, rocket
launchers, artillery pieces, antiaircraft guns, and, most important of all, close-air-support
aircraft. The Fifth Air Force attacked forward units of the KPA with World War II-era P-51
Mustangs, new jet-powered F-80s and F-84s, and even B-26 and B-29 bombers. U.S.
Marine Corps squadrons, embarked on navy light carriers, were capable of flying anywhere
along the front in quick response to requests from ground forces, and on the east coast the
U.S. Navy’s cruisers and destroyers became a seagoing heavy artillery for the ROK I Corps.
Meanwhile, fresh U.S. Army and Marine Corps units began to arrive, supplemented by a
British Commonwealth brigade. In the same period, the ROKA, which had shrunk to half
its prewar strength through deaths, surrenders, a few defections, and substantial desertions,
began to bring its ranks back up with reservists, student volunteers, and men impressed
from cities’ streets as the South Koreans fell back.
Concerned that the shift of combat power toward the UNC would continue into September,
the field commander of the KPA, General Kim Chaek, ordered an advance against the
Naktong River–Taegu–Yŏngdŏk line, soon to become famous as the “Pusan Perimeter.”
The major effort was a double envelopment of Taegu, supplemented by drives toward
Masan and P’ohang, the southwestern and northeastern coastal anchors of the perimeter.
None reached significant objectives. At the Battle of Tabu-dong (August 18–26), the ROK
1st Division and the U.S. 27th Regimental Combat Team defeated the North Koreans’ main
armoured thrust toward Taegu. By September 12 the KPA, its two corps reduced to 60,000
men and its tank forces destroyed, had been driven back in most places west of the Naktong
and well away from Taegu and P’ohang. At that moment the entire strategic balance of the
war was shifted by the sudden appearance of the X Corps at Inch’ŏn.
North to the Yalu

zoom_in
United States Army MacArthur did not believe that he could win the war
American soldiers during the Korean
War.
without an amphibious landing deep behind enemy
Pfc. James Cox—Army/NARA lines, and he had started to think about a landing as
early as July. For the core of his landing force, he and
the Joint Chiefs of Staff selected the 1st Marine Division and the Eighth Army’s remaining
infantry division, the 7th. As the force developed, it also included South Korean marine and
infantry units and an assortment of U.S. support troops. The entire force was designated X
Corps and was commanded by Major General Edward M. Almond, MacArthur’s chief of
staff.
For the landing site, MacArthur himself fixed on

zoom_in Inch’ŏn, the port outlet of Seoul on Korea’s west
Korean War
U.S. troops preparing for the assault coast. A host of problems defied a landing there: wide
on Inch'ŏn during the Korean War,
September 1950.
tidal variance, mines, a crazy quilt of islands and
Bert Harey—© Hulton Deutsch/PNI shoal waters, and dangerous proximity to KPA
reinforcements from Seoul. MacArthur brushed off all
these concerns. After a naval gun and aerial bombardment on September 14, marines the
next day assaulted a key harbour defense site, Wŏlmi Island, and then in the late afternoon
took Inch’ŏn itself. The North Korean resistance was stubborn but spread thin, and the 1st
Marine Division, accompanied by ROK and U.S. army units, entered Seoul on September
25. The bulk of the 7th Division advanced to Suwŏn, where it contacted the Eighth Army
on the 26th. MacArthur and Syngman Rhee marched into the damaged capitol building and
declared South Korea liberated.
zoom_in
Korean War
Brig. Gen. Courtney Whiting (front
left), Gen. Douglas MacArthur (second
from right), and Maj. Gen. Edward M.
Almond (far right) observing the attack

