Smart Substations

The smart substation concept enables more reliable and more efficient, real-time
monitoring and control of the facility nodes installed in the substation. Smart devices
can be added to traditional substation devices to perform intelligent functions and
provide ubiquitous IT techniques for monitoring, control and management of the
system.

The main functions of a smart substation are summarized as follows:

- Intelligent analysis for alarm processing, bad data processing, etc.
- Intelligent control for auto-restoration, remedial or predictive action, and emergency
state estimation
- Intelligent maintenance and management
- Intelligent physical safety
- Interconnection and application with Geographic Information System (GIS).
The system structure of a smart substation is given in Figure 1 . The figure shows the
general SCADA network topology that consists of nodes and terminals. Also, this
figure presents a different kind of wire backbone network and each network layer is
comprised of DCS LAN, Ethernet LAN and Serial Network communication. The
substation’s utilities that manage distribution facilities from existing SCADA
systems, applications or services are available to integrate the data from the proposed
ubiquitous IT platform. The figure also shows how to build up new routes that
connect to other nodes and terminals. If existing wire (serial bus) networks have a
fault or accident, then the ubiquitous network reconfigures itself to bypass or detour
around the fault in the local substation.  
   
A smart substation network is constructed with various wired and wireless
communication capabilities, i.e., a smart substation provides different kinds of
communication interfaces. So, the smart substation’s terminals, nodes and RTUs have
provisions for communication, interconnection, and network compatibility.

Advanced Distribution Automation (ADA)

Electric distribution feeders, which form a significant part of the electricity grid, if
equipped with Advanced Distribution Automation (ADA) can make a significant
contribution to accomplishing the overall Smart Grid characteristics described earlier
in the introductory chapter. In particular, ADA will enable the distribution feeders to
be self healing and more efficient, and will also facilitate the implementation of
distributed energy resources. Advanced Distribution Automation will thus play a key
role in accomplishing the Smart grid Objectives, especially self healing (FLISR), new
generation options, asset utilization and efficiency improvement. It will allow utilities
to implement flexible control of distribution systems, which can be used to enhance
efficiency, reliability, and quality of electric service.
An ADA, as defined by IEEE, is a set of technologies that enable an electric
utility to remotely monitor, coordinate, and operate distribution components in a real
time mode from remote locations. The word Automation means doing the particular
task automatically in a sequence with faster operation rate. This requires the use of
microprocessor together with communication network and some relevant software
programming.
The Distribution Automation System (DA) is a control systems which includes
real time monitoring of operating parameters of Amps, MW (Mega Watt), MVAR
(Mega Var), PF (Power Factor), Frequency, Voltages, etc at all points of the
substation, status of circuit breakers, remote operation of circuit breakers and
archiving of historical data, audio alarm and annunciation for limit violations and
breaker tripping, recording of sequence of events, recording of maxima and minima
of operating parameters. This chapter describes the major ADA applications and
assesses the relationship between each function and the smart grid characteristics.
The  smart  grid  components  can  influence  the  smart  grid  characteristics  in  
several  ways:  
 Indirectly  –  the  smart  grid  component  provides  information  or  a  
•
supporting  infrastructure  to  enable  other  system  applications  to  
accomplish  the  characteristic.  
• Directly  –  the  smart  grid  component  includes  facilities  that  accomplish  
the  characteristic  or  feature  without  further  involvement  by  external  
systems.  
The  table  below  summarizes  the  type  of  impact  each  smart  grid  element  has  on  
the  smart  grid  characteristics.  As  depicted  by  the  table,  the  smart  distribution  
feeder  has  “direct”  impact  on  more  of  the  smart  grid  characteristics  than  other  
smart  grid  elements  and  is  therefore  highly  significant.  
 
Smart  Grid  Category  
Smart  Grid  
Meters   Feeders   Sub-­‐ Transmission   Generation  
Characteristic  
Stations  
Self  Heals   Indirect   Direct   Direct   Direct  Impact   Indirect  
Impact   Impact   Impact   Impact  
Empowers  the   Direct   No  Impact   No  Impact   No  Impact   No  Impact  
Consumer   Impact  
Resists  Attack   Negative   Negative   Negative   Negative   Negative  
Impact   Impact   Impact   Impact   Impact  
High  Quality   Indirect   Direct   Indirect   No  Impact   Indirect  
Power     Impact   Impact   Impact   Impact  
Facilitates  DER   Indirect   Indirect   Indirect   No  Impact   Direct  
Impact   Impact   Impact   Impact  
Enables   Direct   No  Impact   No  Impact   No  Impact   No  Impact  
Markets   Impact  
Optimizes  Asset   Indirect   Direct   Direct   No  Impact   Direct  
Efficiency   Impact   Impact   Impact   Impact  
 
Indian Power Distribution Utilities, after restructuring & reformation of Power Utility
Sector through enactment of Electricity Act 2003, are facing tremendous challenges
to comply regulatory norms as the distribution networks of Indian Power Utility have
grown more than double in size and complexity in the last 10- 15 years. It has resulted
in increase in volume of workload and the inefficiency in whole distribution system.
Continuance with conventional manual systems is going to prove a luxury in terms of
cost apart from resulting in consumer dissatisfaction at the quality of service rendered
& less control on Aggregated Technical & Commercial (AT&C) Loss. Enactment
electricity Act 2003 has been pressurizing the power distribution utility to plan a clear
road map towards achieving Distribution Automation without further delay. There is a
need to start implementation forthwith to meet the objective and begin the
‘Distribution Automation” starting with urban areas and rolling it out gradually to
rural areas. The automation system can be designed using available technology in
computer systems, control systems and metering systems and dovetailing the same
into the existing power systems. All the tools required such as Computers, Remote
Terminal Units (RTUs), breakers, Switched Capacitor Banks, OLTC (On Load Tap
Changer) Transformers, Auto Reclosures, Sectionlizers, AMR (Automated Meter
Reading) Systems and Communication Systems are available.

