Environmental Science

1
Contents

Introduction

Chapter 1: Environmental Science

1.1 The Earth, Humans, & the Environment

1.2 The Process of Science
1.3 Environment & Sustainability
1.4 Environmental Ethics
1.5 Environmental Justice & Indigenous Struggles
1.6 Chapter Resources

Chapter 2: Matter, Energy, & Life

2.1 Matter
2.2 Energy
2.3 A Cell is the Smallest Unit of Life
2.4 Energy Enters Ecosystems Through Photosynthesis
2.5 Chapter Resources

Chapter 3: Ecosystems and the Biosphere

3.1 Energy Flow through Ecosystems

3.2 Biogeochemical Cycles
3.3 Terrestrial Biomes
3.4 Aquatic Biomes
3.5 Chapter Resources

Chapter 4: Community & Population Ecology

4.1 Population Demographics & Dynamics

4.2 Population Growth and Regulation
4.3 The Human Population
4.4 Community Ecology
4.5 Chapter Resources

2
Chapter 5: Conservation & Biodiversity

5.1 Introduction to Biodiversity

5.2 Origin of Biodiversity
5.3 Importance of Biodiversity
5.4 Threats to Biodiversity
5.5 Preserving Biodiversity
5.6 Chapter Resources

Chapter 6: Environmental Hazards & Human Health

6.1 The Impacts of Environmental Conditions

6.2 Environmental Health
6.3 Environmental Toxicology
6.4 Bioremediation
6.5 Case Study: The Love Canal Disaster
6.6 Chapter Resources

Chapter 7: Water Availability and Use

7.1 Water Cycle and Fresh Water Supply

7.2 Water Supply Problems and Solutions
7.3 Water Pollution
7.4 Water Treatment
7.5 Case Study: The Aral Sea - Going, Going, Gone
7.6 Chapter Resources

Chapter 8: Food & Hunger

8.1 Food Security

8.2 Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
8.3 Chapter Resources

Chapter 9: Conventional & Sustainable Agriculture

9.1 Soil Profiles & Processes

9.2 Soil-Plant Interactions
9.3 Conventional Agriculture
9.4 Pests & Pesticides

3
9.5 Sustainable Agriculture
9.6 Chapter Resources

Chp 10: Air Pollution, Climate Change, & Ozone Depletion

10.1 Atmospheric Pollution

10.2 Ozone Depletion
10.3 Acid Rain
10.4 Global Climate Change
10.5 Chapter Resources

Chapter 11: Conventional & Sustainable Energy

11.1 Challenges and Impacts of Energy Use

11.2 Non-Renewable Energy Sources
11.3 Renewable Energy Sources
11.4 Chapter Resources

Afterword
Appendix

4
Chapter 1: Environmental Science

“Environmental Protection” by ejaugsburg is in the Public

Domain, CC0

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe what the environment is, and some of its major components.
• Identify the shared characteristics of the natural sciences
• Understand the process of scientific inquiry
• Compare inductive reasoning with deductive reasoning
• Describe the goals of basic science and applied science
• Define environmental science
• Understand why it is important to study environmental science
• Explain the concept of sustainability and its social, political, and cultural challenges

• Evaluate the main points of environmental ethics

• Describe the concept of environmental justice
• Differentiate between developed and developing countries

5
Chapter Outline

• 1.1 The Earth, Humans, and the Environment

• 1.2 The Process of Science
• 1.3 Environment and Sustainability
• 1.4 Environmental Ethics
• 1.5 Environmental Justice and Indigenous Struggles
• 1.6 Chapter Resources – Environmental Science

1.1 The Earth, Humans, & the Environment

What is Environmental Science?

Environmental science is the dynamic, interdisciplinary study of the interaction of living and non-
living parts of the environment, with special focus on the impact of humans on the environment.
The study of environmental science includes circumstances, objects, or conditions by which an
organism or community is surrounded and the complex ways in which they interact.

Why Study Environmental Science?

The need for equitable, ethical, and sustainable use of Earth’s resources by a global population
that nears the carrying capacity of the planet requires us not only to understand how human
behaviors affect the environment, but also the scientific principles that govern interactions
between the living and non-living. Our future depends on our ability to understand and evaluate
evidence-based arguments about the environmental consequences of human actions and
technologies, and to make informed decisions based on those arguments.
From global climate change to habitat loss driven by human population growth and development,
Earth is becoming a different planet—right before our eyes. The global scale and rate of
environmental change are beyond anything in recorded human history. Our challenge is to acquire
an improved understanding of Earth’s complex environmental systems; systems characterized by
interactions within and among their natural and human components that link local to global and
short-term to long-term phenomena, and individual behavior to collective action. The complexity of
environmental challenges demands that we all participate in finding and implementing solutions
leading to long-term environmental sustainability.

6
Perspectives: A brief history of planet Earth:

Watch
https://youtu.be/JGXi_9A__Vc
https://youtu.be/dGiQaabX3_o

7
1.2 The Process of Science

Figure 1. (a) The cyanobacteria seen through a light microscope are some of Earth’s oldest life forms.
These (b) stromatolites along the shores of Lake Thetis in Western Australia are ancient structures
formed by the layering of cyanobacteria in shallow waters. (Credit a: modification of work by NASA;
scale-bar data from Matt Russell; credit b: modification of work by Ruth Ellison)

Like other natural sciences, environmental science is a science that gathers knowledge about the
natural world. The methods of science include careful observation, record keeping, logical and
mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others.
Science also requires considerable imagination and creativity; a well-designed experiment is
commonly described as elegant or beautiful. Science has considerable practical implications and
some science is dedicated to practical applications, such as the prevention of disease (figure 2).
Other science proceeds largely motivated by curiosity. Whatever its goal, there is no doubt that
science has transformed human existence and will continue to do so.

8
The Nature of Science

Biology is a science, but what exactly is science?

What does the study of biology share with other
scientific disciplines? Science (from the Latin
scientia, meaning “knowledge”) can be defined as a
process of gaining knowledge about the natural
world.
Science is a very specific way of learning about
the world. The history of the past 500 years
demonstrates that science is a very powerful way
of gaining knowledge about the world; it is
largely responsible for the technological Figure 2. Biologists may choose to study Escherichia coli
revolutions that have taken place during this time. (E. coli), a bacterium that is a normal resident of our
There are areas of knowledge, however, that the digestive tracts but which is also sometimes responsible for
methods of science cannot be applied to. These disease outbreaks. In this micrograph, the bacterium is
include such things as morality, aesthetics, or visualized using a scanning electron microscope and
spirituality. Science cannot investigate these areas digital colorization. (credit: Eric Erbe; digital colorization
because they are outside the realm of material by Christopher Pooley, USDA-ARS)
phenomena, the phenomena of matter and energy,
and cannot be observed and measured.
The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful
observation. The steps of the scientific method will be examined in detail later, but one of the most important
aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses. A hypothesis is an proposed explanatory statement, for
a given natural phenomenon, that can be tested. Hypotheses, or tentative explanations, are different than a
scientific theory. A scientific theory is a widely-accepted, thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for
a set of observations or phenomena. Scientific theory is the foundation of scientific knowledge. In addition,
in many scientific disciplines (less so in biology) there are scientific laws, often expressed in mathematical
formulas, which describe how elements of nature will behave under certain specific conditions, but they do
not offer explanations for why they occur.

Natural Sciences

What would you expect to see in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur
skeletons? Exhibits about how the brain functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Or maybe
all of the above? Science includes such diverse fields as astronomy, computer sciences,
psychology,biology, and mathematics. However, those fields of science related to the physical
world and its phenomena and processes are considered natural sciences and include the
disciplines of physics, geology, biology, and chemistry. Environmental science is a cross-
disciplinary natural science because it relies of the disciplines of chemistry, biology, and geology.

Scientific Inquiry

One thing is common to all forms of science: an ultimate goal to know. Curiosity and inquiry are the

9
driving forces for the development of science. Scientists seek to understand the world and the way it
operates. Two methods of logical thinking are used: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a
general conclusion. This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science. A life scientist such
as a biologist makes observations and records them. These data can be qualitative (descriptive) or
quantitative (consisting of numbers), and the raw data can be supplemented with drawings, pictures,
photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist can infer conclusions (inductions) based
on evidence. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful
observation and the analysis of a large amount of data. Brain studies often work this way. Many
brains are observed while people are doing a task. The part of the brain that lights up, indicating
activity, is then demonstrated to be the part controlling the response to that task.
Deductive reasoning or deduction is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive
reasoning, the pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction as compared to inductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific
results. From those general principles, a scientist can extrapolate and predict the specific results that
would be valid as long as the general principles are valid. For example, a prediction would be that if the
climate is becoming warmer in a region, the distribution of plants and animals should change.
Comparisons have been made between distributions in the past and the present, and the many changes
that have been found are consistent with a warming climate. Finding the change in distribution is
evidence that the climate change conclusion is a valid one.
Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific study: descriptive science
and hypothesis-based science. Descriptive (or discovery) science aims to observe, explore, and discover,
while hypothesis-based science begins with a specific question or problem and a potential answer or
solution that can be tested. The boundary between these two forms of study is often blurred, because most
scientific endeavors combine both approaches. Observations lead to questions, questions lead to forming a
hypothesis as a possible answer to those questions, and then the hypothesis is tested. Thus, descriptive
science and hypothesis-based science are in continuous dialogue.

“Scientists have become the bearers of the torch of discovery in our quest for knowledge.” –
Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinov, in The Grand Design (2010), Bantam Books

Hypothesis Testing

Biologists study the living world by posing questions about it and seeking science-based
responses. This approach is common to other sciences as well and is often referred to as the
scientific method. The scientific method was used even in ancient times, but it was first
documented by England’s Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) who set up inductive methods for
scientific inquiry. The scientific method is not exclusively used by biologists but can be applied
to almost anything as a logical problem-solving method.

10
 The scientific process typically starts with an observation (often a
problem to be solved) that leads to a question. Let’s think about a
simple problem that starts with an observation and apply the
scientific method to solve the problem. One Monday morning, a
student arrives at class and quickly discovers that the classroom is
too warm. That is an observation that also describes a problem: the
classroom is too warm. The student then asks a question: “Why is
the classroom so warm?”
Recall that a hypothesis is a suggested explanation that can be
tested. To solve a problem, several hypotheses may be proposed.
For example, one hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm
because no one turned on the air conditioning.” But there could be
other responses to the question, and therefore other hypotheses
may be proposed. A second hypothesis might be, “The classroom
is warm because there is a power failure, and so the air conditioning
doesn’t work.”
Once a hypothesis has been selected, a prediction may be made. A
prediction is similar to a hypothesis but it typically has the format
Figure 3. Sir Francis “If .. . then . . . .” For example, the prediction for the first hypothesis might
credited with being the be, “If the student turns on the air conditioning, then the
Bacon is
firstdocument
to the classroom will no longer be too warm.”
A hypothesis must be testable to ensure that it is valid. For example, a
scientific method.
hypothesis that depends on what a bear thinks is not testable, because it can never be known what a bear
thinks. It should also be falsifiable, meaning that it can be disproven by experimental results. An example of
an unfalsifiable hypothesis is “Botticelli’s Birth of Venus is beautiful.” There is no experiment that might show
this statement to be false. To test a hypothesis, a researcher will conduct one or more experiments designed
to eliminate one or more of the hypotheses. This is important. A hypothesis can be disproven, or eliminated,
but it can never be proven. Science does not deal in proofs like mathematics. If an experiment fails to disprove
a hypothesis, then we find support for that explanation, but this is not to say that down the road a better
explanation will not be found, or a more carefully designed experiment will be found to falsify the hypothesis.

Each experiment will have one or more variables and one or more controls. Experimental
variables are any part of the experiment that can vary or change during the experiment. Controlled
variables are parts of the experiment that do not change. Lastly, experiments might have a control
group : a group of test subjects that are as similar as possible to all other test subjects, with the
exception that they don’t receive the experimental treatment (those that do receive it are known as
the experimental group). For example, in a study testing a weight-loss drug, the control group
would be test subjects that don’t receive the drug (but they might receive a placebo, such as sugar
pill, instead). Look for these various things in the example that follows:
An experiment might be conducted to test the hypothesis that phosphate (a nutrient) promotes the growth
of algae in freshwater ponds. A series of artificial ponds are filled with water and half of them are treated by
adding phosphate each week, while the other half are treated by adding a non-nutritional mineral that is not
used by algae. The experimental variable here is presence/absence of a nutrient (phosphate). One potential
controlled variable would be the volume of water in each tank. The amount of water that algae have access
to may influence the results, thus researchers want to control its influence on the results by making sure all
test subjects get the same amount. The control group consists of the tanks that received a placebo (non-
nutritional mineral) instead of the phosphate. If the ponds with phosphate

11
show more algal growth, then we have found support for the hypothesis. If they do not, then we reject
our hypothesis. Be aware that rejecting one hypothesis does not determine whether or not the other
hypotheses can be accepted; it simply eliminates one hypothesis that is not valid (Figure 3). Using the
scientific method, the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental data are rejected.

Figure 4. The scientific method is a series of defined steps

that include experiments and careful observation. If a
hypothesis is not supported by data, a new hypothesis can
be proposed.

In the example below, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday problem. Which part in the
example below is the hypothesis? Which is the prediction? Based on the results of the experiment, is
the hypothesis supported? If it is not supported, propose some alternative hypotheses.

1. My toaster doesn’t toast my bread.

2. Why doesn’t my toaster work?
3. There is something wrong with the electrical outlet.
4. If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker also won’t work when plugged into it.

12
 5. I plug my coffeemaker into the outlet.
6. My coffeemaker works.

In practice, the scientific method is not as rigid and structured as it might at first appear. Sometimes an
experiment leads to conclusions that favor a change in approach; often, an experiment brings entirely new
scientific questions to the puzzle. Many times, science does not operate in a linear fashion; instead, scientists
continually draw inferences and make generalizations, finding patterns as their research proceeds. Scientific
reasoning is more complex than the scientific method alone suggests.

Basic and Applied Science

Is it valuable to pursue science for the sake of simply gaining knowledge, or does scientific knowledge
only have worth if we can apply it to solving a specific problem or bettering our lives? This question
focuses on the differences between two types of science: basic science and applied science.
Basic science or “pure” science seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the short-term
application of that knowledge. It is not focused on developing a product or a service of immediate
public or commercial value. The immediate goal of basic science is knowledge for knowledge’s
sake, though this does not mean that in the end it may not result in an application.
In contrast, applied science aims to use science to solve real-world problems, such as
improving crop yield, find a cure for a particular disease, or save animals threatened by a
natural disaster. In applied science, the problem is usually defined for the researcher.
Some individuals may perceive applied science as “useful” and basic science as “useless.” A
question these people might pose to a scientist advocating knowledge acquisition would be, “What
for?” A careful look at the history of science, however, reveals that basic knowledge has resulted
in many remarkable applications of great value. Many scientists think that a basic understanding of
science is necessary before an application is developed; therefore, applied science relies on the
results generated through basic science. Other scientists think that it is time to move on from basic
science and instead to find solutions to actual problems. Both approaches are valid. It is true that
there are problems that demand immediate attention; however, few solutions would be found
without the help of the knowledge generated through basic science.
One example of how basic and applied science can work together to solve practical problems
occurred after the discovery of DNA structure led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms
governing DNA replication. Strands of DNA, unique in every human, are found in our cells, where they
provide the instructions necessary for life. During DNA replication, new copies of DNA are made, shortly
before a cell divides to form new cells. Understanding the mechanisms of DNA replication (through
basic science) enabled scientists to develop laboratory techniques that are now used to identify genetic
diseases, pinpoint individuals who were at a crime scene, and determine paternity (all examples of
applied science). Without basic science, it is unlikely that applied science would exist.
Another example of the link between basic and applied research is the Human Genome Project,
a study in which each human chromosome was analyzed and mapped to determine the precise
sequence of the DNA code and the exact location of each gene. (The gene is the basic unit of
heredity; an individual’s complete collection of genes is his or her genome.) Other organisms have
also been studied as part of this project to gain a better understanding of human chromosomes.
The Human Genome Project (Figure 5) relied on basic research carried out with non-human
organisms and, later, with the human genome. An important end goal eventually became using the
data for applied research seeking cures for genetic diseases.

13
Scientific Work is Transparent & Open to Critique

Whether scientific research is basic science or applied science,

scientists must share their findings for other researchers to expand
and build upon their discoveries. For this reason, an important
aspect of a scientist’s work is disseminating results and
communicating with peers. Scientists can share results by
presenting them at a scientific meeting or conference, but this
approach can reach only the limited few who are present. Instead,
most scientists present their results in peer-reviewed articles that are
published in scientific journals. Peer-reviewed articles are scientific
papers that are reviewed, usually anonymously by a scientist’s
colleagues, or peers. These colleagues are qualified individuals, Figure 5. The Human Genome
often experts in the same research area, who judge whether or not Project was a 13-year collaborative
the scientist’s work is suitable for publication. The process of peer effort among researchers working in
review helps to ensure that the research described in a scientific several different fields of science.
paper or grant proposal is original, significant, logical, ethical, and The project was completed in 2003.
thorough. Scientists publish their work so other scientists can (credit: the U.S. Department of
reproduce their experiments under similar or different conditions to Energy Genome Programs)
expand on the findings. The experimental results must be consistent
with the findings of other scientists.
As you review scientific information, whether in an academic setting or as part of your day-to-day life,
it is important to think about the credibility of that information. You might ask yourself: has this scientific
information been through the rigorous process of peer review? Are the conclusions based on available
data and accepted by the larger scientific community? Scientists are inherently skeptical, especially if
conclusions are not supported by evidence (and you should be too).

Suggested Supplementary Reading:

Sundermier, A. 2016. “These 5 mind-melting thought experiments helped Albert Einstein come up with
his most revolutionary scientific ideas.” Business Insider. <https://www.businessinsider.com/ 5-of-
albert-einsteins-thought-experiments-that-revolutionized-science-2016-7>

14
1.3 Environment & Sustainability

Introduction to Sustainability

This section introduces the concept of sustainability, which refers to the sociopolitical, scientific, and
cultural challenges of living within the means of the earth without significantly impairing its function.

Taking The Long View: Sustainability in Evolutionary and Ecological Perspective

Of the different forms of life that have inhabited the Earth in its three to four billion year history,
99.9% are now extinct. Against this backdrop, the human enterprise with its roughly 200,000-year
history barely merits attention. As the American novelist Mark Twain once remarked, if our planet’s
history were to be compared to the Eiffel Tower, human history would be a mere smear on the very
tip of the tower. But while modern humans (Homo sapiens) might be insignificant in geologic time,
we are by no means insignificant in terms of our recent planetary impact. A 1986 study estimated
that 40% of the product of terrestrial plant photosynthesis — the basis of the food chain for most
animal and bird life — was being appropriated by humans for their use. More recent studies
estimate that 25% of photosynthesis on continental shelves (coastal areas) is ultimately being used
to satisfy human demand. Human appropriation of such natural resources is having a profound
impact upon the wide diversity of other species that also depend on them.
Evolution normally results in the generation of new lifeforms at a rate that outstrips the extinction of
other species; this results in strong biological diversity. However, scientists have evidence that, for the
first observable time in evolutionary history, another species — Homo sapiens — has upset this balance
to the degree that the rate of species extinction is now estimated at 10,000 times the rate of species
renewal. Human beings, just one species among millions, are crowding out the other species we share
the planet with. Evidence of human interference with the natural world is visible in practically every
ecosystem from the presence of pollutants in the stratosphere to the artificially changed courses of the
majority of river systems on the planet. It is argued that ever since we abandoned nomadic, gatherer-
hunter ways of life for settled societies some 12,000 years ago, humans have continually manipulated
their natural world to meet their needs. While this observation is a correct one, the rate, scale, and the
nature of human-induced global change — particularly in the post-industrial period — is unprecedented
in the history of life on Earth.
There are three primary reasons for this:
Firstly, mechanization of both industry and agriculture in the last century resulted in vastly
improved labor productivity which enabled the creation of goods and services. Since then, scientific
advance and technological innovation — powered by ever-increasing inputs of fossil fuels and their
derivatives — have revolutionized every industry and created many new ones. The subsequent
development of western consumer culture, and the satisfaction of the accompanying disposable
mentality, has generated material flows of an unprecedented scale. The Wuppertal Institute
estimates that humans are now responsible for moving greater amounts of matter across the planet
than all natural occurrences (earthquakes, storms, etc.) put together.
Secondly, the sheer size of the human population is unprecedented. Every passing year adds another

15
90 million people to the planet. Even though the environmental impact varies significantly
between countries (and within them), the exponential growth in human numbers, coupled with
rising material expectations in a world of limited resources, has catapulted the issue of
distribution to prominence. Global inequalities in resource consumption and purchasing power
mark the clearest dividing line between the haves and the have-nots. It has become apparent
that present patterns of production and consumption are unsustainable for a global population
that is projected to reach between 12 billion by the year 2050. If ecological crises and rising
social conflict are to countered, the present rates of over-consumption by a rich minority, and
under-consumption by a large majority, will have to be brought into balance.
Thirdly, it is not only the rate and the scale of change but the nature of that change that is
unprecedented. Human inventiveness has introduced chemicals and materials into the environment
which either do not occur naturally at all, or do not occur in the ratios in which we have introduced them.
These persistent chemical pollutants are believed to be causing alterations in the environment, the
effects of which are only slowly manifesting themselves, and the full scale of which is beyond calculation.
CFCs and PCBs are but two examples of the approximately 100,000 chemicals currently in global
circulation. (Between 500 and 1,000 new chemicals are being added to this list annually.) The majority
of these chemicals have not been tested for their toxicity on humans and other life forms, let alone tested
for their effects in combination with other chemicals. These issues are now the subject of special UN
and other intergovernmental working groups.

The Evolution of Sustainability Itself

Our Common Future (1987), the report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development, is widely credited with having popularized the concept of sustainable
development. It defines sustainable development in the following ways…

• …development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs.
• … sustainable development is not a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change
in which the exploitation of resources, the orientation of the technological development, and
institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs.

The concept of sustainability, however, can be traced back much farther to the oral histories of
indigenous cultures. For example, the principle of inter-generational equity is captured in the Inuit
saying, ‘we do not inherit the Earth from our parents, we borrow it from our children’. The Native
American ‘Law of the Seventh Generation’ is another illustration. According to this, before any major
action was to be undertaken its potential consequences on the seventh generation had to be
considered. For a species that at present is only 6,000 generations old and whose current political
decision-makers operate on time scales of months or few years at most, the thought that other
human cultures have based their decision-making systems on time scales of many decades seems
wise but unfortunately inconceivable in the current political climate.

Environmental Equity

While much progress is being made to improve resource efficiency, far less progress has been made
to improve resource distribution. Currently, just one-fifth of the global population is consuming three-

16
quarters of the earth’s resources (Figure 1). If the remaining four-fifths were to exercise their right to
grow to the level of the rich minority it would result in ecological devastation. So far, global income
inequalities and lack of purchasing power have prevented poorer countries from reaching the standard
of living (and also resource consumption/waste emission) of the industrialized countries.

Countries such as China, Brazil, India, and Malaysia are, however, catching up fast. In such
a situation, global consumption of resources and energy needs to be drastically reduced to a
point where it can be repeated by future generations. But who will do the reducing? Poorer
nations want to produce and consume more. Yet so do richer countries: their economies
demand ever greater consumption-based expansion. Such stalemates have prevented any
meaningful progress towards equitable and sustainable resource distribution at the
international level. These issue of fairness and distributional justice remain unresolved.

Concepts in Environmental Science

The ecological footprint (EF), developed by Canadian ecologist and planner William Rees, is basically an
accounting tool that uses land as the unit of measurement to assess per capita consumption, production,
and discharge needs. It starts from the assumption that every category of energy and material consumption
and waste discharge requires the productive or absorptive capacity of a finite area of land or water. If we
(add up) all the land requirements for all categories of consumption and waste discharge by a defined
population, the total area represents the Ecological Footprint of that population on Earth whether or not this
area coincides with the population’s home region.
Land is used as the unit of measurement for the simple reason that, according to Rees, “Land area
not only captures planet Earth’s finiteness, it can also be seen as a proxy for numerous essential life
support functions from gas exchange to nutrient recycling … land supports photosynthesis, the energy

17
conduit for the web of life. Photosynthesis sustains all important food chains and maintains the
structural integrity of ecosystems.”
What does the ecological footprint tell us? Ecological footprint analysis can tell us in a vivid,
ready-to-grasp manner how much of the Earth’s environmental functions are needed to support
human activities. It also makes visible the extent to which consumer lifestyles and behaviors are
ecologically sustainable calculated that the ecological footprint of the average American is –
conservatively – 5.1 hectares per capita of productive land. With roughly 7.4 billion hectares of the
planet’s total surface area of 51 billion hectares available for human consumption, if the current
global population were to adopt American consumer lifestyles we would need two additional planets
to produce the resources, absorb the wastes, and provide general life-support functions.
The precautionary principle is an important concept in environmental sustainability. A 1998
consensus statement characterized the precautionary principle this way: “when an activity raises threats
of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some
cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically”. For example, if a new pesticide
chemical is created, the precautionary principle would dictate that we presume, for the sake of safety,
that the chemical may have potential negative consequences for the environment and/or human health,
even if such consequences have not been proven yet. In other words, it is best to proceed cautiously in
the face of incomplete knowledge about something’s potential harm.

Some Indicators of Global Environmental Stress

Forests — Deforestation remains a main issue. 1 million hectares of forest were lost every year
in the decade 1980-1990. The largest losses of forest area are taking place in the tropical moist
deciduous forests, the zone best suited to human settlement and agriculture. Recent estimates
suggest that nearly two-thirds of tropical deforestation is due to farmers clearing land for
agriculture. There is increasing concern about the decline in forest quality associated with
intensive use of forests and unregulated access.

Soil — As much as 10% of the earth’s vegetated surface is now at least moderately degraded.
Trends in soil quality and management of irrigated land raise serious questions about longer-term
sustainability. It is estimated that about 20% of the world’s 250 million hectares of irrigated land are
already degraded to the point where crop production is seriously reduced.

Fresh Water — Some 20% of the world’s population lacks access to safe water and 50% lacks
access to safe sanitation. If current trends in water use persist, two-thirds of the world’s
population could be living in countries experiencing moderate or high water stress by 2025.
Marine fisheries — 25% of the world’s marine fisheries are being fished at their maximum level of productivity
and 35% are overfished (yields are declining). In order to maintain current per capita consumption of fish,
global fish harvests must be increased; much of the increase might come through aquaculture which is a
known source of water pollution, wetland loss and mangrove swamp destruction.

Biodiversity — Biodiversity is increasingly coming under threat from development, which destroys or
degrades natural habitats, and from pollution from a variety of sources. The first comprehensive global
assessment of biodiversity put the total number of species at close to 14 million and found that between 1%
and 11% of the world’s species may be threatened by extinction every decade. Coastal ecosystems,

18
which host a very large proportion of marine species, are at great risk with perhaps one-third
of the world’s coasts at high potential risk of degradation and another 17% at moderate risk.

Atmosphere — The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has established that human activities
are having a discernible influence on global climate. CO 2 emissions in most industrialized countries
have risen during the past few years and countries generally failed to stabilize their greenhouse gas
emissions at 1990 levels by 2000 as required by the Climate Change convention.

Toxic chemicals — About 100,000 chemicals are now in commercial use and their potential
impacts on human health and ecological function represent largely unknown risks. Persistent
organic pollutants are now so widely distributed by air and ocean currents that they are found
in the tissues of people and wildlife everywhere; they are of particular concern because of their
high levels of toxicity and persistence in the environment.

Hazardous wastes — Pollution from heavy metals, especially from their use in industry and mining,
is also creating serious health consequences in many parts of the world. Incidents and accidents
involving uncontrolled radioactive sources continue to increase, and particular risks are posed by
the legacy of contaminated areas left from military activities involving nuclear materials.

Waste — Domestic and industrial waste production continues to increase in both absolute and per
capita terms, worldwide. In the developed world, per capita waste generation has increased threefold
over the past 20 years; in developing countries, it is highly likely that waste generation will double during
the next decade. The level of awareness regarding the health and environmental impacts of inadequate
waste disposal remains rather poor; poor sanitation and waste management infrastructure is still one of
the principal causes of death and disability for the urban poor.

19
1.4 Environmental Ethics

Frontier Ethic

The ways in which humans interact with the land and its natural resources are determined by ethical attitudes
and behaviors. Early European settlers in North America rapidly consumed the natural resources of the land.
After they depleted one area, they moved westward to new frontiers. Their attitude towards the land was that
of a frontier ethic. A frontier ethic assumes that the earth has an unlimited supply of resources. If resources
run out in one area, more can be found elsewhere or alternatively human ingenuity will find substitutes. This
attitude sees humans as masters who manage the planet. The frontier ethic is completely anthropocentric
(human-centered), for only the needs of humans are considered.
Most industrialized societies experience population and economic growth that are based upon this
frontier ethic, assuming that infinite resources exist to support continued growth indefinitely. In fact,
economic growth is considered a measure of how well a society is doing. The late economist Julian
Simon pointed out that life on earth has never been better, and that population growth means more
creative minds to solve future problems and give us an even better standard of living. However, now
that the human population has passed seven billion and few frontiers are left, many are beginning to
question the frontier ethic. Such people are moving toward an environmental ethic, which includes
humans as part of the natural community rather than managers of it. Such an ethic places limits on
human activities (e.g., uncontrolled resource use), that may adversely affect the natural community.
Some of those still subscribing to the frontier ethic suggest that outer space may be the new frontier. If we
run out of resources (or space) on earth, they argue, we can simply populate other planets. This seems an
unlikely solution, as even the most aggressive colonization plan would be incapable of transferring people to
extraterrestrial colonies at a significant rate. Natural population growth on earth would outpace the
colonization effort. A more likely scenario would be that space could provide the resources (e.g. from asteroid
mining) that might help to sustain human existence on earth.

Sustainable Ethic

A sustainable ethic is an environmental ethic by which people treat the earth as if its resources are
limited. This ethic assumes that the earth’s resources are not unlimited and that humans must use and
conserve resources in a manner that allows their continued use in the future. A sustainable ethic also
assumes that humans are a part of the natural environment and that we suffer when the health of a
natural ecosystem is impaired. A sustainable ethic includes the following tenets:

• The earth has a limited supply of resources.

• Humans must conserve resources.
• Humans share the earth’s resources with other living things.
• Growth is not sustainable.
• Humans are a part of nature.

20
 • Humans are affected by natural laws.
• Humans succeed best when they maintain the integrity of natural processes sand
cooperate with nature.

For example, if a fuel shortage occurs, how can the problem be solved in a way that is consistent with
a sustainable ethic? The solutions might include finding new ways to conserve oil or developing
renewable energy alternatives. A sustainable ethic attitude in the face of such a problem would be that
if drilling for oil damages the ecosystem, then that damage will affect the human population as well. A
sustainable ethic can be either anthropocentric or biocentric (life-centered). An advocate for conserving
oil resources may consider all oil resources as the property of humans. Using oil resources wisely so
that future generations have access to them is an attitude consistent with an anthropocentric ethic.
Using resources wisely to prevent ecological damage is in accord with a biocentric ethic.

Land Ethic

Aldo Leopold, an American wildlife natural historian and philosopher, advocated a biocentric ethic
in his book, A Sand County Almanac. He suggested that humans had always considered land as
property, just as ancient Greeks considered slaves as property. He believed that mistreatment of
land (or of slaves) makes little economic or moral sense, much as today the concept of slavery is
considered immoral. All humans are merely one component of an ethical framework. Leopold
suggested that land be included in an ethical framework, calling this the land ethic.
“The land ethic simply enlarges the boundary of the community to include soils, waters, plants
and animals; or collectively, the land. In short, a land ethic changes the role of Homo sapiens from
conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it. It implies respect for his fellow
members, and also respect for the community as such.” (Aldo Leopold, 1949)
Leopold divided conservationists into two groups: one group that regards the soil as a commodity
and the other that regards the land as biota, with a broad interpretation of its function. If we apply
this idea to the field of forestry, the first group of conservationists would grow trees like cabbages,
while the second group would strive to maintain a natural ecosystem. Leopold maintained that the
conservation movement must be based upon more than just economic necessity. Species with no
discernible economic value to humans may be an integral part of a functioning ecosystem. The land
ethic respects all parts of the natural world regardless of their utility, and decisions based upon that
ethic result in more stable biological communities.
“Anything is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic
community. It is wrong when it tends to do otherwise.” (Aldo Leopold, 1949)

Hetch Hetchy Valley

In 1913, the Hetch Hetchy Valley – located in Yosemite National Park in California – was the site of a
conflict between two factions, one with an anthropocentric ethic and the other, a biocentric ethic. As the
last American frontiers were settled, the rate of forest destruction started to concern the public.

21
 The conservation movement gained
momentum, but quickly broke into two factions.
One faction, led by Gifford Pinchot, Chief
Forester under Teddy Roosevelt, advocated
utilitarian conservation (i.e., conservation of
resources for the good of the public). The other
faction, led by John Muir, advocated preservation of
forests and other wilderness for their inherent value.
Both groups rejected the first tenet of frontier ethics,
the assumption that resources are limitless.
However, the conservationists agreed with the rest
of the tenets of frontier ethics, while the
preservationists agreed with the tenets of the
Figure 1. Yosemite valley, California, USA.
sustainable ethic.

The Hetch Hetchy Valley was part of a protected

National Park, but after the devastating fires of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, residents of San
Francisco wanted to dam the valley to provide their city with a stable supply of water. Gifford Pinchot
favored the dam.
“As to my attitude regarding the proposed use of Hetch Hetchy by the city of San Francisco…I am
fully persuaded that… the injury…by substituting a lake for the present swampy floor of the valley…is
altogether unimportant compared with the benefits to be derived from it’s use as a reservoir.
“The fundamental principle of the whole conservation policy is that of use, to take every part
of the land and its resources and put it to that use in which it will serve the most people.” (Gifford
Pinchot, 1913)
John Muir, the founder of the Sierra Club and a great lover of wilderness, led the fight against
the dam. He saw wilderness as having an intrinsic value, separate from its utilitarian value to
people. He advocated preservation of wild places for their inherent beauty and for the sake of
the creatures that live there. The issue aroused the American public, who were becoming
increasingly alarmed at the growth of cities and the destruction of the landscape for the sake
of commercial enterprises. Key senators received thousands of letters of protest.
“These temple destroyers, devotees of ravaging commercialism, seem to have a perfect
contempt for Nature, and instead of lifting their eyes to the God of the Mountains, lift them to
the Almighty Dollar.” (John Muir, 1912)
Despite public protest, Congress voted to dam the valley. The preservationists lost the fight for the
Hetch Hetchy Valley, but their questioning of traditional American values had some lasting effects. In
1916, Congress passed the “National Park System Organic Act,” which declared that parks were to be
maintained in a manner that left them unimpaired for future generations. As we use our public lands, we
continue to debate whether we should be guided by preservationism or conservationism.

The Tragedy of the Commons

In his essay, The Tragedy of the Commons, Garrett Hardin (1968) looked at what happens when humans
do not limit their actions by including the land as part of their ethic. The tragedy of the commons develops
in the following way: Imagine a pasture open to all (the ‘commons’). It is to be expected that each herdsman
will try to keep as many cattle as possible on the commons. As rational beings, each

22
herdsman seeks to maximize their gain. Adding more cattle increases their profit, and they do
not suffer any immediate negative consequence because the commons are shared by all. The
rational herdsman concludes that the only sensible course is to add another animal to their
herd, and then another, and so forth. However, this same conclusion is reached by each and
every rational herdsman sharing the commons. Therein lies the tragedy: each person is locked
into a system that compels them to increase their herd, without limit, in a world that is limited.
Eventually this leads to the ruination of the commons. In a society that believes in the freedom
of the commons, freedom brings ruin to all because each person acts selfishly.
Hardin went on to apply the situation to modern commons: overgrazing of public lands,
overuse of public forests and parks, depletion of fish populations in the ocean, use of rivers as
a common dumping ground for sewage, and fouling the air with pollution.
The “Tragedy of the Commons” is applicable to what is arguably the most consequential environmental
problem: global climate change. The atmosphere is a commons into which countries are dumping carbon
dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels. Although we know that the generation of greenhouse gases will have
damaging effects upon the entire globe, we continue to burn fossil fuels. As a country, the immediate benefit
from the continued use of fossil fuels is seen as a positive component (because of economic growth). All
countries, however, will share the negative long-term effects.