on Inch'ŏn, South Korea, September
15, 1950.
NARA
zoom_in
Korean War, September–
November 1950Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc.
As an organized field force, the KPA disintegrated, having lost 13,000 as prisoners and
50,000 as casualties in August and September. Nevertheless, about 25,000 of its best troops
took to the mountains and marched home as cohesive units; another 10,000 remained in
South Korea as partisans. As the communists headed north, they took thousands of South
Koreans with them as hostages and slave labourers and left additional thousands executed
in their wake—most infamously at Taejŏn, where 5,000 civilians were massacred. The
ROK army and national police, for their part, showed little sympathy to any southern
communists they found or suspected, and U.S. aircraft attacked people and places with little
restraint. As a result, the last two weeks of September saw atrocities rivaling those seen in
Europe during the fratricidal Thirty Years’ War of the 17th century.
Even before the Inch’ŏn landing, MacArthur had thought ahead to a campaign into North
Korea, though his plans never went beyond establishing a line across the so-called waist of
Korea, from P’yŏngyang in the west to Wŏnsan in the east. On September 27 the Joint
Chiefs gave him final authority to conduct operations north of the 38th parallel; however, he
was instructed to limit operations in the event of Russian or Chinese intervention. For the
UNC the war aim was expanded. As announced by the UN General Assembly on October
7, it was to include the occupation of all of North Korea and the elimination of the KPA as a
threat to the political reconstruction of Korea as one nation. To that end, ROKA units
crossed the parallel on October 1, and U.S. Army units crossed on October 7. The ROK I
Corps marched rapidly up the east coast highway, winning the race for Wŏnsan;
P’yŏngyang fell to the U.S. I Corps on October 19. The Kim Il-sung government, with the
remnants of nine KPA divisions, fell back to the mountain town of Kanggye. Two other
divisions, accompanied by Soviet advisers and air defense forces, struggled northwest
toward the Yalu River and the Chinese border at Sinŭiju. The UNC assumed that the KPA
had lost its will to fight. In reality, it was awaiting rescue.
Back to the 38th parallel
As UNC troops crossed the 38th parallel, Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong
received a plea for direct military aid from Kim Il-sung. The chairman was willing to
intervene, but he needed assurances of Soviet air power. Stalin promised to extend China’s
air defenses (manned by Soviets) to a corridor above the Yalu, thus protecting air bases in
Manchuria and hydroelectric plants on the river, and he also promised new Soviet weapons
and armaments factories. After much debate, Mao ordered the Renmin Zhiyuanjun, or
Chinese People’s Volunteers Force (CPVF), to cross into Korea. It was commanded by
General Peng Dehuai, a veteran of 20 years of war against the Chinese Nationalists and the
Japanese.
The Chinese First Offensive (October 25–November

zoom_in 6, 1950) had the limited objective of testing U.S.-
downtown Seoul during the
Korean War ROK fighting qualities and slowing their advance. In
Civilians combing through the rubble
in downtown Seoul, November 1,
the battle of Onjŏng-Unsan along the Ch’ŏngch’ŏn
1950. The ruins of the Japanese River, the Chinese ruined seven Korean and U.S.
General Government Building, a relic
of the Japanese occupation of Korea, regiments—including the only Korean regiment to
stand in the background.
reach the Yalu, cut off in the vastness of the cold
Capt. F. L. Scheiber/U.S. Department of
Defense northern hills near Ch’osan. The Chinese suffered
10,000 casualties, but they were convinced that they
had found a formula for fighting UNC forces: attack at night, cut off routes of supply and
withdrawal, ambush counterattacking forces, and exploit all forms of concealment and
cover. Stunned by the suddenness of the Chinese onslaught and almost 8,000 casualties
(6,000 of them Koreans), the Eighth Army fell back to the south bank of the Ch’ŏngch’ŏn
and tightened its overextended lines. With a harsh winter beginning and supplies in
shortage, the pause was wise.
Another matter of concern to the UNC was the

zoom_in appearance of MiG-15 jet fighters above North Korea.
Korean War: Battle of the Chosin
Reservoir Flown by Soviet pilots masquerading as Chinese and
Men of the 7th Regiment, U.S. 1st

Koreans, the MiGs, in one week’s action (November
Marine Division, wearing and carrying
cold weather gear, moving toward the 1–7), stopped most of the daytime raids on North
Chosin Reservoir, North Korea,
November 1, 1950.
Korea. The U.S. Air Force immediately dispatched a
U.S. Marine Corps/National Archives and crack wing of F-86 Sabre jet interceptors to Japan, and
Records Administration
thus a two-and-a-half year battle for air superiority
was joined. Over the course of the war, the F-86s succeeded in allowing the Far East Air
Forces (FEAF) to conduct offensive air operations anywhere in North Korea, and they also
protected the Eighth Army from communist air attack. However, they were never able to
provide perfect protection for B-29s flying daylight raids into “MiG Alley,” a corridor in
northwestern Korea where MiGs based near An-tung, Manchuria (now Dandong, China),
fiercely defended bridges and dams on the Yalu River.
The FEAF also turned its fury on all standing