The importance for introduction of a complete Distribution Automation system to

Indian Power distribution utility is to achieve the following benefits in post Electricity
Act 2003 scenario, through real time data acquisition & effective control of
Distribution network:
• Hours of power supply through each DTR can be monitored and data stored to
compute the reliability
• Instantaneous voltages, currents, active power, reactive power, power factor
(perhaps temperature and oil level also) can be monitored remotely.
• Energy accounting & Auditing at feeder level , DT level for better AT &C
Loss
• Substantial reduction in failure rate of DTRs as impending failures can be
detected in advance
• Quality of power supply will be of the highest order
• Load survey makes Distribution Network planning and meaningful
• Phenomenal reduction in losses can be achieved through reconfiguration
roistering, etc., which is possible to do remotely.
• Enhance Revenue Realization as well as consumer satisfaction.

Technical Challenges for Conventional DAS

a. Customer demand for better power quality and less outages

b. Utility business pressures to minimize capital and operational expenses
c. Market opportunities that are beginning to reach into the distribution arena, such as
“demand response” and “real-time pricing”
d. Regulatory pressures for system reliability and performance
e. Increased interconnection of Distributed Energy Resources (DER) to the
distribution system, either at substations or within customer premises. All these DER
systems will interact among themselves and with all other controllable devices and
systems connected to the same distribution area.

Benefits of Distribution Automation System Implementation

The benefits of distribution automation system implementation can be classified in

three major areas are as follows:
1. Operational & Maintenance benefits
a. Improved reliability by reducing outage duration using auto restoration scheme
b. Improved voltage control by means of automatic VAR control
c. Reduced man hour and man power
d. Accurate and useful planning and operational data information
e. Better fault detection and diagnostic analysis
f. Better management of system and component loading
2. Financial benefits
a. Increased revenue due to quick restoration
b. Improved utilization of system capacity
c. Customer retention for improved quality of supply
3. Customer related benefits
a. Better service reliability
b. Reduce interruption cost for Industrial/Commercial customers
c. Better quality of supply
 Feeder Automation
The Feeder Automation (FA) system is one of the most important parts of
Distribution Automation (DA) system. It provides capabilities for a central server to
collect operation data such as voltage and current, to monitor and control feeder
terminal units (FTU) which are dispersed in the remote areas, to detect and restore
faults automatically. As information exchange between the central server and FTUs
becomes frequently, two infrastructures must be managed: not only the FA system
infrastructure but also the information infrastructure.

It is generally applied to that element of the distribution system which operates at

voltages above 11 kV. Distribution substation and feeder automation also referred to
as Primary Distribution automation.

Different functions of Primary Automation Technique are listed below.

• Transformer Load Balancing: Transformer load balance monitoring provides

remote access to near real-time information concerning the overall operation of
the distribution system. This information can be used on a daily basis to verify
the effects of other down line events such as capacitor switching, residential
load control, and recloser operations. It is also useful on a periodic basis to fine
tune the efficiency of the Utility's power distribution configuration.

• Voltage Regulation: This feature of DAS offers utility personnel the ability to
reduce line voltage during peak demand times by remotely taking control of
the Load Tap Changer. It also facilitates the remotely boosting of line voltages
above the local LTC settings in case of emergency situations such as back-
feeding.

• Fault Isolation and Sectionalizing: Remote monitoring of the re-closer

operation to the melting of a fuse link, utilities can detect the fault very fast and
can take quick action to clear that fault. Even during the outage of the power
supplies distribution automation devices on that line can report the data
remotely. By correlating the last voltage or current measured before an outage
from several points along the distribution system, an indication of the nature of
the fault as well as its approximate location can be obtained.

• Remote Interconnect Switching: Distribution automation systems can be

deployed to drive remotely interconnected switches that separate different
portion of the utility distribution feeders. By the use of remote interconnect
switching utilities can manipulate their distribution system to provide the most
efficient configuration and also will able to remotely restore power to as many
consumers as possible during the time of multiple faults.

• Capacitor Bank Switching: It is most commonly deployed automation

technique in a distribution network. The most cost effective capacitor control
configuration is to install a number of one-way receivers at the capacitor
 locations for positive control and to monitor the aggregate effects of the
capacitor switching at the substation low voltage level bus. Utilities with
capacitor bank switching facilities can operate with reduced losses and as a
result with higher efficiency.
• Voltage Monitoring: By monitoring the feeder voltage remotely utility
personal gets advance notification about the line voltage drop due to high
usage. Also recorded data of feeder voltages will give snapshot of the actual
usage patterns.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

A geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for
capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced
information.
GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many
ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes,
reports, and charts.
Examples of use are:
▪ GIS may allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times
and the movement of response resources (for logistics) in the case of a natural
disaster;
▪ GIS might be used to find wetlands that need protection strategies regarding
pollution;
▪ GIS can be used by a company to site a new business location to take advantage of
GIS data identified trends to respond to a previously under-served market.
Most city and transportation systems planning offices have GIS sections; and
▪ GIS can be used to track the spread of emerging infectious disease threats. This
allows for informed pandemic planning and enhanced preparedness.

GIS will help to finding out the location of fault in a electric network.It will
reduce outage duration time, So it improves the reliability of the system.