Suggested Supplementary Reading

Blankenbuehler, P. 2016. Why Hetch Hetchy is staying under water. High Country News.
<https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.9/why-hetch-hetchy-is-staying-under-water>

23
1.5 Environmental Justice & Indigenous Struggles

Environmental Justice

Environmental Justice is defined as the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people
regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation,
and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. It will be achieved when everyone
enjoys the same degree of protection from environmental and health hazards and equal access to the
decision-making process to have a healthy environment in which to live, learn, and work.
During the 1980’s minority groups protested that hazardous waste sites were preferentially sited
in minority neighborhoods. In 1987, Benjamin Chavis of the United Church of Christ Commission for
Racism and Justice coined the term environmental racism to describe such a practice. The
charges generally failed to consider whether the facility or the demography of the area came first.
Most hazardous waste sites are located on property that was used as disposal sites long before
modern facilities and disposal methods were available. Areas around such sites are typically
depressed economically, often as a result of past disposal activities. Persons with low incomes are
often constrained to live in such undesirable, but affordable, areas. The problem more likely
resulted from one of insensitivity rather than racism. Indeed, the ethnic makeup of potential disposal
facilities was most likely not considered when the sites were chosen.
Decisions in citing hazardous waste facilities are generally made on the basis of economics,
geological suitability and the political climate. For example, a site must have a soil type and geological
profile that prevents hazardous materials from moving into local aquifers. The cost of land is also an
important consideration. The high cost of buying land would make it economically unfeasible to build a
hazardous waste site in Beverly Hills. Some communities have seen a hazardous waste facility as a
way of improving their local economy and quality of life. Emelle County, Alabama had illiteracy and
infant mortality rates that were among the highest in the nation. A landfill constructed there provided
jobs and revenue that ultimately helped to reduce both figures.
In an ideal world, there would be no hazardous waste facilities, but we do not live in an ideal world.
Unfortunately, we live in a world plagued by rampant pollution and dumping of hazardous waste. Our
industrialized society has necessarily produced wastes during the manufacture of products for our
basic needs. Until technology can find a way to manage (or eliminate) hazardous waste, disposal
facilities will be necessary to protect both humans and the environment. By the same token, this
problem must be addressed. Industry and society must become more socially sensitive in the
selection of future hazardous waste sites. All humans who help produce hazardous wastes must
share the burden of dealing with those wastes, not just the poor and minorities.

Indigenous People

Since the end of the 15th century, most of the world’s frontiers have been claimed and colonized
by established nations. Invariably, these conquered frontiers were home to people indigenous to
those regions. Some were wiped out or assimilated by the invaders, while others survived while
trying to

24
25
maintain their unique cultures and way of life. The United Nations officially classifies indigenous
people as those “having an historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies,” and
“consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories
or parts of them.” Furthermore, indigenous people are “determined to preserve, develop and
transmit to future generations, their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of
their continued existence as peoples in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social
institutions and legal systems.” A few of the many groups of indigenous people around the world
are: the many tribes of Native Americans (i.e., Navajo, Sioux) in the contiguous 48 states, the Inuit
of the arctic region from Siberia to Canada, the rainforest tribes in Brazil, and the Ainu of northern
Japan.
Many problems face indigenous people including the lack of human rights, exploitation of their
traditional lands and themselves, and degradation of their culture. In response to the problems faced
by these people, the United Nations proclaimed an “International Decade of the World’s Indigenous
People” beginning in 1994. The main objective of this proclamation, according to the United Nations,
is “the strengthening of international cooperation for the solution of problems faced by indigenous
people in such areas as human rights, the environment, development, health, culture and education.”
Its major goal is to protect the rights of indigenous people. Such protection would enable them to
retain their cultural identity, such as their language and social customs, while participating in the
political, economic and social activities of the region in which they reside.
Despite the lofty U.N. goals, the rights and feelings of indigenous people are often ignored or
minimized, even by supposedly culturally sensitive developed countries. In the United States
many of those in the federal government are pushing to exploit oil resources in the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge on the northern coast of Alaska. The “Gwich’in,” an indigenous people
who rely culturally and spiritually on the herds of caribou that live in the region, claim that drilling
in the region would devastate their way of life. Thousands of years of culture would be destroyed
for a few months’ supply of oil. Drilling efforts have been stymied in the past, but mostly out of
concern for environmental factors and not necessarily the needs of the indigenous people.
Curiously, another group of indigenous people, the “Inupiat Eskimo,” favor oil drilling in the Arctic
National Wildlife Refuge. Because they own considerable amounts of land adjacent to the
refuge, they would potentially reap economic benefits from the development of the region.

26
 The heart of most environmental conflicts faced by
governments usually involves what constitutes proper
and sustainable levels of development. For many
indigenous peoples, sustainable development
constitutes an integrated wholeness, where no single
action is separate from others. They believe that
sustainable development requires the maintenance
and continuity of life, from generation to generation
and that humans are not isolated entities, but are part
of larger communities, which include the seas, rivers,
mountains, trees, fish, animals and ancestral spirits.
These, along with the sun, moon and cosmos,
constitute a whole. From the point of view of
indigenous people, sustainable development is a
process that must integrate spiritual, cultural,
economic, social, political, territorial and philosophical
ideals.

Suggested Supplementary Reading

Figure 1. An Inupiaq woman, Nome, Alaska, c. Miller, E. “Flint Water Crisis: A Turning Point For
1907. Credit: This work is in the Public Domain, Environmental Justice.” WOSU Public
CC0
Media.<http://radio.wosu.org/post/flint-water-crisis-
turning-point-environmental-justice#stream/0>

27
1.6 Chapter Resources

Summary

Science attempts to describe and understand the nature of the universe in whole or in part. Science has
many fields; those fields related to the physical world and its phenomena are considered natural
sciences. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for an observation. A scientific theory is a well-tested
and consistently verified explanation for a set of observations or phenomena. A scientific law is a
description, often in the form of a mathematical formula, of the behavior of an aspect of nature under
certain circumstances. Two types of logical reasoning are used in science. Inductive reasoning uses
results to produce general scientific principles. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that
predicts results by applying general principles. The common thread throughout scientific research is the
use of the scientific method. Scientists present their results in peer-reviewed scientific papers published
in scientific journals. Science can be basic or applied. The main goal of basic science is to expand
knowledge without any expectation of short-term practical application of that knowledge. The primary
goal of applied research, however, is to solve practical problems.
Sustainability refers to three simple concerns: the need to arrest environmental degradation and
ecological imbalance, the need not to impoverish future generations and the need for quality of life and
equity between current generations. Added up, these core concerns are an unmistakable call for
transformation. Business-as-usual is no longer an option. The concept of ethics involves standards of
conduct. These standards help to distinguish between behavior that is considered right and that which
is considered wrong. The ways in which humans interact with the land and its natural resources are
determined by ethical attitudes and behaviors. A frontier ethic assumes that the earth has an unlimited
supply of resources. Environmental ethic includes humans as part of the natural community rather than
managers of it. Sustainable ethic assumes that the earth’s resources are not unlimited and that humans
must use and conserve resources in a manner that allows their continued use in the future. Countries
are categorized by a variety of methods. During the Cold War period, the United States government
categorized countries according to each government’s ideology and capitalistic development. Current
classification models utilize economic (and sometimes other) factors in their determination.
Environmental justice is achieved when everyone enjoys the same degree of protection from
environmental and health hazards and equal access to the decision-making process to have a healthy
environment. Many problems face indigenous people, including: lack of human rights, exploitation of
their traditional lands and themselves, and degradation of their culture. Despite the lofty U.N. goals, the
rights and feelings of indigenous people are often ignored or minimized, even by supposedly culturally
sensitive developed countries.

Review Questions

1. Scientific research that produces knowledge without any immediate practical use is
specifically known as…
A. Basic science
B. Applied science

28
 C. Hypothesis-based science
D. Descriptive science
E. Retrospective science

2. Which one of the following fulfills the definition of a hypothesis?

A. Removing invasive species will result in greater biodiversity.
B. Introducing invasive species will harm an ecosystem.
C. Invasive species are non-native species that alter ecosystems.
D. Introducing invasive species will decrease biodiversity by displacing native species
E. Ecosystem productivity will decrease when invasive species are introduced.

3. Which one of the following is consistent with the frontier ethic?

A. Expanding the area covered by a wildlife sanctuary
B. Protecting a natural area as a national park
C. Sustainable logging of a forest
D. Transferring ownership of forestland from private ownership to the federal government
E. Extracting copper ore from mineral-rich deposit in a landscape rich in biodiversity

4. Which one of the following suggests that when the effects of a human activity are poorly
understood, we must presume that some level of harm may exist to the environment, and thus
must proceed with that activity carefully?
A. Sustainability ethic
B. Precautionary principle
C. Environmental harm dictum
D. Environmental injustice
E. Presumptive principle

5. Which one of the following demonstrates the concept of the “tragedy of the commons”?
A. Competing companies log as many trees as possible for financial gain until no trees are left
B. Public forest land is sold to a privately-owned investor group
C. Logging forests is dangerous work and ends up killing or injuring many workers
D. A careless hiker accidentally starts a wildfire that destroys hundreds of acres of forest
E. Government regulations lead to conditions that increase the risk of forest fire on public lands

6. The equal sharing of Earth’s resources is specifically known as…

A. Environmental justice
B. Sustainability
C. Environmental equity
D. Ecological footprinting
E. Mutualism

7. John Muir’s position on the proposed development in the Hetch Hetchy Valley of California
in the early 1900s would best match which one of the following?
A. Frontier ethic
B. Sustainable ethic
C. Land ethic

29
 D. Ethos ethic
E. Darwinian ethic

8. Which one of the following is an example of inductive reasoning?

A. Every lion you’ve seen on TV hunts gazelles, therefore all lions hunt gazelles.
B. All tigers are mammals. All mammals are vertebrates. Therefore, tigers are vertebrates.
C. Every lake contains water; therefore, Crater Lake contains water.
D. Only plants have flowers. Tulips are a plant because they have flowers.
E. The sun emits energy in the form of photons. Visible light is made of photos and thus light is
a type of energy.

9. The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regarding enforcement and
implementation of environmental regulations and policies is known as what?
A. Quid pro quo
B. Environmental justice
C. Environmental equity
D. Habeas corpus
E. Ecologic inclusiveness

10. People and their culture that have existed continuously dating back to a time before their
land was invaded or colonized by other societies are known as…
A. Endemic
B. Indigenous
C. Exotic
D. Incunable
E. Invidious

30
Chapter 2: Matter, Energy, & Life

This sage thrasher’s diet, like that of almost all organisms,

depends on photosynthesis.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe matter and elements

• Describe the ways in which carbon is critical to life
• Describe the roles of cells in organisms
• Compare and contrast prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells
• Summarize the process of photosynthesis and explain its relevance to other living things

Chapter Outline

• 2.1 Matter
• 2.2 Energy
• 2.3 A Cell is the Smallest Unit of Life
• 2.4 Energy Enters Ecosystems Through Photosynthesis
• 2.5 Chapter Resources

31
2.1 Matter

Atoms, Molecules, & Compounds

At its most fundamental level, life is made of matter. Matter is something that occupies space and has
mass. All matter is composed of elements, substances that cannot be broken down or transformed
chemically into other substances. Each element is made of atoms, each with a constant number of
protons and unique properties. A total of 118 elements have been defined; however, only 92 occur
naturally and fewer than 30 are found in living cells. The remaining 26 elements are unstable and
therefore do not exist for very long or are theoretical and have yet to be detected. Each element is
designated by its chemical symbol (such as H, N, O, C, and Na), and possesses unique properties.
These unique properties allow elements to combine and to bond with each other in specific ways.
An atom is the smallest component of an element that retains all of the chemical properties of that
element. For example, one hydrogen atom has all of the properties of the element hydrogen, such as it
exists as a gas at room temperature and it bonds with oxygen to create a water molecule. Hydrogen
atoms cannot be broken down into anything smaller while still retaining the properties of hydrogen. If a
hydrogen atom were broken down into subatomic particles, it would no longer have the properties of
hydrogen. At the most basic level, all organisms are made of a combination of elements. They contain
atoms that combine together to form molecules. In multicellular organisms, such as animals, molecules
can interact to form cells that combine to form tissues, which make up organs. These combinations
continue until entire multicellular organisms are formed.
All matter, whether it be a rock or an organism, is made of atoms. Often, these atoms combine to
form molecules. Molecule are chemicals made from two or more atoms bonded together. Some
molecules are very simple, like O2, which is comprised of just two oxygen atoms. Some molecules used
by organisms, such as DNA, are made of many millions of atoms. All atoms contain protons, electrons,
and neutrons (Figure 1 below). The only exception is hydrogen (H), which is made of one proton and
one electron. A proton is a positively charged particle that resides in the nucleus (the core of the atom)
of an atom and has a mass of 1 and a charge of +1. An electron is a negatively charged particle that
travels in the space around the nucleus. In other words, it resides outside of the nucleus. It has a
negligible mass and has a charge of –1. Neutrons, like protons, reside in the nucleus of an atom. They
have a mass of 1 and no charge. The positive (protons) and negative (electrons) charges balance each
other in a neutral atom, which has a net zero charge.

32
 Each element contains a different number of
protons and neutrons, giving it its own atomic
number and mass number. The atomic number
of an element is equal to the number of protons
that element contains. The mass number is the
number of protons plus the number of neutrons of
that element. Therefore, it is possible to
determine the number of neutrons by subtracting
the atomic number from the mass number.
Isotopes are different forms of the same
element that have the same number of protons,
but a different number of neutrons. Some Figure 1. Atoms are comprised of protons and neutrons
elements, such as carbon, potassium, and located within the nucleus, and electrons surrounding the
uranium, have naturally occurring isotopes. nucleus. The nucleus of an atom should not be confused
Carbon 12, the most common isotope of carbon, with the nucleus of a cell.
contains six protons and six neutrons. Therefore,
it has a mass number of 12 (six protons and six neutrons) and an atomic number of 6 (which
makes it carbon). Carbon 14 contains six protons and eight neutrons. Therefore, it has a mass
number of 14 (six protons and eight neutrons) and an atomic number of 6, meaning it is still the
element carbon. These two alternate forms of carbon are isotopes. Some isotopes are unstable
and will lose protons, other subatomic particles, or energy to form more stable elements. These
are called radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes.

33
 EVOLUTION IN ACTION

Carbon dating
Carbon-14 (14C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope that is created in the atmosphere by cosmic
rays. This is a continuous process, so more 14C is always being created. As a living organism
develops, the relative level
of 14C in its body is equal to the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere. When an organism dies, it
is no longer ingesting 14C, so the ratio will decline. 14C decays to 14N by a process called beta
decay; it gives off energy in this slow process. After approximately 5,730 years, only one-half of the
starting concentration of 14C will have been converted to 14N. The time it takes for half of the
original concentration of an isotope to decay to its more stable form is called its half-life.
Because the half-life of 14C is long, it is used to age formerly living objects, such as fossils. Using
the ratio of the 14C concentration found in an object to the amount of 14C detected in the
atmosphere, the amount of the isotope that has not yet decayed can be determined. Based on this
amount, the age of the fossil can be calculated to about 50,000 years (Figure 2 below). Isotopes
with longer half-lives, such as potassium-40, are used to calculate the ages of older fossils. Through
the use of carbon dating, scientists can reconstruct the ecology and biogeography of organisms
living within the past 50,000 years.

Figure 2. The age of remains that contain carbon and are less than about 50,000 years old, such as this pygmy
mammoth, can be determined using carbon dating. (credit: Bill Faulkner/ NPS)

Chemical Bonds

How elements interact with one another depends on the number of electrons and how they are arranged.
When an atom does not contain equal numbers of protons and electrons it is called an ion. Because
the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons, each ion has a net charge. For example,
if sodium loses an electron, it now has 11 protons and only 10 electrons, leaving it with an overall charge
of +1. Positive ions are formed by losing electrons and are called cations. Negative ions are formed by
gaining electrons and are called anions. Elemental anionic names are changed to end in -ide. As an
example, when chlorine becomes an ion it is referred to as chloride.
Ionic and covalent bonds are strong bonds formed between two atoms. These bonds hold atoms together
in a relatively stable state. Ionic bonds are formed between two oppositely charged ions (an anion and a
cation). Because positive and negative charges attract, these ions are held together much like two oppositely
charged magnets would stick together. Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between two atoms.
Each atom shares one of their electrons, which then orbits the nuclei of both

34
atoms, holding the two atoms together. Covalent bonds are the strongest and most common form of
chemical bond in organisms. Unlike most ionic bonds, covalent bonds do not dissociate in water.
Covalent bonds come in two varieties: polar and non-polar. A non-polar covalent bond occurs when
electrons are shared equally between the two atoms. Polar covalent bonds form when the electrons are
shared unequally. Why does this occur? Each element has a known electronegativity: a measure of their
affinity for electrons. Some elements, such as oxygen, are very electronegative because they strongly attract
electrons from other atoms. Hydrogen, meanwhile, has low electronegativity and thus weakly attracts
electrons, in comparison. Polar covalent bonds form when the two atoms involved have significantly different
electronegativities. In biological systems, this occurs when oxygen bonds with hydrogen and when nitrogen
(also quite electronegative) bonds with hydrogen.
When oxygen and hydrogen bond, for example, the shared electrons are pulled more strongly toward
oxygen and thus farther away from hydrogen’s nucleus. Because the electrons move farther away from
hydrogen, it becomes slightly positively charged (δ+). The oxygen becomes slightly negatively charged as
the electrons become closer to it (δ–). If two molecules with polar covalent bonds approach one another,
they can interact due to the attraction of opposite electrical charges. For example, the slight positive charge
of hydrogen in a water molecule can be attracted to the slight negative charge of oxygen in a different water
molecule (Figure 3). This interaction between two polar molecules is called a hydrogen bond. This type of
bond is very common in organisms. Notably, hydrogen bonds give water the unique properties that sustain
life. If it were not for hydrogen bonding, water would be a gas rather
than a liquid at room temperature.

WATER IS CRUCIAL TO MAINTAINING LIFE

Do you ever wonder why scientists spend time

looking for water on other planets? It is because
water is essential to life; even minute traces of it
on another planet can indicate that life could or
did exist on that planet. Water is one of the more
Figure 3. Hydrogen bonds form between slightly
abundant molecules in living cells and the one positive (δ+) and slightly negative (δ–) charges of
most critical to life as we know it. Approximately polar covalent molecules, such as water.
60–70 percent of your body is made up of water.
Without it, life simply would not exist.

• Water is polar. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms within water molecules form polar
covalent bonds. The shared electrons spend more time associated with the oxygen
atom than they do with hydrogen atoms. There is no overall charge to a water
molecule, but there is a slight positive charge on each hydrogen atom and a slight
negative charge on the oxygen atom. Because of these charges, the slightly positive
hydrogen atoms repel each other and form the unique shape. Each water molecule
attracts other water molecules because of the positive and negative charges in the
different parts of the molecule. Water also attracts other polar molecules (such as
sugars) that can dissolve in water and are referred to as hydrophilic (“water-loving”).
• Water stabilizes temperature. The hydrogen bonds in water allow it to absorb and release heat
energy more slowly than many other substances. Temperature is a measure of the motion
(kinetic energy) of molecules. As the motion increases, energy is higher and thus temperature

35
 Environmental Biology 39

is higher. Water absorbs a great deal of energy before its temperature rises.
Increased energy disrupts the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. Because
these bonds can be created and disrupted rapidly, water absorbs an increase in
energy and temperature changes only minimally. This means that water moderates
temperature changes within organisms and in their environments.
• Water is an excellent solvent. Because water is polar, with slight positive and negative
charges, ionic compounds and polar molecules can readily dissolve in it. Water is, therefore,
what is referred to as a solvent—a substance capable of dissolving another substance. The
charged particles will form hydrogen bonds with a surrounding layer of water molecules.
• Water is cohesive. Have you ever filled up a glass of water to the very top and then slowly
added a few more drops? Before it overflows, the water actually forms a dome-like shape above
the rim of the glass. This water can stay above the glass because of the property of cohesion. In
cohesion, water molecules are attracted to each other (because of hydrogen bonding), keeping
the molecules together at the liquid-air (gas) interface, although there is no more room in the
glass. Cohesion gives rise to surface tension, the capacity of a substance to withstand rupture
when placed under tension or stress. When you drop a small scrap of paper onto a droplet of
water, the paper floats on top of the water droplet, although the object
is denser (heavier) than the water. This occurs because of the surface tension that is created by
the water molecules. Cohesion and surface tension keep the water molecules intact and the item
floating on the top. It is even possible to “float” a steel needle on top of a glass of water if you
place it gently, without breaking the surface tension. These cohesive forces are also related to
the water’s property of adhesion, or the attraction between water molecules and other molecules.
This is observed when water “climbs” up a straw placed in a glass of water. You will notice that
the water appears to be higher on the sides of the straw than in the middle. This is because the
water molecules are attracted to the straw and therefore adhere to it. Cohesive and adhesive
forces are important for sustaining life. For example, because of these forces, water can flow up
from the roots to the tops of plants to feed the plant.

Buffers, pH, Acids, and Bases

The pH of a solution is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A
change of one unit on the pH scale represents a change in the concentration of hydrogen ions by a
factor of 10, a change in two units represents a change in the concentration of hydrogen ions by a factor
of 100. Thus, small changes in pH represent large changes in the concentrations of hydrogen ions. Pure
water is neutral. It is neither acidic nor basic and has a pH of 7.0. Anything below 7.0 (ranging from 0.0
to 6.9) is acidic, and anything above 7.0 (from 7.1 to 14.0) is alkaline. The blood in your veins is slightly
alkaline (pH = 7.4). The environment in your stomach is highly acidic (pH = 1 to 2). Orange juice is mildly
acidic (pH = approximately 3.5), whereas baking soda is basic (pH = 9.0).
Acids are substances that provide hydrogen ions (H+) and lower pH, whereas bases provide
hydroxide ions (OH–) and raise pH. The stronger the acid, the more readily it donates H+. For
example, hydrochloric acid and lemon juice are very acidic and readily give up H+ when added to
water. Conversely, bases are those substances that readily donate OH–. The OH– ions combine
with H+ to produce water, which raises a substance’s pH. Sodium hydroxide and many household
cleaners are very alkaline and give up OH– rapidly when placed in water, thereby raising the pH.

36
40 Matthew R. Fisher

How is it that we can ingest or inhale acidic or

basic substances and not die? Buffers are the key.
Buffers readily absorb excess H+ or OH–, keeping
the pH of the body carefully maintained in the
aforementioned narrow range. Carbon dioxide is
part of a prominent buffer system in the human
body; it keeps the pH within the proper range. This
buffer system involves carbonic acid (H2CO3) and
bicarbonate (HCO3–) anion. If too much H+ enters
the body, bicarbonate will combine with the H+ to
create carbonic acid and limit the decrease in pH.
Likewise, if too much OH– is introduced into the
system, carbonic acid will combine with it to create
bicarbonate and limit the increase in pH. While
carbonic acid is an important product in this reaction,
its presence is fleeting because the carbonic acid is
released from the body as carbon dioxide gas each
time we breathe. Without this buffer system, the pH
in our bodies would fluctuate too much and we
would fail to survive.

Figure 4. The pH scale measures the amount of

Biological Molecules hydrogen ions (H+) in a substance. (credit:
modification of work by Edward Stevens)
Besides water, the molecules necessary for life
are organic. Organic molecules are those that contain carbon covalently bonded to hydrogen. In
addition, they may contain oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and additional elements.There are
four major classes of organic molecules: carbohydrates , lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Each is an important component of the cell and performs a wide array of functions.
It is often said that life is “carbon-based.” This means that carbon atoms, bonded to other
carbon atoms or other elements, form the fundamental components of many of the molecules
found uniquely in living things. Other elements play important roles in biological molecules, but
carbon certainly qualifies as the “foundation” element for molecules in living things. It is the
bonding properties of carbon atoms that are responsible for its important role.
Carbon can form four covalent bonds with other atoms or molecules. The simplest organic carbon
molecule is methane (CH4), in which four hydrogen atoms bind to a carbon atom (Figure 5). Carbohydrates
include what are commonly referred to as simple sugars, like glucose, and complex carbohydrates such as
starch. While many types of carbohydrates are used for energy, some are used for structure by most
organisms, including plants and animals. For example, cellulose is a complex carbohydrate that adds rigidity
and strength to the cell walls of plants. The suffix “-ose” denotes a carbohydrate, but note that not all
carbohydrates were given that suffix when names (e.g., starch).

37
 Environmental Biology
41
Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that
are united by a common feature. Lipids are
hydrophobic (“water-fearing”), or insoluble in water,
because they are non-polar molecules (molecules
that contain non-polar covalent bonds) . Lipids
perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store
energy for long-term use in the form of lipids called
fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the
environment for plants and animals. For example,
they help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry Figure 5. Carbon can form four covalent bonds to
because of their water-repelling nature. Lipids are create an organic molecule. The simplest carbon
also the building blocks of many hormones and are molecule is methane (CH4), depicted here.
an important constituent
of cellular membranes. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most
diverse range of functions of all macromolecules. They are all polymers of amino acids. The
functions of proteins are very diverse because there are 20 different chemically distinct amino acids
that form long chains, and the amino acids can be in any order. Proteins can function as enzymes,
hormones, contractile fibers, cytoskeleton rods, and much more. Enzymes are vital to life because
they act as catalyst in biochemical reactions (like digestion). Each enzyme is specific for the
substrate (a reactant that binds to an enzyme) upon which it acts. Enzymes can function to break
molecular bonds, to rearrange bonds, or to form new bonds.
Nucleic acids are very large molecules that are important to the
continuity of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and thus the
instructions for its functionality. The two main types of nucleic acids are
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the
genetic material found in all organisms, ranging from single-celled
bacteria to multicellular mammals. The other type of nucleic acid, RNA,
is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The DNA molecules never leave
the nucleus, but instead use an RNA intermediary to communicate with
the rest of the cell. Other types of RNA are also involved in protein
synthesis and its regulation. DNA and RNA are made up of small building
blocks known as nucleotides. The nucleotides combine with each other
to form a polynucleotide: DNA or RNA. Each nucleotide is made up of
Figure 6. The double-helix model three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose (five-carbon) sugar,
shows DNA as two parallel and a phosphate. DNA has a beautiful double-helical structure (Figure 6).
strands of intertwining molecules.

38
Additional Resources:

https://youtu.be/_lNF3_30lUE

Figure 8. A video that provides some wicked-awesome

information about atoms.

39
2.2 Energy

Virtually every task performed by living organisms requires energy. Nutrients and other molecules
are imported into the cell to meet these energy demands. For example, energy is required for the
synthesis and breakdown of molecules, as well as the transport of molecules into and out of cells. In
addition, processes such as ingesting and breaking down food, exporting wastes and toxins, and
movement of the cell all require energy.
Scientists use the term bioenergetics to describe the concept of energy flow through living systems,
such as cells. Cellular processes such as the building and breaking down of complex molecules occur
through step-wise chemical reactions. Some of these chemical reactions are spontaneous and release
energy, whereas others require energy to proceed. Together, all of the chemical reactions that take
place inside cells, including those that consume or generate energy, are referred to as the cell’s
metabolism.
From where, and in what form, does this energy come? How do living cells obtain energy, and how
do they use it? This section will discuss different forms of energy and the physical laws that govern
energy transfer.

Figure 1. Ultimately, most life

forms get their energy from the
sun. Plants use photosynthesis to
capture sunlight, and herbivores
eat the plants to obtain energy.
Carnivores eat the herbivores, and
eventual decomposition of plant
and animal material contributes to
the nutrient pool.

40
Energy

Thermodynamics refers to the study of energy and energy transfer involving physical matter. The
matter relevant to a particular case of energy transfer is called a system, and everything outside of that
matter is called the surroundings. For instance, when heating a pot of water on the stove, the system
includes the stove, the pot, and the water. Energy is transferred within the system (between the stove,
pot, and water). There are two types of systems: open and closed. In an open system, energy can be
exchanged with its surroundings. The stovetop system is open because heat can be lost to the air. A
closed system cannot exchange energy with its surroundings.
Biological organisms are open systems. Energy is exchanged between them and their surroundings
as they use energy from the sun to perform photosynthesis or consume energy-storing molecules and
release energy to the environment by doing work and releasing heat. Like all things in the physical world,
energy is subject to physical laws. The laws of thermodynamics govern the transfer of energy in and
among all systems in the universe. In general, energy is defined as the ability to do work, or to create
some kind of change. Energy exists in different forms: electrical energy, light energy, mechanical energy,
and heat energy are all different types of energy. To appreciate the way energy flows into and out of biological
systems, it is important to understand two of the physical laws that govern energy.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the total amount of energy in the universe is
constant and conserved. In other words, there has always been, and always will be, exactly the
same amount of energy in the universe. Energy exists in many different forms. According to the
first law of thermodynamics, energy may be transferred from place to place or transformed into
different forms, but it cannot be created or destroyed. The transfers and transformations of energy
take place around us all the time. Light bulbs transform electrical energy into light and heat energy.
Gas stoves transform chemical energy from natural gas into heat energy. Plants perform one of the
most biologically useful energy transformations on earth: that of converting the energy of sunlight
to chemical energy stored within organic molecules (Figure 2 below).
The challenge for all living organisms is to obtain energy from their surroundings in forms that
are usable to perform cellular work. Cells have evolved to meet this challenge. Chemical energy
stored within organic molecules such as sugars and fats is transferred and transformed through a
series of cellular chemical reactions into energy within molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Energy in ATP molecules is easily accessible to do work. Examples of the types of work that cells
need to do include building complex molecules, transporting materials, powering the motion of cilia
or flagella, and contracting muscles to create movement.

41
 A living cell’s primary tasks of obtaining,
transforming, and using energy to do work may
seem simple. However, the second law of
thermodynamics explains why these tasks are
harder than they appear. All energy transfers and
transformations are never completely efficient. In
every energy transfer, some amount of energy is
lost in a form that is unusable. In most cases, this
form is heat energy.
Thermodynamically, heat energy is defined as
the energy transferred from one system to another
that is not work. For example, when a light bulb is
turned on, some of the energy being converted from
electrical energy into light energy is lost as heat
energy. Likewise, some energy is lost as heat
energy during cellular metabolic reactions.
An important concept in physical systems is
that of order and disorder. The more energy that
is lost by a system to its surroundings, the less
ordered and more random the system is.
Scientists refer to the measure of randomness or
disorder within a system as entropy. High
entropy means high disorder and low energy.
Figure 2. Shown are some examples of energy transferred Molecules and chemical reactions have varying
and transformed from one system to another and from one entropy as well. For example, entropy increases
form to another. The food we consume provides our cells as molecules at a high concentration in one place
with the energy required to carry out bodily functions, just diffuse and spread out. The second law of
as light energy provides plants with the means to create thermodynamics says that energy will always be
the chemical energy they need. (credit “ice cream”:
lost as heat in energy transfers or transformations.
modification of work by D. Sharon Pruitt; credit “kids”:
modification of work by Max from Providence; credit “leaf”:
Living things are highly ordered, requiring
modification of work by Cory Zanker) constant energy input to be maintained in a state
of low entropy.

Potential and Kinetic Energy

When an object is in motion, there is energy associated with that object. Think of a wrecking ball. Even a
slow-moving wrecking ball can do a great deal of damage to other objects. Energy associated with objects
in motion is called kinetic energy. A speeding bullet, a walking person, and the rapid movement of molecules
in the air all have kinetic energy. Now what if that same motionless wrecking ball is lifted two stories above
ground with a crane? If the suspended wrecking ball is not moving, is there energy associated with it? The
answer is yes. The energy that was required to lift the wrecking ball did not disappear, but is now stored in
the wrecking ball by virtue of its position and the force of gravity acting on it. This type of energy is called
potential energy (Figure 3 below). If the ball were to fall, the potential energy would be transformed into
kinetic energy until all of the potential energy was exhausted when the ball rested on the ground. Wrecking
balls also swing like a pendulum; through the swing, there is a constant change of potential energy (highest
at the top of the swing) to kinetic energy (highest at the

42
bottom of the swing). Other examples of potential energy include the energy of water held behind a dam
or a person about to skydive out of an airplane.
Potential energy is not only associated with the
location of matter, but also with the structure of
matter. Even a spring on the ground has potential
energy if it is compressed; so does a rubber band
that is pulled taut. On a molecular level, the
bonds that hold the atoms of molecules together
exist in a particular structure that has potential
energy. The fact that energy can be released by
the breakdown of certain chemical bonds implies Figure 3. Still water has potential energy; moving water,
that those bonds have potential energy. In fact, such as in a waterfall or a rapidly flowing river, has
there is potential energy stored within the bonds kinetic energy. (credit “dam”: modification of work by
of all the food molecules we eat, which is “Pascal”/Flickr; credit “waterfall”: modification of work
harnessed for use. The type of potential energy by Frank Gualtieri)
that exists within chemical bonds, and is released
when those bonds are broken, is called chemical energy. Chemical energy is
responsible for providing living cells with energy from food. The release of energy occurs
when the molecular bonds within food molecules are broken.

43
2.3 A Cell is the Smallest Unit of Life

Levels of Biological Organization

Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy of scale from small to large (Figure
1). The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by
electrons. Atoms combine to form molecules, which are chemical structures consisting of at least two atoms
held together by a chemical bond. In plants, animals, and many other types of organisms, molecules come
together in specific ways to create structures called organelles. Organelles are small structures that
exist within cells and perform specialized functions. As discussed in more detail below, all
living things are made of one or more cells.

44
0

In most multicellular organisms, cells

combine to make tissues, which are groups of
similar cells carrying out the same
function. Organs are collections of tissues
grouped together based on a common
function. Organs are present not only in animals
but also in plants. An organ system is a
higher level of organization that consists of
functionally related organs. For example
vertebrate animals have many organ systems,
such as the circulatory system that transports
blood throughout the body and to and from the
lungs; it includes organs such as the heart and
blood vessels. Organisms are individual living
entities. For example, each tree in a forest is
an organism.
All the individuals of a species living within
a specific area are collectively called
a population. A community is the set of different
populations inhabiting a common area. For
instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and
other populations in a forest form the forest’s
community. The forest itself is an ecosystem.
An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a
particular area together with the abiotic, or non-
living, parts of that environment such as nitrogen
in the soil or rainwater. At the
highest level of organization, the biosphere is the
collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the
zones of life on Earth. It includes land, water, and
portions of the atmosphere.

Cell Theory

Close your eyes and picture a brick wall. What is

the basic building block of that wall? It is a single
brick, of course. Like a brick wall, your body is
composed of basic building blocks and the
building blocks of your body are cells. Your body
has many kinds of cells, each specialized for a
specific purpose. Just as a home is made from a
variety of building materials, the human body is
constructed from many cell types. For example,
bone cells help to support and protect the body.
Cells of the immune system fight invading

45
bacteria. And red blood cells carry oxygen Figure 1. From an atom to the entire Earth, biology
throughout the body. Each of these cell types examines all aspects of life. (credit “molecule”:
plays a vital role during the growth, development, modification of work by Jane Whitney; credit
and day-to-day maintenance of the body. In spite “organelles”: modification of work by Louisa Howard;
of their enormous variety, however, all cells share credit “cells”: modification of work by Bruce Wetzel,
certain fundamental characteristics. Harry Schaefer, National Cancer Institute; credit “tissue”:
The microscopes we use today are far more modification of work by “Kilbad”/Wikimedia Commons;
credit “organs”: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz
complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony Villareal, Joaquim Alves Gaspar; credit “organisms”:
van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch shopkeeper who had modification of work by Peter Dutton; credit “ecosystem”:
great skill in crafting lenses. Despite the modification of work by “gigi4791″/Flickr; credit
limitations of his now-ancient lenses, van “biosphere”: modification of work by NASA)
Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of single-
celled organism and sperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules.” In a 1665 publication called
Micrographia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the term “cell” (from the Latin cella, meaning
“small room”) for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens. In the
1670s, van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses and microscope
construction enabled other scientists to see different components inside cells.
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying
tissues and proposed the unified cell theory, which states that all living things are composed of
one or more cells, that the cell is the basic unit of life, and that all new cells arise from existing cells.
These principles still stand today. There are many types of cells, and all are grouped into one of
two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells are
classified as eukaryotic, whereas bacteria and archaea cells are classified as prokaryotic.
All cells share four common components: 1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that
separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; 2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-
like region within the cell in which other cellular components are found; 3) DNA, the genetic
material of the cell; and 4) ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins. However, prokaryotes
differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any
other membrane-bound organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different
in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of the cell: a darkened region called
the nucleoid (Figure 1).

