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Republic of the Philippines
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

Fuentes Drive, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines
Tel. No. (036) 6214-578 fax No. (036) 6214-578
website: www.capsu.edu.ph email address: [email protected]
Module 1 : Properties of Fluids

Hydrostatic Pressures and Forces
Course Title : Hydraulics
Course Number : CE 325
Course Description : The course emphasizes the continuity equation, energy

equation, and momentum equation. Familiarization of the properties of common liquids in the
study of hydraulics. Application of fundamental principles to solve problems involving liquid
pressure and corresponding forces resulting from this pressure. Applications of appropriate
equations in performing calculations involving flow velocity, flow rate and forces exerted by
moving liquids in closed conduits and open channels. Familiarization and applications of flow
measuring devices such as orifice, weirs, pitot tube.
Total Learning Time : 4 units (4 hours lecture per week)
Pre-requisites : Dynamics of Rigid Bodies, Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
Overview:
Hydraulics is a branch of science concerned with the practical applications of fluids,
primarily liquids, in motion. There are three physical properties of fluids that are particularly
important: density, viscosity, and surface tension. Each of these will be defined and viewed
briefly in terms of molecular concepts, and their dimensions will be examined in terms of mass,
length, and time (M, L, and T). Hydrostatic forces are the resultant force
caused by the pressure loading of a liquid acting on submerged surfaces The center of
pressure is a point on the immersed surface at which the resultant hydrostatic pressure force
acts.
Learning Outcomes:
After completing this course, the student must be able to:
1. Learn about the basic principles of the subject hydraulics.
2. Know the properties of Fluids
3. Solve problems related to hydrostatic Pressure and Forces.
Accredited: Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines (AACCUP)
Member: Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
Agricultural Colleges Association of the Philippines (ACAP)
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Discussion:
Hydraulics – a branch of science concerned with the practical applications of fluids,

primarily liquids, in motion. It is related to fluid mechanics, which in large part provides its
theoretical foundation. Hydraulics deals with such matters as the flow of liquids in pipes,
rivers, and channels and their confinement by dams and tanks. Some of its principles apply
also to gases, usually in cases in which variations in density are relatively small.
Consequently, the scope of hydraulics extends to such mechanical devices as fans and gas
turbines and to pneumatic control systems.
COMMON LIQIUD PROPERTIES
General Properties of Fluids:

There are three physical properties of fluids that are particularly important: density,
viscosity, and surface tension. Each of these will be defined and viewed briefly in terms of
molecular concepts, and their dimensions will be examined in terms of mass, length, and time
(M, L, and T). The physical properties depend primarily on the particular fluid. For liquids,
viscosity also depends strongly on the temperature; for gases, viscosity is
approximately proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature. The density of
gases depends almost directly on the absolute pressure; for most other cases, the effect of
pressure on physical properties can be disregarded.
Density (ρ): Density depends on the mass of an individual molecule and the number of such
molecules that occupy a unit of volume. For liquids, density depends primarily on the particular
liquid and, to a much smaller extent, on its temperature. Mass Density ρ (rho): the mass per unit
volume. The density ρ of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume and indicates its inertia or
resistance to an accelerating force.
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎
𝝆= =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽
Unit weight (𝜸): The weight of a unit volume of a fluid. The unit weight is expressed in
pounds per cubic foot or kilo-newton per cubic meter.
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑾 𝒎𝒈
𝜸= = = = 𝝆𝒈
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽 𝑽
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Density and Specific weight of water in Standard condition:

Density, 𝜌 Specific Weight, 𝛾
3
𝜌𝑤 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚 𝛾𝑤 = 9810 𝑁/𝑚3
3
𝜌𝑤 = 1.94 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔/𝑓𝑡 𝛾𝑤 = 62.4 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
𝜌𝑤 = 1.0 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚/𝑐𝑚3
Specific Gravity is the ratio between the density of an object, and a reference substance. The
specific gravity can tell us, based on its value, if the object will sink or float in our reference
substance. Usually our reference substance is water which always has a density of 1 gram
per milliliter or 1 gram per cubic centimeter. The formula for specific gravity, given that the
reference substance is water, is the density of the object divided by the density of the water.
Here, we use the Greek symbol Rho to indicate density.
Viscosity (μ) of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For
liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher
viscosity than water. Viscosity is also the resisting property of a liquid to shearing force. The
shear stress 𝜏 is related to the deformation rate by the Newton’s Law of Viscosity as:
𝒅𝒖
𝝉=𝝁
𝒅𝒚
𝑑𝑢
where: = velocity gradient in the y- direction
𝑑𝑦
𝜇 = coefficient of viscosity
The coefficient of viscosity 𝜇 (also known variously as coefficient of dynamic viscosity,