INTELLIGENT ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Processor based IEDs can improve the reliability of the power network and reduce
lifetime operating costs. Nevertheless, the quantities of data acquired, particularly
during a major incident, can overwhelm an operator and lead to an incorrect response
[1]. Operators have to analyse the available data and apply the most appropriate
remedial action. Emotional and psychological stress may result in an inadequate
response that could damage equipment, risk human life or even initiate a catastrophic
emergency [2]. What we require is useful information that summarises the problem
and helps with the solution. The data acquired in a substation come from a multitude
of sources but often carry the same information. This creates superfluous and/or
redundant information, which makes the analytical task harder to achieve. To improve
the speed of data handling, the data must be grouped and unified. The data overwhelm
issue not only has an impact on each piece of plant and its substation, but also, at the
system operational level .

In general, we use the term “power system” to describe the collection of devices that
make up the physical systems that generate, transmit, and distribute power. The terms
“instrumentation and control (I&C) system” refer to the collection of devices that
comprise the system that monitors, controls, and protects the power system.
Innovative microprocessor-based IED developments within the I & C system have
created new ways of collecting and reacting to data, and using these data to create
information. IEDs are commonly used in the substation and on the pole top as
dedicated protection, metering, and recording devices.

When integrated together, they become a powerful, economical, and streamlined I &
C system, capable of supporting all aspects of electric power protection, automation,
control, monitoring, and analysis. Data available  from  an  integrated  system  of  IEDs  
can  serve  many  purposes  including  equipment  health  monitoring.    
Data   for   analysis   include   operating   conditions   of   the   power   system   such   as  
metering   and   status,   operating   parameters   of   power   system   devices   such   as  
circuit  breaker  and  transformer  conditions,  IED  self  test  diagnostics.  
 
There   are   many   types   of   IEDs,   which   could   provide   data   for   solving   different  
problems.  The  operational  data  required  analyzing  the  performance  of  the  relay  
systems  and  circuit  breakers  during  a  fault  on  the  electrical  system  are:  
 
A.  Bus  phase  voltages  
B.  Bus  residual  voltage  
C.  Line  phase  voltages  
D.  Line  phase  currents  
E.  Line  residual  current  
F.  Pilot  channel  data  
G.  Breaker,  station  tripping  and  blocking  status  
H.  Control  contact  performance  
I.  Alarm  contacts  
J.  Relay  target  data  
K.  Time  coded  information  
L.  Fault  duration  
M.  Clearing  time  (all  phases)  
N.  Magnitude  of  the  fault  current  
O.  Type  of  fault  
P.  Phases  involved  in  the  fault  
  
Recent   multifunctional   Intelligent   Electronic   Devices   (IEDs)   provide   higher  
performance,  reduction  in  operating  cost,  reduction  in  size,  increase  in  efficiency  
and   improvement   in   robustness   in   the   existing   substations.   As   an   example,  
protection  relays  are  widely  used  in  all  kind  of  substations  for  different  purposes  
from   individual   functions,   such   as   differential   protection,   distance   protection,  
over-­‐current   protection,   metering,   monitoring,   etc,   to   several   protection,  
monitoring,  control  and  user  interface  functions  included  in  one  box.  
The   main   advantages   of   multifunctional   IEDs   are   that   they   are   fully   IEC   61850  
compatible,  have  compact  size  and  offer  various  functions  contained  together  in  
one  design.  This  means  reduction  in  size,  increase  in  efficiency  and  improvement  
in   robustness   which   is   the   main   design   goal.   Present   practices   regarding   IED  
evaluation   and   new   function   specification   are   very   limited   and   need   to   be  
changed  to  accommodate  new  business  needs  in  the  industry  [19].  
Some   IED   examples   can   be   seen   in   Figure.   IEDs   are   synchronized   to   the   GPS  
reference  clock  and  time  stamped  data  makes  integration  of  data  from  different  
IEDs  much  easier.  
IEDs   from   various   vendors   may   have   different   data   files   formats,   so   it   is  
necessary  to  standardize  file  format  before  data  integration.    
 
A  few  options  for  upgrading  the  substations  are  explained  next.  
 
A)  Metering  and  monitoring  relay  
ABB   has   a   product,   CM-­‐ESS   that   can   meter   and   monitor   over   or   under   voltage   in  
single   or   multi-­‐phase   AC   or   DC   system.   Multi-­‐functional   voltage   metering   and  
monitoring   relay   uses   a   multiplexer   that   has   high   speed   synchronous  
communications,   bit   error   correction,   data   management,   and   alarms   with  
diagnostic  at  the  same  time  [11].  
 
B)  Control  house  safety  function  relay  
SIEMENS’   Multi-­‐Functional   Safety   Relay   (3TK2845   multi-­‐function   device)  
combines   multiple   functions   of   individual   safety   relays   in   a   single   device   [20].  
Combination   of   individual   safety   function   relays   dealing   with   the   room,  
appliance,   labor   and   security   monitoring   is   a   unique   control   house   safety  
monitoring   multi-­‐functional   relay.   The   arrangement   of   the   functions   in   the  
diverse  variants  ensures  that  the  most  common  applications  can  be  realized  with  
minimum  engineering  and  cost  expenditures.  
 
C)  Transmission  line  protection  relay  
Combination  of  different  protection  and  protection-­‐related  functions  such  as  line  
protection,   auto   reclosing,   fault   location,   circuit   breaker   monitoring   can   be  
combined   in   18   one   product.   Examples   of   such   products   are   Siemens   7SD600  
relay  which  is  a  numerical  current  differential  protection  relay  for  distribution,  
as   well   as   SIPROTEC   4   7SA522   for   transmission,   and   GE   F-­‐60   for   feeder  
protection  [20]-­‐[21].  
 