46
 Unlike Archaea and eukaryotes, bacteria have a cell
wall made of peptidoglycan (molecules comprised of
sugars and amino acids) and many have a
polysaccharide capsule. The cell wall acts as an extra
layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and
prevents dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to
attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes
have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for
locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic material
during a type of reproduction called conjugation.
Fimbriae are protein appendages used by bacteria to
attach to other cells.
Figure 2. This figure shows the generalized
structure of a prokaryotic cell.
Eukaryotic Cells

A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound
compartments called organelles. There are many different types of organelles, each with a
highly specialized function (see Figure 3). The word eukaryotic means “true kernel” or “true
nucleus,” alluding to the presence of the membrane-bound nucleus in these cells. The word
“organelle” means “little organ,” and, as already mentioned, organelles have specialized cellular
functions, just as the organs of your body have specialized functions.

Cell Size

At 0.1–5.0 µm in diameter, most prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells, which
have diameters ranging from 10–100 µm (Figure 3). The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and
organic molecules that enter them to quickly spread to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes
produced within a prokaryotic cell can quickly move out. However, larger eukaryotic cells have evolved
different structural adaptations to enhance cellular transport. Indeed, the large size of these cells would
not be possible without these adaptations. In general, cell size is limited because volume increases
much more quickly than does cell surface area. As a cell becomes larger, it becomes more and more
difficult for the cell to acquire sufficient materials to support the processes inside the cell, because the
relative size of the surface area through which materials must be transported declines.

47
 Figure 3. This figure shows the relative sizes of different kinds of cells and cellular components. An
adult human is shown for comparison.

Animal Cells versus Plant Cells

Figure 5. An example of a typical plant cell.

Figure 4. An example of a typical animal cell.

Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some

48
striking differences between animal and plant cells (Figure 3). Animal cells have centrioles,
centrosomes, and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. Plant cells have a rigid cell wall that
is external to the plasma membrane, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata, and plastids used for
storage, and a large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.

Chloroplasts

From an ecological perspective, chloroplasts are a particularly important type of organelle because
they perform photosynthesis. Photosynthesis forms the foundation of food chains in most ecosystems.
Chloroplasts are only found in eukaryotic cells such as plants and algae. During photosynthesis, carbon
dioxide, water, and light energy are used to make glucose and molecular oxygen. One major difference
between algae/plants and animals is that plants/algae are able to make their own food, like glucose,
whereas animals must obtain food by consuming other organisms.
Chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but
within the space enclosed by a chloroplast’s inner
membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked,
fluid-filled membrane sacs called thylakoids (Figure 4
below). Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum
(plural = grana). The fluid enclosed by the inner
membrane and surrounding the grana is called the
stroma. Each structure within the chloroplast has an
important function, which is enabled by its particular
shape. A common theme in biology is that form and
function are interrelated. For example, the membrane-
Figure 6. This simplified diagram of a
rich stacks of the thylakoids provide ample surface
chloroplast shows its structure.
area to embed the proteins and pigments that are vital
to photosynthesis.

49
2.4 Energy Enters Ecosystems Through Photosynthesis

Cells run on the chemical energy found mainly in carbohydrate molecules, and the majority of these
molecules are produced by one process: photosynthesis. Through photosynthesis, certain
organisms convert solar energy (sunlight) into chemical energy, which is then used to build
carbohydrate molecules. The energy stored in the bonds to hold these molecules together is
released when an organism breaks down food. Cells then use this energy to perform work, such as
movement. The energy that is harnessed from photosynthesis enters the ecosystems of our planet
continuously and is transferred from one organism to another. Therefore, directly or indirectly, the
process of photosynthesis provides most of the energy required by living things on Earth.
Photosynthesis also results in the release of oxygen into the atmosphere. In short, to eat and
breathe humans depend almost entirely on the organisms that carry out photosynthesis.

Solar Dependence and Food Production

Figure 1. (a) Plants, (b) algae, and (c) certain bacteria, called cyanobacteria, are photoautotrophs that can
carry out photosynthesis. Algae can grow over enormous areas in water, at times completely covering the
surface. (credit a: Steve Hillebrand, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; credit b:
“eutrophication&hypoxia”/Flickr; credit c: NASA; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Some organisms can carry out photosynthesis, whereas others cannot. An autotroph is an
organism that can produce its own food. The Greek roots of the word autotroph mean “self” (auto)
“feeder” (troph). Plants are the best-known autotrophs, but others exist, including certain types of
bacteria and algae (Figure 1). Oceanic algae contribute enormous quantities of food and oxygen to
global food chains. More specifically, plants are photoautotrophs, a type of autotroph that uses
sunlight and carbon from carbon dioxide to synthesize chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates.
All organisms carrying out photosynthesis require sunlight.

50
 Heterotrophs are organisms incapable of
photosynthesis that must therefore obtain energy and
carbon from food by consuming other organisms. The
Greek roots of the word heterotroph mean “other”
(hetero) “feeder” (troph), meaning that their food
comes from other organisms. Even if the organism
being consumed is another animal, it traces its stored
energy back to autotrophs and the process of
photosynthesis. Humans are heterotrophs, as are all
animals and fungi. Heterotrophs depend on autotrophs,
either directly or indirectly. For example, a deer obtains
energy by eating plants. A wolf eating a deer obtains Figure 2. The energy stored in carbohydrate
energy that originally came from the plants eaten by molecules from photosynthesis passes through the
that deer (Figure 2). Using this reasoning, all food food chain. The predator that eats these deer is
eaten by humans can be traced back to autotrophs that getting energy that originated in the photosynthetic
carry out photosynthesis. vegetation that the deer consumed. (credit: Steve
VanRiper, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

Summary of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis requires sunlight, carbon

dioxide, and water as starting reactants (Figure 3).
After the process is complete, photosynthesis
releases oxygen and produces carbohydrate
molecules, most commonly glucose. These sugar
molecules contain the energy that living things need
to survive. The complex reactions of photosynthesis
can be summarized by the chemical equation
shown in Figure 4 below.

Although the equation looks simple, the many

steps that take place during photosynthesis are
actually quite complex. In plants, photosynthesis
takes place primarily in the chloroplasts of leaves.
Chloroplasts have a double (inner and outer)
membrane. Within the chloroplast is a third
membrane that forms stacked, disc-shaped
structures called thylakoids. Embedded in the
thylakoid membrane are molecules of
chlorophyll, a pigment (a molecule that absorbs
light) through which the entire process of
photosynthesis begins.

Figure 3. Photosynthesis uses solar energy, carbon

dioxide, and water to release oxygen and to produce
energy-storing sugar molecules.

51
 Figure 4. This equation means that six molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) combine
with six molecules of water (H2O) in the presence of sunlight. This produces one
molecule of glucose (C6H12O6) and six molecules of oxygen (O2).

The Two Parts of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. In the light-
dependent reactions chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight and then converts it into chemical energy
with the aid of water. The light-dependent reactions release oxygen as a byproduct from the splitting of water.
In the Calvin cycle, the chemical energy derived from the light-dependent reactions drives both the capture
of carbon in carbon dioxide molecules and the subsequent assembly of sugar molecules.

The Global Significance of Photosynthesis

The process of photosynthesis is crucially important to the biosphere for the following reasons:

1. It creates O2, which is important for two reasons. The molecular oxygen in Earth’s
atmosphere was created by photosynthetic organisms; without photosynthesis there would
be no O2 to support cellular respiration (see chapter 3.2) needed by complex, multicellular
life. Photosynthetic bacteria were likely the first organisms to perform photosynthesis,
dating back 2-3 billion years ago. Thanks to their activity, and a diversity of present-
day photosynthesizing organisms, Earth’s atmosphere is currently about 21% O 2.
Also, this O2 is vital for the creation of the ozone layer (see chapter 10.2), which
protects life from harmful ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun. Ozone (O 3) is
created from the breakdown and reassembly of O 2.
2. It provides energy for nearly all ecosystems. By transforming light energy into
chemical energy, photosynthesis provides the energy used by organisms, whether
those organisms are plants, grasshoppers, wolves, or fungi. The only exceptions are
found in very rare and isolated ecosystems, such as near deep sea hydrothermal
vents where organisms get energy that originally came from minerals, not the sun.
3. It provides the carbon needed for organic molecules. Organisms are primarily made of
two things: water and organic molecules, the latter being carbon based. Through the
process of carbon fixation, photosynthesis takes carbon from CO2 and converts it into
sugars (which are organic). Carbon in these sugars can be re-purposed to create the
other types of organic molecules that organisms need, such as lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids. For example, the carbon used to make your DNA was once CO2 used by
photosynthetic organisms (see section 3.1 for more information on food webs).

52
2.5 Chapter Resources

Summary

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It is made up of atoms of different elements.
Elements that occur naturally have unique qualities that allow them to combine in various ways to create
compounds or molecules. Atoms, which consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons, are the smallest
units of an element that retain all of the properties of that element. Electrons can be donated or shared
between atoms to create bonds, including ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds. The pH of a solution is
a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. Living things are carbon-based because
carbon plays such a prominent role in the chemistry of living things.
A cell is the smallest unit of life. Most cells are so small that they cannot be viewed with the naked
eye. The unified cell theory states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, the cell is the
basic unit of life, and new cells arise from existing cells. Each cell runs on the chemical energy found
mainly in carbohydrate molecules (food), and the majority of these molecules are produced by one
process: photosynthesis. Through photosynthesis, certain organisms convert solar energy (sunlight)
into chemical energy, which is then used to build carbohydrate molecules. Directly or indirectly, the
process of photosynthesis provides most of the energy required by living things on earth.
Photosynthesis also results in the release of oxygen into the atmosphere. In short, to eat and breathe,
humans depend almost entirely on the organisms that carry out photosynthesis.

Review Questions

1. You analyze a sample of carbon and determine that 6% of the carbon atoms in your
sample have a mass number (atomic mass) greater than 12, (12 is the normal atomic mass
of carbon). Based on these results, which of the following can you reasonably conclude?
A. 6% of the carbon sample is a different element
B. 6% of the sample is comprised of carbon isotopes
C. 6% of the sample is comprised of carbon ions
D. 94% of the sample is comprised of carbon radioisotopes
E. 94% of the sample contains covalent bonds

2. An atom that has an electrical charge due to having a number of electrons unequal to the
number of protons is considered a(n)…
A. Isotope
B. Ion
C. Element
D. Molecule
E. Acid

3. The atomic number for the element fluorine is 9 and its mass number is 19. How many
neutrons does a normal atom of fluorine have?

53
 A. 0
B. 9
C. 10
D. 19
E. Impossible to determine with the information given

4. Which one of the following is not one of the four major classes of organic compounds?
A. Nucleic acids
B. Water
C. Proteins
D. Carbohydrates
E. Lipids

5. You are working as an astrobiologist for NASA and are asked to analyze the first ever
samples returned to Earth from Mars. How would you recognize if organic molecules were
present in the samples?
A. Test for isotopes of carbon
B. Look for the presence of hydrogen bonds
C. Search for chemicals with carbon to hydrogen bonds
D. Analyze the percentage of molecules with covalent bonds
E. Measure the pH of the samples

6. A micro-organism is viewed through a microscope and is determined to be made of a single

cell that lacks organelles. From this information, which of the following can you conclude?
A. The organism belongs to Domain Bacteria
B. The organism belongs to Domain Eukarya
C. The organism belongs to Domain Archaea
D. The cell is prokaryotic
E. The cell is eukaryotic

7. Which one of the following terms describes the complete set of chemical reactions that
occur within cells?
A. Metabolism
B. Cellular respiration
C. Calvin Cycle
D. Bioenergetics
E. Thermodynamics

8. Which one of the following is most strongly associated with kinetic energy?
A. Atomic force
B. Static position in a gravitational field
C. Chemical energy
D. Movement
E. Covalent bonds

9. Which one of the following would help remove more CO2 from the atmosphere?

54
 Environmental Biology 61
A. Planting more trees
B. Burning less fossil fuels
C. Increase the number of heterotrophs
D. Decrease the number of autotrophs
E. All of the above.

10. Water is essential to life because it has many special properties. Which one of the
following is a special property of water?
A. It is able to covalently bond to other water molecules
B. It is good at dissolving other substances
C. It easily heats up.
D. It easily cools.
E. It has a low surface tension

Additional Materials:

Figure 1. A video that provides some perspective

about time, history, life, the universe, and everything.

55
Chapter 3: Ecosystems and the Biosphere

The (a) Karner blue butterfly and (b) wild lupine live in oak-pine barren habitats in North
America. This habitat is characterized by natural disturbance in the form of fire and
nutrient-poor soils that are low in nitrogen—important factors in the distribution of the
plants that live in this habitat. Researchers interested in ecosystem ecology study the
importance of limited resources in this ecosystem and the movement of resources (such
as nutrients) through the biotic and abiotic portions of the ecosystem. Researchers also
examine how organisms have adapted to their ecosystem. (credit: USFWS)

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe the basic types of ecosystems on Earth

• Differentiate between food chains and food webs and recognize the importance of each
• Describe how organisms acquire energy in a food web and in associated food chains
• Discuss the biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur
• Explain how human activities have impacted these cycles

Chapter Outline

• 3.1 Energy Flow through Ecosystems

56
 • 3.2 Biogeochemical Cycles
• 3.3 Terrestrial Biomes
• 3.4 Aquatic Biomes
• 3.5 Chapter Resources

3.1 Energy Flow through Ecosystems

Figure 1. A (a) tidal pool ecosystem in Matinicus Island, Maine, is a small ecosystem, while
the (b) Amazon rainforest in Brazil is a large ecosystem. (credit a: modification of work by Jim
Kuhn; credit b: modification of work by Ivan Mlinaric)

An ecosystem is a community of organisms and their abiotic (non-living) environment. Ecosystems

can be small, such as the tide pools found near the rocky shores of many oceans, or large, such
as those found in the tropical rainforest of the Amazon in Brazil (Figure 1).

There are three broad categories of ecosystems based on their general environment:
freshwater, marine, and terrestrial. Within these three categories are individual ecosystem
types based on the environmental habitat and organisms present.
Freshwater ecosystems are the least common, occurring on only 1.8 percent of Earth’s
surface. These systems comprise lakes, rivers, streams, and springs; they are quite diverse
and support a variety of animals, plants, fungi, protists and prokaryotes.

57
 Marine ecosystems are the most common, comprising 75 percent of Earth’s surface and consisting
of three basic types: shallow ocean, deep ocean water, and deep ocean bottom. Shallow ocean
ecosystems include extremely biodiverse coral reef ecosystems. Small photosynthetic organisms
suspended in ocean waters, collectively known as phytoplankton, perform 40 percent of all
photosynthesis on Earth. Deep ocean bottom ecosystems contain a wide variety of marine organisms.
These ecosystems are so deep that light is unable to reach them.
Terrestrial ecosystems, also known for their diversity, are grouped into large categories called
biomes. A biome is a large-scale community of organisms, primarily defined on land by the dominant
plant types that exist in geographic regions of the planet with similar climatic conditions. Examples of
biomes include tropical rainforests, savannas, deserts, grasslands, temperate forests, and tundras.
Grouping these ecosystems into just a few biome categories obscures the great diversity of the
individual ecosystems within them. For example, the saguaro cacti (Carnegiea gigantean) and other
plant life in the Sonoran Desert, in the United States, are relatively diverse compared with the
desolate rocky desert of Boa Vista, an island off the coast of Western Africa (Figure 2).

Food Chains and Food Webs

A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms

through which nutrients and energy pass as one
organism eats another. The levels in the food chain
are producers, primary consumers, higher-level
consumers, and finally decomposers. These levels
are used to describe ecosystem structure and
dynamics. There is a single path through a food
chain. Each organism in a food chain occupies a
Figure 2. Desert ecosystems, like all ecosystems, can
specific trophic level (energy level), its position in vary greatly. The desert in (a) Saguaro National Park,
the food chain or food web. Arizona, has abundant plant life, while the rocky desert
of (b) Boa Vista island, Cape Verde, Africa, is devoid of
plant life. (credit a: modification of work by Jay Galvin;
credit b: modification of work by Ingo Wölbern)

58
 In many ecosystems, the base, or foundation, of the
food chain consists of photosynthetic organisms (plants
or phytoplankton), which are called producers. The
organisms that consume the producers are herbivores
called primary consumers. Secondary consumers are
usually carnivores that eat the primary consumers.
Tertiary consumers are carnivores that eat other
carnivores. Higher-level consumers feed on the next
lower trophic levels, and so on, up to the organisms at
the top of the food chain. In the Lake Ontario food chain,
shown in Figure 3, the Chinook salmon is the apex
consumer at the top of this food chain.

One major factor that limits the number of steps in a food

chain is energy. Energy is lost at each trophic level and
between trophic levels as heat and in the transfer to
decomposers (Figure 4 below). Thus, after a limited number
of trophic energy transfers, the amount of energy remaining
in the food chain may not be great enough to support viable
populations at higher trophic levels.

There is a one problem when using food chains to

describe most ecosystems. Even when all organisms are
grouped into appropriate trophic levels, some of these
organisms can feed at more than one trophic level. In
addition, species feed on and are eaten by more than one
species. In other words, the linear model of ecosystems,
the food chain, is a hypothetical and overly simplistic
representation of ecosystem structure. A holistic model—
Figure 3. These are the trophic levels of a food
which includes all the interactions between different
chain in Lake Ontario at the United States– species and their complex interconnected relationships
Canada border. Energy and nutrients flow from with each other and with the environment—is a more
photosynthetic green algae at the base to the top accurate and descriptive model for ecosystems. A food
of the food chain: the Chinook salmon. (credit: web is a concept that accounts for the multiple trophic
modification of work by National Oceanic and (feeding) interactions between each species (Figure 5
Atmospheric Administration/NOAA) below).

59
 Two general types of food webs are often shown
interacting within a single ecosystem. A grazing
food web has plants or other photosynthetic
organisms at its base, followed by herbivores and
various carnivores. A detrital food web consists of a
base of organisms that feed on decaying organic
matter (dead organisms), including decomposers
(which break down dead and decaying organisms)
and detritivores (which consume organic detritus).
These organisms are usually bacteria, fungi, and
invertebrate animals that recycle organic material
back into the biotic part of the ecosystem as they
themselves are consumed by other organisms.
Figure 4. The relative energy in trophic levels in a Silver
Springs, Florida, ecosystem is shown. Each trophic level
has less energy available, and usually, but not always,
supports a smaller mass of organisms at the next level.

60
Figure 5. This food web shows the interactions between organisms across trophic levels. Arrows point
from an organism that is consumed to the organism that consumes it. All the producers and consumers
eventually become nourishment for the decomposers (fungi, mold, earthworms, and bacteria in the
soil). (credit “fox”: modification of work by Kevin Bacher, NPS; credit “owl”: modification of work by
John and Karen Hollingsworth, USFWS; credit “snake”: modification of work by Steve Jurvetson; credit
“robin”: modification of work by Alan Vernon; credit “frog”: modification of work by Alessandro
Catenazzi; credit “spider”: modification of work by “Sanba38″/Wikimedia Commons; credit “centipede”:
modification of work by “Bauerph”/Wikimedia Commons; credit “squirrel”: modification of work by Dawn
Huczek; credit “mouse”: modification of work by NIGMS, NIH; credit “sparrow”: modification of work by
David Friel; credit “beetle”: modification of work by Scott Bauer, USDA Agricultural Research Service;
credit “mushrooms”: modification of work by Chris Wee; credit “mold”: modification of work by Dr.
Lucille Georg, CDC; credit “earthworm”: modification of work by Rob Hille; credit “bacteria”:
modification of work by Don Stalons, CDC)

61
How Organisms Acquire Energy in a Food Web

All living things require energy in one form or another. At the cellular level, energy is used in most
metabolic pathways (usually in the form of ATP), especially those responsible for building large
molecules from smaller compounds. Living organisms would not be able to assemble complex organic
molecules (proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates) without a constant energy input.
Food-web diagrams illustrate how energy flows directionally through ecosystems. They can
also indicate how efficiently organisms acquire energy, use it, and how much remains for use
by other organisms of the food web. Energy is acquired by living things in two ways: autotrophs
harness light or chemical energy and heterotrophs acquire energy through the consumption
and digestion of other living or previously living organisms.
Photosynthetic and chemosynthetic organisms are autotrophs, which are organisms capable of
synthesizing their own food (more specifically, capable of using inorganic carbon as a carbon source).
Photosynthetic autotrophs (photoautotrophs) use sunlight as an energy source, and chemosynthetic
autotrophs (chemoautotrophs) use inorganic molecules as an energy source. Autotrophs are critical
for ecosystems because they occupy the trophic level containing producers. Without these organisms,
energy would not be available to other living organisms, and life would not be possible.
Photoautotrophs, such as plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria, are the energy source for
a majority of the world’s ecosystems. Photoautotrophs harness the Sun’s solar energy by
converting it to chemical energy. The rate at which photosynthetic producers incorporate energy
from the Sun is called gross primary productivity. However, not all of the energy incorporated by
producers is available to the other organisms in the food web because producers must also grow
and reproduce, which consumes energy. Net primary productivity is the energy that remains in
the producers after accounting for these organisms’ metabolism and heat loss. The net productivity
is then available to the primary consumers at the next trophic level.

62
 Chemoautotrophs are primarily bacteria and
archaea that are found in rare ecosystems where
sunlight is not available, such as those associated
with dark caves or hydrothermal vents at the
bottom of the ocean (Figure 6). Many
chemoautotrophs in hydrothermal vents use
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which is released from
the vents, as a source of chemical energy. This
allows them to synthesize complex organic
molecules, such as glucose, for their own energy
and, in turn, supplies energy to the rest of the
ecosystem.
One of the most important consequences of
ecosystem dynamics in terms of human impact is
Figure 6. Swimming shrimp, a few squat lobsters, and
hundreds of vent mussels are seen at a hydrothermal vent
biomagnification. Biomagnification is the
at the bottom of the ocean. As no sunlight penetrates to increasing concentration of persistent, toxic
this depth, the ecosystem is supported by substances in organisms at each successive
chemoautotrophic bacteria and organic material that sinks trophic level. These are substances that are
from the ocean’s surface. This picture was taken in 2006 at lipid soluble and are stored in the fat reserves of
the submerged NW Eifuku volcano off the coast of Japan each organism. Many substances have been
by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration shown to biomagnify, including classical studies
(NOAA). The summit of this highly active volcano lies
with the pesticide
1535 m below the surface.
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), which
were described in the 1960s bestseller Silent
Spring by Rachel Carson. DDT was a commonly used pesticide before its dangers to apex consumers,
such as the bald eagle, became known. DDT and other toxins are taken in by producers and passed on to
successive levels of consumers at increasingly higher rates. As bald eagles feed on contaminated fish,
their DDT levels rise. It was discovered that DDT caused the eggshells of birds to become
fragile, which contributed to the bald eagle being listed as an endangered species under U.S.
law. The use of DDT was banned in the United States in the 1970s.

63
 Another substances that biomagnifies is
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), which was used
as coolant liquids in the United States until its use
was banned in 1979. PCB was best studied in
aquatic ecosystems where predatory fish species
accumulated very high concentrations of the
toxin that is otherwise exists at low
concentrations in the environment. As illustrated
in a study performed by the NOAA in the
Saginaw Bay of Lake Huron of the North
American Great Lakes (Figure 7 below), PCB
concentrations increased from the producers of
the ecosystem (phytoplankton) through the
different trophic levels of fish species. The apex
consumer, the walleye, has more than four times
the amount of PCBs compared to phytoplankton.
Also, research found that birds that eat these fish
may have PCB levels that are at least ten Figure 7. This chart shows the PCB concentrations found
times higher than those found in the lake fish. at the various trophic levels in the Saginaw Bay ecosystem
Other concerns have been raised by the of Lake Huron. Notice that the fish in the higher trophic
biomagnification of heavy metals, such as levels accumulate more PCBs than those in lower trophic
mercury and cadmium, in certain types of levels. (credit: Patricia Van Hoof, NOAA)
seafood. The United States Environmental
Protection Agency recommends that pregnant women and young children should not consume any
swordfish, shark, king mackerel, or tilefish because of their high mercury content. These individuals are
advised to eat fish low in mercury: salmon, shrimp, pollock, and catfish. Biomagnification is a good
example of how ecosystem dynamics can affect our everyday lives, even influencing the food we eat.

Suggested Supplementary Reading

Canales, M. et al. 2018. 6 Things that Make Like on Earth Possible [Infographic]. National Geographic.
March.

64
3.2 Biogeochemical Cycles

Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic molecules for
chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during energy transformation between trophic levels. Rather
than flowing through an ecosystem, the matter that makes up organisms is conserved and recycled.
The six most common elements associated with organic molecules—carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen,
oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—take a variety of chemical forms and may exist for long periods
in the atmosphere, on land, in water, or beneath Earth’s surface. Geologic processes, such as
weathering, erosion, water drainage, and the subduction of the continental plates, all play a role in
the cycling of elements on Earth. Because geology and chemistry have major roles in the study of
these processes, the recycling of inorganic matter between living organisms and their nonliving
environment are called biogeochemical cycles.
The six aforementioned elements are used by organisms in a variety of ways. Hydrogen and
oxygen are found in water and organic molecules, both of which are essential to life. Carbon is
found in all organic molecules, whereas nitrogen is an important component of nucleic acids and
proteins. Phosphorus is used to make nucleic acids and the phospholipids that comprise biological
membranes. Lastly, sulfur is critical to the three-dimensional shape of proteins.
The cycling of these elements is interconnected. For example, the movement of water is critical
for the leaching of sulfur and phosphorus into rivers, lakes, and oceans. Minerals cycle through the
biosphere between the biotic and abiotic components and from one organism to another.

The Water Cycle

The hydrosphere is the area of Earth where water movement and storage occurs: as liquid water on
the surface (rivers, lakes, oceans) and beneath the surface (groundwater) or ice, (polar ice caps and
glaciers), and as water vapor in the atmosphere.The human body is about 60 percent water and human
cells are more than 70 percent water. Of the stores of water on Earth, 97.5 percent is salt water (see
Figure 1 below). Of the remaining water, more than 99 percent is groundwater or ice. Thus, less than
one percent of freshwater is present in lakes and rivers. Many organisms are dependent on this small
percentage, a lack of which can have negative effects on ecosystems. Humans, of course, have
developed technologies to increase water availability, such as digging wells to harvest groundwater,
storing rainwater, and using desalination to obtain drinkable water from the ocean. Although this pursuit
of drinkable water has been ongoing throughout human history, the supply of fresh water continues to
be a major issue in modern times.
The various processes that occur during the cycling of water are illustrated in Figure 2 below.
The processes include the following:

65
 • evaporation and sublimation
• condensation and precipitation
• subsurface water flow
• surface runoff and snowmelt
• streamflow

The water cycle is driven by the Sun’s energy

Figure 1. Only 2.5 percent of water on Earth is fresh water,
and less than 1 percent of fresh water is easily accessible
as it warms the oceans and other surface waters.
This leads to evaporation (liquid water to water
to living things.
vapor) of liquid surface water and sublimation
(ice to water vapor) of frozen water, thus moving
large amounts of water into the atmosphere as water vapor. Over time, this water vapor condenses into
clouds as liquid or frozen droplets and eventually leads to precipitation (rain, snow, hail), which returns
water to Earth’s surface. Rain reaching Earth’s surface may evaporate again, flow over the surface, or
percolate into the ground. Most easily observed is surface runoff: the flow of freshwater over land either
from rain or melting ice. Runoff can make its way through streams and lakes to the oceans.
In most natural terrestrial environments rain encounters vegetation before it reaches the soil surface. A
significant percentage of water evaporates immediately from the surfaces of plants. What is left reaches
the soil and begins to move down. Surface runoff will occur only if the soil becomes saturated with
water in a heavy rainfall. Water in the soil can be taken up by plant roots. The plant will use some of
this water for its own metabolism and some of that will find its way into animals that eat the plants, but
much of it will be lost back to the atmosphere through a process known as transpiration: water enters
the vascular system of plants through the roots and evaporates, or transpires, through the stomata (small
microscope openings) of the leaves. Ecologists combine transpiration and evaporation into a single term
that describes water returned to the atmosphere: evapotranspiration. Water in the soil that is not taken
up by a plant and that does not evaporate is able to percolate into the subsoil and bedrock where it forms
groundwater.
Groundwater is a significant, subsurface reservoir of fresh water. It exists in the pores between
particles in dirt, sand, and gravel or in the fissures in rocks. Groundwater can flow slowly through these
pores and fissures and eventually finds its way to a stream or lake where it becomes part of the surface
water again. Many streams flow not because they are replenished from rainwater directly but because
they receive a constant inflow from the groundwater below. Some groundwater is found very deep in
the bedrock and can persist there for millennia. Most groundwater reservoirs, or aquifers , are the source
of drinking or irrigation water drawn up through wells. In many cases these aquifers are being depleted
faster than they are being replenished by water percolating down from above.
Rain and surface runoff are major ways in which minerals, including phosphorus and sulfur, are
cycled from land to water. The environmental effects of runoff will be discussed later as these cycles are
described.

66
 Environmental Biology 75

Figure 2. Water from the land and oceans enters the atmosphere by evaporation or sublimation, where it
condenses into clouds and falls as rain or snow. Precipitated water may enter freshwater bodies or
infiltrate the soil. The cycle is complete when surface or groundwater reenters the ocean. (credit:
modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the second most abundant element in organisms, by mass. Carbon is present in all organic
molecules (and some molecules that are not organic such as CO 2), and its role in the structure of
biomolecules is of primary importance. Carbon compounds contain energy, and many of these
compounds from dead plants and algae have fossilized over millions of years and are known as fossil
fuels. Since the 1800s, the use of fossil fuels has accelerated. Since the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution the demand for Earth’s limited fossil fuel supplies has risen, causing the amount of carbon
dioxide in our atmosphere to drastically increase. This increase in carbon dioxide is associated with
climate change and is a major environmental concern worldwide.
The carbon cycle is most easily studied as two interconnected subcycles: one dealing with rapid
carbon exchange among living organisms and the other dealing with the long-term cycling of carbon
through geologic processes. The entire carbon cycle is shown in Figure 3 below.

67
76 Matthew R. Fisher

Figure 3. Carbon dioxide gas exists in the atmosphere and is dissolved in water. Photosynthesis converts
carbon dioxide gas to organic carbon, and respiration cycles the organic carbon back into carbon dioxide gas.
Long-term storage of organic carbon occurs when matter from living organisms is buried deep underground
and becomes fossilized. Volcanic activity and, more recently, human emissions bring this stored carbon back
into the carbon cycle. (credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)

The Biological Carbon Cycle

Organisms are connected in many ways, even among different ecosystems. A good example of this
connection is the exchange of carbon between heterotrophs and autotrophs by way of atmospheric carbon
dioxide. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the basic building block that autotrophs use to build high-energy compounds
such as glucose. The energy harnessed from the Sun is used by these organisms to form the covalent bonds
that link carbon atoms together. These chemical bonds store this energy for later use in the process of
respiration. Most terrestrial autotrophs obtain their carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere, while marine
autotrophs acquire it in the dissolved form (bicarbonate, HCO3–).
Carbon is passed from producers to higher trophic levels through consumption. For example, when a cow
(primary consumer) eats grass (producer), it obtains some of the organic molecules originally made by the
plant’s photosynthesis. Those organic compounds can then be passed to higher trophic levels, such as
humans, when we eat the cow. At each level, however, organisms are performing respiration, a process in
which organic molecules are broken down to release energy. As these organic molecules are broken down,
carbon is removed from food molecules to form CO2, a gas that enters the atmosphere. Thus, CO2 is a
byproduct of respiration. Recall that CO2 is consumed by producers during photosynthesis to make organic
molecules. As these molecules are broken down during respiration,

68
the carbon once again enters the atmosphere as CO 2. Carbon exchange like this potentially
connects all organisms on Earth. Think about this: the carbon in your DNA was once part of
plant; millions of years ago perhaps it was part of dinosaur.

The Biogeochemical Carbon Cycle

The movement of carbon through land, water, and air is complex, and, in many cases, it occurs
much more slowly than the movement between organisms. Carbon is stored for long periods in
what are known as carbon reservoirs, which include the atmosphere, bodies of liquid water (mostly
oceans), ocean sediment, soil, rocks (including fossil fuels), and Earth’s interior.
As stated, the atmosphere is a major reservoir of carbon in the form of carbon dioxide that is
essential to the process of photosynthesis. The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is greatly
influenced by the reservoir of carbon in the oceans. The exchange of carbon between the
atmosphere and water reservoirs influences how much carbon is found in each. Carbon dioxide
(CO2) from the atmosphere dissolves in water and reacts with water molecules to form ionic
compounds. Some of these ions combine with calcium ions in the seawater to form calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), a major component of the shells of marine organisms. These organisms
eventually die and their shells form sediments on the ocean floor. Over geologic time, the calcium
carbonate forms limestone, which comprises the largest carbon reservoir on Earth.
On land, carbon is stored in soil as organic carbon as a result of the decomposition of organisms or
from weathering of terrestrial rock and minerals (the world’s soils hold significantly more carbon than
the atmosphere, for comparison). Deeper underground are fossil fuels, the anaerobically decomposed
remains of plants and algae that lived millions of years ago. Fossil fuels are considered a non-renewable
resource because their use far exceeds their rate of formation. A non-renewable resource is either
regenerated very slowly or not at all. Another way for carbon to enter the atmosphere is from land
(including land beneath the surface of the ocean) by the eruption of volcanoes and other geothermal
systems. Carbon sediments from the ocean floor are taken deep within Earth by the process of
subduction: the movement of one tectonic plate beneath another. Carbon is released as carbon dioxide
when a volcano erupts or from volcanic hydrothermal vents.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Getting nitrogen into living organisms is difficult. Plants and phytoplankton are not equipped to
incorporate nitrogen from the atmosphere (where it exists as tightly bonded, triple covalent N 2) even
though this molecule comprises approximately 78 percent of the atmosphere. Nitrogen enters the living
world through free-living and symbiotic bacteria, which incorporate nitrogen into their organic molecules
through specialized biochemical processes. Certain species of bacteria are able to perform nitrogen
fixation, the process of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia (NH 3), which spontaneously becomes
ammonium (NH4+). Ammonium is converted by bacteria into nitrites (NO 2−) and then nitrates (NO3−). At
this point, the nitrogen-containing molecules are used by plants and other producers to make organic
molecules such as DNA and proteins. This nitrogen is now available to consumers.
Organic nitrogen is especially important to the study of ecosystem dynamics because many
ecosystem processes, such as primary production, are limited by the available supply of nitrogen.
As shown in Figure 4 below, the nitrogen that enters living systems is eventually converted from
organic nitrogen back into nitrogen gas by bacteria (Figure 4). The process of denitrification is
when bacteria convert the nitrates into nitrogen gas, thus allowing it to re-enter the atmosphere.