zoom_in structures that might shield the Chinese from the cold;
Korean War, November 1950–
January 1951Encyclopædia cities and towns all over North Korea went up in
Britannica, Inc.
flames. But the air assault did not halt the buildup for
the Chinese Second Offensive. This time Peng’s instructions to his army commanders
stressed the necessity to lure the Americans and “puppet troops” out of their defensive
positions between the Ch’ŏngch’ŏn and P’yŏngyang, giving the impression of weakness
and confusion, while Peng would surround their forward elements with his much-enlarged
force of 420,000 Chinese and North Korean regulars. MacArthur, in what may have been
his only real military mistake of the war, ordered the Eighth Army and X Corps northward
into the trap on November 24, and from November 25 to December 14 the Chinese battered
them back to South Korea. Falling upon the U.S. IX Corps and the ROK II Corps from the
east, Peng’s Thirteenth Army Group opened up a gap to the west and almost cut off the I
Corps north of the Ch’ŏngch’ŏn. The I Corps managed to fight its way through Chinese
ambushes back to P’yŏngyang. In the eastern sector the Chinese Ninth Army Group sent
two armies against the 1st Marine Division near the Changjin Reservoir (known to the
Americans by its Japanese name, Chosin). Under the worst possible weather conditions, the
marines turned and fought their way south, destroying seven Chinese divisions before
reaching sanctuary at the port of Hŭngnam on December 11.
zoom_in
Korean War: Battle of the Chosin

Reservoir
Elements of U.S. 1st Marine Division
marching along the main supply route
south of Hagaru-ri, North Korea,
during the Battle of the Chosin
Reservoir, December 6, 1950.
Photo by Sgt. Frank C. Kerr/U.S. Marine
Corps/National Archives and Records
Administration
zoom_in
Korean War
Chinese soldiers taken prisoner by the
U.S. 7th Marine Regiment south of
Kot'o-ri, North Korea, during the Battle
of the Chosin Reservoir, December 9,
1950.
Photo by Sgt. Frank C. Kerr/U.S. Marine
Corps/National Archives and Records
Administration
At the height of the crisis, MacArthur conferred with Walker and Almond, and they agreed
that their forces would try to establish enclaves in North Korea, thus preserving the option
of holding the P’yŏngyang-Wŏnsan line. In reality, Walker had finally reached the limits of
his disgust with MacArthur’s meddling and posturing, and he started his men south. By
December 6 the Eighth Army had destroyed everything it could not carry and had taken the
road for Seoul. Walker’s initiative may have saved his army, but it also meant that much of
the rest of the war would be fought as a UNC effort to recapture ground surrendered with
little effort in December 1950. Walker himself died in a traffic accident just north of Seoul
on December 23 and was succeeded by Lieutenant General Matthew B. Ridgway.
Heartened by the ease with which the CPVF had driven the UNC out of North Korea, Mao
Zedong expanded his war aims to demand that the Chinese army unify all of Korea and
drive the Americans and puppets off the peninsula. His enthusiasm increased when the
Chinese Third Offensive (December 31, 1950–January 5, 1951) retook Seoul. The Chinese
attacks centred on ROKA divisions, which were showing signs of defeatism and ineptness.
Ridgway, therefore, had to rely in the short term upon his U.S. divisions, many of which
had now gained units from other UN participants. In addition to two British Commonwealth
brigades, there were units from Turkey, France, Belgium, The Netherlands, Greece,
Colombia, Thailand, Ethiopia, and the Philippines. Pulling his multinational force together,
Ridgway pushed back to the Han River valley in January 1951.
The Chinese, now reinforced by a reborn North Korean army, launched their Fourth
Offensive on February 11, 1951. Again the initial attacks struck ill-prepared South Korean
divisions, and again the UNC gave ground. Again the Eighth Army fought back
methodically, crossing the 38th parallel after two months. At that point Peng began the Fifth
Offensive (First Phase) with 11 Chinese armies and two North Korean corps. The attacks
came at an awkward moment for the Eighth Army. On April 11 Truman, having reached the
opinion that MacArthur’s independence amounted to insubordination, had relieved the
general of all his commands and recalled him to the United States. The change elevated
Ridgway to commander in chief, FECOM and UNC, and brought Lieutenant General James
A. Van Fleet to command the Eighth Army. Like Ridgway, Van Fleet had earned wide
respect as a division and corps commander against the Germans in 1944–45.
Before Van Fleet could re-form the ROK Army and redeploy his own divisions, the Chinese
struck. At a low point in Korean military history, the battered ROKA II Corps gave way,
and U.S. divisions peeled back to protect their flanks and rear until Van Fleet could commit
five more U.S. and Korean divisions and a British brigade to halt the Chinese armies on
April 28. Mao refused to accept Peng’s report that the CPVF could no longer hold the
initiative, and he ordered the Second Phase of the offensive, which began on May 16 and
lasted another bloody week. Once again allied air power and heavy artillery stiffened the
resistance, and once again the UNC crossed the 38th parallel in pursuit of a battered (but
not beaten) Chinese expeditionary force.
To the negotiating table