D)  Transformer  protection  
High-­‐speed,   three-­‐phase,   multiple   winding   transformer   protection   system,   like  
GE   T60   which   is   a   three-­‐phase,   multiple   winding,   transformer   relay   intended   for  
the   primary   protection   and   management   of   small,   medium   and   large   power  
transformers   includes   a   full   featured   set   of   protection,   I/O,   data   logging,   and  
communications  capabilities  [21].  
 
E)  Bus  protection  
Comprehensive   and   scalable   bus   and   breaker   failure   protection   for   LV,   HV   or  
EHV  Busbars,  like  GE  B90,  features  integrated  protection  and  breaker  failure  for  
reconfigurable  LV,  HV  or  EHV  multi-­‐section  busbars  with  up  to  24  feeders  [21].  
One   can   use   one   or   more   B90s   together   to   build   a   sophisticated   protection  
system  that  can  be  engineered  to  meet  the  specific  application  requirements.  The  
B90   performs   fast   and   secures   low   impedance   bus   protection   with   sub-­‐cycle  
tripping  time  averaging  0.75  cycles.  
 
F)  Fault  recorder  
Multi-­‐functional   fault   recorder   can   integrate   many   functions   associated   with  
fault   recording.   Such   products,   like   the   REASON   RPV-­‐310,   are   a   device   for   the  
acquisition,   monitoring   and   recording   of   electrical   quantities   in   applications  
demanding  a  high  level  of  performance  and  flexibility  [22].  
 
EQUIPMENT  MONITORING  IEDS  
 
Dissolved  Gas  Monitor  
Dissolved   Gas   Monitors   measure   and   report   gas   concentration   levels   within  
device  insulating  oil.  
When   gas   concentration   levels   exceed   set   limits,   the   IED   creates   a   report,   tracks,  
and  trends  historical  alarm  records.  
  
Moisture  Monitor  
Moisture   Monitors   measure   and   report   moisture   concentration   levels   within  
device  insulating  oil.  
When  moisture  concentration  levels  exceed  set  limits,  the  IED  creates  a  report,  
tracks,  and  trends  historical  alarm  records.  
 
Circuit  Breaker  Condition  Monitor  
Circuit   Breaker   Condition   Monitors   report   mechanism   transit   time,   duration   of  
the   arcs   during   tripping,   cumulative   I2T   or   IT   on   the   contacts   from   the   arcs  
during   tripping,   restrike   occurrence   and/or   operation   counts,   and   time/date  
stamping.   When   alarm   threshold   levels   are   exceeded,   the   IED   creates   a   report,  
tracks,  and  trends  historical  alarm  records.  
 
Load  Tap  Changer  (LTC)  Monitor  
Load   Tap   Changer   Monitors   report   load   tap   changer   parameters,   such   as  
position,   max/min   changes   per   day,   temperature,   and   current.   The   LTC   also  
records   summary   data,   such   as   load   current,   contact   wear   factors,   and   bus  
voltage.  
 
Protective  Relay  
Protective  relay  analysis  data  include  operating  conditions  of  the  power  system  
such   as   metering   and   status,   IED   self   test   diagnostics,   and   archived   records  
representing   the   reaction   of   the   power   system   over   time   or   to   an   event.   These  
records   include   system   profiles,   and   event,   SER,   power   quality,   and   protection  
quality   reports.   Relays   also   create   and   archive   operating   parameters   for  
substation   dc   battery   monitoring,   circuit   breaker   monitoring,   transformer  
monitoring,  and  thermal  modeling.  
 
 
 
 
 
Table   1   summarizes   the   types   of   IEDs   that   aid   in   monitoring   the   main   power  
quality  problems  in  electrical  system  equipment.    
Table  1.  Functions  of  the  IEDs  in  a  PQMS    
IED     Functions    
Meter     Monitoring   of   sag,   swell,   interruptions,   unbalance,   flicker,  
harmonics,  power  factor,  and  frequency    
Protective  relay     Monitoring   of   batteries,   transformers,   generators,   breakers,  
and  auxiliary  services    
Data   Database,   data   retrieval   from   devices,   and   power   quality  
concentrator   indicator  calculations                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  
and  server    
Satellite   Time  synchronization    
synchro-­‐nized  
clock    
Computer   with   Practical   and   easy   remote   analysis   and   diagnosis   through  
PQMS  software     database  access    
 Energy Storage System

Technical Role and Functions of Electricity Storage Systems (ESSs)