69
Figure 4. Nitrogen enters the living world from the atmosphere via nitrogen-fixing bacteria. This
nitrogen and nitrogenous waste from animals is then processed back into gaseous nitrogen by soil
bacteria, which also supply terrestrial food webs with the organic nitrogen they need. (credit:
“Nitrogen cycle” by Johann Dréo & Raeky is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0)

Human activity can alter the nitrogen cycle by two primary means: the combustion of fossil fuels,
which releases different nitrogen oxides, and by the use of artificial fertilizers (which contain nitrogen
and phosphorus compounds) in agriculture, which are then washed into lakes, streams, and rivers by
surface runoff. Atmospheric nitrogen (other than N 2) is associated with several effects on Earth’s
ecosystems including the production of acid rain (as nitric acid, HNO3) and greenhouse gas effects (as
nitrous oxide, N2O), potentially causing climate change. A major effect from fertilizer runoff is saltwater
and freshwater eutrophication , a process whereby nutrient runoff causes the overgrowth of algae, the
depletion of oxygen, and death of aquatic fauna.
In marine ecosystems, nitrogen compounds created by bacteria, or through decomposition,
collects in ocean floor sediments. It can then be moved to land in geologic time by uplift of
Earth’s crust and thereby incorporated into terrestrial rock. Although the movement of nitrogen
from rock directly into living systems has been traditionally seen as insignificant compared with
nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere, a recent study showed that this process may indeed be
significant and should be included in any study of the global nitrogen cycle.

70
The Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for living processes. It is a major component of nucleic

acids and phospholipids, and, as calcium phosphate, it makes up the supportive components
of our bones. Phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient (necessary for growth) in aquatic,
particularly freshwater, ecosystems.
Phosphorus occurs in nature as the phosphate ion (PO 43-). In addition to phosphate runoff
as a result of human activity, natural surface runoff occurs when it is leached from phosphate-
containing rock by weathering, thus sending phosphates into rivers, lakes, and the ocean. This
rock has its origins in the ocean. Phosphate-containing ocean sediments form primarily from
the bodies of ocean organisms and from their excretions. However, volcanic ash, aerosols, and
mineral dust may also be significant phosphate sources. This sediment then is moved to land
over geologic time by the uplifting of Earth’s surface. (Figure below)
Phosphorus is also reciprocally exchanged between phosphate dissolved in the ocean and
marine organisms. The movement of phosphate from the ocean to the land and through the
soil is extremely slow, with the average phosphate ion having an oceanic residence time
between 20,000 and 100,000 years.

Figure 5. In nature, phosphorus exists as the phosphate ion (PO43-). Weathering of rocks and volcanic activity
releases phosphate into the soil, water, and air, where it becomes available to terrestrial food webs. Phosphate
enters the oceans in surface runoff, groundwater flow, and river flow. Phosphate dissolved in ocean water
cycles into marine food webs. Some phosphate from the marine food webs falls to the ocean floor, where it
forms sediment. (credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)

71
 Excess phosphorus and nitrogen that enter these ecosystems from fertilizer runoff and from
sewage cause excessive growth of algae. The subsequent death and decay of these organisms
depletes dissolved oxygen, which leads to the death of aquatic organisms such as shellfish and
fish. This process is responsible for dead zones in lakes and at the mouths of many major rivers
and for massive fish kills, which often occur during the summer months (see Figure 6 below).

Figure 6. Dead zones occur when phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilizers cause excessive growth of
microorganisms, which depletes oxygen and kills fauna. Worldwide, large dead zones are found in coastal
areas of high population density. (credit: NASA Earth Observatory)

A dead zone is an area in lakes and oceans near the mouths of rivers where large areas are
periodically depleted of their normal flora and fauna. These zones are caused by eutrophication
coupled with other factors including oil spills, dumping toxic chemicals, and other human activities.
The number of dead zones has increased for several years, and more than 400 of these zones
were present as of 2008. One of the worst dead zones is off the coast of the United States in the
Gulf of Mexico: fertilizer runoff from the Mississippi River basin created a dead zone of over 8,463
square miles. Phosphate and nitrate runoff from fertilizers also negatively affect several lake and
bay ecosystems including the Chesapeake Bay in the eastern United States.

The Sulfur Cycle

Sulfur is an essential element for the molecules of living things. As part of the amino acid cysteine, it is
involved in the formation of proteins. As shown in Figure 7 below, sulfur cycles between the oceans,
land, and atmosphere. Atmospheric sulfur is found in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO 2), which enters the
atmosphere in three ways: first, from the decomposition of organic molecules; second, from volcanic
activity and geothermal vents; and, third, from the burning of fossil fuels by humans.

72
Figure 7. Sulfur dioxide from the atmosphere becomes available to terrestrial and marine ecosystems when it is
dissolved in precipitation as weak sulfuric acid or when it falls directly to Earth as fallout. Weathering of rocks also
makes sulfates available to terrestrial ecosystems. Decomposition of living organisms returns sulfates to the ocean,
soil, and atmosphere. (credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)

On land, sulfur is deposited in four major ways: precipitation, direct fallout from the atmosphere, rock
weathering, and geothermal vents. Atmospheric sulfur is found in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO 2), and as
rain falls through the atmosphere, sulfur is dissolved in the form of weak sulfuric acid (H 2SO4). Sulfur can
also fall directly from the atmosphere in a process called fallout. Also, as sulfur-containing rocks weather,
sulfur is released into the soil. These rocks originate from ocean sediments that are moved to land by the
geologic uplifting of ocean sediments. Terrestrial ecosystems can then make use of these soil sulfates
(SO42-), which enter the food web by being taken up by plant roots. When these plants decompose and die,
sulfur is released back into the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) gas.
Sulfur enters the ocean in runoff from land, from atmospheric fallout, and from underwater
geothermal vents. Some ecosystems rely on chemoautotrophs using sulfur as a biological
energy source. This sulfur then supports marine ecosystems in the form of sulfates.
Human activities have played a major role in altering the balance of the global sulfur cycle. The burning of
large quantities of fossil fuels, especially from coal, releases larger amounts of hydrogen sulfide gas into the
atmosphere. As rain falls through this gas, it creates the phenomenon known as acid rain, which damages
the natural environment by lowering the pH of lakes, thus killing many of the resident plants and animals.
Acid rain is corrosive rain caused by rainwater falling to the ground through sulfur dioxide gas, turning it into
weak sulfuric acid, which causes damage to aquatic ecosystems. Acid rain also affects the man-made
environment through the chemical degradation of buildings. For example,

73
many marble monuments, such as the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, DC, have suffered
significant damage from acid rain over the years. These examples show the wide-ranging
effects of human activities on our environment and the challenges that remain for our future.

Suggested Supplementary Reading

Bruckner, M. 2018. The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone. [Website]

<https://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/ topics/deadzone/index.html>

74
3.3 Terrestrial Biomes

Figure 1. Each of the world’s eight major biomes is distinguished by characteristic temperatures and
amount of precipitation. Polar ice caps and mountains are also shown.

There are eight major terrestrial biomes: tropical rainforests, savannas, subtropical deserts,
chaparral, temperate grasslands, temperate forests, boreal forests, and Arctic tundra. Biomes
are large-scale environments that are distinguished by characteristic temperature ranges and
amounts of precipitation. These two variables affect the types of vegetation and animal life that
can exist in those areas. Because each biome is defined by climate, the same biome can occur
in geographically distinct areas with similar climates (Figures 1 and 2).

75
Tropical rainforests are found in equatorial
regions (Figure 1) are the most biodiverse
terrestrial biome. This biodiversity is under 400
extraordinary threat primarily through logging
and deforestation for agriculture. Tropical Tropical

(cm)
rainforests have also been described as nature’s 300 rainforest

pharmacy because of the potential for new drugs

precipitati
that is largely hidden in the chemicals produced rainforest

on
by the huge diversity of plants, animals, and other T
emperate Tropical
200

Annu
organisms. The vegetation is characterized by seasonal

al
plants with spreading roots and broad leaves that seasonal forest
fall off throughout the year, unlike the trees of Temperate
forest/
savanna

100 Boreal
deciduous forests that lose their leaves in one forest Woodland/
season. shrubland
grassland/ Subtropical
The temperature and sunlight profiles of T
undra cold desert
Temperate
desert

tropical rainforests are stable in comparison to

-10 0 10 20 30
other terrestrial biomes, with average
o o o Average annual temperature (°C)
temperatures ranging from 20 C to 34 C (68 F to
Figure 2. Precipitation and temperature are the two most
93oF). Month-to-month temperatures are important climatic variables that determine the type of
relatively constant in tropical rainforests, in biome in a particular location. Credit: “Climate influence
contrast to forests farther from the equator. This on terrestrial biome” by Navarras is in the Public Domain,
lack of temperature seasonality leads to year- CC0
round plant growth rather than just seasonal
growth. In contrast to other ecosystems, a consistent daily amount of sunlight (11–12 hours per day
year-round) provides more solar radiation and therefore more opportunity for primary productivity.
The annual rainfall in tropical rainforests ranges from 125 to 660 cm (50–200 in) with considerable
seasonal variation. Tropical rainforests have wet months in which there can be more than 30 cm
(11–12 in) of precipitation, as well as dry months in which there are fewer than 10 cm (3.5 in) of
rainfall. However, the driest month of a tropical rainforest can still exceed the annual rainfall of some
other biomes, such as deserts.Tropical rainforests have high net primary productivity because the
annual temperatures and precipitation values support rapid plant growth. However, the high
amounts of rainfall leaches nutrients from the soils of these forests.

76
 Tropical rainforests are characterized by vertical
layering of vegetation and the formation of distinct
habitats for animals within each layer. On the forest
floor is a sparse layer of plants and decaying plant
matter. Above that is an understory of short,
shrubby foliage. A layer of trees rises above this
understory and is topped by a closed upper
canopy—the uppermost overhead layer of
branches and leaves. Some additional trees
emerge through this closed upper canopy. These
layers provide diverse and complex habitats for the
variety of plants, animals, and other organisms.
Many species of animals use the variety of plants
Figure 3. Species diversity is very high in tropical wet
and the complex structure of the tropical wet forests
forests, such as these forests of Madre de Dios, Peru, for food and shelter. Some organisms live several
near the Amazon River. (credit: Roosevelt Garcia) meters above ground, rarely descending to the
forest floor.
Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees and are
found in Africa, South America, and northern Australia
(Figure 4 below). Savannas are hot, tropical areas with
temperatures averaging from 24oC –29oC (75oF –84oF) and
an annual rainfall of 51–127 cm (20–50 in). Savannas have
an extensive dry season and consequent fires. As a result,
there are relatively few trees scattered in the grasses and
forbs (herbaceous flowering plants) that dominate the
savanna. Because fire is an important source of disturbance
in this biome, plants have evolved well-developed root
systems that allow them to quickly re-
sprout after a fire. Figure 4. A MinuteEarth video about how
trees create rainfall, and vice versa.

77
 Subtropical deserts exist between 15o and 30o
north and south latitude and are centered on the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
(Figure 6 below). Deserts are frequently located
on the downwind or lee side of mountain ranges,
which create a rain shadow after prevailing winds
drop their water content on the mountains. This is
typical of the North American deserts, such as the
Mohave and Sonoran deserts. Deserts in other
regions, such as the Sahara Desert in northern
Africa or the Namib Desert in southwestern
Africa are dry because of the high-pressure, dry
air descending at those latitudes. Subtropical
deserts are very dry; evaporation typically
Figure 5. Although savannas are dominated by grasses,
small woodlands, such as this one in Mount Archer
exceeds precipitation. Subtropical hot deserts can
have daytime soil surface temperatures above
National Park in Queensland, Australia, may dot the
landscape. (credit: “Ethel Aardvark”/Wikimedia 60oC (140oF) and nighttime temperatures
o o
Commons) approaching 0 C (32 F). Subtropical deserts are
characterized by low annual precipitation of
fewer than 30 cm (12 in) with little monthly variation and lack of predictability in rainfall. Some years
may receive tiny amounts of rainfall, while others receive more. In some cases, the annual rainfall can
be as low as 2 cm (0.8 in) in subtropical deserts located in central Australia (“the Outback”) and northern
Africa.
The low species diversity of this biome is closely related
to its low and unpredictable precipitation. Despite the
relatively low diversity, desert species exhibit fascinating
adaptations to the harshness of their environment. Very dry
deserts lack perennial vegetation that lives from one year
to the next; instead, many plants are annuals that grow
quickly and reproduce when rainfall does occur, then they
die. Perennial plants in deserts are characterized by
adaptations that conserve water: deep roots, reduced
foliage, and water-storing stems (Figure 6 below). Seed
plants in the desert produce seeds that can lie dormant for
extended periods between rains. Most animal life in Figure 6. A MinuteEarth video about the global
subtropical deserts has adapted to a nocturnal life, climate patterns which lead to subtropical
spending the hot daytime hours beneath the ground. The deserts.
Namib Desert is the oldest on the planet, and has probably
been dry for more than 55 million years. It supports a number of endemic species (species
found only there) because of this great age. For example, the unusual gymnosperm
Welwitschia mirabilis is the only extant species of an entire order of plants. There are also five
species of reptiles considered endemic to the Namib.
In addition to subtropical deserts there are cold deserts that experience freezing temperatures
during the winter and any precipitation is in the form of snowfall. The largest of these deserts are
the Gobi Desert in northern China and southern Mongolia, the Taklimakan Desert in western China,
the Turkestan Desert, and the Great Basin Desert of the United States.

78
Figure 7. Many desert plants have tiny leaves or no leaves at all to reduce water loss. The leaves of
ocotillo, shown here in the Chihuahuan Desert in Big Bend National Park, Texas, appear only after rainfall
and then are shed. (credit “bare ocotillo”: “Leaflet”/Wikimedia Commons)

The chaparral is also called scrub forest and is found in California, along the Mediterranean Sea, and
along the southern coast of Australia (Figure 7 below). The annual rainfall in this biome ranges from 65
cm to 75 cm (25.6–29.5 in) and the majority of the rain falls in the winter. Summers are very dry and
many chaparral plants are dormant during the summertime. The chaparral vegetation is dominated by
shrubs and is adapted to periodic fires, with some plants producing seeds that germinate only after a
hot fire. The ashes left behind after a fire are rich in nutrients like nitrogen and fertilize the soil, promoting
plant regrowth. Fire is a natural part of the maintenance of this biome.

Temperate grasslands are found throughout

central North America, where they are also
known as prairies, and in Eurasia, where they are
known as steppes (Figure 8 below). Temperate
grasslands have pronounced annual fluctuations
in temperature with hot summers and cold
winters. The annual temperature variation
produces specific growing seasons for plants.
Plant growth is possible when temperatures are
warm enough to sustain plant growth, which
occurs in the spring, summer, and fall.
Annual precipitation ranges from 25.4 cm to
88.9 cm (10–35 in). Temperate grasslands have
Figure 8. The chaparral is dominated by shrubs. (credit:
few trees except for those found growing along
Miguel Vieira)
rivers or streams. The dominant vegetation tends
to consist of grasses. The treeless condition is
maintained by low precipitation, frequent fires, and grazing. The vegetation is very dense and the soils
are fertile because the subsurface of the soil is packed with the roots and rhizomes (underground stems)
of these grasses. The roots and rhizomes act to anchor plants into the ground and replenish the organic
material (humus) in the soil when they die and decay.

79
 Fires, which are a natural disturbance in temperate
grasslands, can be ignited by lightning strikes. It also
appears that the lightning-caused fire regime in North
American grasslands was enhanced by intentional
burning by humans. When fire is suppressed in
temperate grasslands, the vegetation eventually
converts to scrub and dense forests. Often, the
restoration or management of temperate grasslands
requires the use of controlled burns to suppress the
growth of trees and maintain the grasses.
Figure 9. The American bison (Bison bison),
Temperate forests are the most common biome in
more commonly called the buffalo, is a grazing
eastern North America, Western Europe, Eastern Asia, mammal that once populated American prairies in
Chile, and New Zealand (Figure 9 below). This biome is huge numbers. (credit: Jack Dykinga, USDA ARS)
found throughout mid-latitude regions. Temperatures
range between –30oC and 30oC (–22oF
to 86oF) and drop to below freezing on an annual basis. These temperatures mean that temperate
forests have defined growing seasons during the spring, summer, and early fall. Precipitation is relatively
constant throughout the year and ranges between 75 cm and 150 cm (29.5–59 in).
Deciduous trees are the dominant plant in this biome with fewer evergreen conifers. Deciduous trees lose
their leaves each fall and remain leafless in the winter. Thus, little photosynthesis occurs during the dormant
winter period. Each spring, new leaves appear as temperature increases. Because of the dormant period,
the net primary productivity of temperate forests is less than that of tropical rainforests. In addition, temperate
forests show far less diversity of tree species than tropical rainforest biomes.
The trees of the temperate forests leaf out and shade much of the ground. However, more sunlight reaches
the ground in this biome than in tropical rainforests because trees in temperate forests do not grow as tall as
the trees in tropical rainforests. The soils of the temperate forests are rich in inorganic and organic nutrients
compared to tropical rainforests. This is because of the thick layer of leaf litter on forest floors and reduced
leaching of nutrients by rainfall. As this leaf litter decays, nutrients are returned to the soil. The leaf litter also
protects soil from erosion, insulates the ground, and provides habitats for
invertebrates and their predators.
The boreal forest, also known as taiga or
coniferous forest, is found roughly between
50oand 60o north latitude across most of Canada,
Alaska, Russia, and northern Europe (Figure 10
below). Boreal forests are also found above a
certain elevation (and below high elevations
where trees cannot grow) in mountain ranges
throughout the Northern Hemisphere. This biome
has cold, dry winters and short, cool, wet summers.
The annual precipitation is from 40 cm to 100 cm
(15.7–39 in) and usually takes the form of snow;
relatively little evaporation occurs because of the
cool temperatures.
The long and cold winters in the boreal forest
Figure 10. Deciduous trees are the dominant plant have led to the predominance of cold-tolerant
in the temperate forest. (credit: Oliver Herold) cone-bearing plants. These are evergreen

80
coniferous trees like pines, spruce, and fir, which retain their needle-shaped leaves year-round.
Evergreen trees can photosynthesize earlier in the spring than deciduous trees because less energy from
the Sun is required to warm a needle-like leaf than a broad leaf. Evergreen trees grow faster than
deciduous trees in the boreal forest. In addition, soils in boreal forest regions tend to be acidic with little
available nitrogen. Leaves are a nitrogen-rich structure and deciduous trees must produce a new set of
these nitrogen-rich structures each year. Therefore, coniferous trees that retain nitrogen-rich needles in
a nitrogen limiting environment may have had a competitive advantage over the broad-leafed deciduous
trees.
The net primary productivity of boreal forests
is lower than that of temperate forests and tropical
wet forests. The aboveground biomass of boreal
forests is high because these slow-growing tree
species are long-lived and accumulate standing
biomass over time. Species diversity is less than
that seen in temperate forests and tropical
rainforests. Boreal forests lack the layered forest
structure seen in tropical rainforests or, to a lesser
degree, temperate forests. The structure of a
boreal forest is often only a tree layer and a
ground layer. When conifer needles are dropped,
they decompose more slowly than broad leaves; Figure 11. The boreal forest (taiga) has low lying plants
therefore, fewer nutrients are returned to the soil and conifer trees. (credit: L.B. Brubaker, NOAA)
to fuel plant growth.

The Arctic tundra lies north of the subarctic boreal forests and is located throughout the Arctic regions
of the Northern Hemisphere. Tundra also exists at elevations above the tree line on mountains. The
average winter temperature is –34°C (–29.2°F) and the average summer temperature is 3°C–12°C
(37°F –52°F). Plants in the Arctic tundra have a short growing season of approximately 50–60 days.
However, during this time, there are almost 24 hours of daylight and plant growth is rapid. The annual
precipitation of the Arctic tundra is low (15–25 cm or 6–10 in) with little annual variation in precipitation.
And, as in the boreal forests, there is little evaporation because of the cold temperatures.
Plants in the Arctic tundra are generally low to the
ground and include low shrubs, grasses, lichens,
and small flowering plants (Figure 11 below). There
is little species diversity, low net primary
productivity, and low above-ground biomass. The
soils of the Arctic tundra may remain in a perennially
frozen state referred to as permafrost. The
permafrost makes it impossible for roots to
penetrate far into the soil and slows the decay of
organic matter, which inhibits the release of
Figure 12. Low-growing plants such lichen and grasses nutrients from organic matter. The melting of the
are common in tundra. Credit: Nunavut tundra by Flickr: permafrost in the brief summer provides water for a
My Nunavut is licensed under CC BY 2.0 burst of productivity while temperatures and long
days permit it. During the
growing season, the ground of the Arctic tundra can be completely covered with plants or lichens.

81
3.4 Aquatic Biomes

Abiotic Factors Influencing Aquatic Biomes

Like terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes are influenced by a series of abiotic factors. The aquatic
medium—water— has different physical and chemical properties than air. Even if the water in a pond
or other body of water is perfectly clear (there are no suspended particles), water still absorbs light.
As one descends into a deep body of water, there will eventually be a depth which the sunlight cannot
reach. While there are some abiotic and biotic factors in a terrestrial ecosystem that might obscure
light (like fog, dust, or insect swarms), usually these are not permanent features of the environment.
The importance of light in aquatic biomes is central to the communities of organisms found in both
freshwater and marine ecosystems. In freshwater systems, stratification due to differences in density
is perhaps the most critical abiotic factor and is related to the energy aspects of light. The thermal
properties of water (rates of heating and cooling) are significant to the function of ma rine systems and
have major impacts on global climate and weather patterns. Marine systems are also influenced by large-
scale physical water movements, such as currents; these are less important in most freshwater lakes.
The ocean is categorized by several areas or
zones (Figure 1). All of the ocean’s open water is
referred to as the pelagic zone. The benthic zone
extends along the ocean bottom from the
shoreline to the deepest parts of the ocean floor.
Within the pelagic realm is the photic zone,
which is the portion of the ocean that light can
penetrate (approximately 200 m or 650 ft). At
depths greater than 200 m, light cannot penetrate;
thus, this is referred to as the aphotic zone. The
majority of the ocean is aphotic and lacks
Figure 1. The ocean is divided into different zones based sufficient light for photosynthesis. The deepest
on water depth and distance from the shoreline. part of the ocean, the Challenger Deep (in the
Mariana Trench, located in the western Pacific
Ocean), is about 11,000 m (about 6.8 mi) deep. To give some perspective on the depth of this trench, the
ocean is, on average, 4267 m. These zones are relevant to freshwater lakes as well.

Marine Biomes

The ocean is the largest marine biome. It is a continuous body of salt water that is relatively
uniform in chemical composition; it is a weak solution of mineral salts and decayed biological
matter. Within the ocean, coral reefs are a second kind of marine biome. Estuaries, coastal
areas where salt water and fresh water mix, form a third unique marine biome.

91

82
92 Matthew R. Fisher

Ocean

The physical diversity of the ocean is a significant influence on plants, animals, and other organisms.
The ocean is categorized into different zones based on how far light reaches into the water. Each zone
has a distinct group of species adapted to the biotic and abiotic conditions particular to that zone.
The intertidal zone, which is the zone between high and low tide, is the oceanic region that is closest
to land (Figure 2). Generally, most people think of this portion of the ocean as a sandy beach. In some
cases, the intertidal zone is indeed a sandy beach, but it can also be rocky or muddy. Organisms are
exposed to air and sunlight at low tide and are underwater most of the time, especially during high tide.
Therefore, living things that thrive in the intertidal zone are adapted to being dry for long periods of
time. The shore of the intertidal zone is also repeatedly struck by waves, and the organisms found there
are adapted to withstand damage from the pounding action of the waves (Figure 2). The exoskeletons
of shoreline crustaceans (such as the shore crab, Carcinus maenas) are tough and protect them from
desiccation (drying out) and wave damage. Another consequence of the pounding waves is that few
algae and plants establish themselves in the constantly moving rocks, sand, or mud.
The neritic zone (Figure 1) extends from the
intertidal zone to depths of about 200 m (or 650
ft) at the edge of the continental shelf.
Because light can penetrate this depth,
photosynthesis can occur. The water here
contains silt and is well-oxygenated, low in
pressure, and stable in temperature.
Phytoplankton and floating Sargassum (a type of
free-floating marine seaweed) provide a habitat
for some sea life found in the neritic zone.
Zooplankton, protists, small fishes, and shrimp
are found in the neritic zone and are the base of
the food chain for most of the world’s fisheries. Figure 2. Sea urchins, mussel shells, and starfish are often
Beyond the neritic zone is the open ocean area found in the intertidal zone, shown here in Kachemak Bay,
known as the oceanic zone (Figure 1). Within the Alaska. (credit: NOAA)
oceanic zone there is thermal stratification where
warm and cold waters mix because of ocean currents. Abundant plankton serve as the base of the food
chain for larger animals such as whales and dolphins. Nutrients are scarce and this is a relatively less
productive part of the marine biome. When photosynthetic organisms and the protists and animals that
feed on them die, their bodies fall to the bottom of the ocean where they remain. The majority of
organisms in the aphotic zone include sea cucumbers (phylum Echinodermata) and other organisms
that survive on the nutrients contained in the dead bodies of organisms in the photic zone.
The deepest part of the ocean is the abyssal zone, which is at depths of 4000 m or greater.
The abyssal zone (Figure 1) is very cold and has very high pressure, high oxygen content, and
low nutrient content. There are a variety of invertebrates and fishes found in this zone, but the
abyssal zone does not have plants because of the lack of light. Cracks in the Earth’s crust
called hydrothermal vents are found primarily in the abyssal zone. Around these vents
chemosynthetic bacteria utilize the hydrogen sulfide and other minerals emitted as an energy
source and serve as the base of the food chain found in the abyssal zone.
Beneath the water is the benthic zone (Figure 1), which is comprised of sand, silt, and dead
organisms. This is a nutrient-rich portion of the ocean because of the dead organisms that fall from the

83
 Environmental Biology 93

upper layers of the ocean. Because of this high level of nutrients, a diversity of sponges, sea
anemones, marine worms, sea stars, fishes, and bacteria exist.

Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are characterized by high biodiversity and

the structures created by invertebrates that live in warm,
shallow waters within the photic zone of the ocean. They
are mostly found within 30 degrees north and south of the
equator. The Great Barrier Reef is a well-known reef system
located several miles off the northeastern coast of Australia.
The coral organisms (members of phylum Cnidaria) are
colonies of saltwater polyps that secrete a calcium
carbonate skeleton. These calcium-rich skeletons slowly
accumulate, forming the underwater reef (Figure 3). Corals
found in shallower waters (at a depth of approximately 60
m or about 200 ft) have a mutualistic relationship with
photosynthetic unicellular algae. The relationship provides
corals with the majority of the nutrition and the energy they
require. The waters in which these corals live are
nutritionally poor and, without this mutualism, it would not
be possible for large corals to grow. Some corals living in
deeper and colder water do not have a mutualistic
relationship with algae; these corals attain energy and
nutrients using stinging cells on their tentacles to capture
prey. It is estimated that more than 4,000 fish species Figure 3. Coral reefs are formed by the
inhabit coral reefs. These fishes can feed on coral, other calcium carbonate skeletons of coral
invertebrates, or the seaweed and algae that are organisms, which are marine invertebrates in
associated with the coral. the phylum Cnidaria. (credit: Terry Hughes)

EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Global Decline of Coral Reefs

It takes a long time to build a coral reef. The animals that create
coral reefs have evolved over millions of years, continuing to
slowly deposit the calcium carbonate that forms their
characteristic ocean homes. Bathed in warm tropical waters, the
coral animals and their symbiotic algal partners evolved to
survive at the upper limit of ocean water temperature.
Together, climate change and human activity pose dual threats to
the long-term survival of the world’s coral reefs. As global warming
Link to Learning: Watch this due to fossil fuel emissions raises ocean temperatures, coral reefs
National Oceanic and Atmospheric are suffering. The excessive warmth causes the reefs to expel their
Administration (NOAA) video to see symbiotic, food-producing algae, resulting in a phenomenon known
marine ecologist Dr. Peter Etnoyer as bleaching. When bleaching occurs, the reefs lose much of their
discusses his research on coral characteristic color as the algae and the coral animals die if loss of
organisms.
the symbiotic zooxanthellae is prolonged.

84
 Rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide further threaten the corals in other ways; as CO 2dissolves in
ocean waters, it lowers the pH and increases ocean acidity. As acidity increases, it interferes with the
calcification that normally occurs as coral animals build their calcium carbonate homes.
When a coral reef begins to die, species diversity plummets as animals lose food and shelter.
Coral reefs are also economically important tourist destinations, so the decline of coral reefs
poses a serious threat to coastal economies.
Human population growth has damaged corals in other ways, too. As human coastal populations
increase, the runoff of sediment and agricultural chemicals has increased, too, causing some of the
once-clear tropical waters to become cloudy. At the same time, overfishing of popular fish species
has allowed the predator species that eat corals to go unchecked.
Although a rise in global temperatures of 1–2˚C (a conservative scientific projection) in the coming
decades may not seem large, it is very significant to this biome. When change occurs rapidly, species
can become extinct before evolution leads to new adaptations. Many scientists believe that global
warming, with its rapid (in terms of evolutionary time) and inexorable increases in temperature, is tipping
the balance beyond the point at which many of the world’s coral reefs can recover.

Estuaries: Where the Ocean Meets Fresh Water

Estuaries are biomes that occur where a source of fresh water, such as a river, meets the ocean.
Therefore, both fresh water and salt water are found in the same vicinity; mixing results in a diluted
(brackish) saltwater. Estuaries form protected areas where many of the young offspring of crustaceans,
mollusks, and fish begin their lives. Salinity is a very important factor that influences the organisms and
the adaptations of the organisms found in estuaries. The salinity of estuaries varies and is based on the
rate of flow of its freshwater sources. Once or twice a day, high tides bring salt water into the estuary.
Low tides occurring at the same frequency reverse the current of salt water.
The short-term and rapid variation in salinity due to the mixing of fresh water and salt water is a
difficult physiological challenge for the plants and animals that inhabit estuaries. Many estuarine plant
species are halophytes: plants that can tolerate salty conditions. Halophytic plants are adapted to deal
with the salinity resulting from saltwater on their roots or from sea spray. In some halophytes, filters in
the roots remove the salt from the water that the plant absorbs. Other plants are able to pump oxygen
into their roots. Animals, such as mussels and clams (phylum Mollusca), have developed behavioral
adaptations that expend a lot of energy to function in this rapidly changing environment. When these
animals are exposed to low salinity, they stop feeding, close their shells, and switch from aerobic
respiration (in which they use gills) to anaerobic respiration (a process that does not require oxygen).
When high tide returns to the estuary, the salinity and oxygen content of the water increases, and these
animals open their shells, begin feeding, and return to aerobic respiration.

Freshwater Biomes

Freshwater biomes include lakes and ponds (standing water) as well as rivers and streams
(flowing water). They also include wetlands, which will be discussed later. Humans rely on
freshwater biomes to provide aquatic resources for drinking water, crop irrigation, sanitation,
and industry. These various roles and human benefits are referred to as ecosystem services.
Lakes and ponds are found in terrestrial landscapes and are, therefore, connected with abiotic
and biotic factors influencing these terrestrial biomes.

85
Lakes and Ponds

Lakes and ponds can range in area from a few square meters to thousands of square kilometers.
Temperature is an important abiotic factor affecting living things found in lakes and ponds. In the
summer, thermal stratification of lakes and ponds occurs when the upper layer of water is warmed by the
sun and does not mix with deeper, cooler water. Light can penetrate within the photic zone of the lake
or pond. Phytoplankton (small photosynthetic organisms such as algae and cyanobacteria that float in
the water) are found here and carry out photosynthesis, providing the base of the food web of lakes and
ponds. Zooplankton (very small animals that float in the water), such as rotifers and small crustaceans,
consume these phytoplankton. At the bottom of lakes and ponds, bacteria in the aphotic zone break down
dead organisms that sink to the bottom.
Nitrogen and phosphorus are important
limiting nutrients in lakes and ponds. Because of
this, they are determining factors in the amount of
phytoplankton growth in lakes and ponds. When
there is a large input of nitrogen and phosphorus
(from sewage and runoff from fertilized lawns
and farms, for example), the growth of algae
skyrockets, resulting in a large accumulation of
algae called an algal bloom. Algal blooms
(Figure 4) can become so extensive that they
reduce light penetration in water. As a result, the
lake or pond becomes aphotic and photosynthetic
plants rooted in the lake bottom cannot survive.
When the algae die and decompose, severe Figure 4. The uncontrolled growth of algae in this
other organisms that require oxygen are then lake has resulted in an algal bloom. (credit: Jeremy
more likely to die, and resulting dead zones are Nettleton)
found across the globe. Lake Erie and the Gulf of Mexico represent freshwater and marine habitats
where phosphorus control and storm water runoff pose significant environmental challenges.

Rivers and Streams

Rivers and streams are continuously moving bodies of water that carry large amounts of water from the
source, or headwater, to a lake or ocean. The largest rivers include the Nile River in Africa, the Amazon
River in South America, and the Mississippi River in North America.
Abiotic features of rivers and streams vary along the length of the river or stream. Streams begin at
a point of origin referred to as source water. The source water is usually cold, low in nutrients, and clear.
The channel (the width of the river or stream) is narrower than at any other place along the length of the
river or stream. Because of this, the current is often faster here than at any other point of the river or
stream.
The fast-moving water results in minimal silt accumulation at the bottom of the river or stream,
therefore the water is clear. Photosynthesis here is mostly attributed to algae that are growing on rocks;
the swift current inhibits the growth of phytoplankton. An additional input of energy can come from leaves
or other organic material that falls into the river or stream from trees and other plants that border the
water. When the leaves decompose, the organic material and nutrients in the leaves are returned to

86
the water. Plants and animals have adapted to this fast-moving water. For instance, leeches
(phylum Annelida) have elongated bodies and suckers on both ends. These suckers attach to
the substrate, keeping the leech anchored in place. Freshwater trout species (phylum
Chordata) are an important predator in these fast-moving rivers and streams.
As the river or stream flows away from the source, the width of the channel gradually widens and the
current slows. This slow-moving water, caused by the gradient decrease and the volume increase as
tributaries unite, has more sedimentation. Phytoplankton can also be suspended in slow-moving water.
Therefore, the water will not be as clear as it is near the source. The water is also warmer. Worms
(phylum Annelida) and insects (phylum Arthropoda) can be found burrowing into the mud. The higher
order predator vertebrates (phylum Chordata) include waterfowl, frogs, and fishes. These predators
must find food in these slow moving, sometimes murky, waters and, unlike the trout in the waters at the
source, these vertebrates may not be able to use vision as their primary sense to find food. Instead,
they are more likely to use taste or chemical cues to find prey.

Wetlands

Wetlands are environments in which the soil is

either permanently or periodically saturated with
water. Wetlands are different from lakes because
wetlands are shallow bodies of water that may
periodically dry out. Emergent vegetation
consists of wetland plants that are rooted in the
soil but have portions of leaves, stems, and
flowers extending above the water’s surface.
There are several types of wetlands including
marshes, swamps, bogs, mudflats, and salt
marshes (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Located in southern Florida, Everglades

National Park is vast array of wetland environments,
including sawgrass marshes, cypress swamps, and
estuarine mangrove forests. Here, a great egret
walks among cypress trees. (credit: NPS)

87
3.5 Chapter Resources

Summary

Ecosystems exist underground, on land, at sea, and in the air. Organisms in an ecosystem acquire
energy in a variety of ways, which is transferred between trophic levels as the energy flows from the
base to the top of the food web, with energy being lost at each transfer. Mineral nutrients are cycled
through ecosystems and their environment. Of particular importance are water, carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and sulfur. All of these cycles have major impacts on ecosystem structure and function.
Ecosystems have been damaged by a variety of human activities that alter the natural biogeochemical
cycles due to pollution, oil spills, and events causing global climate change. The health of the biosphere
depends on understanding these cycles and how to protect the environment from irreversible damage.
Earth has terrestrial and aquatic biomes. There are eight major terrestrial biomes: tropical rainforests,
savannas, subtropical deserts, chaparral, temperate grasslands, temperate forests, boreal forests, and
Arctic tundra. Temperature and precipitation, and variations in both, are key abiotic factors that shape
the composition of animal and plant communities in terrestrial biomes. Sunlight is an important factor in
bodies of water, especially those that are very deep, because of the role of photosynthesis in sustaining
certain organisms. Other important factors include temperature, water movement, and salt content.
Aquatic biomes include both freshwater and marine environments. Like terrestrial biomes, aquatic
biomes are influenced by abiotic factors. In the case of aquatic biomes the abiotic factors include light,
temperature, flow regime, and dissolved solids.