absolute viscosity or simply viscosity) has units:
𝝉 𝑵/𝒎𝟐 𝒔
𝝁= = = 𝑵 𝟐 = 𝑷𝒂 ∙ 𝒔
𝒅𝒖 𝒎 𝟏 𝒎
𝒅𝒚 𝒔 ∙𝒎
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of - absolute (or dynamic) viscosity to density - a quantity
in which no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the
absolute viscosity of a fluid with the fluid mass density like:
𝑵∙𝒔/𝒎𝟐 𝒌𝒈∙𝒎−𝟏 ∙𝒔−𝟏

ν=μ/ρ= = = 𝒎𝟐 /𝒔𝒆𝒄 or ft2/sec
𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
where: ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (N s/m 2) ρ = density
(kg/m3)
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Sometimes the coefficient of dynamic viscosity 𝜇 is designated by poise (1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 =

1/10 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠). The kinematic viscosity sometimes express in stoke ( 1 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 10−4 𝑚2 /𝑠)
Example Problem:
1. A liquid at 4℃ has a relative density of 0.80 a kinematic viscosity of 2.3 centistoke.

a. Determine its unit weight.
b. Determine its dynamic viscosity.
Given: Required:
Relative density, RD = 0.80 a. Unit weight, 𝛾
Kinematic viscosity, v = 2.3 centistoke b. Dynamic viscosity, 𝜇
Solution:
a. For Unit weight, 𝛾 b. For Dynamic viscosity, 𝜇
Using RD formula to get the density of fluid: Using the formula:

ν=μ/ρ
𝑅𝐷 = 𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 /𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜇 = 𝑣𝜌
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅𝐷 × 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0.80 × 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 Convert the units:
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 1 stoke = 100 centistoke
1 stoke = 10−4 𝑚2 /𝑠
Using the relationship of unit weight and
density derive formula: 𝑣 = 2.30 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 2.3 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠
𝜇 = (2.3 × 10−6 𝑚2 /𝑠)(800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 𝝁 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑵 − 𝒔/𝒎𝟐
𝛾 = (800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ) (9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 ) Or
𝜸 = 𝟕𝟖𝟒𝟖 𝑵/𝒎𝟑 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝝁 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑷𝒂 − 𝒔 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
Surface Tension, 𝝈 is a liquid form an interface with a second liquid or gas. The surface
energy per unit area of interface is known as surface tension or coefficient of surface tension
( force per unit length = N/m )
Due to surface tension, pressure changes occur across a curved interface. The pressure
difference between inside and outside of a curved surface ∆𝑝 is related to the radius of
curvature R and surface tension 𝜎 as:
For the interior of a liquid cylinder:

∆𝒑 = 𝝈/𝑹
For spherical droplets:
∆𝒑 = 𝟐𝝈/𝑹
A soap bubble has two surfaces and the pressure difference is given by:
∆𝒑 = 𝟒𝝈/𝑹
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Capillarity, the rise (or fall) of a liquid in small diameter tubes are due to cohesion and
adhesion, which are forms of molecular attraction.
For a cylindrical glass tube, the capillary rise (or depression) h is given by:
𝟐𝝈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒉=
𝜸𝑹
where:
𝜃 = contact angle
𝛾 = unit weight of liquid
𝑅 = radius of curvature of the glass tube.
𝜎 = coefficient of surface tension
Note: Capillary rise is usually measured to the bottom

of the meniscus.
Example Problem:
1. A clean tube of internal diameter 3 mm is immersed in a liquid with a coefficient of surface

tension 0.48 N/m. The angle of contact of the liquid with the glass can be assumed to be
130 ° . The density of liquid is 13,600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 . What would be the level of the liquid in
the tube relative to the free surface of the liquid outside the tube?
Given: Required:
Internal Diameter, D = 3mm Level of Liquid in the tube, h = ?
Surface Tension, 𝜎 = 0.48 N/m
Angle of contact, 𝜃 = 130 °
Density of Liquid, 𝜌 = 13,600 kg/𝑚3
Solution:
We are going to use the formula of Capillary rise (or depression):
ℎ = 2𝜎 cos 𝜃 /𝛾𝑅
First get the value of unit weight, 𝛾:
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝛾 = (13,600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )( 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
𝛾 = 133416 𝑁/𝑚3
We can now solve the value of h,