• Grid Voltage Support

Grid Voltage Support means power provided to the electrical distribution grid to
maintain voltages within the acceptable range. This involves a trade-off between the
amount of “real” energy produced by generators and the amount of “reactive” power
produced.
• Grid Frequency Support
Grid Frequency Support means real power provided to the electrical distribution grid
to reduce any sudden, large load generation imbalance in order to keep the grid
frequency within the permissible tolerance for periods up to 30 minutes.
• Grid Angular (Transient) Stability
Grid Angular Stability means reducing power oscillations (due to rapid events) by
injection and absorption of real power.
• Load Leveling / Peak Shaving
Load Leveling is rescheduling certain loads to cut electrical power demand, or the
production of energy during off-peak periods for storage and use during peak demand
periods. Whilst Peak Shaving is reducing electric usage during peak periods or
moving usage from the time of peak demand to offpeak periods.
• Spinning Reserve
Spinning Reserve is defined as the amount of generation capacity that can be used to
produce active power over a given period of time which has not yet been committed
to the production of energy during this period.
• Power Quality Improvement
Power Quality is basically related to the changes in magnitude and shape of voltage
and current. This result in different issues including: Harmonics, Power Factor,
Transients, Flicker, Sag and Swell, etc. DESSs can mitigate these problems.
• Power Reliability
Can be presented as the percentage/ratio of interruption in delivery of electric power
(may include exceeding the threshold and not only complete loss of power) versus
total uptime. Distributed energy storage systems (DESSs) can help provide reliable
electric service to consumers.
• Ride Through Support
Ride Through means the electric unit stays connected during system disturbance
(voltage sag). ESSs have the potential of providing energy to ride-through.
• Unbalanced Load Compensation
This can be done in combination with four-wire inverters and also by injecting and
absorbing power individually at each phase to supply unbalanced loads.
• Reduced Reliability-related Financial Losses
If storage reduces financial losses associated with power outages. This benefit is very
end-user-specific and applies to commercial and industrial (C&I) customers,
primarily those for which power outages cause moderate to significant losses.
• Reduced Power Quality-related Financial Losses
If energy storage reduces financial losses associated with power quality anomalies.
Power quality anomalies of interest are those that cause loads to go off-line and/or
that damage electricity-using equipment and whose negative effects can be avoided if
storage is used.
 • Increased Revenue from Renewable Energy Sources
Storage could be used to time-shift electric energy generated by renewable. Energy is
stored when demand and price for power are low, so the energy can be used when a)
demand and price for power is high and b) output from the intermittent renewable
generation is low.

For decades, this industry has argued that electricity differs from all other products
and markets because it cannot be stored. This has been basically correct, but future
developments have the potential to remove this unique constraint and to combine
storage with other smart grid technologies to create a new energy paradigm. Electric
batteries may offer the greatest potential as a smart grid enabler. Four advanced
battery designs are currently being deployed to serve a variety of transmission and
distribution applications, with multiple benefits potentially flowing from a single
installation. Research continues to seek out new chemistries and physics that will
provide the breakthrough low cost storage medium that will indeed be the smart grid’s
killer application.

Renewable energy sources such as wind turbines, photovoltaic solar systems, solar-
thermo power, biomass power plants, fuel cells, gas micro-turbines, hydropower
turbines, combined heat and power (CHP) micro-turbines and hybrid power systems
will be part of future power generation systems Nevertheless, exploitation of
renewable energy sources (RESs), even when there is a good potential resource, may
be problematic due to their variable and intermittent nature. In addition, wind
fluctuations, lightning strikes, sudden change of a load, or the occurrence of a line
fault can cause sudden momentary dips in system voltage.
Power applications, such as uninterruptible power supply (UPS) backup for data
centers and automotive batteries, represent the largest market for Lead-Acid batteries,
whereas laptop batteries and power tools have fueled incredible growth for lithium-
ion. For bulk energy storage in utility grids, pumped hydro power plants dominate,
with approximately 100 GW in service around the globe. In general terms, power
applications would be storage systems rated for one hour or less, and energy
applications would be for longer periods. The chart in Figure 20 shows the
positioning of energy storage options by application (power level) and storage time.
Potential applications of each of these technologies are being found in the electric
grid—in the transmission system for bulk storage, in the residential feeder circuit for
smaller systems. The location in the grid will vary based on the economics of the
technology.
 Fig. 20 Discharge time v/s Power rating
STORAGE OPTIONS
1. PUMP HYDRO
Utility system designers have seen the benefits of massive amounts of energy storage
in the form of pumped hydro power plants. A typical pumped hydro plant consists of
two interconnected reservoirs (lakes), tunnels that convey water from one reservoir to
another, valves, hydro machinery (a water pump-turbine), a motor-generator,
transformers, a transmission switchyard, and a transmission connection. The product
of the total volume of water and the differential height between reservoirs is
proportional to the amount of stored electricity.

Today, the global capacity of pumped hydro storage plants totals more than 110 GW.
The original intent of these plants was to provide off-peak base loading for large coal
and nuclear plants to optimize their overall performance and provide peaking energy
each day. Their duty has since been expanded to include providing ancillary service
functions, such as frequency regulation in the generation mode.

2. BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM

Advancements in battery technology over the last 20 years have been driven primarily
by the use of batteries in consumer electronics and power tools. Only in the last ten
years—with efforts to design better batteries for transportation—have possible uses of
battery technology for the power grid emerged. One driver that has helped make
potential utility applications possible is more efficient cost-effective power
electronics.
For battery technologies to be practically applied in the ac utility grid, reliable power
conversion systems (PCSs) that convert battery dc power to ac were needed. These
devices now exist and have many years of service experience, which makes a wide
range of battery technologies practical for grid support applications. A large variety of
battery types are being used for grid support applications.