Review Questions

1. Secondary consumers would eat which one following?

A. Producers
B. Plants
C. Herbivores
D. Carnivores
E. Tertiary consumers

2. If you are concerned about biomagnification of toxins, which one of the following would you
most want to avoid eating?
A. Tuna (tertiary consumer)
B. Seaweed (producer)
C. Urchin (primary consumer)
D. Sculpin (secondary consumer)
E. Any photoautotroph

3. Which one of the following is not a biogeochemical cycle?

A. Energy cycle
B. Nitrogen cycle

88
 C. Carbon cycle
D. Phosphorus cycle
E. Water cycle

4. Which one of the following would not increase the amount of water in the atmosphere?
A. Evaporation
B. Transpiration
C. Sublimation
D. Infiltration
E. Evapotranspiration

5. Which one of the following processes would remove nitrates from contaminated water by
converting it into nitrogen gas?
A. Nitrification
B. Nitrogen fixation
C. Denitrification
D. Assimilation
E. Ammonification

6. What do deserts and chaparral have in common?

A. Dry and hot summers
B. Dominated by abundant evergreen shrubs
C. Both can exist as either the hot or cold variety
D. Very small amounts of rainfall consistently throughout the year
E. Very low biodiversity

7. Which one of the following would most likely live within the benthic realm of the ocean?
A. Squid
B. Tuna
C. Phytoplankton
D. Marine worm
E. Shark

8. What two variables most strongly contribute to the type of biome that exists in a particular area?

A. Precipitation levels and temperature

B. Type of producers and density of herbivores
C. Amount of sunlight and annual rainfall
D. Soil type and amount of O2
E. Distance from ocean and elevation

9. The conversion of nitrogen gas (N2) into ammonia (NH3) happens during which specific process?

A. Ammonification
B. Dentification
C. Nitrification
D. Nitrogenous cycling
E. Nitrogen fixation

89
 Environmental Biology 99

10. Use your knowledge of the relative energy content among trophic levels to answer the
following question: A larger human population could be supported if all humans derived their
food from which trophic level?
A. Producers
B. Primary consumers
C. Secondary consumers
D. Tertiary consumers
E. Quaternary consumers

90
Chapter 4: Community & Population Ecology

Asian carp jump out of the water in response to electrofishing. The Asian carp in the inset photograph
were harvested from the Little Calumet River in Illinois in May, 2010, using rotenone, a toxin often used
as an insecticide, in an effort to learn more about the population of the species. (credit main image:
modification of work by USGS; credit inset: modification of work by Lt. David French, USCG)

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe how ecologists measure population size and density

• Describe three different patterns of population distribution
• Give examples of how the carrying capacity of a habitat may change
• Explain how humans have expanded the carrying capacity of their habitat
• Discuss the long-term implications of unchecked human population growth

Chapter Outline

• 4.1 Population Dynamics and Demographics

• 4.2 Population Growth & Regulation
• 4.3 The Human Population

91
 • 4.4 Community Ecology
• 4.5 Chapter Resources

4.1 Population Demographics & Dynamics

Imagine sailing down a river in a small motorboat on a weekend afternoon; the water is smooth,
and you are enjoying the sunshine and cool breeze when suddenly you are hit in the head by a 20-
pound silver carp. This is a risk now on many rivers and canal systems in Illinois and Missouri
because of the presence of Asian carp. This fish—actually a group of species including the silver,
black, grass, and big head carp—has been farmed and eaten in China for over 1,000 years. It is
one of the most important aquaculture food resources worldwide. In the United States, however,
Asian carp is considered a dangerous invasive species that disrupts ecological community structure
to the point of threatening native species. The effects of invasive species (such as the Asian carp,
kudzu vine, predatory snakehead fish, and zebra mussel) are just one aspect of what ecologists
study to understand how populations interact within ecological communities, and what impact
natural and human-induced disturbances have on the characteristics of communities.

Populations are dynamic entities. Their size and composition fluctuate in response to numerous
factors, including seasonal and yearly changes in the environment, natural disasters such as
forest fires and volcanic eruptions, and competition for resources between and within species.
The study of populations is called demography.

Population Size and Density

Populations are characterized by their

population size (total number of individuals) and
their population density (number of individuals
per unit area). A population may have a large
number of individuals that are distributed densely,
or sparsely. There are also populations with small
numbers of individuals that may be dense or very
sparsely distributed in a local area. Population
size can affect potential for adaptation because it
affects the amount of genetic variation present in
the population. Density can have effects on
interactions within a population such as
competition for food and the ability of individuals
Figure 1. Australian mammals show a typical
to find a mate. Smaller organisms tend to be
inverse relationship between population density and
more densely distributed than larger organisms
body size. As this graph shows, population density
(Figure 1). typically decreases with increasing body size. Why
do you think this is the case?

92
Estimating Population Size

The most accurate way to determine population size is to count all of the individuals within the area.
However, this method is usually not logistically or economically feasible, especially when studying
large areas. Thus, scientists usually study populations by sampling a representative portion of each
habitat and use this sample to make inferences about the population as a whole. The methods used
to sample populations to determine their size and density are typically tailored to the characteristics
of the organism being studied. For immobile organisms such as plants, or for very small and slow-
moving organisms, a quadrat may be used. A quadrat is a square structure that is randomly located
on the ground and used to count the number of individuals that lie within its boundaries. To obtain
an accurate count using this method, the square must be placed at random locations within the
habitat enough times to produce an accurate estimate.
For smaller mobile organisms, such as mammals, a technique called mark and recapture is often
used. This method involves marking captured animals in and releasing them back into the environment
to mix with the rest of the population. Later, a new sample is captured and scientists determine how
many of the marked animals are in the new sample. This method assumes that the larger the population,
the lower the percentage of marked organisms that will be recaptured since they will have mixed with
more unmarked individuals. For example, if 80 field mice are captured, marked, and released into the
forest, then a second trapping 100 field mice are captured and 20 of them are marked, the population
size (N) can be determined using the following equation:

N = (number marked first catch x total number of second catch)/number marked second catch

Using our example, the equation would be:

(80 x 100)/20 = 400

These results give us an estimate of 400 total individuals in the original population. The true
number usually will be a bit different from this because of chance errors and possible bias
caused by the sampling methods.

Species Distribution

In addition to measuring size and density, further information about a population can be
obtained by looking at the distribution of the individuals throughout their range. A species
distribution pattern is the distribution of individuals within a habitat at a particular point in time—
broad categories of patterns are used to describe them.
Individuals within a population can be distributed at random, in groups, or equally spaced apart (more or
less). These are known as random, clumped, and uniform distribution patterns, respectively (Figure 2).
Different distributions reflect important aspects of the biology of the species. They also affect the
mathematical methods required to estimate population sizes. An example of random distribution occurs with
dandelion and other plants that have wind-dispersed seeds that germinate wherever they happen to fall in
favorable environments. A clumped distribution, may be seen in plants that drop their seeds straight to the
ground, such as oak trees; it can also be seen in animals that live in social groups (schools of fish or herds
of elephants). Uniform distribution is observed in plants that secrete substances inhibiting the growth of
nearby individuals (such as the release of toxic chemicals by sage plants). It

93
is also seen in territorial animal species, such as penguins that maintain a defined territory for
nesting. The territorial defensive behaviors of each individual create a regular pattern of
distribution of similar-sized territories and individuals within those territories. Thus, the
distribution of the individuals within a population provides more information about how they
interact with each other than does a simple density measurement. Just as lower density species
might have more difficulty finding a mate, solitary species with a random distribution might have
a similar difficulty when compared to social species clumped together in groups.

Figure 2. Species may have a random, clumped, or uniform distribution. Plants such as (a) dandelions with wind-
dispersed seeds tend to be randomly distributed. Animals such as (b) elephants that travel in groups exhibit a clumped
distribution. Territorial birds such as (c) penguins tend to have a uniform distribution. (credit a: modification of work by
Rosendahl; credit b: modification of work by Rebecca Wood; credit c: modification of work by Ben Tubby)

Life tables provide important information about the life history of an organism and the life
expectancy of individuals at each age. They are modeled after actuarial tables used by the
insurance industry for estimating human life expectancy. Life tables may include the probability of
each age group dying before their next birthday, the percentage of surviving individuals dying at a
particular age interval (their mortality rate, and their life expectancy at each interval. An example of
a life table is shown in Table 1 from a study of Dall mountain sheep, a species native to northwestern
North America. Notice that the population is divided into age intervals (column A).
As can be seen from the mortality rate data (column D), a high death rate occurred when the
sheep were between six months and a year old, and then increased even more from 8 to 12
years old, after which there were few survivors. The data indicate that if a sheep in this
population were to survive to age one, it could be expected to live another 7.7 years on average,
as shown by the life-expectancy numbers in column E.

94
 Table 1. This life table of Ovis dalli shows the number of deaths, number of survivors,
mortality rate, and life expectancy at each age interval for Dall mountain sheep.

1
Life Table of Dall Mountain Sheep

Number dying Number surviving Mortality rate Life expectancy

Age or mean lifetime
interval in age interval at beginning of per 1000 alive at
out of 1000 age interval out of beginning of age remaining to
(years) those attaining
born 1000 born interval
age interval
0–0.5 54 1000 54.0 7.06
0.5–1 145 946 153.3 —
1–2 12 801 15.0 7.7
2–3 13 789 16.5 6.8
3–4 12 776 15.5 5.9
4–5 30 764 39.3 5.0
5–6 46 734 62.7 4.2
6–7 48 688 69.8 3.4
7–8 69 640 107.8 2.6
8–9 132 571 231.2 1.9
9–10 187 439 426.0 1.3
10–11 156 252 619.0 0.9
11–12 90 96 937.5 0.6
12–13 3 6 500.0 1.2
13–14 3 3 1000 0.7

95
Another tool used by population ecologists is a
survivorship curve, which is a graph of the
number of individuals surviving at each age
interval versus time. These curves allow us to
compare the life histories of different
populations (Figure 3). There are three types of
survivorship curves. In a type I curve, mortality
is low in the early and middle years and occurs
mostly in older individuals. Organisms exhibiting
a type I survivorship typically produce few
offspring and provide good care to the offspring
increasing the likelihood of their survival.
Humans and most mammals exhibit a type I Figure 3. Survivorship curves show the distribution of
survivorship curve. In type II curves, mortality is individuals in a population according to age. Humans
and most mammals have a Type I survivorship curve,
relatively constant throughout the entire life because death primarily occurs in the older years.
span, and mortality is equally likely to occur at Birds have a Type II survivorship curve, as death at
any age is equally probable. Trees have a Type III
any point in the life span. Many bird populations
survivorship curve because very few survive the
provide examples of an intermediate or type II younger years, but after a certain age, individuals are
survivorship curve. In type III survivorship much more likely to survive.

curves, early ages experience the highest

mortality with much lower mortality rates for
organisms that make it to advanced years. Type
III organisms typically produce large numbers of
offspring, but provide very little or no care for
them. Trees and marine invertebrates exhibit a
type III survivorship curve because very few of
these organisms survive their age are more likely
to survive for a relatively long younger years, but
those that do make it to an old period of time.

96
4.2 Population Growth and Regulation

Population ecologists make use of a variety of methods to model population dynamics. An accurate
model should be able to describe the changes occurring in a population and predict future changes.

Population Growth

The two simplest models of population growth use deterministic equations (equations that do not
account for random events) to describe the rate of change in the size of a population over time. The
first of these models, exponential growth, describes populations that increase in numbers without
any limits to their growth. The second model, logistic growth, introduces limits to reproductive
growth that become more intense as the population size increases. Neither model adequately
describes natural populations, but they provide points of comparison.

Exponential Growth

Charles Darwin, in developing his theory of natural selection, was influenced by the English clergyman
Thomas Malthus. Malthus published his book in 1798 stating that populations with abundant natural
resources grow very rapidly. However, they limit further growth by depleting their resources. The early
pattern of accelerating population size is called exponential growth (Figure 1).
The best example of exponential growth in organisms is seen in bacteria. Bacteria are
prokaryotes that reproduce quickly, about an hour for many species. If 1000 bacteria are placed in
a large flask with an abundant supply of nutrients (so the nutrients will not become quickly depleted),
the number of bacteria will have doubled from 1000 to 2000 after just an hour. In another hour,
each of the 2000 bacteria will divide, producing 4000 bacteria. After the third hour, there should be
8000 bacteria in the flask. The important concept of exponential growth is that the growth rate—the
number of organisms added in each reproductive generation—is itself increasing; that is, the
population size is increasing at a greater and greater rate. After 24 of these cycles, the population
would have increased from 1000 to more than 16 billion bacteria. When the population size, N, is
plotted over time, a J-shaped growth curve is produced (Figure 1).
The bacteria-in-a-flask example is not truly representative of the real world where resources
are usually limited. However, when a species is introduced into a new habitat that it finds
suitable, it may show exponential growth for a while. In the case of the bacteria in the flask,
some bacteria will die during the experiment and thus not reproduce; therefore, the growth rate
is lowered from a maximal rate in which there is no mortality.

Logistic Growth

Extended exponential growth is possible only when infinite natural resources are available; this is not
the case in the real world. Charles Darwin recognized this fact in his description of the “struggle for
existence,” which states that individuals will compete, with members of their own or other species, for

97
limited resources. The successful ones are more likely to survive and pass on the traits that
made them successful to the next generation at a greater rate (natural selection). To model the
reality of limited resources, population ecologists developed the logistic growth model.

Carrying Capacity and the Logistic Model

In the real world, with its limited resources,

exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely.
Exponential growth may occur in environments
where there are few individuals and plentiful
resources, but when the number of individuals gets
large enough, resources will be depleted and the
growth rate will slow down. Eventually, the growth
(Figure 1). This population size, which is determined
rate will plateau or level off.
by the maximum population size that a particular
A graph of logistic growth yields the S-shaped environment can sustain, is called the carrying
curve (Figure 1). It is a more realistic model of capacity , symbolized as K. In real populations, a
growing population often overshoots its carrying
population growth than exponential growth. There
capacity and the death rate increases beyond the
are three different sections to an S-shaped curve. birth rate causing the population size to decline back
Initially, growth is exponential because there are to the carrying capacity or below it. Most
few individuals and ample resources available. Then, populations
as resources usually
beginfluctuate around
to become the carrying
limited, the growth
rate decreases. Finally, the growth rate levels off at the carrying capacity of the environment, with little
capacity in an undulating fashion rather than existing
change in population number over time.
right at it.
Examples of Logistic Growth

Yeast, a unicellular fungus used to make bread and alcoholic beverages, exhibits the
classical S-shaped curve when grown in a test tube (Figure 2a). Its growth levels off as the
population depletes the nutrients that are necessary for its growth. In the real world,
however, there are variations to this idealized curve. Examples in wild populations include
sheep and harbor seals (Figure 2b). In both examples, the population size exceeds the
carrying capacity for short periods of time and then falls below the carrying capacity
afterwards. This fluctuation in population size continues to occur as the population oscillates
around its carrying capacity. Still, even with this oscillation the logistic model is confirmed.

98
 Figure 2. (a) Yeast grown in ideal conditions in a test tube shows a classical S-
shaped logistic growth curve, whereas (b) a natural population of seals shows real-
world fluctuation. The yeast is visualized using differential interference contrast light
micrography. (credit a: scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Population Dynamics and Regulation

The logistic model of population growth, while valid in many natural populations and a useful model, is
a simplification of real-world population dynamics. Implicit in the model is that the carrying capacity of
the environment does not change, which is not the case. The carrying capacity varies annually. For
example, some summers are hot and dry whereas others are cold and wet; in many areas, the carrying
capacity during the winter is much lower than it is during the summer. Also, natural events such as
earthquakes, volcanoes, and fires can alter an environment and hence its carrying capacity. Additionally,
populations do not usually exist in isolation. They share the environment with other species, competing
with them for the same resources (interspecific competition). These factors are also important to
understanding how a specific population will grow.

99
Why Did the Woolly Mammoth Go Extinct?

Figure 3. The three images include: (a) 1916 mural of a mammoth herd from the American Museum of Natural
History, (b) the only stuffed mammoth in the world is in the Museum of Zoology located in St. Petersburg, Russia, and
(c) a one-month-old baby mammoth, named Lyuba, discovered in Siberia in 2007. (credit a: modification of work by
Charles R. Knight; credit b: modification of work by “Tanapon”/Flickr; credit c: modification of work
by Matt Howry)

Most populations of woolly mammoths went extinct about 10,000 years ago, soon after
paleontologists believe humans began to colonize North America and northern Eurasia (Figure
3). A mammoth population survived on Wrangel Island, in the East Siberian Sea, and was
isolated from human contact until as recently as 1700 BC. We know a lot about these animals
from carcasses found frozen in the ice of Siberia and other northern regions.
It is commonly thought that climate change and human hunting led to their extinction. A 2008
study estimated that climate change reduced the mammoth’s range from 3,000,000 square miles
42,000 years ago to 310,000 square miles 6,000 years ago.2 Through archaeological evidence of
kill sites, it is also well documented that humans hunted these animals. A 2012 study concluded
that no single factor was exclusively responsible for the extinction of these magnificent creatures.3
In addition to climate change and reduction of habitat, scientists demonstrated another important
factor in the mammoth’s extinction was the migration of human hunters across the Bering Strait to
North America during the last ice age 20,000 years ago.
The maintenance of stable populations was and is very complex, with many interacting
factors determining the outcome. It is important to remember that humans are also part of
nature. Once we contributed to a species’ decline using primitive hunting technology only.

100
Demographic-Based Population Models

Population ecologists have hypothesized that suites of characteristics may evolve in species that lead
to particular adaptations to their environments. These adaptations impact the kind of population growth
their species experience. Life history characteristics such as birth rates, age at first reproduction, the
numbers of offspring, and even death rates evolve just like anatomy or behavior, leading to adaptations
that affect population growth. Population ecologists have described a continuum of life-history
“strategies” with K-selected species on one end and r-selected species on the other. K-selected
species are adapted to stable, predictable environments. Populations of K-selected species tend to
exist close to their carrying capacity. These species tend to have larger, but fewer, offspring and
contribute large amounts of resources to each offspring. Elephants would be an example of a K-selected
species. r-selected species are adapted to unstable and unpredictable environments. They have large
numbers of small offspring. Animals that are r-selected do not provide a lot of resources or parental care
to offspring, and the offspring are relatively self-sufficient at birth. Examples of r-selected species are
marine invertebrates such as jellyfish and plants such as the dandelion. The two extreme strategies are
at two ends of a continuum on which real species life histories will exist. In addition, life history strategies
do not need to evolve as suites, but can evolve independently of each other, so each species may have
some characteristics that trend toward one extreme or the other.

101
4.3 The Human Population

Concepts of animal population dynamics can

be applied to human population growth. Humans
are not unique in their ability to alter their
environment. For example, beaver dams alter the
stream environment where they are built.
Humans, however, have the ability to alter their
environment to increase its carrying capacity,
sometimes to the detriment of other species.
Earth’s human population and their use of
resources are growing rapidly, to the extent that
some worry about the ability of Earth’s
environment to sustain its human population.
Long-term exponential growth carries with it the
potential risks of famine, disease, and large-scale
death, as well as social consequences of crowding Figure 1. Human population growth since 1000 AD is
such as increased crime. exponential.
Human technology and particularly our
harnessing of the energy contained in fossil fuels have caused unprecedented changes to Earth’s
environment, altering ecosystems to the point where some may be in danger of collapse. Changes on a
global scale including depletion of the ozone layer, desertification and topsoil loss, and global climate
change are caused by human activities.

Human population Growth

The fundamental cause of the acceleration of

growth rate for humans in the past 200 years has
been the reduced death rate due to changes in
public health and sanitation. Clean drinking water
and proper disposal sewage has drastically
improved health in developed nations. Also,
medical innovations such as the use of antibiotics
and vaccines have decreased the ability of
infectious disease to limit human population
growth. In the past, diseases such as the bubonic
plaque of the fourteenth century killed between
Figure 2. The time between the addition of each billion 30 and 60 percent of Europe’s population and
human beings to Earth decreases over time. (credit: reduced the overall world population by as many
modification of work by Ryan T. Cragun) as one hundred million people. Naturally,
infectious disease continues to have an impact on
human population growth, especially in poorer nations. For example, life expectancy in sub-Saharan

102
Africa, which was increasing from 1950 to 1990, began to decline after 1985 largely as a result of HIV/
AIDS mortality. The reduction in life expectancy caused by HIV/AIDS was estimated to be 7 years for
2005.
Technological advances of the industrial age have also supported
population growth through urbanization and advances in agriculture.
These advances in technology were possible, in part, due to the
exploitation of fossil fuels.

Age Structure, Population Growth, and

Economic Development

The age structure of a population is an important factor in population

dynamics. Age structure is the proportion of a population in different age
classes. Models that incorporate age structure allow better prediction of
population growth, plus the ability to associate this growth with the level of
economic development in a region. Countries with rapid growth have a
pyramidal shape in their age structure diagrams, showing a preponderance of younger individuals,
many of whom are of reproductive age (Figure 3). This pattern is most often observed in
underdeveloped countries where individuals do not live to old age because of less-than-optimal
living conditions, and there is a high birth rate. Age structures of areas with slow growth, including
developed countries such as the United States, still have a pyramidal structure, but with many fewer
young and reproductive-aged individuals and a greater proportion of older individuals. Other
developed countries, such as Italy, have zero population growth. The age structure of these
populations is more conical, with an even greater percentage of middle-aged and older individuals.
The actual growth rates in different countries are shown in Figure 4, with the highest rates tending
to be in the less economically developed countries of Africa and Asia.

Figure 3. Typical age structure diagrams are shown. The rapid growth diagram narrows to a point, indicating that
the number of individuals decreases rapidly with age. In the slow growth model, the number of individuals
decreases steadily with age. Stable population diagrams are rounded on the top, showing that the number of
individuals per age group decreases gradually, and then increases for the older part of the population.

103
 Figure 4. The percent growth rate of population in different countries is shown. Notice that the highest
growth is occurring in less economically developed countries in Africa and Asia.

Long-Term Consequences of Exponential Human Population Growth

Many dire predictions have been made about the world’s population leading to a major crisis called
the “population explosion.” In the 1968 book The Population Bomb, biologist Paul R. Ehrlich wrote,

“The battle to feed all of humanity is over. In the 1970s hundreds of millions of people will starve to
death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now. At this late date nothing can prevent a
substantial increase in the world death rate.”

While these predictions obviously didn’t bear fruit, the laws of exponential population growth are
still in effect, and unchecked human population growth cannot continue indefinitely. Efforts to
moderate population control led to the one-child policy in China, which imposes fines on urban
couples who have more than one child. Due to the fact that some couples wish to have a male
heir, many Chinese couples continue to have more than one child. The effectiveness of the
policy in limiting overall population growth is controversial, as is the policy itself. Moreover, there
are stories of female infanticide having occurred in some of the more rural areas of the country.
Family planning education programs in other countries have had highly positive effects on
limiting population growth rates and increasing standards of living.

104
 In spite of population control policies, the human population continues
to grow. The United Nations estimates the future world population size to
be 11.2 billion people by the year 2100. There is no way to know whether
human population growth will moderate to the point where the crisis
described by Dr. Ehrlich will be averted. Another consequence of
population growth is the change and degradation of the natural
environment. Many countries have attempted to reduce the human impact
on climate change by limiting their emission of greenhouse gases.
However, a global climate change treaty remains elusive, and many
underdeveloped countries trying to improve their economic condition may
be less likely to agree with such provisions without compensation if it Link to Learning: Visit this
means slowing their economic development. Furthermore, the role of website and select “Launch the
human activity in causing climate change has become a hotly debated movie” for an animation
socio-political issue in some developed countries, including the United discussing the global impacts of
States, despite the overwhelming scientific evidence. Thus, we enter the human population growth.

future with considerable uncertainty about our ability to curb human population growth and
protect our environment to maintain the carrying capacity for the human species.

105
4.4 Community Ecology

Populations typically do not live in isolation from other species. Populations that interact within a given habitat
form a community. The number of species occupying the same habitat and their relative abundance is
known as the diversity of the community. Areas with low species diversity, such as the glaciers of Antarctica,
still contain a wide variety of living organisms, whereas the diversity of tropical rainforests is so great that it
cannot be accurately assessed. Scientists study ecology at the community level to understand how species
interact with each other and compete for the same resources.

Predation and Herbivory

Perhaps the classical example of species

interaction is the predator-prey relationship. The
narrowest definition of predation describes
individuals of one population that kill and then
consume the individuals of another population.
Population sizes of predators and prey in a
community are not constant over time, and they
may vary in cycles that appear to be related. The
most often cited example of predator-prey
population dynamics is seen in the cycling of the Figure 1. The cycling of snowshoe hare and lynx
lynx (predator) and the snowshoe hare (prey), populations in Northern Ontario is an example of
using 100 years of trapping data from North predator-prey dynamics.
America (Figure 1). This cycling of predator and
prey population sizes has a period of approximately ten years, with the predator population lagging
one to two years behind the prey population. An apparent explanation for this pattern is that as the
hare numbers increase, there is more food available for the lynx, allowing the lynx population to
increase as well. When the lynx population grows to a threshold level, however, they kill so many
hares that hare numbers begin to decline, followed by a decline in the lynx population because of
scarcity of food. When the lynx population is low, the hare population size begins to increase due,
in part, to low predation pressure, starting the cycle anew.

Defense Mechanisms against Predation and Herbivory

Predation and predator avoidance are strong influenced by natural selection. Any heritable character
that allows an individual of a prey population to better evade its predators will be represented in greater
numbers in later generations. Likewise, traits that allow a predator to more efficiently locate and capture
its prey will lead to a greater number of offspring and an increase in the commonness of the trait within
the population. Such ecological relationships between specific populations lead to adaptations that are
driven by reciprocal evolutionary responses in those populations. Species have evolved numerous
mechanisms to escape predation (including herbivory, the consumption of plants for food). Defenses
may be mechanical, chemical, physical, or behavioral.

106
 Mechanical defenses, such as the presence of
armor in animals or thorns in plants, discourage
predation and herbivory by discouraging physical
contact (Figure 2a). Many animals produce or
obtain chemical defenses from plants and store
them to prevent predation. Many plant species
produce secondary plant compounds that serve no
function for the plant except that they are toxic to
animals and discourage consumption. For
Figure 2. The (a) honey locust tree uses thorns, a
example, the foxglove produces several
mechanical defense, against herbivores, while the (b)
foxglove uses a chemical defense: toxins produces by the compounds, including digitalis, that are
plant can cause nausea, vomiting, hallucinations, extremely toxic when eaten (Figure 2b).
convulsions, or death when consumed. (credit a: (Biomedical scientists have repurposed the
modification of work by Huw Williams; credit b: chemical produced by foxglove as a heart
modification of work by Philip Jägenstedt) medication, which has saved lives for many
decades.)
Many species use their body shape and coloration to avoid being detected by predators. The
tropical walking stick is an insect with the coloration and body shape of a twig, which makes it very
hard to see when it is stationary against a background of real twigs (Figure 3a). In another example,
the chameleon can change its color to match its surroundings (Figure 3b).

Figure 3. (a) The tropical walking stick and (b) the chameleon use their body shape
and/ or coloration to prevent detection by predators. (credit a: modification of work by
Linda Tanner; credit b: modification of work by Frank Vassen)

107
 Some species use coloration as a way of warning predators
that they are distasteful or poisonous. For example, the monarch
butterfly caterpillar sequesters poisons from its food (plants and
milkweeds) to make itself poisonous or distasteful to potential
predators. The caterpillar is bright yellow and black to advertise
its toxicity. The caterpillar is also able to pass the sequestered
toxins on to the adult monarch, which is also dramatically colored
black and red as a warning to potential predators. Fire-bellied
toads produce toxins that make them distasteful to their potential
predators (Figure 4). They have bright red or orange coloration
on their bellies, which they display to a potential predator to
advertise their poisonous nature and discourage an attack. Figure 4. The fire-bellied toad has bright
Warning coloration only works if a predator uses eyesight to coloration on its belly that serves to warn
locate prey and can learn—a naïve predator must experience the potential predators that it is toxic. (credit:
negative modification of work by Roberto Verzo)

consequences of eating one before it will avoid other similarly colored individuals.
While some predators learn to avoid eating
certain potential prey because of their coloration,
other species have evolved mechanisms to mimic
this coloration to avoid being eaten, even though
they themselves may not be unpleasant to eat or
contain toxic chemicals. In some cases of mimicry,
a harmless species imitates the warning coloration
of a harmful species. Assuming they share the
same predators, this coloration then protects the
Figure 5. One form of mimicry is when a harmless species
harmless ones. Many insect species mimic the
mimics the coloration of a harmful species, as is seen with
coloration of wasps, which are stinging, venomous
the (a) wasp (Polistes sp.) and the (b) hoverfly (Syrphus
sp.). (credit: modification of work by Tom Ings) insects, thereby discouraging predation (Figure 5).

108
 In other cases of mimicry, multiple species share the same
warning coloration, but all of them actually have defenses. The
commonness of the signal improves the compliance of all the
potential predators. Figure 6 shows a variety of foul-tasting
butterflies with similar coloration.

Figure 6. Several unpleasant-

tasting Heliconius butterfly
species share a similar color
Link to Learning: Go to this website to view stunning examples of mimicry. pattern with better-tasting
varieties, an example of
mimicry. (credit: Joron M, Papa
R, Beltrán M, Chamberlain N,
Mavárez J, et al.)

Competitive Exclusion Principle

Resources are often limited within a habitat and multiple species may compete to obtain them. Ecologists
have come to understand that all species have an ecological niche: the unique set of resources used by a
species, which includes its interactions with other species. The competitive exclusion principle states that
two species cannot occupy the exact same niche in a habitat. In other words, different species cannot coexist
in a community if they are competing for all the same resources. It is important to note that competition is
bad for both competitors because it wastes energy. The competitive exclusion principle works because if
there is competition between two species for the same resources, then natural selection will favor traits that
lessen reliance on the shared resource, thus reducing competition. If either species is unable to evolve to
reduce competition, then the species that most efficiently exploits the resource will drive the other species to
extinction. An experimental example of this principle is shown in Figure 7 with two protozoan species:
Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium caudatum . When grown individually in the laboratory, they both thrive.
But when they are placed together in the same test tube (habitat), P. aurelia outcompetes P. caudatum for
food, leading to the latter’s eventual extinction.

109
Figure 7. Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium caudatum grow well individually, but when they compete for
the same resources, the P. aurelia outcompetes the P. caudatum.

Symbiosis

Symbiotic relationships are close, long-term interactions between individuals of different

species. Symbioses may be commensal, in which one species benefits while the other is neither
harmed nor benefited; mutualistic, in which both species benefit; or parasitic, in which the
interaction harms one species and benefits the other.
Commensalism occurs when one species benefits from a
close prolonged interaction, while the other neither benefits or
is harmed. Birds nesting in trees provide an example of a
commensal relationship (Figure 8). The tree is not harmed by
the presence of the nest among its branches. The nests are
light and produce little strain on the structural integrity of the
branch, and most of the leaves, which the tree uses to get
energy by photosynthesis, are above the nest so they are
unaffected. The bird, on the other hand, benefits greatly. If the
bird had to nest in the open, its eggs and young would be
vulnerable to predators. Many potential commensal
relationships are difficult to identify because it is difficult to
prove that one partner does not derive some benefit from the
presence of the other.
Figure 8. The southern masked-weaver is A second type of symbiotic relationship is called
starting to make a nest in a tree in Zambezi mutualism , in which two species benefit from their interaction.
Valley, Zambia. This is an example of a For example, termites have a mutualistic relationship with
commensal relationship, in which one protists that live in the insect’s gut (Figure 9a). The termite
species (the bird) benefits, while the other benefits from the ability of the protists to digest cellulose.
(the tree) neither benefits nor is harmed. However, the protists are able to digest cellulose only
(credit: “Hanay”/Wikimedia Commons) because of the presence of symbiotic bacteria within their
cells that produce the cellulase enzyme. The
termite itself cannot do this; without the protozoa, it would not be able to obtain energy from its food (cellulose
from the wood it chews and eats). The protozoa benefit by having a protective environment and a constant
supply of food from the wood chewing actions of the termite. In turn, the protists benefit

110
from the enzymes provided by their bacterial endosymbionts, while the bacteria benefit from a doubly
protective environment and a constant source of nutrients from two hosts. Lichen are a mutualistic
relationship between a fungus and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria (Figure 9b). The glucose
produced by the algae provides nourishment for both organisms, whereas the physical structure of the
lichen protects the algae from the elements and makes certain nutrients in the atmosphere more available
to the algae. The algae of lichens can live independently given the right environment, but many of the
fungal partners are unable to live on their own.
A parasite is an organism that feeds off another
without immediately killing the organism it is
feeding on. In parasitism,the parasite benefits,
but the organism being fed upon, the host, is
harmed. The host is usually weakened by the
parasite as it siphons resources the host would
normally use to maintain itself. Parasites may kill
their hosts, but there is usually selection to slow Figure 9. (a) Termites form a mutualistic relationship with
down this process to allow the parasite time to symbiotic protozoa in their guts, which allow both
organisms to obtain energy from the cellulose the termite
complete its reproductive cycle before it or its consumes. (b) Lichen is a fungus that has symbiotic
offspring are able to spread to another host. photosynthetic algae living in close association. (credit a:
Parasitism is a form of predation. modification of work by Scott Bauer, USDA; credit b:
The reproductive modification of work by Cory Zanker)
cycles of parasites
are often very complex, sometimes requiring more than one host species.
A tapeworm causes disease in humans when contaminated and under-
cooked meat such as pork, fish, or beef is consumed (Figure 10). The
tapeworm can live inside the intestine of the host for several years,
benefiting from the host’s food, and it may grow to be over 50 feet long by
adding segments. The parasite moves from one host species to a second
host species in order to complete its life cycle.
Link to Learning: To learn
more about “Symbiosis in the
Sea,” watch this webisode of
Jonathan Bird’s Blue World.

111
 Figure 10. This diagram shows the life cycle of the tapeworm, a human worm parasite. (credit:
modification of work by CDC)

Characteristics of Communities

Communities are complex systems that can be characterized by their structure (the number
and size of populations and their interactions) and dynamics (how the members and their
interactions change over time). Understanding community structure and dynamics allows us to
minimize impacts on ecosystems and manage ecological communities we benefit from.
Ecologists have extensively studied one of the fundamental characteristics of communities:
biodiversity. One measure of biodiversity used by ecologists is the number of different species in
a particular area and their relative abundance. The area in question could be a habitat, a biome, or
the entire biosphere. Species richness is the term used to describe the number of species living
in a habitat or other unit. Species richness varies across the globe (Figure 11). Species richness is
related to latitude: the greatest species richness occurs near the equator and the lowest richness
occurs near the poles. The exact reasons for this are not clearly understood. Other factors besides
latitude influence species richness as well. For example, ecologists studying islands found that
biodiversity varies with island size and distance from the mainland.