ℎ = 2(0.48 𝑁/𝑚) cos 130 ° /(133416 𝑁/𝑚3 )(3 𝑚𝑚/2)(1 𝑚/1000𝑚𝑚)
𝒉 = −𝟑. 𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎 /−𝟑. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒎 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
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HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FORCES
Hydrostatics deals with the pressures and forces resulting from the weight of fluids at rest.
Pressure, define as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area acting on the surface and
its acts equally in all directions. Since pressure is define as force per unit area, the unit is in
𝑁
newtons per square meter (𝑚2 ) .
What is Hydrostatic Pressure-- Fluid Pressure and Depth

The air around us at sea level presses down on us at ~14.7 pounds per square inch. We
do not feel this pressure since the fluids in our body are pushing outward with the same force.
But if you swim down into the ocean just a few feet and you will start to notice a change. You
will start to feel an increase of pressure on your eardrums. This is because of an increase in
hydrostatic pressure which is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid on an object. The
deeper you go under the sea, the greater the pressure pushing on you will be. For every 33 feet
(10.06 meters) you go down, the pressure increases by 14.5 psi (1 bar).
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point
within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic pressure increases in proportion to
depth measured from the surface because of the increasing weight of fluid exerting downward
force from above.
If a fluid is within a container, then the depth of an object placed in that fluid can be measured.
The deeper the object is placed in the fluid; the more pressure it experiences. This is because
the weight of the fluid is above it. The denser the fluid above it, the more pressure is exerted
on the object that is submerged, due to the weight of the fluid.
Let us derive the formula for Pressure on an object submerged in a fluid:

Pressure = Force/Area
From, what is Force: Force = mass x acceleration = m x g
(acceleration in gravity)
So: Pressure = F/A = mg/A
What is Density: Density = Mass/Volume; Mass= Density x Volume
We now have Pressure = (density x volume x acceleration)/area.
The formula that gives the P pressure on an object submerged in a fluid is therefore:
P =𝝆gh
where: 𝜌 (rho) is the density of the fluid,
g is the acceleration of gravity
h is the height of the fluid above the object
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The pressure due to the liquid alone (i.e. the gauge pressure) at a given depth
depends only upon the density of the liquid, the acceleration of gravity and the distance
below the surface of the liquid.
The static fluid fluid pressure at a given depth does not depend upon the total mass,
surface area, or the geometry of the container.
P = 𝛒gh
Pressure = (density of liquid) x (acceleration gravity) x (height)
Atmospheric Pressure ( 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 ), it is a pressure at any given point in the Earth’s atmosphere
caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. The standard atmosphere is a unit
of pressure.
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.325 𝐾𝑃𝑎 = 14.696 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 760 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Gage Pressure ( 𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 ), the pressure measured with respect to local atmospheric pressure.
Gage pressures can be negative or positive. Negative gage pressures are also called vacuum
pressures
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ∑ 𝜌𝑔ℎ = ∑ 𝛾ℎ
Note: Measuring of pressure in downward direction is positive and negative in upward

direction.
Absolute Pressure ( 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 ), the pressure with its zero point set at the vacuum pressure or the
pressure measured above the absolute zero. Absolute pressure cannot be negative.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = ∑ 𝛾ℎ + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
If the container is open to the atmosphere above, the added atmospheric pressure must
be added if one is to find the total pressure on an object. The pressure at a given depth in a static
liquid is a result the weight of the liquid acting on a unit area at that depth plus any pressure
acting on the surface of the liquid.
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Example Problem:
Find the pressure on a scuba diver who is 10 meters below the surface of the ocean.
Assume standard atmospheric conditions. Use the density of sea water = 1.03 X 10 3 kg/m3
and the atmospheric pressure of 1.01 x 105 N/m2.
Solution:
Pfluid = r g h = (1.03 x103 kg/m3) (9.8 m/s2) (10 m) = 1.09 x 105 N/m2.
Ptotal = Patmosphere + Pfluid = (1.01 x 105) + (1.09 x 105) Pa
= 2.10 x 105 Pa (Pascals) → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
To express the pressure head of other fluids interms of pressure head of water (vice versa):
𝒔. 𝒈𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 )
𝒉𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 =
𝒔. 𝒈𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅
𝒔. 𝒈𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 (𝒉𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅)
𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 =
𝒔. 𝒈𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Example Problems:
1. Determine the pressure in a vessel of mercury (sp.gr. = 13.60) at a point 200mm