A. Sodium Sulfur Batteries

The sodium sulfur (NaS) battery is a high-temperature battery system that consists of
a liquid (molten) sulfur positive electrode and a molten sodium negative electrode
separated by a solid beta alumina ceramic electrolyte. The electrolyte allows only
positive sodium ions to pass through it and combine with the sulfur to form sodium
poly-sulfides. During discharge, positive sodium ions flow through the electrolyte and
electrons flow in the external circuit of the battery, producing about 2 V. This process
is reversible since charging causes sodium poly-sulfides to release the positive sodium
ions back through the electrolyte to recombine a elemental sodium. The battery
operates at about 300 °C. NaS battery cells are efficient (about 89%). The basic NAS
battery “building block” has a capacity of 50 kW. Batteries can be connected together
to provide megawatts of power. A 1-MW system would be roughly the size of two
semi-trailers and would weigh approximately 88 tons. The batteries will last for at
least 15 years, assuming 2,500 charge/discharge cycles. The NAS battery has a high
volumetric energy density.
This battery system is capable of six hours of discharge time on a daily basis. The
largest single NaS battery installation is a 34-MW, 245-MWh system for wind power
stabilization in northern Japan (shown in figure)

Fig. 21 Sodium Sulphur Batteries

A. Flow Battery Technology

Flow batteries perform similarly to a hydrogen fuel cell. They employ electrolyte
liquids flowing through a cell stack with ion exchange through a micro-porous
membrane to generate an electrical charge. Several different chemistries have been
developed for use in utility power applications. An advantage of flow battery designs
is the ability to scale systems independently in terms of power and energy. More cell
stacks allows for an increase in power rating; a greater volume of electrolytes
translates to more runtime. Plus, flow batteries operate at ambient (rather than high)
temperature levels.
Zinc-bromine flow batteries are being used for utility applications. The advantages of
flow batteries is that their construction is based on plastic components in the reactor
stacks, piping, and tanks for holding the electrolytes. The result is that the batteries
are relatively light in weight and have a longer life.
 Fig. 22 Flow Battery Technology

The overall system comprises four main subsystems:

• Energy Storage Subsystem—Including the energy storage blocks, electrolyte tanks,
and circulation system.
• Power Conditioning Subsystem—Including four 125 kW grid-tied inverter/rectifiers
and grid interconnections.
• System Controller—Providing real-time monitoring, control, management, and
communication. This system includes an energy management application that
manages the charging and discharging based on user settable parameters.
• Thermal Management Subsystem—Providing active thermal management to
maintain optimum temperature for all system components. The thermal management
makes use of a chiller mounted at one end of the trailer. The electrolyte reservoir
contains a liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger used to remove heat during charge.

A. Lithium-Ion Batteries
The battery technology with the broadest base of applications today is the lithium-ion
battery. This technology can be applied in a wide variety of shapes and sizes,
allowing the battery to efficiently fill the available space, such as a cell phone or
laptop computer. In addition to their packaging flexibility, these batteries are light in
weight relative to aqueous battery technologies, such as lead-acid batteries. Lithium-
ion batteries have the highest power density of all batteries on the commercial market
on a per-unit-of-volume basis. Safety issues with lithium-ion batteries in laptop
computers have been a recent concern, but continued development of the technology
for PHEV application has resulted in newer types of lithium-ion cells with more
sophisticated cell management systems to improve performance and safety.

The tables below summarize the attributes of each advanced battery energy storage
technology mentioned above. The economics of energy storage is improving as
shown in these tables, which also present the battery cycle life, round trip efficiency,
and other major grid application issues.

3. FUEL CELLS
The development of hydrogen-based fuel cells as clean energy sources continues
around the world. In the transportation arena, PHEVs appear to be developing a
commanding lead over fuel cell-powered vehicles as the clean energy choice.
Proponents of a hydrogen economy argue that large wind farms could be used to
power hydrogen-processing facilities and those pipelines—in lieu of large electrical
transmission lines—could carry bulk hydrogen—as the energy source—to major
population centers. Like today’s large natural gas pipeline networks that store gas
conveniently in the system to match customer demand, hydrogen would be stored as
necessary to match the demand for fuel cells for electricity and hydrogen- powered
cars.
Critics question the overall efficiencies of creating large quantities of hydrogen to
power fuel cells to create electricity. Large-scale adoption of hydrogen would require
a significant paradigm shift in the overall energy delivery strategy in major world
markets. Today, changes of this magnitude do not appear possible in any of the
world’s major utility markets

4. COMPRESSED AIR ENERGY STORAGE

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is a peaking gas turbine power plant that
consumes less than 40% of the gas used in a combined-cycle gas turbine (and 60%
less gas than is used by a single-cycle gas turbine) to produce the same amount of
electric output power. This is accomplished by blending compressed air to the input
fuel to the turbine.
By compressing air during off-peak periods when energy prices are very low, the
plant’s output can produce electricity during peak periods at lower costs than
conventional standalone gas turbines can achieve.
Making the CAES concept work depends on locating plants near appropriate
underground geological formations, such as mines, salt caverns, or depleted gas wells.
These units are fast-acting plants and typically can be in service in 15 min when
called upon for power. The plants used a fairly complex turbo-machinery design
integrated with a combined motor-generator and custom components.

Compressed air energy storage (CAES ). This is an established energy storage

technology in grid operation since the late 1970s. With this technology, energy is
stored mechanically by compressing air. When the air is expanded again, energy is
released to the grid. If the heat that develops during compression is conserved, this
mechanical process is theoretically 100% efficient. However, in large-scale systems,
that is not likely to be the case and combined with the losses occur- ring during the
conversion from electrical to mechanical energy and back, the round-trip efficiency is
very low. Other disadvantages include slow response and fewer environmentally
acceptable siting opportunities.

5. SUPERCONDUCTING MAGNETIC ENERGY STORAGE (SMES)

The superconducting magnetic energy storage charges by storing the electrical energy
in the form of magnetic field created by the flow of DC current through a coil made of
superconducting material at very low temperatures. The DC power stored in the
magnetic field can be discharged with high power output in a short interval time. The
energy stored in the coil is proportional to the inductance of the coil and square of the
dc current creating the magnetic field. The increase in the size of the coil can increase
the storage capacity. Superconducting magnetic energy storage units up to 3 MW are
in usage presently. Due to its high efficiency and fast response, the superconducting
magnetic energy storage is driving greater attention.