112
 Relative abundance is the number individuals
in a species relative to the total number of
individuals in all species within a system.
Foundation species, described below, often have
the highest relative abundance of species.
Foundation species are considered the “base”
or “bedrock” of a community, having the greatest
influence on its overall structure. They are often
primary producers, and they are typically an
abundant organism. For example, kelp, a species
of brown algae, is a foundation species that forms
the basis of the kelp forests off the coast of
California.
Foundation species may physically modify the
environment to produce and maintain habitats
that benefit the other organisms that use them.
Examples include the kelp described above or
tree species found in a forest. The photosynthetic Figure 11. The greatest species richness for mammals in
corals of the coral reef also provide structure by North America is associated in the equatorial latitudes.
physically modifying the environment (Figure (credit: modification of work by NASA, CIESIN, Columbia
12). The exoskeletons of living and dead coral University)
make up most of the reef structure, which protects
many other species from waves and ocean currents.
A keystone species is one whose presence has
inordinate influence in maintaining the
prevalence of various species in an ecosystem,
the ecological community’s structure, and
sometimes its biodiversity. Pisaster ochraceus,
the intertidal sea star, is a keystone species in the
northwestern portion of the United States (Figure
13). Studies have shown that when this organism
is removed from communities, mussel
populations (their natural prey) increase, which
completely alters the species composition and
reduces biodiversity. Another keystone species is
Figure 12. Coral is the foundation species of coral reef the banded tetra, a fish in tropical streams, which
ecosystems. (credit: Jim E. Maragos, USFWS) supplies nearly all of the phosphorus, a necessary
inorganic nutrient, to the rest of the community.
The banded tetra feeds largely on insects from the terrestrial ecosystem and then excretes phosphorus
into the aquatic ecosystem. The relationships between populations in the community, and possibly the
biodiversity, would change dramatically if these fish were to become extinct.

113
BIOLOGY IN ACTION

Invasive species are non-native organisms that,

when introduced to an area out of its native range,
alter the community they invade. In the United States,
invasive species like the purple loosestrife (Lythrum
salicaria) and the zebra mussel (Dreissena
polymorpha) have drastically altered the ecosystems
they invaded. Some well-known invasive animals
include the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis)
and the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Whether
enjoying a forest hike, taking a summer boat trip, or
simply walking down an urban street, you have likely Figure 13. Sea stars are keystone species
encountered an invasive species. of the intertidal zone.
One of the many recent proliferations of an invasive
species concerns the Asian carp in the United States. Asian carp were introduced to the United States
in the 1970s by fisheries (commercial catfish ponds) and by sewage treatment facilities that used the
fish’s excellent filter feeding abilities to clean their ponds of excess plankton. Some of the fish escaped,
and by the 1980s they had colonized many waterways of the Mississippi River basin, including the
Illinois and Missouri Rivers.
Voracious feeders and rapid reproducers, Asian carp may outcompete native species for food and
could lead to their extinction. One species, the grass carp, feeds on phytoplankton and aquatic plants.
It competes with native species for these resources and alters nursery habitats for other fish by removing
aquatic plants. In some parts of the Illinois River, Asian carp constitute 95 percent of the community’s
biomass. Although edible, the fish is bony and not desired in the United States.
The Great Lakes and their prized salmon and lake trout fisheries are being threatened by Asian carp. The
carp are not yet present in the Great Lakes, and attempts are being made to prevent its access to the lakes
through the Chicago Ship and Sanitary Canal, which is the only connection between the Mississippi River
and Great Lakes basins. To prevent the Asian carp from leaving the canal, a series of electric barriers have
been used to discourage their migration; however, the threat is significant enough that several states and
Canada have sued to have the Chicago channel permanently cut off from Lake Michigan. Local and national
politicians have weighed in on how to solve the problem. In general, governments have been ineffective in
preventing or slowing the introduction of invasive species.

Community Dynamics

Community dynamics are the changes in community structure and composition over time,
often following environmental disturbances such as volcanoes, earthquakes, storms, fires, and
climate change. Communities with a relatively constant number of species are said to be at
equilibrium. The equilibrium is dynamic with species identities and relationships changing over
time, but maintaining relatively constant numbers. Following a disturbance, the community may
or may not return to the equilibrium state.
Succession describes the sequential appearance and disappearance of species in a
community over time after a severe disturbance. In primary succession, newly exposed or
newly formed rock is colonized by living organisms. In secondary succession, a part of an
ecosystem is disturbed and remnants of the previous community remain. In both cases, there
is a sequential change in species until a more or less permanent community develops.

114
Primary Succession and Pioneer Species

Primary succession occurs when new land is

formed, or when the soil and all life is removed from
pre-existing land. An example of the former is the
eruption of volcanoes on the Big Island of Hawaii,
which results in lava that flows into the ocean and
continually forms new land. From this process,
approximately 32 acres of land are added to the Big
Island each year. An example of pre-existing soil
being removed is through the activity of glaciers. The
massive weight of the glacier scours the landscape
down to the bedrock as the glacier moves. This
removes any original soil and leaves exposed rock
once the glacier melts and retreats.
In both cases, the ecosystem starts with bare rock Figure 14. During primary succession in lava
that is devoid of life. New soil is slowly formed as on Maui, Hawaii, succulent plants are the
pioneer species. (credit: Forest and Kim Starr)
weathering and other natural forces break down the
rock and lead to the establishment of hearty organisms, such as lichens and some plants, which
are collectively known as pioneer species (Figure 14) because they are the first to appear.
These species help to further break down the mineral-rich rock into soil where other, less hardy
but more competitive species, such as grasses, shrubs, and trees, will grow and eventually
replace the pioneer species. Over time the area will reach an equilibrium state, with a set of
organisms quite different from the pioneer species.

Secondary succession

A classic example of secondary succession occurs in forests cleared by wildfire, or by clearcut

logging (Figure 15). Wildfires will burn most vegetation, and unless the animals can flee the
area, they are killed. Their nutrients, however, are returned to the ground in the form of ash.
Thus, although the community has been dramatically altered, there is a soil ecosystem present
that provides a foundation for rapid recolonization.
Before the fire, the vegetation was dominated by tall trees with access to the major plant energy
resource: sunlight. Their height gave them access to sunlight while also shading the ground and
other low-lying species. After the fire, though, these trees are no longer dominant. Thus, the first
plants to grow back are usually annual plants followed within a few years by quickly growing and
spreading grasses and other pioneer species. Due, at least in part, to changes in the environment
brought on by the growth of grasses and forbs, over many years, shrubs emerge along with small
trees. These organisms are called intermediate species. Eventually, over 150 years or more, the
forest will reach its equilibrium point and resemble the community before the fire. This equilibrium
state is referred to as the climax community, which will remain until the next disturbance. The
climax community is typically characteristic of a given climate and geology. Although the community
in equilibrium looks the same once it is attained, the equilibrium is a dynamic one with constant
changes in abundance and sometimes species identities.

115
Figure 15. Secondary succession is seen in an oak and hickory forest after a forest fire. A
sequence of the community present at three successive times at the same location is depicted.

116
4.5 Chapter Resources

Summary

Populations are individuals of a species that live in a particular habitat. Ecologists measure
characteristics of populations: size, density, and distribution pattern. Life tables are useful to calculate
life expectancies of individual population members. Survivorship curves show the number of individuals
surviving at each age interval plotted versus time. Populations with unlimited resources grow
exponentially—with an accelerating growth rate. When resources become limiting, populations follow a
logistic growth curve in which population size will level off at the carrying capacity. Humans have
increased their carrying capacity through technology, urbanization, and harnessing the energy of fossil
fuels. Unchecked human population growth could have dire long-term effects on human welfare and
Earth’s ecosystems. Communities include all the different species living in a given area. The variety of
these species is referred to as biodiversity. Species may form symbiotic relationships such as
commensalism, mutualism, or parasitism. Community structure is described by its foundation and
keystone species. Communities respond to environmental disturbances by succession: the predictable
appearance of different types of plant species, until a stable community structure is established.

Review Questions

1. You are working as a biologist and perform the “mark and recapture” technique to
estimate the number of endangered lemurs living within a particular habitat. You initially
capture 37 lemurs, marking them all before releasing them. Two months later, you capture
49 lemurs, of which 11 are those originally captured and marked. What is the estimated
size of the lemur population, rounded to the nearest whole number?
A. 60
B. 86
C. 97
D. 165
E. 407

2. Which one of the following measuring techniques would best enable you to determine the
distribution pattern of a population of zebra?
A. Track how many and which individuals use a central watering hole
B. Use a drone to capture aerial photographs of their habitat range
C. Employ a camera trap in the middle of their habitat
D. Use the mark-recapture method
E. Collect and analyze DNA from hair samples collected at 2 locations

3. A species that you are studying has a type III survivorship curve. Which one of the following
describes this type of curve?

131

117
 A. Survivorship rates are lowest during early parts of its lifecycle
B. Survivorship rates are lowest during the late parts of its lifecycle
C. Survivorship rates are highest during early parts of its lifecycle
D. Survivorship rates are consistent through the lifecycle
E. Survivorship rates are highest in the early and middle parts of its lifecycle

4. A population has unlimited resources and exhibits rapid and sustained population growth.
This type of growth would be best described by which one of the following?
A. Exponential
B. Logistic
C. Sigmoidal
D. Parabolic
E. Inverse

5. What single factor has most strongly contributed to the rapid population growth in the
human population witnessed over the last 150 years?
A. Increased fertility rates
B. Reduced death rates
C. Longer life spans
D. Economic growth
E. Increased morbidity

6. Which one of the following age groups would most likely to lead to rapid population growth
in the future if it contained the greatest relative abundance within that population?
A. 0-15 years old
B. 16-30 years old
C. 31-45 years old
D. 46-60 years old
E. 61 years old and greater

7. Two species have the same ecological niche. If they lived in the same habitat, both would
compete until one species became predominant and the other became locally extinct. This
process is summarized by which one of the following?
A. Niche warfare
B. Competitive exclusion principle
C. Species selection principle
D. Exclusion through competition theorem
E. Exclusive ecological fractioning

8. Which form of symbiosis benefits one member of the interaction, but neither benefits nor
harms the other member?
A. Parasitism
B. Commensalism
C. Sequentialism
D. Mutualism
E. Natural selection

118
9. Biologists examined the effects of reintroducing wolves into Yellowstone National Park of the
United States. They found that by preying on elk, wolves altered the foraging behavior of the elk;
the elk spent less time browsing near streambanks. This allowed the regrowth of important
vegetation, which had large positive impacts on the ecosystem at large. When a relatively small
number of individuals, like wolves, have disproportionate impacts on the ecosystem, they are
referred to as a…
A. Foundation species
B. Portal species
C. Keystone species
D. Cornerstone species
E. Pivotal species

10. The 1980 volcanic explosion of Mt. St. Helens in the United States devasted the north
side of the mountain and it’s forests. The forests were demolished and replaced with
volcanic debris that formed the new soil, free of any remnants of the previous ecosystem
(such as seeds stored in the soil). Such an event would lead to which one of the following
processes?
A. Primary succession
B. Secondary succession
C. Tertiary succession
D. Quaternary succession
E. Pioneering succession

119
Chapter 5: Conservation & Biodiversity

Habitat destruction through deforestation, especially of tropical rainforests as

seen in this satellite view of Amazon rainforests in Brazil, is a major cause of the
current decline in biodiversity. (credit: modification of work by Jesse Allen and
Robert Simmon, NASA Earth Observatory)

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe biodiversity
• Explain how species evolve through natural selection
• Identify benefits of biodiversity to humans
• Explain the effects of habitat loss, exotic species, and hunting on biodiversity
• Identify the early and predicted effects of climate change on biodiversity
• Explain the legislative framework for conservation
• Identify examples of the effects of habitat restoration

120
Chapter Outline

• 5.1 Introduction to Biodiversity

• 5.2 Origin of Biodiversity
• 5.3 Importance of Biodiversity
• 5.4 Threats to Biodiversity
• 5.5 Preserving Biodiversity
• 5.6 Chapter Resources

5.1 Introduction to Biodiversity

Earth is home to an impressive array of life forms. From single-celled organisms to creatures made of
many trillions of cells, life has taken on many wonderful shapes and evolved countless strategies for
survival. Recall that cell theory dictates that all living things are made of one or more cells. Some
organisms are made of just a single cell, and are thus referred to as unicellular. Organisms containing
more than one cell are said to be multicellular. Despite the wide range of organisms, there exists only
two fundamental cell plans: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The main difference these two cell plans is that
eukaryotic cells have internal, membrane-bound structures called organelles (see chp 2.3). Thus, if you
were to microscopically analyze the cells of any organism on Earth, you would find either prokaryotic or
eukaryotic cells depending on the type of organism.
Biologists name, group, and classify organisms based on similarities in genetics and
morphology. This branch of biological science is known as taxonomy . Taxonomists group
organisms into categories that range from very broad to very specific (Figure 1). The broadest
category is called domain and the most specific is species (notice the similarities between the
words specific and species). Currently, taxonomists recognize three domains: Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya. All life forms are classified within these three domains.

121
Figure 1. This illustration shows the taxonomic groups, in sequence, with examples. This illustration by
OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0

Domain Bacteria

Domain Bacteria includes prokaryotic, unicellular organisms (Figure 2). They are incredibly
abundant and found in nearly every imaginable type of habitat, including your body. While many
people view bacteria only as disease-causing organisms, most species are actually either
benign or beneficial to humans. While it is true that some bacteria may cause disease in people,
this is more the exception than the rule.
Bacteria are well-known for their metabolic diversity. Metabolism is a general term describing the

122
complex biochemistry that occurs inside of cells. Many species of bacteria are autotrophs, meaning
they can create their own food source without having to eat other organisms. Most autotrophic bacteria
do this by using photosynthesis, a process that converts light energy into chemical energy that can be
utilized by cells. A well-known and ecologically-important group of photosynthetic bacteria is
cyanobacteria. These are sometimes referred to a blue-green algae, but this name is not appropriate
because, as you will see shortly, algae are organisms that belong to domain Eukarya. Cyanobacteria
play important roles in food webs of aquatic systems, such as lakes.
Other species of bacteria are heterotrophs, meaning that they need to acquire their food by eating
other organisms. This classification includes the bacteria that cause disease in humans (during an
infection, the bacteria is eating you ). However, most heterotrophic bacteria are harmless to humans. In
fact, you have hundreds of species of bacteria living on your skin and in your large intestine that do you
no harm. Beyond your body, heterotrophic bacteria play vital roles in ecosystems, especially soil-
dwelling bacteria that decompose living matter and make nutrients available to plants.

Figure 2. Many prokaryotes fall into three basic categories based on their shape: (a) cocci, or spherical;
(b) bacilli, or rod-shaped; and (c) spirilla, or spiral-shaped. (credit a: modification of work by Janice
Haney Carr, Dr. Richard Facklam, CDC; credit c: modification of work by Dr. David Cox, CDC;
scale-bar data from Matt Russell). This figure by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0

Domain Archaea

Like bacteria, organisms in domain Archaea are prokaryotic and unicellular. Superficially, they
look a lot like bacteria, and many biologists confused them as bacteria until a few decades ago.
But hiding in their genes is a story that modern DNA analysis has recently revealed: archaeans
are so different genetically that they belong in their own domain.
Many archaean species are found in some of the most inhospitable environments, areas of
immense pressure (bottom of the ocean), salinity (such as the Great Salt Lake), or heat
(geothermal springs). Organisms that can tolerate and even thrive in such conditions are known
as extremophiles. (It should be noted that many bacteria are also extremophiles). Along with
genetic evidence, the fact that a large percentage of archaeans are extremophiles suggests
that they may be descendants of some of the most ancient lifeforms on Earth; life that originated
on a young planet that was inhospitable by today’s standards.
For whatever reason, archaeans are not as abundant in and on the human body as bacteria,
and they cause substantially fewer diseases. Research on archaeans continues to shed light
on this interesting and somewhat mysterious domain.

123
Domain Eukarya

This domain is most familiar to use because it includes humans and other animals, along with plants,
fungi, and a lesser-known group, the protists. Unlike the other domains, Domain Eukarya contains
multicellular organisms, in addition to unicellular species. The domain is characterized by the presence
of eukaryotic cells. For this domain, you will be introduced to several of its kingdoms. Kingdom is the
taxonomic grouping immediately below domain (see Figure 1).
Kingdom Animalia is comprised of multicellular, heterotrophic organisms. This kingdom includes
humans and other primates, insects, fish, reptiles, and many other types of animals. Kingdom Plantae
includes multicellular, autotrophic organisms. Except for a few species that are parasites, plants use
photosynthesis to meet their energy demands.
Kingdom Fungi includes multicellular and
unicellular, heterotrophic fungi. Fungi are
commonly mistaken for plants because some
species of fungi grow in the ground. Fungi are
fundamentally different from plants in that they
do not perform photosynthesis and instead feed
on the living matter of others. Another
misconception is that all fungi are mushrooms. A
mushroom is a temporary reproductive structure Figure 3. The (a) familiar mushroom is only one type of
used by some fungal species, but not all. Some fungus. The brightly colored fruiting bodies of this (b)
fungi take the form of molds and mildews, which coral fungus are displayed. This (c) electron micrograph
are commonly seen on rotting food. Lastly, yeast shows the spore-bearing structures of Aspergillus, a type
are unicellular fungi. Many species of yeast are of toxic fungi found mostly in soil and plants. (credit a:
important to humans, especially baker’s and modification of work by Chris Wee; credit b: modification
of work by Cory Zanker; credit c: modification of work by
brewer’s yeast. Through their metabolism, these Janice Haney Carr, Robert Simmons, CDC; scale-bar data
yeast produce CO2 gas and alcohol. The former from Matt Russell). This work by OpenStax is licensed
makes bread rise and the latter is the source for all under CC BY 4.0.
alcoholic beverages.
Protists refer to a highly disparate group that was formerly its own kingdom until recent genetic
analysis indicated that it should be split in to many kingdoms (Figure 4). As a group, protists are
very diverse and include unicellular, multicellular, heterotrophic, and autotrophic organisms. The
term ‘protist’ was used as a catchall for any eukaryote that was neither animal, plant, or fungus.
Examples of protists include macroalgae such as kelps and seaweeds, microalgae such as diatoms
and dinoflagellates, and important disease-causing microbes such as Plasmodium, the parasite
that causes malaria. Sadly, malaria kills hundreds of thousands of people every year.

124
 With this cursory and fundamental
understanding of biological diversity, you are
now better equipped to study the role of
biodiversity in the biosphere and in human
economics, health, and culture. Each life form,
even the smallest microbe, is a fascinating and
and complex living machine. This complexity
means we will likely never fully understand each
organism and the myriad ways they interact with
Figure 4. Protists range from the microscopic,
each other, with us, and with their environment.
single-celled (a) Acanthocystis turfacea and the (b) ciliate
Tetrahymena thermophila to the enormous, multicellular Thus, it is wise to value biodiversity and take
(c) kelps (Chromalveolata) that extend for hundreds of feet measures to conserve it.
in underwater “forests.” (credit a: modification of work by
Yuiuji Tsukii; credit b: modification of work by Richard
Robinson, Public Library of Science; credit c: modification
of work by Kip Evans, NOAA; scale-bar data from Matt
Russell).

125
5.2 Origin of Biodiversity

Figure 1. The diversity of life on Earth is the result of evolution, a continuous process
that is still occurring. (credit “wolf”: modification of work by Gary Kramer, USFWS;
credit “coral”: modification of work by William Harrigan, NOAA; credit “river”:
modification of work by Vojtěch Dostál; credit “protozoa”: modification of work by
Sharon Franklin, Stephen Ausmus, USDA ARS; credit “fish” modification of work by
Christian Mehlführer; credit “mushroom”, “bee”: modification of work by Cory Zanker;
credit “tree”: modification of work by Joseph Kranak)

What biological process is responsible for biodiversity?

All species —from the bacteria on our skin to the birds outside—evolved at some point from a different
species. Although it may seem that living things today stay much the same from generation to generation,
that is not the case because evolution is ongoing. Evolution is the process through which the
characteristics of a species change over time, which can ultimately cause new species to arise.
The theory of evolution is the unifying theory of biology, meaning it is the framework within which
biologists ask questions about the living world. Its power is that it provides direction for predictions about
living things that are borne out in experiment after experiment. The Ukrainian-born American geneticist
Theodosius Dobzhansky famously wrote that “nothing makes sense in biology except in the light of
evolution.” He meant that the principle that all life has evolved and diversified from a common ancestor
is the foundation from which we understand all other questions in biology.

126
Discovering How Populations Change

The theory of evolution by natural selection describes a mechanism for how species can
change over time. That species change was suggested and debated well before Darwin. The
view that species were unchanging was grounded in the writings of Plato, yet there were also
ancient Greeks that expressed evolutionary ideas.
In the eighteenth century, ideas about the evolution of animals were reintroduced by the various naturalists.
At the same time, James Hutton, the Scottish naturalist, proposed that geological change occurred gradually
by the accumulation of small changes from processes (over long periods of time) just like those happening
today. This contrasted with the predominant view that the geology of the planet was a consequence of
catastrophic events occurring during a relatively brief past. Hutton’s view was later popularized by the
geologist Charles Lyell in the nineteenth century. Lyell became a friend to Darwin and his ideas were very
influential on Darwin’s thinking. Lyell argued that the greater age of Earth gave more time for gradual change
in species, and the process provided an analogy for gradual change in
species.

Charles Darwin and Natural Selection

Natural selection as a mechanism for evolution was

independently conceived of and described by two
naturalists, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace,
in the mid-nineteenth century. Importantly, each spent
years exploring the natural world on expeditions to the
tropics. From 1831 to 1836, Darwin traveled around the
world on H.M.S. Beagle, visiting South America,
Australia, and the southern tip of Africa. Wallace traveled
to Brazil to collect insects in the Amazon rainforest from
1848 to 1852 and to the Malay Archipelago from 1854 to
1862. Darwin’s journey, like Wallace’s later journeys in
the Malay Archipelago, included stops at several island
chains, the last being the Galápagos Islands (west of
Ecuador). On these islands, Darwin observed species of
organisms on different islands that were clearly similar,
yet had distinct differences. For example, the ground
finches inhabiting the Galápagos Islands comprised
several species that each had a unique beak shape
(Figure 2). He observed both that these finches closely
resembled another finch species on the mainland of
South America and that the group of species in the
Galápagos formed a graded series of beak sizes and
shapes, with very small differences
between the most similar. Darwin imagined that the island species might be all species modified from
one original mainland species. In 1860, he wrote, “Seeing this gradation and diversity of structure in one
small, intimately related group of birds, one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in
this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends.”

127
 Wallace and Darwin both observed similar patterns in other organisms and independently conceived
a mechanism to explain how and why such changes could take place. Darwin called this mechanism
natural selection. Natural selection, Darwin argued, was an inevitable outcome of three principles that
operated in nature. First, there exists variation in traits among individuals within a population, and
these traits are inherited, or passed from parent to offspring. Second, more offspring are produced than
are able to survive; in other words, resources for survival and reproduction are limited. And lastly,
there is a competition for those resources in each generation. Out of these three principles, Darwin
and Wallace reasoned that offspring with inherited characteristics that allow them to best compete for
limited resources will survive and have more offspring than those individuals with variations that are
less able to compete. Because characteristics are inherited, these traits will be better represented in the
next generation. This will lead to change in populations over generations in a process that Darwin called
“descent with modification.” In sum, we can define natural selection as a process the causes beneficial
traits to become more common in a population over time, causing the population to evolve.
Papers by Darwin and Wallace (Figure 3)
presenting the idea of natural selection were read
together in 1858 before the Linnaean Society in
London. The following year Darwin’s book, On
the Origin of Species, was published, which
outlined in considerable detail his arguments for
evolution by natural selection.
Natural selection can only take place if there
is variation, or differences, among individuals in
a population. Importantly, these differences must
have some genetic basis, otherwise natural
Figure 3. (a) Charles Darwin and (b) Alfred Wallace wrote selection would not lead to change in the next
scientific papers on natural selection that were presented generation because there would be no way to
together before the Linnean Society in 1858.
transmit those traits from one generation to the
next.
Genetic diversity in a population comes from two main sources: mutation and sexual reproduction.
Mutation, a permanent change in DNA sequence is the ultimate source of new genetic variation in any
population. An individual that has a mutated gene might have a different trait than other individuals
in the population. Without variation in traits, nature would not be able to select the traits that are best
adapted for the organisms’ environment at that particular time.

Evolutionary change in action

The development of antibiotic resistant bacteria is an example of evolution through natural selection and it
has been directly observed by scientists. How does this happen? Imagine a person that has a bacterial
infection: their body is being attacked by billions of bacteria. Because there is genetic variation in populations,
some individual bacteria may already possess traits that allow them to tolerate antibiotic drugs. When the
infected person is prescribed antibiotics, the drug attacks and kills the entire population, except for those
bacteria that can resist the drug. These bacteria survive because they had a trait that was beneficial and
thus nature selected for it. The surviving population will all be resistant to the drug and continue to reproduce,
multiple, and pass down that beneficial trait to all offspring. The population has now evolved because all
individuals have the antibiotic-resistant trait, whereas before it was rare. It is important to realize that evolution
occurs at the population level and is reliant upon genetic variation

128
that was already present. Without that variation, there is nothing for nature to select for. The
rise and spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria is an emerging environmental issue and will be
discussed in a later chapter.

129
5.3 Importance of Biodiversity

The Biodiversity Crisis

Biologists estimate that species extinctions are currently 500–1000 times the normal, or background,
rate seen previously in Earth’s history. The current high rates will cause a precipitous decline in the
biodiversity of the planet in the next century or two. The loss of biodiversity will include many species
we know today. Although it is sometimes difficult to predict which species will become extinct, many
are listed as endangered (at great risk of extinction). However, many extinctions will affect species that
biologist have not yet discovered. Most of these “invisible” species that will become extinct currently
live in tropical rainforests like those of the Amazon basin. These rainforests are the most diverse
ecosystems on the planet and are being destroyed rapidly by deforestation. Between 1970 and 2011,
almost 20 percent of the Amazon rainforest was lost.
Biodiversity is a broad term for biological
variety, and it can be measured at a number of
organizational levels. Traditionally, ecologists
have measured biodiversity by taking into
account both the number of species and the
number of individuals of each species (known as
relative abundance). However, biologists are
using different measures of biodiversity,
including genetic diversity, to help focus efforts
to preserve the biologically and technologically
important elements of biodiversity.
Biodiversity loss refers to the reduction of
biodiversity due to displacement or extinction of
species. The loss of a particular individual Figure 1. This tropical lowland rainforest in Madagascar
species may seem unimportant to some, is an example of a high biodiversity habitat. This
especially if it is not a charismatic species like the particular location is protected within a national forest, yet
Bengal tiger or the bottlenose dolphin. However, only 10 percent of the original coastal lowland forest
the current accelerated extinction rate means the remains, and research suggests half the original
loss of tens of thousands of species within our biodiversity has been lost. (credit: Frank Vassen)
lifetimes. Much of this loss is occurring in
tropical rainforests like the one pictured in Figure 1, which are very high in biodiversity but are
being cleared for timber and agriculture. This is likely to have dramatic effects on human welfare
through the collapse of ecosystems.
Biologists recognize that human populations are embedded in ecosystems and are dependent on them,
just as is every other species on the planet. Agriculture began after early hunter-gatherer societies first settled
in one place and heavily modified their immediate environment. This cultural transition has made it difficult
for humans to recognize their dependence on living things other than crops and domesticated animals on
the planet. Today our technology smooths out the harshness of existence and allows many of us to live
longer, more comfortable lives, but ultimately the human species cannot exist without its

130
surrounding ecosystems. Our ecosystems provide us with food, medicine, clean air and water,
recreation, and spiritual and aesthetical inspiration.

Types of Biodiversity

A common meaning of biodiversity is simply the number of species in a location or on Earth; for example,
the American Ornithologists’ Union lists 2078 species of birds in North and Central America. This is one
measure of the bird biodiversity on the continent. More sophisticated measures of diversity take into
account the relative abundances of species. For example, a forest with 10 equally common species of
trees is more diverse than a forest that has 10 species of trees wherein just one of those species makes
up 95 percent of the trees. Biologists have also identified alternate measures of biodiversity, some of
which are important in planning how to preserve biodiversity.
Genetic diversity is one alternate concept of biodiversity. Genetic diversity is the raw
material for evolutionary adaptation in a species and is represented by the variety of genes
present within a population. A species’ potential to adapt to changing environments or new
diseases depends on this genetic diversity.
It is also useful to define ecosystem diversity: the number of different ecosystems on Earth or
in a geographical area. The loss of an ecosystem means the loss of the interactions between
species and the loss of biological productivity that an ecosystem is able to create. An example of a
largely extinct ecosystem in North America is the prairie ecosystem (Figure 2). Prairies once
spanned central North America from the boreal forest in northern Canada down into Mexico. They
are now all but gone, replaced by crop fields, pasture lands, and suburban sprawl. Many of the
species survive, but the hugely productive ecosystem that was responsible for creating our most
productive agricultural soils is now gone. As a consequence, their soils are now being depleted
unless they are maintained artificially at great expense. The decline in soil productivity occurs
because the interactions in the original ecosystem have been lost.

Figure 2. The variety of ecosystems on Earth—from coral reef to prairie—enables a great diversity of
species to exist. (credit “coral reef”: modification of work by Jim Maragos, USFWS; credit: “prairie”:
modification of work by Jim Minnerath, USFWS)

Current Species Diversity

Despite considerable effort, knowledge of the species that inhabit the planet is limited. A recent estimate

131
suggests that only 13% of eukaryotic species have been named (Table 1). Estimates of
numbers of prokaryotic species are largely guesses, but biologists agree that science has only
just begun to catalog their diversity. . Given that Earth is losing species at an accelerating pace,
science knows little about what is being lost.

Table 1. This table shows the estimated number of species by taxonomic group—including both described
(named and studied) and predicted (yet to be named) species.

Estimated Numbers of Described and Predicted species

Source: Mora et al Source: Chapman Source: Groombridge and
2011 2009 Jenkins 2002
Described Predicted Described Predicted Described Predicted
Animals 1,124,516 9,920,000 1,424,153 6,836,330 1,225,500 10,820,000
Photosynthetic protists 17,892 34,900 25,044 200,500 — —
Fungi 44,368 616,320 98,998 1,500,000 72,000 1,500,000
Plants 224,244 314,600 310,129 390,800 270,000 320,000
Non-photosynthetic
16,236 72,800 28,871 1,000,000 80,000 600,000
protists
Prokaryotes — — 10,307 1,000,000 10,175 —
Total 1,438,769 10,960,000 1,897,502 10,897,630 1,657,675 13,240,000

There are various initiatives to catalog described species in accessible and more organized
ways, and the internet is facilitating that effort. Nevertheless, at the current rate of species
description, which according to the State of Observed Species 1 reports is 17,000–20,000 new
species a year, it would take close to 500 years to describe all of the species currently in
existence. The task, however, is becoming increasingly impossible over time as extinction
removes species from Earth faster than they can be described.
Naming and counting species may seem an unimportant pursuit given the other needs of humanity,
but it is not simply an accounting. Describing species is a complex process by which biologists determine
an organism’s unique characteristics and whether or not that organism belongs to any other described
species. It allows biologists to find and recognize the species after the initial discovery to follow up on
questions about its biology. That subsequent research will produce the discoveries that make the
species valuable to humans and to our ecosystems. Without a name and description, a species cannot
be studied in depth and in a coordinated way by multiple scientists.

Patterns of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is not evenly distributed on the planet. Lake Victoria contained almost 500 species of cichlids
(just one family of fishes that are present in the lake) before the introduction of an exotic species in the 1980s
and 1990s caused a mass extinction. All of these species were found only in Lake Victoria, which is to say
they were endemic. Endemic species are found in only one location. For example, the blue jay is endemic
to North America, while the Barton Springs salamander is endemic to the mouth of

132
one spring in Austin, Texas. Endemic species with highly restricted distributions, like the Barton Springs
salamander, are particularly vulnerable to extinction.
Lake Huron contains about 79 species of fish, all of which are found in many other lakes in North
America. What accounts for the difference in diversity between Lake Victoria and Lake Huron? Lake
Victoria is a tropical lake, while Lake Huron is a temperate lake. Lake Huron in its present form is
only about 7,000 years old, while Lake Victoria in its present form is about 15,000 years old. These
two factors, latitude and age, are two of several hypotheses biogeographers have suggested to expla in
biodiversity patterns on Earth.
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of the world’s species both in the past
and in the present. The work of biogeographers is critical to understanding our physical
environment, how the environment affects species, and how changes in environment
impact the distribution of a species.
There are three main fields of study under the heading of biogeography: ecological biogeography,
historical biogeography (called paleobiogeography), and conservation biogeography. Ecological
biogeography studies the current factors affecting the distribution of plants and animals. Historical
biogeography, as the name implies, studies the past distribution of species. Conservation biogeography,
on the other hand, is focused on the protection and restoration of species based upon the known historical
and current ecological information.
One of the oldest observed patterns in ecology
is that biodiversity typically increases as latitude
declines. In other words, biodiversity increases
closer to the equator (Figure 3).
It is not yet clear why biodiversity increases
closer to the equator, but hypotheses include the
greater age of the ecosystems in the tropics versus
temperate regions, which were largely devoid of
life or drastically impoverished during the last ice
age. The greater age provides more time for
speciation, the evolutionary process of creating
Figure 3. This map illustrates the number of amphibian
new species. Another possible explanation is the
species across the globe and shows the trend toward
higher biodiversity at lower latitudes. A similar pattern is greater energy the tropics receive from the sun.
observed for most taxonomic groups. But scientists have not been able to explain how
greater energy input could translate into more
species. The complexity of tropical ecosystems may promote speciation by increasing the habitat
complexity, thus providing more ecological niches. Lastly, the tropics have been perceived as being
more stable than temperate regions, which have a pronounced climate and day-length seasonality. The
stability of tropical ecosystems might promote speciation. Regardless of the mechanisms, it is certainly
true that biodiversity is greatest in the tropics. There are also high numbers of endemic species.

Importance of Biodiversity

Loss of biodiversity may have reverberating consequences on ecosystems because of the complex
interrelations among species. For example, the extinction of one species may cause the extinction of
another. Biodiversity is important to the survival and welfare of human populations because it has

133
impacts on our health and our ability to feed ourselves through agriculture and harvesting
populations of wild animals.

Human Health

Many medications are derived from natural chemicals made by a diverse group of organisms. For
example, many plants produce compounds meant to protect the plant from insects and other
animals that eat them. Some of these compounds also work as human medicines. Contemporary
societies that live close to the land often have a broad knowledge of the medicinal uses of plants
growing in their area. For centuries in Europe, older knowledge about the medical uses of plants
was compiled in herbals—books that identified the plants and their uses. Humans are not the only
animals to use plants for medicinal reasons. The other great apes, orangutans, chimpanzees,
bonobos, and gorillas have all been observed self-medicating with plants.
Modern pharmaceutical science also recognizes the importance of these plant compounds. Examples of
significant medicines derived from plant compounds include aspirin, codeine, digoxin, atropine, and
vincristine (Figure 4). Many medications were once derived from plant extracts but are now synthesized. It
is estimated that, at one time, 25 percent of modern drugs contained at least one plant extract. That number
has probably decreased to about 10 percent as natural plant ingredients are replaced by synthetic versions
of the plant compounds. Antibiotics, which are responsible for extraordinary improvements in health and
lifespans in developed countries, are compounds largely derived from fungi and bacteria.
In recent years, animal venoms and poisons have
excited intense research for their medicinal potential. By
2007, the FDA had approved five drugs based on animal
toxins to treat diseases such as hypertension, chronic
pain, and diabetes. Another five drugs are undergoing
clinical trials and at least six drugs are being used in other
countries. Other toxins under investigation come from
mammals, snakes, lizards, various amphibians, fish,
snails, octopuses, and scorpions.
Aside from representing billions of dollars in profits,
these medications improve people’s lives.
Pharmaceutical companies are actively looking for new
natural compounds that can function as medicines. It is Figure 4. Catharanthus roseus, the
estimated that one third of pharmaceutical research and Madagascar periwinkle, has various medicinal
development is spent on natural compounds and that properties. Among other uses, it is a source of
about 35 percent of new drugs brought to market vincristine, a drug used in the treatment of
between 1981 and 2002 were from natural compounds. lymphomas. (credit: Forest and Kim Starr)
Finally, it has been argued that humans benefit psychologically from living in a biodiverse world. The chief
proponent of this idea is famed entomologist E. O. Wilson. He argues that human evolutionary history has
adapted us to living in a natural environment and that built environments generate stresses that affect human
health and well-being. There is considerable research into the psychologically regenerative benefits of
natural landscapes that suggest the hypothesis may hold some truth.