below the surface in kPa or kg/cm2.
Solution: a) P = 𝛾h b) P = 𝛾h
p = 9810N/m3 (0.20m) (13.6) p = 1000kg/m3(0.20m) (13.6)

p = 26,683.20N/m2 p = 2720kg/m2
p = 26.6832kPa p = 0.272kg/cm2
2. What height of mercury column will cause a pressure of 690kPa? What is

the equivalent height of water column?
Solution: p = wh h = 690kN/m2 (1000mm/m) = 5172mm of mercury

9.81kN/m3 (13.60)
h = 5172mm of mercury x 13.60 sp.gr. of hg

= 70336mm
= 70.336 m of mercury.
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3. If the pressure in a tank of oil (sp.gr. = 0.80) is 400kPa, what is the equivalent
head in:
a) In meters of oil,
b) In meters of water,
c) In mm of mercury
Solution:
a) h = p/w h= 400kN/m2 = 50.97m of oil

9.81kN/m3(0.80)
b) h = 50.97 (0.80) = 40.77m of water
c) h = 40.77m (1000mm/m) = 2,998 mm of Hg.

13.60
Manometers, are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to measure the
difference in pressure between a certain point and the atmosphere, or between two points
neither of which is necessarily at atmospheric pressure. In a manometer the basic point to
remember is that, in a continuous mass of the same static fluid, the pressure at the point in any
horizontal plane will be the same.
Summation of Pressure from point A:

𝑷𝑨 + 𝜸𝟏 (𝒛𝑨 − 𝒛𝟏 ) − 𝜸𝟐 (𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏 ) + 𝜸𝟑 (𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟑 ) − 𝜸𝟒 (𝒛𝑩 − 𝒛𝟑 ) = 𝑷𝑩
Example Problem:
In figure shown, the distance y + ½ z = 1.20m. When fluid A is water, fluid B is

mercury and the pressure at “m” is vacuum of 37 kPa, compute the value of “z”.
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Solution:
Pm = - 37kPa (Vacuum)
From point 1:
P1 – z (sp.gr.) 9.81 – y (sp.gr.) 9.81 = Pm
0 – z (13.60) (9.81) – y (1.0) 9.81 = - 37kPa
Where: y = 1.20 – 0.5z
[ -z (9.81) (13.60) – 9.81(1.20 – 0.50z) = - 37] ÷ 9.81

-13.60z – 1.20 + 0.50z = -3.77
13.10z = 2.57m
z = 0.196m → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
Exercises: Solve the following problems:
1. A pressure gage on the discharge side of a pump reads 300kPa. Oil of sp.gr. 0.82 is
being pumped. Compute the pressure head in meters of oil.
2. In a condenser containing air and water, the air pressure is 22kPa absolute. What is the
gage pressure in kPa at a point 1.37m below the water surface?
3. What is the absolute pressure in kPa 9m below the open surface in a tank of oil (sp.gr. =
0.85) if the barometric pressure is 720mm of mercury?
Hint: Pa = 101.356 kPa when height of mercury is 760mm
4. A mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads 724mm. At the same time another
barometer at the top of the mountain reads 580mm. Assuming W for air to be constant at
12 N/m3, what is the approximate height of the mountain?
5. A piece of wood 0.30m square and 3.0m long, weighing 6.50kN/m3 is submerged
vertically in a body of water, its upper end being flush with the water surface. What
vertical force is required to hold its position?
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Figure:
6. A glass tube 1.50m long and 25mm in diameter with one end closed is inserted vertically,
with an open end down into a tank of water until the open end is submerged to a depth of
1.20m. if the barometric pressure is 98kPa, and neglecting vapor pressure, how high will water
rise in the tube?
Hydrostatic forces - are the resultant force caused by the pressure loading of
a liquid acting on submerged surfaces The center of pressure is a point on the immersed
surface at which the resultant hydrostatic pressure force acts.
Hydrostatic Pressure on Plane Surfaces