In SMES, the energy is stored in the magnetic field of a super- conducting coil. The
coil must be kept at a very low tempera- ture to maintain its superconducting
capability. Advantages include an extremely short response time, as well as high effi-
ciency (the superconducting coil itself is theoretically lossless, but the conversion
from AC to DC and back implies losses, as does the continuous cooling of the coil).
Applications of SMES are able to provide high power, very fast, but usually for a very
short time (seconds). It has scaling potential to about 1 MWh capacity without serious
siting re- strictions, but the exposure of the surroundings to the mag- netic field must
be considered. Besides, the immaturity of the large-scale SMES systems capable of
bulk storage is a major disadvantage.

Pumped Hydro Plant

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity is a type of hydroelectric power generation used

by some power plants for load balancing. The method stores energy in the form of
water, pumped from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation. Low-cost off-
peak electric power is used to run the pumps. During periods of high electrical
demand, the stored water is released through turbines to produce electric power.
Although the losses of the pumping process makes the plant a net consumer of energy
overall, the system increases revenue by selling more electricity during periods of
peak demand, when electricity prices are highest. Pumped storage is the largest-
capacity form of grid energy storage now available.
At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water
into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the
lower reservoir through a turbine, generating electricity. Reversible turbine/generator
assemblies act as pump and turbine (usually a Francis turbine design). Nearly all
facilities use the height difference between two natural bodies of water or artificial
reservoirs. Pure pumped-storage plants just shift the water between reservoirs, while
the "pump-back" approach is a combination of pumped storage and conventional
hydroelectric plants that use natural stream-flow. Plants that do not use pumped-
storage are referred to as conventional hydroelectric plants; conventional
hydroelectric plants that have significant storage capacity may be able to play a
similar role in the electrical grid as pumped storage, by deferring output until needed.
Taking into account evaporation losses from the exposed water surface and
conversion losses, approximately 70% to 85% of the electrical energy used to pump
the water into the elevated reservoir can be regained.[1] The technique is currently the
most cost-effective means of storing large amounts of electrical energy on an
operating basis, but capital costs and the presence of appropriate geography are
critical decision factors.

Pumped hydro electric power plants can provide both power regulation and energy
storage services. Examples can be found in California, where some pumped storage
power plants provide both AGC regulation and intraday energy storage capabilities.
In the regulation mode, pumped storage units are following an AGC signal by
changing their MW output around the preferred operating points. In this mode, the
plants may be capable of providing the maximum ramp rate almost equal to their full
capacity in 1 minute. This would be a sufficiently fast response for the purposes of
this project. In this respect, the pumped energy storage can be used similarly to the
use of conventional hydropower plants for regulation. A transition from the pumping
to generation mode takes minutes, and of course, this would not be an acceptable
response time for the regulation purposes. The energy storage mode could be used to
provide intraday services for the wind generation projects and for BPA and CAISO,
such as help in following the schedules, optimizing the daily production schedules
and ad- dressing the over-generation problem.
WAMPAC
WAMPAC by using PMU with DFR
At the epicenter of the well-being and prosperity of society lie the electric power
systems. The secure and reliable operation of modern power systems is an
increasingly challenging task due to the ever-increasing demand for electricity, the
growing number of interconnections, penetration of variable renewable energy
sources, and deregulated energy market conditions. Power companies in different
parts of the world are therefore feeling the need for a real-time wide area monitoring,
protection, and control (WAMPAC) system. Synchronized measurement technology
(SMT) has the potential of becoming the backbone of this system.

SNCHRONIZED phasor measurement units (PMUs) were first introduced in early

1980s, and since then have become a mature technology with many applications
which are currently under development around the world. The occurrence of major
blackouts in many major power systems around the world has given a new impetus
for large-scale implementation of wide-area measurement systems (WAMS) using
PMUs and phasor data concentrators (PDCs) in a hierarchical structure. Data
provided by the PMUs are very accurate and enable system analysts to determine the
exact sequence of events which have led to the blackouts, and help analyze the
sequence of events which helps pinpoint the exact causes and malfunctions that may
have contributed to the catastrophic failure of the power system. As experience with
WAMS is gained, it is natural that other uses of phasor measurements will be found.
In particular, significant literature already exists which deals with application of
phasor measurements to system monitoring, protection, and control.

Synchrophasor Definition and Measurements:

Synchrophasor is a term used to describe a phasor which has been estimated at an
instant known as the time tag of the synchrophasor. In order to obtain simultaneous
measurement of phasors across a wide area of the power system, it is necessary to
synchronize these time tags, so that all phasor measurements belonging to the same
time tag are truly simultaneous.
The synchronization is achieved by using a sampling clock which is phase-locked to
the one-pulse-per-second signal provided by a GPS receiver. The receiver may be
built in the PMU, or may be installed in the substation and the synchronizing pulse
distributed to the PMU and to any other device which requires it. Recognizing that a
PMU in a substation would have access to line currents in addition to the bus voltage
reduces the number of PMUs needed
The major advantages of using SMT are that
1) the measurements from widely dispersed locations can be synchronized with
respect to a global positioning system (GPS) clock,
2) voltage phase angles can be measured directly, which was so far technically
infeasible, and
3) the accuracy and speed of energy management system (EMS) applications
(e.g., state estimation) increases manifold.
 Phasor Measurement Units