Agricultural

Since the beginning of human agriculture more than 10,000 years ago, human groups have been breeding

134
and selecting crop varieties. This crop diversity matched the cultural diversity of highly subdivided
populations of humans. For example, potatoes were domesticated beginning around 7,000 years
ago in the central Andes of Peru and Bolivia. The people in this region traditionally lived in relatively
isolated settlements separated by mountains. The potatoes grown in that region belong to seven
species and the number of varieties likely is in the thousands. Each variety has been bred to thrive
at particular elevations and soil and climate conditions. The diversity is driven by the diverse
demands of the dramatic elevation changes, the limited movement of people, and the demands
created by crop rotation for different varieties that will do well in different fields.
Potatoes are only one example of agricultural diversity. Every plant, animal, and fungus that has been
cultivated by humans has been bred from original wild ancestor species into diverse varieties arising from
the demands for food value, adaptation to growing conditions, and resistance to pests. The potato
demonstrates a well-known example of the risks of low crop diversity: during the tragic Irish potato famine
(1845–1852 AD), the single potato variety grown in Ireland became susceptible to a potato blight—wiping
out the crop. The loss of the crop led to famine, death, and mass emigration. Resistance to disease is a chief
benefit to maintaining crop biodiversity and lack of diversity in contemporary crop species carries similar risks.
Seed companies, which are the source of most crop varieties in developed countries, must continually breed
new varieties to keep up with evolving pest organisms. These same seed companies, however, have
participated in the decline of the number of varieties available as they focus on selling fewer varieties in more
areas of the world replacing traditional local varieties.
The ability to create new crop varieties relies on the diversity of varieties available and the availability
of wild forms related to the crop plant. These wild forms are often the source of new gene variants that
can be bred with existing varieties to create varieties with new attributes. Loss of wild species related to
a crop will mean the loss of potential in crop improvement. Maintaining the genetic diversity of wild
species related to domesticated species ensures our continued supply of food.
Since the 1920s, government agriculture departments have maintained seed banks of crop varieties
as a way to maintain crop diversity. This system has flaws because over time seed varieties are lost
through accidents and there is no way to replace them. In 2008, the Svalbard Global seed Vault, located
on Spitsbergen island, Norway, (Figure) began storing seeds from around the world as a backup system
to the regional seed banks. If a regional seed bank stores varieties in Svalbard, losses can be replaced
from Svalbard should something happen to the regional seeds. The Svalbard seed vault is deep into
the rock of the arctic island. Conditions within the vault are maintained at ideal temperature and humidity
for seed survival, but the deep underground location of the vault in the arctic means that failure of the
vault’s systems will not compromise the climatic conditions inside the vault.

135
 Although crops are largely under our control,
our ability to grow them is dependent on the
biodiversity of the ecosystems in which they are
grown. That biodiversity creates the conditions
under which crops are able to grow through what
are known as ecosystem services—valuable
conditions or processes that are carried out by an
ecosystem. Crops are not grown, for the most
part, in built environments. They are grown in
soil. Although some agricultural soils are
rendered sterile using controversial pesticide
treatments, most contain a huge diversity of
organisms that maintain nutrient
cycles—breaking down organic matter into
nutrient compounds that crops need for growth. Figure 5. The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a storage
These organisms also maintain soil texture that facility for seeds of Earth’s diverse crops. (credit: Mari
affects water and oxygen dynamics in the soil that Tefre, Svalbard Global Seed Vault)
are necessary for plant growth. Replacing the
work of these organisms in forming arable soil is not practically possible. These kinds of
processes are called ecosystem services. They occur within ecosystems, such as soil
ecosystems, as a result of the diverse metabolic activities of the organisms living there, but
they provide benefits to human food production, drinking water availability, and breathable air.
Other key ecosystem services related to food production are plant pollination and crop pest control. It is
estimated that honeybee pollination within the United States brings in $1.6 billion per year; other pollinators
contribute up to $6.7 billion. Over 150 crops in the United States require pollination to produce. Many
honeybee populations are managed by beekeepers who rent out their hives’ services to farmers. Honeybee
populations in North America have been suffering large losses caused by a syndrome known as colony
collapse disorder, a new phenomenon with an unclear cause. Other pollinators include a diverse array of
other bee species and various insects and birds. Loss of these species would make growing crops requiring
pollination impossible, increasing dependence on other crops.
Finally, humans compete for their food with crop pests, most of which are insects. Pesticides control these
competitors, but these are costly and lose their effectiveness over time as pest populations adapt. They also
lead to collateral damage by killing non-pest species as well as beneficial insects like honeybees, and risking
the health of agricultural workers and consumers. Moreover, these pesticides may migrate from the fields
where they are applied and do damage to other ecosystems like streams, lakes, and even the ocean.
Ecologists believe that the bulk of the work in removing pests is actually done by predators and parasites of
those pests, but the impact has not been well studied. A review found that in 74 percent of studies that looked
for an effect of landscape complexity (forests and fallow fields near to crop fields) on natural enemies of
pests, the greater the complexity, the greater the effect of pest-suppressing organisms. Another experimental
study found that introducing multiple enemies of pea aphids (an important alfalfa pest) increased the yield of
alfalfa significantly. This study shows that a diversity of pests is more effective at control than one single pest.
Loss of diversity in pest enemies will inevitably make it more difficult and costly to grow food. The world’s
growing human population faces significant challenges in the increasing costs and other difficulties
associated with producing food.

136
Wild Food Sources

In addition to growing crops and raising food animals, humans obtain food resources from wild
populations, primarily wild fish populations. For about one billion people, aquatic resources provide the
main source of animal protein. But since 1990, production from global fisheries has declined. Despite
considerable effort, few fisheries on Earth are managed sustainability.
Fishery extinctions rarely lead to complete extinction of the harvested
species, but rather to a radical restructuring of the marine ecosystem in which
a dominant species is so over-harvested that it becomes a minor player,
ecologically. In addition to humans losing the food source, these alterations
affect many other species in ways that are difficult or impossible to predict.
The collapse of fisheries has dramatic and long-lasting effects on local human
populations that work in the fishery. In addition, the loss of an inexpensive
protein source to populations that cannot afford to replace it will increase the
cost of living and limit societies in other ways. In general, the fish taken from
Link to Learning: Visit this
fisheries have shifted to smaller species and the larger species are overfished.
website to view a brief
The ultimate outcome could clearly be the loss of aquatic systems as food
video discussing a study of
sources. declining fisheries.

137
5.4 Threats to Biodiversity

The core threat to biodiversity on the planet, and

therefore a threat to human welfare, is the
combination of human population growth and the
resources used by that population. The human
population requires resources to survive and grow,
and many of those resources are being removed
unsustainably from the environment. The three
greatest proximate threats to biodiversity are
habitat loss, overharvesting, and introduction of
exotic species. The first two of these are a direct
result of human population growth and resource
use. The third results from increased mobility and
trade. A fourth major cause of extinction,
anthropogenic (human-caused) climate change, Figure 1. Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels fluctuate in a
has not yet had a large impact, but it is predicted to cyclical manner. However, the burning of fossil fuels in
become significant during this century. Global recent history has caused a dramatic increase in the levels
of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere, which have
climate change is also a consequence of human
now reached levels never before seen on Earth. Scientists
population needs for energy and the use of fossil predict that the addition of this “greenhouse gas” to the
fuels to meet those needs (Figure 1). Environmental atmosphere is resulting in climate change that will
issues, such as toxic pollution, have specific significantly impact biodiversity in the coming century.
targeted effects on
species, but are not generally seen as threats at the magnitude of the others.

Habitat Loss

Humans rely on technology to modify their environment and make it habitable. Other species cannot
do this. Elimination of their habitat—whether it is a forest, coral reef, grassland, or flowing river—
will kill the individuals in the species. Remove the entire habitat and the species will become extinct,
unless they are among the few species that do well in human-built environments. Human
destruction of habitats (habitat generally refers to the part of the ecosystem required by a particular
species) accelerated in the latter half of the twentieth century.

138
 Consider the exceptional biodiversity of
Sumatra: it is home to one species of orangutan, a
species of critically endangered elephant, and the
Sumatran tiger, but half of Sumatra’s forest is
now gone. The neighboring island of Borneo,
home to the other species of orangutan, has lost a
similar area of forest. Forest loss continues in
protected areas of Borneo. The orangutan in
Borneo is listed as endangered by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN), but it is simply the most visible of
thousands of species that will not survive the
disappearance of the forests of Borneo. The
forests are removed for timber and to plant palm Figure 2. An oil palm plantation in Sabah province
oil plantations (Figure 2). Palm oil is used in Borneo, Malaysia, replaces native forest habitat that a
many products including food products, variety of species depended on to live. (credit: Lian Pin
cosmetics, and biodiesel in Europe. A 5-year Koh)
estimate of global forest cover loss for the years
from 2000 to 2005 was 3.1%. Much loss (2.4%) occurred in the tropics where forest loss is
primarily from timber extraction. These losses certainly also represent the extinction of species
unique to those areas.

BIOLOGY IN ACTION: Preventing Habitat Destruction with Wise Wood Choices

Most consumers do not imagine that the home improvement products they buy might be
contributing to habitat loss and species extinctions. Yet the market for illegally harvested
tropical timber is huge, and the wood products often find themselves in building supply
stores in the United States. One estimate is that up to 10% of the imported timber in the
United States, which is the world’s largest consumer of wood products, is illegally logged.
In 2006, this amounted to $3.6 billion in wood products. Most of the illegal products are
imported from countries that act as intermediaries and are not the originators of the wood.
How is it possible to determine if a wood product, such as flooring, was harvested sustainably or even
legally? The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certifies sustainably harvested forest products. Looking
for their certification on flooring and other hardwood products is one way to ensure that the wood has
not been taken illegally from a tropical forest. There are certifications other than the FSC, but these are
run by timber companies, thus creating a conflict of interest. Another approach is to buy domestic wood
species. While it would be great if there was a list of legal versus illegal woods, it is not that simple.
Logging and forest management laws vary from country to country; what is illegal in one country may
be legal in another. Where and how a product is harvested and whether the forest from which it comes
is being sustainably maintained all factor into whether a wood product will be certified by the FSC. It is
always a good idea to ask questions about where a wood product came from and how the supplier
knows that it was harvested legally.

Habitat destruction can affect ecosystems other than forests. Rivers and streams are important

139
ecosystems and are frequently the target of habitat modification. Damming of rivers affects flow and
access to habitat. Altering a flow regime can reduce or eliminate populations that are adapted to
seasonal changes in flow. For example, an estimated 91% of riverways in the United States have been
modified with damming or stream bank modification. Many fish species in the United States, especially
rare species or species with restricted distributions, have seen declines caused by river damming and
habitat loss. Research has confirmed that species of amphibians that must carry out parts of their life
cycles in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats are at greater risk of population declines and extinction
because of the increased likelihood that one of their habitats or access between them will be lost. This
is of particular concern because amphibians have been declining in numbers and going extinct more
rapidly than many other groups for a variety of possible reasons.

Overharvesting

Overharvesting is a serious threat to many species, but particularly to aquatic species. There are many
examples of regulated fisheries (including hunting of marine mammals and harvesting of crustaceans and
other species) monitored by fisheries scientists that have nevertheless collapsed. The western Atlantic cod
fishery is the most spectacular recent collapse. While it was a hugely productive fishery for 400 years, the
introduction of modern factory trawlers in the 1980s and the pressure on the fishery led to it becoming
unsustainable. The causes of fishery collapse are both economic and political in nature.
Most fisheries are managed as a common resource, available to
anyone willing to fish, even when the fishing territory lies within a
country’s territorial waters. Common resources are subject to an
economic pressure known as the tragedy of the commons, in which
fishers have little motivation to exercise restraint in harvesting a fishery
when they do not own the fishery. The general outcome of harvests of
resources held in common is their overexploitation. While large
fisheries are regulated to attempt to avoid this pressure, it still exists in
the background. This overexploitation is exacerbated when access to
the fishery is open and unregulated and when technology gives fishers
Link to Learning: Link to the ability to overfish. In a few fisheries, the biological growth of the
Learning: Explore a U.S. Fish resource is less than the potential growth of the profits made from
& Wildlife Service interactive
fishing if that time and money were invested elsewhere. In these
map of critical habitat for
endangered and threatened
cases—whales are an example—economic forces will drive toward
species in the United States. fishing the population to extinction.
To begin, select “Visit the
online mapper.”
Coral reefs are extremely diverse marine ecosystems that face
peril from several processes. Reefs are home to 1/3 of the
world’s marine fish species—about 4000 species—despite making up only one percent of
marine habitat. Most home marine aquaria house coral reef species that are wild-caught
organisms—not cultured organisms. Although no marine species is known to have been driven
extinct by the pet trade, there are studies showing that populations of some species have
declined in response to harvesting, indicating that the harvest is not sustainable at those levels.
There are also concerns about the effect of the pet trade on some terrestrial species such as
turtles, amphibians, birds, plants, and even the orangutans.

140
 Bush meat is the generic term used for wild
animals killed for food. Hunting is practiced
throughout the world, but hunting practices,
particularly in equatorial Africa and parts of
Asia, are believed to threaten several species
with extinction. Traditionally, bush meat in
Africa was hunted to feed families directly.
However, recent commercialization of the
practice now has bush meat available in
grocery stores, which has increased harvest
rates to the level of unsustainability.
Additionally, human population growth has Figure 3. Harvesting of pangolins for their
increased the need for protein foods that are scales and meat, and as curiosities, has led
to a drastic decline in population size for this
not being met from agriculture. Species fascinating creature. This work by David
threatened by the bush meat trade are mostly Brossard is licensed under CC BY 4.0
mammals including many monkeys and the
great apes living in the Congo basin.

Invasive Species

Exotic species are species that have been intentionally or unintentionally introduced by humans into
an ecosystem in which they did not evolve. Human transportation of people and goods, including the
intentional transport of organisms for trade, has dramatically increased the introduction of species into
new ecosystems. These new introductions are sometimes at distances that are well beyond the
capacity of the species to ever travel itself and outside the range of the species’ natural predators.
Most exotic species introductions probably fail because of the low number of individuals introduced or
poor adaptation to the ecosystem they enter. Some species, however, have characteristics that can make
them especially successful in a new ecosystem. These exotic species often undergo dramatic population
increases in their new habitat and reset the ecological conditions in the new environment, threatening the
species that exist there. When this happens, the exotic species also becomes an invasive species. Invasive
species can threaten other species through competition for resources, predation, or
disease.
Link to Learning: Explore
Lakes and islands are particularly vulnerable to extinction threats
this interactive global from introduced species. In Lake Victoria, the intentional introduction
database of exotic or of the Nile perch was largely responsible for the extinction of about
invasive species. 200 species of cichlids. The accidental introduction of the brown tree
snake via aircraft (Figure 4) from the Solomon Islands to Guam in
1950 has led to the extinction of three species of birds and three to
five species of reptiles endemic to the island. Several other species
are still threatened. The brown tree snake is adept at exploiting
human transportation as a means to migrate; one was even found on
an aircraft arriving in Corpus Christi, Texas. Constant vigilance on the
part of airport, military, and commercial aircraft personnel is required
to prevent the snake from moving from Guam to other islands in the
Pacific, especially

141
Hawaii. Islands do not make up a large area of land on the globe, but they do contain a
disproportionate number of endemic species because of their isolation from mainland
ancestors.
Many introductions of aquatic species, both marine and
freshwater, have occurred when ships have dumped ballast
water taken on at a port of origin into waters at a destination
port. Water from the port of origin is pumped into tanks on a
ship empty of cargo to increase stability. The water is drawn
from the ocean or estuary of the port and typically contains
living organisms such as plant parts, microorganisms, eggs,
larvae, or aquatic animals. The water is then pumped out
before the ship takes on cargo at the destination port, which
may be on a different continent. The zebra mussel was
introduced to the Great Lakes from Europe prior to 1988 in
ballast water. The zebra mussels in the Great Lakes have Figure 4. The brown tree snake, Boiga
created millions of dollars in clean-up costs to maintain water irregularis, is an exotic species that has
intakes and other facilities. The mussels have also altered the caused numerous extinctions on the
ecology of the lakes dramatically. They threaten native island of Guam since its accidental
mollusk populations, but have also benefited some species, introduction in 1950. (credit: NPS)
such as smallmouth bass. The mussels are filter feeders and have dramatically improved water clarity,
which in turn has allowed aquatic plants to grow along shorelines, providing shelter for young fish where
it did not exist before. The European green crab, Carcinus maenas, was introduced to San Francisco
Bay in the late 1990s, likely in ship ballast water, and has spread north along the coast to Washington.
The crabs have been found to dramatically reduce the abundance of native clams and crabs with
resulting increases in the prey species of those native crabs.
Invading exotic species can also be disease organisms. It now appears that the global decline in
amphibian species recognized in the 1990s is, in some part, caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium
dendrobatidis, which causes the disease chytridiomycosis (Figure 5). There is evidence that the fungus is
native to Africa and may have been spread throughout the world by transport of a commonly used laboratory
and pet species: the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis . It may well be that biologists themselves are
responsible for spreading this disease worldwide. The North American bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, which
has also been widely introduced as a food animal but which easily escapes captivity, survives most infections
of B. dendrobatidis and can act as a reservoir for the disease.

142
 Early evidence suggests that another fungal pathogen,
Geomyces destructans, introduced from Europe is
responsible for white-nose syndrome, which infects cave-
hibernating bats in eastern North America and has spread
from a point of origin in western New York State (Figure
6). The disease has decimated bat populations and
threatens extinction of species already listed as
endangered: the Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis, and
potentially the Virginia big-eared bat, Corynorhinus
townsendii virginianus. How the fungus was introduced is
unknown, but one logical presumption would be that
recreational cavers unintentionally brought the fungus on
clothes or equipment from Europe.

Figure 5. This Limosa harlequin frog

(Atelopus limosus), an endangered Climate Change
species from Panama, died from a
fungal disease called chytridiomycosis.
Climate
The red lesions are symptomatic of the
disease. (credit: Brian Gratwicke)change, and
specifically the
anthropogenic warming trend presently underway, is
recognized as a major extinction threat, particularly when
combined with other threats such as habitat loss.
Anthropogenic warming of the planet has been observed and
is due to past and continuing emission of greenhouse gases,
primarily carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere
caused by the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
Scientists overwhelmingly agree the present warming trend
is caused by humans and some of the likely effects include
dramatic and dangerous climate changes in the coming
decades. Scientists predict that climate change will alter
regional climates, including rainfall and snowfall patterns,
making habitats less hospitable to the species living in them.
Figure 6. This little brown bat in Greeley
The warming trend will shift colder climates toward the north
Mine, Vermont, March 26, 2009, was
and south poles, forcing species to move (if possible) with
found to have white-nose syndrome.
their adapted climate norms. (credit: modification of work by Marvin
The shifting ranges will impose new competitive regimes Moriarty, USFWS).
on species as they find themselves in contact with other
species not present in their historic range. One such unexpected species contact is between
polar bears and grizzly bears. Previously, these two species had separate ranges. Now, their
ranges are overlapping and there are documented cases of these two species mating and
producing viable offspring. Changing climates also throw off the delicate timing adaptations that
species have to seasonal food resources and breeding times. Scientists have already
documented many contemporary mismatches to shifts in resource availability and timing.
Other shifts in range have been observed. For example, one study indicates that European bird species

143
ranges have moved 91 km (56.5 mi) northward, on average. The same study suggested that
the optimal shift based on warming trends was double that distance, suggesting that the
populations are not moving quickly enough. Range shifts have also been observed in plants,
butterflies, other insects, freshwater fishes, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals.
Climate gradients will also move up mountains, eventually crowding species higher in altitude
and eliminating the habitat for those species adapted to the highest elevations. Some climates will
completely disappear. The rate of warming appears to be accelerated in the arctic, which is
recognized as a serious threat to polar bear populations that require sea ice to hunt seals during
the winter months. Seals are a critical source of protein for polar bears. A trend to decreasing sea
ice coverage has occurred since observations began in the mid-twentieth century. The rate of
decline observed in recent years is far greater than previously predicted by climate models.

Figure 7. The effect of global warming can be seen in the continuing retreat of Grinnell Glacier. The mean
annual temperature in Glacier National Park has increased 1.33°C since 1900. The loss of a glacier
results in the loss of summer meltwaters, sharply reducing seasonal water supplies and severely affecting
local ecosystems. (credit: USGS, GNP Archives)

Finally, global warming will raise ocean levels due to meltwater from glaciers and the greater
volume occupied by warmer water. Shorelines will be inundated, reducing island size, which
will have an effect on some species, and a number of islands will disappear entirely. Additionally,
the gradual melting and subsequent refreezing of the poles, glaciers, and higher elevation
mountains—a cycle that has provided freshwater to environments for centuries—will be altered.
This could result in an overabundance of salt water and a shortage of fresh water.

Suggested Supplementary Reading:

Hall. S. 2017. Could Genetic Engineering Save the Galápagos? Scientific American. December. p.
48-57.
This article explores the destructive nature of invasive species in the Galápagos Islands.
Traditional efforts to eradicate invasive species, such as rats, can be expensive and cause ecological
harm by the widespread distribution of poison. An alternate approach is genetic engineering in the form
of a “gene drive”, an emerging technique that could be better – or worse – for the environment.

144
5.5 Preserving Biodiversity

Preserving biodiversity is an extraordinary challenge that must be met by greater understanding of

biodiversity itself, changes in human behavior and beliefs, and various preservation strategies.

Change in Biodiversity through Time

The number of species on the planet, or in any geographical area, is the result of an equilibrium of
two evolutionary processes that are ongoing: speciation and extinction. When speciation rates begin
to outstrip extinction rates, the number of species will increase. Likewise, the reverse is true when
extinction rates begin to overtake speciation rates. Throughout the history of life on Earth, as reflected
in the fossil record, these two processes have fluctuated to a greater or lesser extent, sometimes leading
to dramatic changes in the number of species on the planet as reflected in the fossil record (Figure 1).
Paleontologists have identified five layers in
the fossil record that appear to show sudden and
dramatic losses in biodiversity. These are called
mass extinctions and are characterized by more
than half of all species disappearing from the
fossil record. There are many lesser, yet still
dramatic, extinction events, but the five mass
extinctions have attracted the most research into
their causes. An argument can be made that the
five mass extinctions are only the five most
extreme events in a continuous series of large
Figure 1. Extinction intensity as reflected in the fossil extinction events throughout the fossil record
record has fluctuated throughout Earth’s history. Sudden (since 542 million years ago). The most recent
and dramatic losses of biodiversity, called mass extinction in geological time, about 65 million
extinctions, have occurred five times. years ago, saw the disappearance of most
dinosaurs species (except birds) and many other
species. Most scientists now agree the main cause of this extinction was the impact of a large asteroid in
the present-day Yucatán Peninsula and the subsequent energy release and global climate changes caused
by dust ejected into the atmosphere.

Recent and Current Extinction Rates

Many biologists say that we are currently experience a sixth mass extinction and it mostly has
to do with the activities of humans. There are numerous recent extinctions of individual species
that are recorded in human writings. Most of these are coincident with the expansion of the
European colonies since the 1500s.
One of the earlier and popularly known examples is the dodo bird. The dodo bird lived in the forests
of Mauritius, an island in the Indian Ocean. The dodo bird became extinct around 1662. It was hunted

145
for its meat by sailors and was easy prey because the dodo, which did not evolve with humans, would
approach people without fear. Introduced pigs, rats, and dogs brought to the island by European ships
also killed dodo young and eggs (Figure 2).
Steller’s sea cow became extinct in 1768; it was related
to the manatee and probably once lived along the
northwest coast of North America. Steller’s sea cow was
discovered by Europeans in 1741, and it was hunted for
meat and oil. A total of 27 years elapsed between the sea
cow’s first contact with Europeans and extinction of the
species. The last Steller’s sea cow was killed in 1768. In
another example, the last living passenger pigeon died in
a zoo in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1914. This species had once
migrated in the millions but declined in numbers because
of overhunting and loss of habitat through the clearing of
forests for farmland.
These are only a few of the recorded extinctions in
the past 500 years. The International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) keeps a list of extinct
and endangered species called the Red List. The list is Figure 2. The dodo bird was hunted to extinction
not complete, but it describes 380 vertebrates that around 1662. (credit: Ed Uthman, taken in
Natural History Museum, London, England)
became extinct after 1500 AD, 86 of which were driven
extinct by overhunting or overfishing.

Estimates of Present-day Extinction Rates

Estimates of extinction rates are hampered by the fact that most extinctions are probably happening
without being observed. The extinction of a bird or mammal is often noticed by humans, especially if it
has been hunted or used in some other way. But there are many organisms that are less noticeable to
humans (not necessarily of less value) and many that are undescribed.
The background extinction rate is estimated to be about 1 per million species years (E/MSY).
One “species year” is one species in existence for one year. One million species years could be
one species persisting for one million years, or a million species persisting for one year. If it is the
latter, then one extinction per million species years would be one of those million species becoming
extinct in that year. For example, if there are 10 million species in existence, then we would expect
10 of those species to become extinct in a year. This is the background rate.
One contemporary extinction-rate estimate uses the extinctions in the written record since the year
1500. For birds alone, this method yields an estimate of 26 E/MSY, almost three times the background
rate. However, this value may be underestimated for three reasons. First, many existing species would
not have been described until much later in the time period and so their loss would have gone unnoticed.
Second, we know the number is higher than the written record suggests because now extinct species
are being described from skeletal remains that were never mentioned in written history. And third, some
species are probably already extinct even though conservationists are reluctant to name them as such.
Taking these factors into account raises the estimated extinction rate to nearer 100 E/MSY. The
predicted rate by the end of the century is 1500 E/MSY.

146
 A second approach to estimating present-time
extinction rates is to correlate species loss with
habitat loss, and it is based on measuring forest-
area loss and understanding species–area
relationships. The species-area relationship is the
rate at which new species are seen when the area
surveyed is increased (Figure 3). Likewise, if the
habitat area is reduced, the number of species
seen will also decline. This kind of relationship is
also seen in the relationship between an island’s
area and the number of species present on the
Figure 3. A typical species-area curve shows the island: as one increases, so does the other, though
cumulative number of species found as more and more not in a straight line. Estimates of extinction rates
area is sampled. The curve has also been interpreted to based on habitat loss and species–area
show the effect on species numbers of destroying habitat; a relationships have suggested that with about 90
reduction in habitat of 90 percent from 100 km2 to 10 km2 percent of habitat loss an expected 50 percent of
reduces the number of species supported by about 50 species would become extinct. Figure 3 shows
percent. that reducing forest area from 100 km2 to 10 km2,
a decline of 90 percent, reduces the number of
species by about 50 percent. Species–area estimates have led to estimates of present-day species
extinction rates of about 1000 E/MSY and higher.

Conservation of Biodiversity

The threats to biodiversity have been recognized for some time. Today, the main efforts to preserve
biodiversity involve legislative approaches to regulate human and corporate behavior, setting aside
protected areas, and habitat restoration.

Changing Human Behavior

Legislation has been enacted to protect species throughout the world. The
legislation includes international treaties as well as national and state laws. The
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES) treaty came into force in 1975. The treaty, and the national
legislation that supports it, provides a legal framework for preventing “listed”
species from being transported across nations’ borders, thus protecting them
Link to Learning: Go to this
from being caught or killed when the purpose involves international trade. The
website for an interactive
listed species that are protected by the treaty number some 33,000. The treaty exploration of endangered
is limited in its reach because it only deals with international movement of and extinct species, their
organisms or their parts. It is also limited by various countries’ ability or ecosystems, and the causes
willingness to enforce the treaty and supporting legislation. The illegal trade in of their endangerment or
organisms and their parts is probably a market in the hundreds of millions of extinction.
dollars.
Within many countries there are laws that protect endangered species and that regulate hunting and
fishing. In the United States, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) was enacted in 1973. When an at-risk

147
species is listed by the Act, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service is required by law to develop a
management plan to protect the species and bring it back to sustainable numbers. The ESA,
and others like it in other countries, is a useful tool, but it suffers because it is often difficult to
get a species listed or to get an effective management plan in place once a species is listed.
The Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) is an agreement between the United States and Canada that was
signed into law in 1918 in response to declines in North American bird species caused by hunting. The Act
now lists over 800 protected species. It makes it illegal to disturb or kill the protected species or distribute
their parts (much of the hunting of birds in the past was for their feathers). Examples of protected species
include northern cardinals, the red-tailed hawk, and the American black vulture.
Global warming is expected to be a major driver of biodiversity loss. Many governments are
concerned about the effects of anthropogenic global warming, primarily on their economies and food
resources. Because greenhouse gas emissions do not respect national boundaries, the effort to curb
them is international. The international response to global warming has been mixed. The Kyoto
Protocol, an international agreement that came out of the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change that committed countries to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 2012, was ratified
by some countries, but spurned by others. Two countries that were especially important in terms of their
potential impact that did not ratify the Kyoto protocol were the United States and China. Some goals for
reduction in greenhouse gasses were met and exceeded by individual countries, but, worldwide, the
effort to limit greenhouse gas production is not succeeding. A renegotiated 2016 treaty, called the Paris
Agreement, once again brought nations together to take meaningful action on climate change. But like
before, some nations are reluctant to participate. The newly-elected President Trump has indicated that
he will withdraw the United States’ support of the agreement.

Conservation in Preserves

Establishment of wildlife and ecosystem

preserves is one of the key tools in conservation
efforts (Figure 4). A preserve is an area of land
set aside with varying degrees of protection for
the organisms that exist within the boundaries of
the preserve. In 2003, the IUCN World Parks
Congress estimated that 11.5 percent of Earth’s
land surface was covered by preserves of various
kinds. This area is large but only represents 9 out
of 14 recognized major biomes and research has
shown that 12 percent of all species live outside Figure 4. National parks, such as Grand Teton National
preserves. Park in Wyoming, help conserve biodiversity. (credit: Don
A biodiversity hotspot is a conservation DeBold)
concept developed by Norman Myers in 1988.
Hotspots are geographical areas that contain high numbers of endemic species. The purpose of the concept
was to identify important locations on the planet for conservation efforts, a kind of conservation triage. By
protecting hotspots, governments are able to protect a larger number of species. The original criteria for a
hotspot included the presence of 1500 or more species of endemic plants and 70 percent of the area
disturbed by human activity. There are now 34 biodiversity hotspots (Figure 5) that contain large numbers of
endemic species, which include half of Earth’s endemic plants.

148
Figure 5. Conservation International has identified 34 biodiversity hotspots. Although these cover only 2.3
percent of the Earth’s surface, 42 percent of the terrestrial vertebrate species and 50 percent of the world’s
plants are endemic to those hotspots.

There has been extensive research into optimal preserve designs for maintaining biodiversity. The
fundamental principles behind much of the research have come from the seminal theoretical work of
Robert H. MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson published in 1967 on island biogeography. 1 This work
sought to understand the factors affecting biodiversity on islands. Conservation preserves can be seen
as “islands” of habitat within “an ocean” of non-habitat. In general, large preserves are better because
they support more species, including species with large home ranges; they have more core area of
optimal habitat for individual species; they have more niches to support more species; and they attract
more species because they can be found and reached more easily. One large preserve is better than
the same area of several smaller preserves because there is more core habitat unaffected by less
hospitable ecosystems outside the preserve boundary. For this same reason, preserves in the shape of
a square or circle will be better than a preserve with many thin “arms.” If preserves must be smaller,
then providing wildlife corridors (narrow strips of protected land) between two preserves is important
so that species and their genes can move between them. All of these factors are taken into consideration
when planning the nature of a preserve before the land is set aside.
In addition to the physical specifications of a preserve, there are a variety of regulations related to the
use of a preserve. These can include anything from timber extraction, mineral extraction, regulated
hunting, human habitation, and nondestructive human recreation. Many of the decisions to include these
other uses are made based on political pressures rather than conservation considerations. On the other
hand, in some cases, wildlife protection policies have been so strict that subsistence-living indigenous
populations have been forced from ancestral lands that fell within a preserve. In other cases, even if a
preserve is designed to protect wildlife, if the protections are not or cannot be enforced, the preserve
status will have little meaning in the face of illegal poaching and timber extraction. This is a widespread
problem with preserves in the tropics.

149
 Climate change will create inevitable problems with the location of
preserves as the species within them migrate to higher latitudes as
the habitat of the preserve becomes less favorable. Planning for the
effects of global warming on future preserves, or adding new
preserves to accommodate the changes expected from global
warming is in progress, but will only be as effective as the accuracy of
the predictions of the effects of global warming on future habitats.
Finally, an argument can be made that conservation preserves reinforce
Link to Learning: Check the cultural perception that humans are separate from nature, can exist
out this interactive global outside of it, and can only operate in ways that do damage to biodiversity.
data system of protected Creating preserves reduces the pressure on human activities outside the
areas. Review data about preserves to be sustainable and non-damaging to biodiversity. Ultimately,
specific protected areas by the political, economic, and human demographic pressures will degrade and
location or study statistics
reduce the size of conservation preserves if the activities outside them are
on protected areas by
country or region. not altered to be less damaging to biodiversity.

Habitat Restoration

Habitat restoration is the process of bringing an area back to its natural state, before it was impacted
through destructive human activities. It holds considerable promise as a mechanism for maintaining or
restoring biodiversity. Reintroducing wolves, a top predator, to Yellowstone National Park in 1995 led to
dramatic changes in the ecosystem that increased biodiversity. The wolves (Figure 6) function to suppress
elk and coyote populations and provide more abundant resources to the detritivores. Reducing elk
populations has allowed revegetation of riparian (the areas along the banks of a stream or river) areas, which
has increased the diversity of species in that habitat. Reduction of coyote populations by wolves has
increased the prey species previously suppressed by coyotes. In this habitat, the wolf is a keystone species,
meaning a species that is instrumental in maintaining diversity within an ecosystem. Removing a keystone
species from an ecological community causes a collapse in diversity. The results from the Yellowstone
experiment suggest that restoring a keystone species effectively can have the effect of restoring biodiversity
in the community. Ecologists have argued for the identification of keystone species where possible and for
focusing protection efforts on these species. It makes sense to return the keystone species to the ecosystems
where they have been removed.

150
 Other large-scale restoration experiments
underway involve dam removal. In the United
States, since the mid-1980s, many aging dams are
being considered for removal rather than
replacement because of shifting beliefs about the
ecological value of free-flowing rivers. The
measured benefits of dam removal include
restoration of naturally fluctuating water levels
(often the purpose of dams is to reduce variation in
river flows), which leads to increased fish diversity
and improved water quality. In the Pacific
Northwest of the United States, dam removal
projects are expected to increase populations of Figure 6. This photograph shows the Gibbon wolf pack
salmon, which is considered a keystone species in Yellowstone National Park, March 1, 2007. Wolves
because it transports nutrients to inland ecosystems have been identified as a keystone species. (credit: Doug
during its annual spawning migrations. In other Smith, NPS)
regions, such as the Atlantic coast, dam removal
has allowed the return of other spawning anadromous fish species (species that are born in
fresh water, live most of their lives in salt water, and return to fresh water to spawn). Some of
the largest dam removal projects have yet to occur or have happened too recently for the
consequences to be measured, such as Elwha Dam on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington
State. The large-scale ecological experiments that these removal projects constitute will
provide valuable data for other dam projects slated either for removal or construction.