On a plane surface, the hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel forces, and we
often need to determine the magnitude of the force and its point of application, which is called
the center of pressure. In most cases, the other side of the plate is open to the atmosphere (such
as the dry side of the gate), and thus atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the plate,
yielding a zero resultant.
When a plane area is immersed in a static liquid with its plane making an angle 𝜃 with
the free liquid surface the total hydrostatic force on one side of the area is:
̅ 𝑨 = 𝑷𝒄.𝒈 𝑨
𝑭 = 𝜸𝒉
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Where:
F = Hydrostatic Force
A = area of the immersed plane
𝛾 = unit weight of the liquid
̅ = depth from the center of gravity of the immersed area below the free surface.
h
Pc.g = pressure at the center of gravity of the immersed plane.
Center of Pressure is the application of total hydrostatic force on the submerge area:
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑒 + 𝑦̅
𝐼𝑔
𝑦𝑝 = + 𝑦̅
𝐴𝑦̅
Where:
𝑦𝑝 = center of pressure of immersed plane.
𝑒 = the difference in distance between the center of pressure and center of gravity.
𝑦̅ = location of center of gravity with respect to the free surface.
𝐼𝑔 = moment of inertia about an axis parallel to OX and passing through the center of gravity
of submerged area.
𝐴 = area of immersed plane.
The centroid and the centroidal moments of inertia for some common geometries:
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Example Problem:
1. Determine the magnitude and location of the resultant

water-pressure force on a 1m section of gate ab, shown
in figure.
Solution:
For the value of Hydrostatic Force considering the left section,
̅A
F𝐿 = γh
KN
F𝑙 = (9.81 ) (6 m)(6 m2 ) = 353.16 KN
m3
For the location we will going to use the formula:

𝐼𝑔 18
𝑦𝑝𝑙 = + 𝑦̅ = + (6) = 6.5 m, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.
𝐴𝑦̅ (6)(6)
For the value of Hydrostatic Force of the right section,

KN
F𝑟 = (9.81 ) (3 m)(6 m2 ) = 176.58 𝐾𝑁
m3
For the location we will going to use the formula:

𝐼𝑔 18
𝑦𝑝𝑟 = + 𝑦̅ = + (3) = 4 m, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎.
𝐴𝑦̅ (6)(3)
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To get the Resultant force we just simply subtract the F𝑙 by F𝑟 :
𝐹 = 353.16 KN − 176.58 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔. 𝟓𝟖 𝑲𝑵 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
We can get the location of Resultant force by sum up moment at point a.
𝐹𝑟 (4) = 𝐹𝑙 (6.5 − 3) + 𝐹(𝑦𝑝 )
𝐹𝑟(4) − 𝐹𝑙 (6.5 − 3) (176.58)(4) − (353.16)(3.5)

𝑦𝑝 = = = −3 𝑚
𝐹 176.58
Negative indicates wrong assumption of position.
𝒚𝒑 = 𝟑 𝒎 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒂 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
Hydrostatic Forces on Curve Surfaces
The resultant pressure force on a curve surface is most easily computed by separating
it into horizontal and vertical components. Consider the arbitrary curved surface in the figure.
The horizontal component of force on a curved surface equals the force on the
plane area formed by the projection of the curved surface onto the vertical plane normal
to the component or simply, it’s the same on how we compute the hydrostatic force in
the plane surface.
𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴𝑣 = 𝑃𝑐.𝑔 𝐴𝑣
The vertical component of pressure force on a curved surface equals in magnitude and
direction the weight of the entire column of fluid, both liquid and atmosphere, above the
curved surface.
𝐹𝑉 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟
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𝐹𝑉 = ∑ 𝛾 𝑉
Resultant of Hydrostatic Force on Curved surface
𝐹 = √(𝐹𝐻 )2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2
Example Problem:
1. The figure shows the water tank 20 m

long. The wall of the tank abc is hinged at c and
supported by a horizontal tie rod at a. the
segment of the wall bc is a quarter circle having
a radius of 4m. Solve for:
a. Force T.
b. Resultant water-pressure force on the
wall.
c. Determine the resultant force on the
hinged neglecting the weight of the wall.
Solution:
a. For force T:
First get the value of 𝐹𝐻 ,

𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴𝑣
𝐾𝑁
𝐹𝐻 = (9.81 3 ) (2 m)(20 m × 4 m) = 1569.6 KN
𝑚
Then the location of 𝐹𝐻 ,

1
𝑦𝑝ℎ = (4) = 1.33 𝑚, from point c
3
For 𝐹𝑉 ,
𝜋 × 42
𝐹𝑉 = 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉 = 𝛾𝐴𝑙 = 9.81 ( ) (20) = 2465.52 𝐾𝑁
4
The location of 𝐹𝑉 ,
4𝑎
𝑦𝑝𝑣 = = 1.70 𝑚, from point c
3𝜋
Sum up moment at point c:

5𝑇 = 𝐹ℎ (1.33) + 𝐹𝑣 (1.70)
𝐹ℎ (1.33) + 𝐹𝑣 (1.70)
𝑇=
5
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(1569.6)(1.33) + (2465.52)(1.70)
𝑇= = 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟕𝟗 𝑲𝑵 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
5
b. For the Resultant water-pressure force on the wall.
𝐹 = √(𝐹ℎ )2 + (𝐹𝑣 )2 = √(1569.6)2 + (2465.52)2 = 𝟐𝟗𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟒 𝑲𝑵 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
c. Determine the resultant force on the hinged neglecting the weight of the wall.
First get the Horizontal component:

∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0 , 𝐹ℎ𝑐 = 𝐹ℎ − 𝑇
𝐹ℎ𝑐 = 1569.6 − 1255.79 = 313.81 𝐾𝑁
Then the vertical component,

∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0 , 𝐹𝑣𝑐 = 𝐹𝑣
𝐹𝑣𝑐 = 2465.52 𝐾𝑁
Get Resultant Force at c by:

𝐹𝑐 = √(𝐹ℎ𝑐 )2 + (𝐹𝑣𝑐 )2 = √(313.81)2 + (2465.52)2 = 𝟐𝟒𝟖𝟓. 𝟒𝟏 𝑲𝑵 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
DAMS
- are structures that restrict the flow of water in a river or stream. Both streams and rivers
are bodies of flowing surface water driven by gravity that drain water from the continents.
Types of Dams
1. Gravity Dams are massive earth, masonry (brick or stone work), rock fill or concrete
structures that hold back river water with their own weight. They are usually triangular
with their point in a narrow gorge (deep ravine).
2. Embankment dams are wide areas of compacted earth or rock fill with a concrete or
masonry core that contains a reservoir, while allowing for some saturation and shifting
of the earth.
3. Buttress dams have supports that reinforce the walls of the dam and can be curved or
straight. Buttresses on large modern dams are often constructed as a series of arches and
are made of concrete reinforced with steel.
4. Arch dams are curved dams that depend on the strength of the arch design to hold back
water. Like gravity dams, they are most suited to narrow, V-shaped river valleys with
solid rock to anchor the structure.
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GRAVITY DAMS ANALYSIS
The weight of gravity dam will cause a moment opposite to the overturning moment
and the friction on the base will prevent the dam from sliding.
Step 1: Consider 1-unit length (1m length) of the dam perpendicular to the cross section.
Step 2: Determine all the forces acting:
Vertical forces
 W= Weight of dam
 𝐹𝑣 = Weight of water in the upstream and the downstream side (if any)
 𝑈= Hydrostatic Uplift
Horizontal forces
 𝐹ℎ = Horizontal component of total hydrostatic force in the upstream and downstream
side.
Step 3: Solve for the reaction

Horizontal component of the reaction: Vertical component of the reaction:
• 𝑅𝑥 = ∑ 𝐹ℎ • 𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝐹𝑣
Step 4: Moment about the toe:

Righting Moment, RM Overturning Moment, OM
RM = sum of all rotation towards the OM = sum of all rotation towards the
upstream side. downstream side.
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Step 5: Location of 𝑅𝑦 as measured from the toe:
Factors of Safety
Factors of Safety against sliding, 𝐹𝑆𝑠 Factors of Safety against overturning, 𝐹𝑆𝑜
𝛍𝑹𝒚 𝐑𝐌
𝑭𝑺𝒔 = > 𝟏. 𝟎 𝑭𝑺𝒐 = > 𝟏. 𝟎
𝑹𝒙 𝑶𝑴
where: μ= coefficient of friction between the base of the dam and the foundation.
Foundation Pressure
Eccentricity, e
𝟏
𝒆 = | 𝑩−𝒙
̅|
𝟐
𝑩
If 𝒆 ≤
𝟔
𝑅𝑦 is within the middle third and the
foundation pressure is trapezoidal acting
from heel to toe. If e is exactly B/6, the
shape of foundation pressure is triangular
also acting from heel to toe.
𝑹𝒚 𝟔𝒆
𝒒= (𝟏 ± )
𝑩 𝑩
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𝑩
If 𝒆 >
𝟔
𝑅𝑦 is outside the middle third and the
foundation pressure is triangular.
𝟐𝑹𝒚
𝒒𝒆 =
̅
𝟑𝒙
Buoyancy and Stability