At present, phasor measurement units (PMUs) are the most widely used SMT-based
device for power system applications. The first prototype of the PMU was developed
and tested in Virginia Tech in the early 1980s. The first commercial unit, the
Macrodyne 1690 was developed in 1991. In the late 1990s, Bonneville Power
Administration (BPA) developed a wide area measurement system (WAMS), which
initiated the usage of PMUs for large-scale power systems. originally developed at
Virginia Tech. PMU technology is maturing rapidly, and a number of vendors are
offering equipment either with phasor measurement facilities alone (standalone
PMUs) or with additional protective relaying features (integrated PMUs). Various
compliance levels and performance metrics for PMUs are prescribed in the IEEE
standard C37.118-2005 for synchrophasors for power systems. A PMU, when placed
at a bus, can provide a highly accurate measurement of the voltage phasor at that bus,
as well as the current phasors through the incident transmission lines (depending on
the available measurement channels). Modern PMUs have some other features, like
frequency measurement, measurement of derived quantities (e.g., power components,
power quality related indicators, etc.), and monitoring of the status of substation
apparatus. The Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) is the foundation on which modem
WAMS is based. PMUs measure positive sequence voltages and currents on the
transmission grid, and when a sufficient number of PMUs are installed, it is possible
to obtain system state vector (collection of positive sequence bus voltages for the
entire network) with a linear state estimator. The PMUs can measure and report
voltages and currents at a fairly high rate: as often as once per cycle of the nominal
power system frequency. For many applications, lower measuring and reporting rates
are found to be acceptable. The IEEE standard C37.1l 8 specifies the PMU output file
structures, supported reporting rates, and various other parameters which deal with
measurement process and expected accuracy.

Fig. 10 PMU Architecture

Figure 10: The samples from the voltage and current inputs are collected by the A/D
(Analog to digital converter) at the rate of 48 samples/cycle but independent of the
1pps input. A well-proven frequency-tracking algorithm controls the sampling
interval in order to respond dynamically to changes in system frequency. This data is
sent to the measurement processors, which handle the GPS and IRIG-B inputs, and
provides synchronized phasor measurements. In addition to that a communication
processor handles the Ethernet communication. Figure 10 shows the basic PMU
architecture. The synchronized measurements are transmitted upstream over Ethernet
(TCP or UDP).
PMU with a DFR
The DFR used in this investigation is a multi-time frame recording system used to
monitor electrical power systems. It can record up to 36 analog channels and 64
digital (status) channels and store up to 1000 recordings. Up to four recorders can be
operated as a cooperative group to achieve greater numbers of channels. The DFR can
record data simultaneously in three time domains: high-speed transient fault (up to
384 samples/ cycle), low speed dynamic swing (up to 30 minutes), and continuous
trend (10 second to 1 hour intervals). Wide varieties of triggers are available to
initiate recording. The recording system consists of a recorder, analog input isolation
modules and Graphical User Interface (GUI) software. There are various analog input
isolation modules available to interface to signal sources. Modules are available to
connect to standard signals found in a typical electric power substation including
secondary ac voltage and current and low-level dc voltage and current signals. These
modules can generally be installed up to 300 meters from the recorder unit, allowing
them to be located near the source of the signals being monitored. The GUI software
provides tools to configure the recorder, trigger, retrieve and manage records and
display real time measured values. The GUI software also includes a graphical record
display and an analysis software sub module. An optional data retrieval and
management data base program is available to automatically collect and store records
from multiple DFRs (refer Figure 11).

Figure 11: Schematic view of a PMU module in a Microprocessor based DFR

PMU functionality is an optional software product feature on this DFR. The PMU
functionality will comply with IEEE C37.118 – 2005. Up to 12 user selectable
phasors - as individual phase quantities or three-phase positive, negative or zero
sequence phasors or summated phasors - can be transmitted via Ethernet, Serial port,
or Modem at rates up to 60 frames each second. The PMU functionality is designed to
work simultaneously with the existing DFR features such as triggering, recording, and
trending. This means, simultaneously you can connect to the DFR using the GUI
software and view metering quantities, modify configuration settings, transfer records
over Modem and stream PMU data over Ethernet or vice-versa. In order to reliably
transmit the PMU data, it is required to connect IRIG-B signal from a reliable Global
Positioning System (GPS) clock or receiver to the DFR through standard BNC
(Bayonet Neill Connector) connector. The GPS signal must comply with the
specification as mentioned in the IEEE C37.118 standard.

Wide Area Monitoring System

The WAMS architecture consists of interconnected PMUs and Phasor Data
Concentrators (PDCs) in different layers of hierarchy. For applications which require
significant amounts of data transfer and low latency, fiber-optic communication
channels are necessary. For lesser data volumes and slow response times, other types
of communication channels including telephone circuits, microwave channels or
power line carrier channels may be adequate. In any case, a communication network
is an essential element of any W AMS architecture.
The Wide Area Networks (WANs) could be utilizing one of the communication
media mentioned earlier. The PMUs communicate their measurements to the
Regional WAN, and after some processing of the data at the regional PDC (for
example removing suspect data, aligning the time tags of all the measurements from
different PMUs), the data stream is passed on to the higher level of PDC. At each of
the PDCs there may be some applications which require only the data that is available
at the PDC. For example, many of the protection functions require data from
neighbouring substations. Such data can be easily utilized in the regional center, and
passed on to wherever it is needed to perform the protection function. The distances
involved at lower levels of POCs are shorter, and the data transfers are restricted to
local WAN. At higher level POCs data from system-wide PMUs is available, thus
making it possible to undertake functions which require data from the system as a
whole. Such functions are system monitoring and system control functions.