zoom_in
Korean War By June 1951 the Korean War had reached another
U.S. soldiers advancing north of the
38th parallel during the Korean War,
critical point. The Chinese–North Korean armies,
April 1951. despite having suffered some 500,000 casualties since
U.S. Signal Corps/Welter
November, had grown to 1,200,000 soldiers. United
Nations Command had taken its share of casualties—more than 100,000 since the Chinese
intervention—but by May 1951 U.S. ground troops numbered 256,000, the ROKA 500,000,
and other allied contingents 28,000. The U.S. FEAF had grown from fewer than 700
aircraft in July 1950 to more than 1,400 in February 1951.
These developments obliged the leaders of both

zoom_in coalitions to consider that peace could not be imposed
Korean War
War-weary civilians passing a stalled by either side through military victory—at least at
M26 Pershing tank during the Korean
War, June 1951.
acceptable cost. Truman and the UN, in particular, had
Maj. R. V. Spencer/U.S. Department of lost their ardour for anything more than a return to
Defense
status quo ante bellum and were sympathetic to the
idea of a negotiated settlement. On May 17, 1951, the U.S. National Security Council
adopted a new policy that committed the United States to support a unified, democratic
Korea, but not necessarily one unified by military action and the overthrow of Kim Il-sung.
The communist road to a negotiated peace started in

zoom_in Beijing, where Mao, who had no desire to end the
Korean War
UN convoy at the “United Nations war, approved an approach suggested by Peng and
House” in Kaesŏng, Korea, during
early Korean War armistice talks,
others: hold the ground in Korea and conduct a
1951. campaign of attrition, attempting to win limited
U.S. Department of Defense
victories against small allied units through violent
night attacks and infantry infiltration. Protection from UNC aircraft and artillery would be
provided by caves and bunkers dug into the Korean mountains. Meanwhile, negotiations
would be managed by the Chinese, an unparalleled chance to appear an equal of the United
States in Asia and a slap at the hated Japanese. The Koreans were not a factor for either
side.
After secret meetings between U.S. and Soviet diplomats, the Soviet Union announced that
it would not block a negotiated settlement to the Korean War. The Truman administration
had already alerted Ridgway to the prospect of truce talks, and on June 30 he issued a
public statement that he had been authorized to participate in “a meeting to discuss an
armistice providing for the cessation of hostilities.” On July 2 the Chinese and North
Koreans issued a joint statement that they would discuss arrangements for a meeting, but
only at their place of choice: the city of Kaesŏng, an ancient Korean capital, once part of
the ROK but now occupied by the communists at the very edge of the front lines. The
Chinese had just fired the first salvo of a new war, one in which talking and fighting for
advantage might someday end the conflict.
Citation Information
Article Title:
Korean War
Website Name:
Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher:
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Date Published:
01 June 2021
URL:
https://www.britannica.com/event/Korean-War
Access Date:
June 15, 2021

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15/06/2021 Korean War -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia

border constabulary as well as the North’s Korean

Invasion and counterinvasion, 1950–51

In the predawn hours of June 25, the North Koreans

It was not until the first weeks of August that the

North to the Yalu

For the landing site, MacArthur himself fixed on

Almond (far right) observing the attack

Back to the 38th parallel

The Chinese First Offensive (October 25–November

Another matter of concern to the UNC was the

Men of the 7th Regiment, U.S. 1st

The FEAF also turned its fury on all standing

Korean War: Battle of the Chosin

To the negotiating table

These developments obliged the leaders of both

The communist road to a negotiated peace started in

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