Archimedes Principles
Any body immersed in a fluid is subjected to an upward force called buoyant force
equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. The direction of the buoyant force, which is the
force of the fluid on the body, is opposite to that shown on the free body diagram. Therefore
the buoyant force has a magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and
is directed vertically upward.
Neglect the displaced air up here
W
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒃 = 𝜸𝑽𝑫
free surface Where:
BF = buoyant force
C.G
𝜸𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅= unit weight of fluid
𝑽𝑫= volume displaced
B
(Displaced Volume)(𝛾 of fluid) = body weight
BF
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Stability of Floating Bodies

Any floating body is subjected by two opposing vertical forces. One is the body’s weight W
which is downward, and the other is the buoyant force FB which is upward. The weight is
acting on the center of gravity G and the buoyant force is acting at the center of buoyancy
BO. W and BF are always equal and if these forces are collinear, the body will be in upright
position as shown below.
W
free surface
G
Upright Position
𝐵𝑜
BF
The body may tilt from many causes like wind or wave action causing the center of buoyancy
to shift to a new position 𝐵𝑜 ′ as shown below.
RM
Wedge of emersion
M
W
free surface
M is above G
G Stable Position
𝐵𝑜 𝐵𝑜 ′
x
Wedge of immersion
BF
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W
OM
x
M
free surface
M is below G
Unstable Position
𝐵𝑜 𝐵𝑜 ′
BF
Let the new line of action of the buoyant force (which is always vertical) through 𝐵𝑜 ′ intersects
the axis G𝐵𝑜 (the old vertical line containing the center of gravity G and the old center of buoyancy
𝐵𝑜 ) at M. for small value of 𝜃 the point M is practically constant in position and is known as
metacentre. For the body shown in the figure M is above G, and the couple acting on the body in its
displaced position is a restoring couple which tends to turn the body to its original position. If M were
below G, the couple would be an overturning couple and the original equilibrium would have been
unstable. When M coincides with G , the body will assume its new position without any further
movement and thus will be in neutral equilibrium. Therefore, for a floating body, the stability is
determined not simply by the relative position of 𝐵𝑜 and G, rather by the relative position of M and
G. the distance of metacentre above G along the line G𝐵𝑜 is known as metacentric height MG which
can be written as:
𝑴𝑮 = 𝑴𝑩𝒐 ± 𝑮𝑩𝒐
Hence the condition of stable equilibrium for a floating body can be expressed in terms of
metacentric height as follows:
𝑴𝑮 > 𝟎 (M is above G) Stable equilibrium

𝑴𝑮 = 𝟎 (M coinciding with G) Neutral equilibrium
𝑴𝑮 < 𝟎 (M is below G) Unstable equilibrium
Let us supposed that a body is given a small angular displacement and then released. Then it
will be said to be in:
 Stable Equilibrium: If the body returns to its original position by retaining the
originally vertical axis as vertical.
 Unstable Equilibrium: If the body does not return to its original position but moves
further from it.
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 Neutral Equilibrium: If the body neither returns to its original position nor increases
its displacement further, it will simply adopt its new position.
The value of righting moment and overturning moment is written by:
RM or OM = 𝑾(𝑴𝑮 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽) = 𝑩𝑭(𝑴𝑮 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)
The value of M𝐵𝑜 can be computed using two formulas:
For the rectangular section:

𝑩𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜽
𝑴𝑩𝒐 = (𝟏 + )
𝟏𝟐𝑫 𝟐
For any section:

𝟏
𝑴𝑩𝒐 =
𝑽𝑫 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
The angular displacement of a boat or ship about its longitudinal axis is known “rolling”
while that about its transverse axis is known as “pitching”
Where:
W= weight of the body
BF= buoyant force
M= metacenter
G= center of gravity of the body
𝐵𝑜 = center of buoyancy in upright position
𝐵𝑜 ′= center of buoyancy in tilted position
MG= metacentric height or distance from M to G
M𝐵𝑜 = distance from M to 𝐵𝑜
G𝐵𝑜 = distance from G to 𝐵𝑜
𝜃= angle of tilting
𝐼=moment of inertia of the waterline section of the body
𝑅𝑀= righting moment
𝑂𝑀= overturning moment
Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel

A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or a gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile forces, which
resist bursting, developed cross longitudinal and transverse sections.
Pressure
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Tangential Stress/ Circumferential Stress
𝐩𝑫
𝒇𝑻 =
𝟐𝒕
Longitudinal Stress
𝐩𝑫
𝒇𝑳 =
𝟒𝒕
Spherical Shell
𝐩𝑫
𝒇𝑺 =
𝟒𝒕
Spacing hoops:
𝟐𝒇𝒉 𝐀 𝒉
𝒔=
𝐩𝑫
Where:
p = net pressure (internal pressure-external pressure)
D = internal diameter of the pipe
t = thickness of the pipe
Ah = cross-sectional area of the hoops
𝑓ℎ = allowable tensile stress of the hoop
Prepared by:
ENGR. CARLO F. CABANUS

Course Facilitator, BSCE

Capiz State University: WWW - Capsu.edu - PH Roxas@capsu - Edu.ph

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Republic of the Philippines

CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY

Module 1 : Properties of Fluids

Course Title : Hydraulics

Course Number : CE 325

Course Description : The course emphasizes the continuity equation, energy

Total Learning Time : 4 units (4 hours lecture per week)

Pre-requisites : Dynamics of Rigid Bodies, Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

Hydraulics – a branch of science concerned with the practical applications of fluids,

COMMON LIQIUD PROPERTIES

General Properties of Fluids:

Density and Specific weight of water in Standard condition:

The coefficient of viscosity 𝜇 (also known variously as coefficient of dynamic viscosity,

𝑵∙𝒔/𝒎𝟐 𝒌𝒈∙𝒎−𝟏 ∙𝒔−𝟏

where: ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

Sometimes the coefficient of dynamic viscosity 𝜇 is designated by poise (1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 =

1. A liquid at 4℃ has a relative density of 0.80 a kinematic viscosity of 2.3 centistoke.

Using RD formula to get the density of fluid: Using the formula:

For the interior of a liquid cylinder:

Note: Capillary rise is usually measured to the bottom

1. A clean tube of internal diameter 3 mm is immersed in a liquid with a coefficient of surface

We can now solve the value of h,

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FORCES

What is Hydrostatic Pressure-- Fluid Pressure and Depth

Let us derive the formula for Pressure on an object submerged in a fluid:

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.325 𝐾𝑃𝑎 = 14.696 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 760 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔 = 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

Note: Measuring of pressure in downward direction is positive and negative in upward

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

1. Determine the pressure in a vessel of mercury (sp.gr. = 13.60) at a point 200mm

p = 9810N/m3 (0.20m) (13.6) p = 1000kg/m3(0.20m) (13.6)

2. What height of mercury column will cause a pressure of 690kPa? What is

Solution: p = wh h = 690kN/m2 (1000mm/m) = 5172mm of mercury

h = 5172mm of mercury x 13.60 sp.gr. of hg

a) h = p/w h= 400kN/m2 = 50.97m of oil

b) h = 50.97 (0.80) = 40.77m of water

c) h = 40.77m (1000mm/m) = 2,998 mm of Hg.

Summation of Pressure from point A:

In figure shown, the distance y + ½ z = 1.20m. When fluid A is water, fluid B is

[ -z (9.81) (13.60) – 9.81(1.20 – 0.50z) = - 37] ÷ 9.81

Exercises: Solve the following problems:

Hydrostatic Pressure on Plane Surfaces

1. Determine the magnitude and location of the resultant

For the location we will going to use the formula:

For the value of Hydrostatic Force of the right section,

For the location we will going to use the formula:

To get the Resultant force we just simply subtract the F𝑙 by F𝑟 :

𝐹 = 353.16 KN − 176.58 𝐾𝑁 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔. 𝟓𝟖 𝑲𝑵 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

We can get the location of Resultant force by sum up moment at point a.

𝐹𝑟 (4) = 𝐹𝑙 (6.5 − 3) + 𝐹(𝑦𝑝 )

𝐹𝑟(4) − 𝐹𝑙 (6.5 − 3) (176.58)(4) − (353.16)(3.5)

𝒚𝒑 = 𝟑 𝒎 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒂 → 𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

Hydrostatic Forces on Curve Surfaces

Resultant of Hydrostatic Force on Curved surface

1. The figure shows the water tank 20 m

First get the value of 𝐹𝐻 ,

Then the location of 𝐹𝐻 ,

Sum up moment at point c:

b. For the Resultant water-pressure force on the wall.