The Role of Zoos and Captive Breeding

Zoos have sought to play a role in conservation efforts both

through captive breeding programs and education (Figure 7). The
transformation of the missions of zoos from collection and exhibition
facilities to organizations that are dedicated to conservation is
ongoing. In general, it has been recognized that, except in some
specific targeted cases, captive breeding programs for endangered
species are inefficient and often prone to failure when the species are
reintroduced to the wild. Zoo facilities are far too limited to
contemplate captive breeding programs for the numbers of species
that are now at risk. Education, on the other hand, is a potential
positive impact of zoos on conservation efforts, particularly given the
global trend to urbanization and the consequent reduction in contacts
between people and wildlife. A number of studies have been
performed to look at the effectiveness of zoos on people’s attitudes
and actions regarding conservation and at present, the results tend
Figure 7. Zoos and captive breeding to be mixed.
programs help preserve many
endangered species, such as this golden
lion tamarin. (credit: Garrett Ziegler)

151
Suggested Supplemental Reading:

Paterniti. 2017. Should we Kill Animals to Save Them? National Geographic. October.
Quammen. 2019. Saving Africa’s Parks. National Geographic. December

5.6 Chapter Resources

Summary

Biodiversity exists at multiple levels of organization, and is measured in different ways depending on
the goals of those taking the measurements. These include numbers of species, genetic diversity,
chemical diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Humans use many compounds that were first discovered
or derived from living organisms as medicines: secondary plant compounds, animal toxins, and
antibiotics produced by bacteria and fungi. Ecosystems provide ecosystem services that support human
agriculture: pollination, nutrient cycling, pest control, and soil development and maintenance. Loss of
biodiversity threatens these ecosystem services and risks making food production more expensive or
impossible. The core threats to biodiversity are human population growth and unsustainable resource
use. Climate change is predicted to be a significant cause of extinction in the coming century. Exotic
species have been the cause of a number of extinctions and are especially damaging to islands and
lakes. International treaties such as CITES regulate the transportation of endangered species across
international borders. In the United States, the Endangered Species Act protects listed species but is
hampered by procedural difficulties and a focus on individual species. The Migratory Bird Act is an
agreement between Canada and the United States to protect migratory birds. Presently, 11 percent of
Earth’s land surface is protected in some way. Habitat restoration has the potential to restore
ecosystems to previous biodiversity levels before species become extinct. Examples of restoration
include reintroduction of keystone species and removal of dams on rivers.

Review Questions

1. Bacteria that feed upon decaying organic matter in the soil would best be described as
which one of the following?
A. Eukaryotic
B. Autotrophic
C. Fungi
D. Cyanobacteria
E. Heterotrophic

2. As Darwin recognized, populations evolve through natural selection when which of the
following condition(s) are met?
A. Variation of traits among individuals
B. Competition for limited resources
C. More offspring are produced than can survive
D. All of the above

152
3. You are the world’s foremost expert on lizards. You have traveled the world extensively and have
found that a particular species of lizard is found only in one desert near of the Chilean Andes. Which of
following terms, with regard to its distribution, can be definitively applied to this species?
A. Endangered
B. Prokaryotic
C. Endemic
D. Disbursed
E. Clustered

4. Which one of the following is not a major cause of biodiversity loss?

A. Habitat loss
B. Climate change
C. Invasive Species
D. Zoonotic diseases
E. Overharvesting

5. Which one of the following statements is false?

A. There have been five mass extinctions preserved in the fossil record
B. Some bacteria are autotrophs
C. Current rates of extinction are higher than background extinction rates
D. Speciation is the process of creating new species
E. All living things can be classified into one of four taxonomic domains

6. During the middle of the 19th century, which scientist independently derived and proposed
a theory of evolution that was similar to Darwin’s?
A. Gregor Mendel
B. Alfred Wallace
C. Isaac Newton
D. Rachel Carson
E. Niels Bohr

7. The study of the distribution of the world’s species both in the past and in the present is
known by what term?
A. Geology
B. Biogeography
C. Biodiversity
D. Biogeomorphology
E. Ecological Succession

8. Which one of the following would be described as anthropogenic?

A. Water backing up behind a beaver dam
B. The dinosaurs going extinct
C. Logging a forest
D. A mudslide burying a stream
E. A volcanic eruption

9. By definition, what are you most likely to find in a biodiversity hotspot?

153
 A. A large abundance of endangered species
B. A large number of endemic species
C. Mostly eukaryotic species
D. Extremophiles
E. Heat-loving microbes

10. You are working as a biologist for a team surveying biodiversity in the Amazon
rainforest. You find a non-motile organism that grows in the soil, has eukaryotic cells, and
is heterotrophic. Which one of the following could potentially describe this species?
A. Fungus
B. Animal
C. Bacteria
D. Plant
E. Archaea

154
Chapter 6: Environmental Hazards & Human Health

Bayee Waqo (12) was named after her grandmother Bayee

Chumee (82). When her son and his wife both died of AIDS,
Chumee took on the care of their daughter who was just two
years old. Some years later, after repeated illness, the young
girl was diagnosed HIV positive, and she has been on
treatment since. At 82, Chumee is getting too weak for all the
household chores, so her granddaughter helps by collecting
firewood, fetching water, making coffee and baking bread.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Define environmental health

• Categorize environmental health risks
• Explain the concept of emerging diseases
• Summarize the principles of environmental toxicology
• Classify environmental contaminants

155
Chapter Outline

• 6.1 The Impacts of Environmental Conditions

• 6.2 Environmental Health
• 6.3 Environmental Toxicology
• 6.4 Bioremediation
• 6.5 Case Study: The Love Canal Disaster
• 6.6 Chapter Resources

6.1 The Impacts of Environmental Conditions

Our industrialized society dumps huge amounts of pollutants and toxic wastes into the earth’s biosphere
without fully considering the consequences. Such actions seriously degrade the health of the earth’s
ecosystems, and this degradation ultimately affects the health and well-being of human populations.
For most of human history, biological agents were the most significant factor in health. These
included pathogenic (disease causing) organisms such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and internal
parasites. In modern times, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and accidents are the leading killers
in most parts of the world. However, infectious diseases still cause about 22 million deaths a year,
mostly in undeveloped countries. These diseases include: tuberculosis, malaria, pneumonia,
influenza, whooping cough, dysentery and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Most of
those affected are children. Malnutrition, unclean water, poor sanitary conditions and lack of proper
medical care all play roles in these deaths. Compounding the problems of infectious diseases are
factors such as drug-resistant pathogens, insecticide resistant carriers, and overpopulation.
Overuse of antibiotics have allowed pathogens to develop a resistance to drugs. For example,
tuberculosis (TB) was nearly eliminated in most parts of the world, but drug-resistant strains have
now reversed that trend. Another example is malaria. The insecticide DDT (a chemical called
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was widely used to control malaria-carrying mosquito populations
in tropical regions. However, after many years the mosquitoes developed a natural resistance to
DDT and again spread the disease widely. Anti-malarial medicines were also over-prescribed,
which allowed the malaria pathogen to become drug-resistant.
Chemical agents also have significant effects on human health. Toxic heavy metals, dioxins,
pesticides, and endocrine disrupters are examples of these chemical agents. Heavy metals (e.g.,
mercury, lead, & cadmium) are typically produced as by-products of mining and manufacturing
processes. All of them biomagnify (become more concentrated in species with increasing food
chain level). For example, mercury from polluted water can accumulate in swordfish to levels toxic
to humans. When toxic heavy metals get into the body, they accumulate in tissues and may
eventually cause sickness or death. Studies show that people with above-average lead levels in
their bones have an increased risk of developing attention deficit disorder and aggressive behavior.
Lead can also damage brain cells and affect muscular coordination.

156
ENVIRONMENTAL PERSISTENCE OF DDT

The pesticide DDT was widely used for decades. It was seen as an ideal
pesticide because it is inexpensive and breaks down slowly in the
environment. Unfortunately, the latter characteristic allows this
chemical agent to biomagnify through the food chain. Populations of
bird species at the top of the food chain, e.g., eagles and pelicans, are
greatly affected by DDT in the environment. When these birds have
sufficient levels of DDT, the shells of their eggs are so thin that they
break, making reproduction impossible. After DDT was banned in the
United States in 1972, affected bird populations made noticeable
recoveries, including the iconic bald eagle.

Figure 1. DDT was a commonly-used

pesticide.

157
6.2 Environmental Health

Environmental health is concerned with preventing disease, death and disability by reducing
exposure to adverse environmental conditions and promoting behavioral change. It focuses on
the direct and indirect causes of diseases and injuries, and taps resources inside and outside
the health care system to help improve health outcomes.

Table 1. Typical Environmental Health Issues: Determinants and Health Consequences.

Poverty, Health and Environment

Environmental health risks can be grouped into two broad categories. Traditional hazards are related to
poverty and the lack of development and mostly affect developing countries and poor people. Their impact
exceeds that of modern health hazards by 10 times in Africa, 5 times in Asian countries (except for China),
and 2.5 times in Latin America and Middle East (Figure 1). Water-related diseases caused by inadequate
water supply and sanitation impose an especially large health burden in Africa, Asia, and

158
the Pacific region. In India alone, over 700,000 children under 5 die annually from diarrhea. In Africa,
malaria causes about 500,000 deaths annually. More than half of the world’s households use
unprocessed solid fuels, particularly biomass (crop residues, wood, and dung) for cooking and heating
in inefficient stoves without proper ventilation, exposing people—mainly poor women and children—to
high levels of indoor air pollution(IAP). IAP causes about 2 million deaths in each year.

Figure 1. Traditional environmental health hazards prevail in developing countries but modern
risks are also significant.

Modern hazards, caused by technological development, prevail in industrialized countries where exposure
to traditional hazards is low. The contribution of modern environmental risks to the disease burden in most
developing countries is similar to – and in quite a few countries, greater than – that in rich countries. Urban
air pollution, for example, is highest in parts of China, India and some cities in Asia and Latin America. Poor
people increasingly experience a “ double burden” of traditional and modern environmental health risks.
Their total burden of illness and death from all causes per million people is about twice that in rich countries,
and the disease burden from environmental risks is 10 times greater.

159
Environmental Health and Child Survival

Worldwide, the top killers of children under five are acute

respiratory infections (from indoor air pollution); diarrheal diseases
(mostly from poor water, sanitation, and hygiene); and infectious
diseases such as malaria. Children are especially susceptible to
environmental factors that put them at risk of developing illness
early in life. Malnutrition (the condition that occurs when body
does not get enough nutrients) is an important contributor to child
mortality—malnutrition and environmental infections are
inextricably linked. The World Health Organization (WHO) recently
concluded that about 50% of the consequences of malnutrition are
in fact caused by inadequate water and sanitation provision and
poor hygienic practices.

Poor Water and Sanitation Access

Figure 2. Malnourished children in
With 1.1 billion people lacking access to safe drinking water and 2.6 Niger, during the 2005 famine.
billion without adequate sanitation, the magnitude of the water and
sanitation problem remains significant. Each year contaminated water and poor sanitation
contribute to 5.4 billion cases of diarrhea worldwide and 1.6 million deaths, mostly among children
under the age of five. Intestinal worms, which thrive in poor sanitary conditions, infect close to 90
percent of children in the developing world and, depending on the severity of the infection may lead
to malnutrition, anemia, or stunted growth. About 6 million people are blind from trachoma, a
disease caused by the lack of clean water combined with poor hygiene practices.

Indoor Air Pollution

Indoor air pollution—a much less publicized source of poor health—is responsible for more than
1.6 million deaths per year and for 2.7% of global burden of disease. It is estimated that half of the
world’s population, mainly in developing countries, uses solid fuels (biomass and coal) for
household cooking and space heating. Cooking and heating with such solid fuels on open fires or
stoves without chimneys lead to indoor air pollution and subsequently, respiratory infections.
Exposure to these health-damaging pollutants is particularly high among women and children in
developing countries, who spend the most time inside the household. As many as half of the deaths
attributable to indoor use of solid fuel are of children under the age of five.

Malaria

Approximately 40% of the world’s people—mostly those living in the world’s poorest countries—are at risk
from malaria. Malaria is an infectious disease spread by mosquitoes but caused by a single-celled parasite
called Plasmodium. Every year, more than 200 million people become infected with malaria and about
430,000 die, with most cases and deaths found in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, Asia, Latin America, the
Middle East, and parts of Europe are also affected. Pregnant women are especially at high risk of malaria.
Non-immune pregnant women risk both acute and severe clinical disease, resulting in fetal loss in up to 60%
of such women and maternal deaths in more than 10%, including a 50% mortality rate for those with severe
disease. Semi-immune pregnant women with malaria infection risk severe

160
anemia and impaired fetal growth, even if they show no signs of acute clinical disease. An estimated
10,000 women and 200,000 infants die annually as a result of malaria infection during pregnancy.

Emerging Diseases

Emerging and re-emerging diseases have been defined as infectious diseases of humans
whose occurrence during the past two decades has substantially increased or threatens to
increase in the near future relative to populations affected, geographic distribution, or
magnitude of impacts. Examples include Ebola virus, West Nile virus, Zika virus, sudden acute
respiratory syndrome (SARS), H1N1 influenza; swine and avian influenza (swine, bird flu), HIV,
and a variety of other viral, bacterial, and protozoal diseases.
A variety of environmental factors may contribute to re-emergence of a particular disease,
including temperature, moisture, human food or animal feed sources, etc. Disease re-
emergence may be caused by the coincidence of several of these environmental and/or social
factors to allow optimal conditions for transmission of the disease.
Ebola, previously known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever, is a rare and deadly disease caused
by infection with one of the Ebola virus strains. Ebola can cause disease in humans and
nonhuman primates. The 2014 Ebola epidemic is the largest in history (with over 28,000 cases
and 11,302 deaths), affecting multiple countries in West Africa. There were a small number of
cases reported in Nigeria and Mali and a single case reported in Senegal; however, these cases
were contained, with no further spread in these countries.
The HIV/AIDS epidemic has spread with ferocious speed. Virtually unknown 20 years ago,
HIV has infected more than 60 million people worldwide. Each day, approximately 14,000 new
infections occur, more than half of them among young people below age 25. Over 95 percent
of PLWHA (People Living With HIV/AIDS) are in low- and middle- income countries. More than
20 million have died from AIDS, over 3 million in 2002 alone. AIDS is now the leading cause of
death in Sub-Saharan Africa and the fourth-biggest killer globally. The epidemic has cut life
expectancy by more than 10 years in several nations.
It seems likely that a wide variety of infectious diseases have affected human populations for
thousands of years emerging when the environmental, host, and agent conditions were favorable.
Expanding human populations have increased the potential for transmission of infectious disease
as a result of close human proximity and increased likelihood for humans to be in “the wrong place
at the right time” for disease to occur (eg, natural disasters or political conflicts). Global travel
increases the potential for a carrier of disease to transmit infection thousands of miles away in just
a few hours, as evidenced by WHO precautions concerning international travel and health.

Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotics and similar drugs, together called antimicrobial agents, have been used for the last 70 years
to treat patients who have infectious diseases. Since the 1940s, these drugs have greatly reduced
illness and death from infectious diseases. However, these drugs have been used so widely and for so
long that the infectious organisms the antibiotics are designed to kill have adapted to them, making the
drugs less effective. Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in a way that reduces the
effectiveness of drugs, chemicals, or other agents designed to cure or prevent infections. This is caused
by the process of evolution through natural selection (Figure 3). The antibiotic-resistant bacteria survive
and continue to multiply, causing more harm.

161
Figure 3. Antibiotic resistance is of increasing concern to medical professionals.

New forms of antibiotic resistance can cross international boundaries and spread between continents with
ease. Many forms of resistance spread with remarkable speed. Each year in the United States, at least 2
million people acquire serious infections with bacteria that are resistant to one or more of the antibiotics
designed to treat those infections. At least 23,000 people die each year in the US as a direct result of these
antibiotic-resistant infections. Many more die from other conditions that were complicated by an antibiotic-
resistant infection. The use of antibiotics is the single most important factor
leading to antibiotic resistance around the world.
Antibiotics are among the most commonly prescribed
drugs used in human medicine, but up to 50% of all the
antibiotics prescribed for people are not needed or are
not optimally effective as prescribed.
During recent years, there has been growing
concern over methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA), a bacterium that is resistant to
many antibiotics. In the community, most MRSA
infections are skin infections. In medical facilities,
MRSA causes life-threatening bloodstream
infections, pneumonia and surgical site infections.
Figure 4. Click here for a video link to an
experiment done at Harvard Medical school,
where they show bacteria adapting very quickly
to apparently deadly conditions.

162
Suggested Supplementary Reading:

Koch, B.J. et al. 2017. Food-animal production and the

spread of antibiotic resistance: the role of ecology.

Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment (15)6: 309-318.

Notable Excerpts:
“Antibiotic use in food animals is correlated with antibiotic resistance among bacteria affecting
human populations.” p. 311

“Microbial genes encoding antibiotic resistance have moved between the food-animal and
human health sectors, resulting in illnesses that could not be treated by antibiotics.” p. 312

6.3 Environmental Toxicology

Environmental toxicology is the scientific study of the health effects associated with exposure
to toxic chemicals (Table 1) occurring in the natural, work, and living environments. The term
also describes the management of environmental toxins and toxicity, and the development of
protections for humans and the environment.

163
 Table 1. The ATSDR 2013 Substance Priority List. The table below lists Routes of Exposure to Chemicals
top 20 substances, in order of priority, which are determined to pose the
most significant potential threat to human health. This priority list is not In order to cause health problems,
a list of “most toxic” substances but rather a prioritization of
chemicals must enter your body. There
substances based on a combination of their frequency, toxicity, and
potential for human exposure at various sites.
are three main “routes of exposure,” or
2013 ways a chemical can get into your body.
RANK NAME • Breathing (inhalation): Breathing in chemical
1 ARSENIC gases, mists, or dusts that are in the air.

2 LEAD • Skin or eye contact: Getting chemicals

on the skin, or in the eyes. They can
3 MERCURY damage the skin, or be absorbed
4 VINYL CHLORIDE through the skin into the bloodstream.
• Swallowing (ingestion): This can happen when
5 POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
chemicals have spilled or settled onto food,
6 BENZENE beverages, cigarettes, beards, or hands.
7 CADMIUM
Once chemicals have entered your body,
8 BENZO(A)PYRENE some can move into your bloodstream and
reach internal “target” organs, such as the
9 POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC lungs, liver, kidneys, or nervous system.
HYDROCARBONS
10 BENZO(B)FLUORANTHENE
What Forms do Chemicals Take?
11 CHLOROFORM
Chemical substances can take a variety of
12 AROCLOR 1260
forms. They can be in the form of solids,
13 DDT, P,P’- liquids, dusts, vapors, gases, fibers, mists
and fumes. The form a substance is in has
14 AROCLOR 1254
a lot to do with how it gets into your body
15 DIBENZO(A,H)ANTHRACENE and what harm it can cause. A chemical can
16 TRICHLOROETHYLENE also change forms. For example, liquid
solvents can evaporate and give off vapors
17 CHROMIUM, HEXAVALENT that you can inhale. Sometimes chemicals
18 DIELDRIN are in a form that can’t be seen or smelled,
so they can’t be easily detected.
19 PHOSPHORUS, WHITE
20 HEXACHLOROBUTADIENE What Health Effects Can
Chemicals Cause?

An acute effect of a contaminant (The term “contaminant” means hazardous substances, pollutants,
pollution, and chemicals) is one that occurs rapidly after exposure to a large amount of that substance.
A chronic effect of a contaminant results from exposure to small amounts of a substance over a long
period of time. In such a case, the effect may not be immediately obvious. Chronic effect are difficult
to measure, as the effects may not be seen for years. Long-term exposure to cigarette smoking, low
level radiation exposure, and moderate alcohol use are all thought to produce chronic effects.

164
 For centuries, scientists have known that just about any substance is toxic in sufficient quantities.
For example, small amounts of selenium are required by living organisms for proper functioning,
but large amounts may cause cancer. The effect of a certain chemical on an individual depends on
the dose (amount) of the chemical. This relationship is often illustrated by a dose-response curve
which shows the relationship between dose and the response of the individual. Lethal doses in
humans have been determined for many substances from information gathered from records of
homicides, accidental poisonings, and testing on animals.
A dose that is lethal to 50% of a population of test animals is called the lethal dose-50% or LD-
50. Determination of the LD-50 is required for new synthetic chemicals in order to give a measure
of their toxicity. A dose that causes 50% of a population to exhibit any significant response (e.g.,
hair loss, stunted development) is referred to as the effective dose-50% or ED-50. Some toxins
have a threshold amount below which there is no apparent effect on the exposed population.

Environmental Contaminants

The contamination of the air, water, or soil with potentially harmful substances can affect any
person or community. Contaminants (Table 2) are often chemicals found in the environment in
amounts higher than what would be there naturally. We can be exposed to these contaminants
from a variety of residential, commercial, and industrial sources. Sometimes harmful
environmental contaminants occur biologically, such as mold or a toxic algae bloom.

Table 2. Classification of Environmental

Contaminant Contaminants Definition

An agent which may produce cancer (uncontrolled cell growth), either by itself or in conjunction w
Carcinogen
another substance. Examples include formaldehyde, asbestos, radon, vinyl chloride, and tobacco.

Teratogen A substance which can cause physical defects in a developing embryo. Examples
include alcohol a cigarette smoke.
A material that induces genetic changes (mutations) in the DNA. Examples include
Mutagen
radioactive substances, x-rays and ultraviolet radiation.

Neurotoxicant A substance that can cause an adverse effect on the chemistry, structure or function of
the nervous Examples include lead and mercury.

A chemical that may interfere with the body’s endocrine (hormonal) system and produce adverse
developmental, reproductive, neurological, and immune effects in both humans and wildlife. A wid of
Endocrine disruptor substances, both natural and man-made, are thought to cause endocrine disruption, including
pharmaceuticals, dioxin and dioxin-like compounds, arsenic, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), D
other pesticides, and plasticizers such as bisphenol A (BPA).

An Overview of Some Common Contaminants

Arsenic is a naturally occurring element that is normally present throughout our environment in water,

165
soil, dust, air, and food. Levels of arsenic can regionally vary due to farming and industrial activity as
well as natural geological processes. The arsenic from farming and smelting tends to bind strongly to
soil and is expected to remain near the surface of the land for hundreds of years as a long-term source
of exposure. Wood that has been treated with chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is commonly found in
decks and railing in existing homes and outdoor structures such as playground equipment. Some
underground aquifers are located in rock or soil that has naturally high arsenic content.
Most arsenic gets into the body through ingestion of food or water. Arsenic in drinking water
is a problem in many countries around the world, including Bangladesh, Chile, China, Vietnam,
Taiwan, India, and the United States. Arsenic may also be found in foods, including rice and
some fish, where it is present due to uptake from soil and water. It can also enter the body by
breathing dust containing arsenic. Researchers are finding that arsenic, even at low levels, can
interfere with the body’s endocrine system. Arsenic is also a known human carcinogen
associated with skin, lung, bladder, kidney, and liver cancer.
Mercury is a naturally occurring metal, a useful chemical in some products, and a potential health
risk. Mercury exists in several forms; the types people are usually exposed to are methylmercury and
elemental mercury. Elemental mercury at room temperature is a shiny, silver-white liquid which can
produce a harmful odorless vapor. Methylmercury, an organic compound, can build up in the bodies of
long-living, predatory fish. To keep mercury out of the fish we eat and the air we breathe, it’s important
to take mercury-containing products to a hazardous waste facility for disposal. Common products sold
today that contain small amounts of mercury include fluorescent lights and button-cell batteries.
Although fish and shellfish have many nutritional benefits, consuming large quantities of fish
increases a person’s exposure to mercury. Pregnant women who eat fish high in mercury on a regular
basis run the risk of permanently damaging their developing fetuses. Children born to these mothers
may exhibit motor difficulties, sensory problems and cognitive deficits. Figure 1 identifies the typical
(average) amounts of mercury in commonly consumed commercial and sport-caught fish.

166
Figure 1. Mercury concentrations in fish can reach potentially dangerous levels (published by the

Maine Center for Disease Control & Prevention).

167
 Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical synthesized in large quantities for use primarily in the
production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Polycarbonate plastics have many
applications including use in some food and drink packaging, e.g., water and infant bottles, compact
discs, impact-resistant safety equipment, and medical devices. Epoxy resins are used as lacquers
to coat metal products such as food cans, bottle tops, and water supply pipes. Some dental sealants
and composites may also contribute to BPA exposure. The primary source of exposure to BPA for
most people is through the diet. Bisphenol A can leach into food from the protective internal epoxy
resin coatings of canned foods and from consumer products such as polycarbonate tableware, food
storage containers, water bottles, and baby bottles. The degree to which BPA leaches from
polycarbonate bottles into liquid may depend more on the temperature of the liquid or bottle, than
the age of the container. BPA can also be found in breast milk.

What can I do to prevent exposure to BPA?

Some animal studies suggest that infants and children may be the most vulnerable to the effects
of BPA. Parents and caregivers, can make the personal choice to reduce exposures of their
infants and children to BPA:

• Don’t microwave polycarbonate plastic food containers. Polycarbonate is strong and

durable, but over time it may break down from over use at high temperatures.
• Plastic containers have recycle codes on the bottom. Some, but not all,
plastics that are marked with recycle codes 3 or 7 may be made with BPA.
• Reduce your use of canned foods.
• When possible, opt for glass, porcelain or stainless steel containers, particularly for
hot food or liquids.
• Use baby bottles that are BPA free.

Phthalates are a group of synthetic chemicals used to soften and increase the flexibility of plastic and
vinyl. Polyvinyl chloride is made softer and more flexible by the addition of phthalates. Phthalates are used
in hundreds of consumer products. Phthalates are used in cosmetics and personal care products, including
perfume, hair spray, soap, shampoo, nail polish, and skin moisturizers. They are used in consumer products
such as flexible plastic and vinyl toys, shower curtains, wallpaper, vinyl miniblinds, food packaging, and
plastic wrap. Exposure to low levels of phthalates may come from eating food packaged in plastic that
contains phthalates or breathing dust in rooms with vinyl miniblinds, wallpaper, or recently installed flooring
that contain phthalates. We can be exposed to phthalates by drinking water that contains phthalates.
Phthalates are suspected to be endocrine disruptors.
Lead is a metal that occurs naturally in the rocks and soil of the earth’s crust. It is also produced from
burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gasoline, and natural gas; mining; and manufacturing. Lead has no
distinctive taste or smell. The chemical symbol for elemental lead is Pb. Lead is used to produce batteries,
pipes, roofing, scientific electronic equipment, military tracking systems, medical devices, and products to
shield X-rays and nuclear radiation. It is used in ceramic glazes and crystal glassware. Because of health
concerns, lead and lead compounds were banned from house paint in 1978; from solder used on water pipes
in 1986; from gasoline in 1995; from solder used on food cans in 1996; and

168
from tin-coated foil on wine bottles in 1996. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has set a
limit on the amount of lead that can be used in ceramics.
Lead and lead compounds are listed as “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen”. It can affect
almost every organ and system in your body. It can be equally harmful if breathed or swallowed. The part of
the body most sensitive to lead exposure is the central nervous system, especially in children, who are more
vulnerable to lead poisoning than adults. A child who swallows large amounts of lead can develop brain
damage that can cause convulsions and death; the child can also develop blood anemia, kidney damage,
colic, and muscle weakness. Repeated low levels of exposure to lead can alter a child’s normal mental and
physical growth and result in learning or behavioral problems. Exposure to high levels of lead for pregnant
women can cause miscarriage, premature births, and smaller babies. Repeated or chronic exposure can
cause lead to accumulate in your body, leading to lead poisoning.
Formaldehyde is a colorless, flammable gas or liquid that
has a pungent, suffocating odor. It is a volatile organic
compound, which is an organic compound that easily
becomes a vapor or gas. It is also naturally produced in small,
harmless amounts in the human body. The primary way we
can be exposed to formaldehyde is by breathing air
containing it. Releases of formaldehyde into the air occur from
Figure 2. Nail products are known to contain
industries using or manufacturing formaldehyde, wood toxic chemicals, such as dibutyl phthalate
products (such as particle-board, plywood, and (DBP), toluene, and formaldehyde.
furniture), automobile exhaust, cigarette smoke, paints
and varnishes, and carpets and permanent press fabrics. Nail polish, and commercially applied
floor finish emit formaldehyde.
In general, indoor environments consistently have higher concentrations than outdoor
environments, because many building materials, consumer products, and fabrics emit
formaldehyde. Levels of formaldehyde measured in indoor air range from 0.02–4 parts per million
(ppm). Formaldehyde levels in outdoor air range from 0.001 to 0.02 ppm in urban areas.

Radiation

Radiation is energy given off by atoms and is all around us. We are exposed to radiation every day from
natural sources like soil, rocks, and the sun. We are also exposed to radiation from man-made sources like
medical X-rays and smoke detectors. We’re even exposed to low levels of radiation on cross-country flights,
from watching television, and even from some construction materials. You cannot see, smell or taste radiation.
Some types of radioactive materials are more dangerous than others. So it’s important to carefully manage
radiation and radioactive substances to protect health and the environment.
Radon is a radioactive gas that is naturally-occurring, colorless, and odorless. It comes from
the natural decay of uranium or thorium found in nearly all soils. It typically moves up through
the ground and into the home through cracks in floors, walls and foundations. It can also be
released from building materials or from well water. Radon breaks down quickly, giving off
radioactive particles. Long-term exposure to these particles can lead to lung cancer. Radon is
the leading cause of lung cancer among nonsmokers, according to the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, and the second leading cause behind smoking.
Attribution
Essentials of Environmental Science by Kamala Doršner is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Modified
from the original by Matthew R. Fisher.

169
6.4 Bioremediation

Bioremediation is a waste management technique that involves the use of organisms such as
plants, bacteria, and fungi to remove or neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site. According
to the United States EPA, bioremediation is a “treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to
break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non toxic substances”.
Bioremediation is widely used to treat human sewage and has also been used to remove agricultural
chemicals (pesticides and fertilizers) that leach from soil into groundwater. Certain toxic metals, such
as selenium and arsenic compounds, can also be removed from water by bioremediation. Mercury is
an example of a toxic metal that can be removed from an environment by bioremediation. Mercury is an
active ingredient of some pesticides and is also a byproduct of certain industries, such as battery
production. Mercury is usually present in very low concentrations in natural environments but it is highly
toxic because it accumulates in living tissues. Several species of bacteria can carry out the
biotransformation of toxic mercury into nontoxic forms. These bacteria, such as Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, can convert Hg2+ to Hg, which is less toxic to humans.
Probably one of the most useful and interesting examples of the use of prokaryotes for bioremediation
purposes is the cleanup of oil spills. The importance of prokaryotes to petroleum bioremediation has
been demonstrated in several oil spills in recent years, such as the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska (1989)
(Figure 1), the Prestige oil spill in Spain (2002), the spill into the Mediterranean from a Lebanon power
plant (2006,) and more recently, the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico (2010). To clean up these spills,
bioremediation is promoted by adding inorganic nutrients that help bacteria already present in the
environment to grow. Hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria feed on the hydrocarbons in the oil droplet,
breaking them into inorganic compounds. Some species, such as Alcanivorax borkumensis, produce
surfactants that solubilize the oil, while other bacteria degrade the oil into carbon dioxide. In the case of
oil spills in the ocean, ongoing, natural bioremediation tends to occur, inasmuch as there are oil-
consuming bacteria in the ocean prior to the spill. Under ideal conditions, it has been reported that up
to 80 percent of the nonvolatile components in oil can be degraded within 1 year of the spill. Researchers
have genetically engineered other bacteria to consume petroleum products; indeed, the first patent
application for a bioremediation application in the U.S. was for a genetically modified oil-eating
bacterium.

170
Figure 1. Figure 1. (a) Cleaning up oil after the Valdez spill in Alaska, the workers hosed oil from beaches
and then used a floating boom to corral the oil, which was finally skimmed from the water surface. Some
species of bacteria are able to solubilize and degrade the oil. (b) One of the most catastrophic
consequences of oil spills is the damage to fauna. (credit a: modification of work by NOAA; credit b:
modification of work by GOLUBENKOV, NGO: Saving Taman)

There are a number of cost/efficiency advantages to bioremediation, which can be employed in

areas that are inaccessible without excavation. For example, hydrocarbon spills (specifically, oil
spills) or certain chlorinated solvents may contaminate groundwater, which can be easier to treat
using bioremediation than more conventional approaches. This is typically much less expensive
than excavation followed by disposal elsewhere, incineration, or other off-site treatment strategies.
It also reduces or eliminates the need for “pump and treat”, a practice common at sites where
hydrocarbons have contaminated clean groundwater. Using prokaryotes for bioremediation of
hydrocarbons also has the advantage of breaking down contaminants at the molecular level, as
opposed to simply chemically dispersing the contaminant.

171
6.5 Case Study: The Love Canal Disaster

One of the most famous and important examples of groundwater pollution in the U.S. is the Love
Canal tragedy in Niagara Falls, New York. It is important because the pollution disaster at Love
Canal, along with similar pollution calamities at that time (Times Beach, Missouri and Valley of
Drums, Kentucky), helped to create Superfund, a federal program instituted in 1980 and designed
to identify and clean up the worst of the hazardous chemical waste sites in the U.S.
Love Canal is a neighborhood in Niagara Falls named
after a large ditch (approximately 15 m wide, 3–12 m
deep, and 1600 m long) that was dug in the 1890s for
hydroelectric power. The ditch was abandoned before it
actually generated any power and went mostly unused
for decades, except for swimming by local residents. In
the 1920s Niagara Falls began dumping urban waste into
Love Canal, and in the 1940s the U.S. Army dumped
waste from World War II there, including waste from the
frantic effort to build a nuclear bomb. Hooker Chemical
purchased the land in 1942 and lined it with clay. Then,
the company put into Love Canal an estimated 21,000
tons of hazardous chemical waste, including the
carcinogens benzene, dioxin, and PCBs in large metal
barrels and covered them with more clay. In 1953,
Hooker sold the land to the Niagara Falls school board
for $1, and included a clause in the sales contract that
both described the land use (filled with chemical waste)
and absolved them from any future damage claims from
the buried waste. The school board promptly built a
public school on the site and sold the surrounding land
for a housing project that built 200 or so homes along the
canal banks and another 1,000 in the neighborhood
(Figure 1). During construction, the canal’s clay cap and
walls were breached, damaging some of the metal Figure 1. Love Canal. Source: US
Environmental Protection Agency
barrels.
Eventually, the chemical waste seeped into people’s
basements, and the metal barrels worked their way to the surface. Trees and gardens began to die; bicycle
tires and the rubber soles of children’s shoes disintegrated in noxious puddles. From the 1950s to the late
1970s, residents repeatedly complained of strange odors and substances that surfaced in their yards. City
officials investigated the area, but did not act to solve the problem. Local residents allegedly experienced
major health problems including high rates of miscarriages, birth defects, and chromosome damage, but
studies by the New York State Health Department disputed that. Finally, in 1978 President Carter declared
a state of emergency at Love Canal, making it the first human-caused environmental problem to be
designated that way. The Love Canal incident became a symbol of improperly stored chemical waste. Clean
up of Love Canal, which was funded by Superfund and completely finished in 2004,

195

172
1

involved removing contaminated soil, installing drainage pipes to capture contaminated

groundwater for treatment, and covering it with clay and plastic. In 1995, Occidental Chemical
(the modern name for Hooker Chemical) paid $102 million to Superfund for cleanup and $27
million to Federal Emergency Management Association for the relocation of more than 1,000
families. New York State paid $98 million to EPA and the US government paid $8 million for
pollution by the Army. The total clean up cost was estimated to be $275 million.
The Love Canal tragedy helped to create Superfund, which has analyzed tens of thousands
of hazardous waste sites in the U.S. and cleaned up hundreds of the worst ones. Nevertheless,
over 1,000 major hazardous waste sites with a significant risk to human health or the
environment are still in the process of being cleaned.

173
6.6 Chapter Resources

Summary

Environmental health is concerned with preventing disease, death and disability by reducing
exposure to adverse environmental conditions and promoting behavioral change. It focuses on the
direct and indirect causes of diseases and injuries, and taps resources inside and outside the health
care system to help improve health outcomes. Environmental health risks can be grouped into two
broad categories. Traditional hazards related to poverty and lack of development affect developing
countries and poor people most. Modern hazards, caused by development that lacks environmental
safeguards, such as urban (outdoor) air pollution and exposure to agro-industrial chemicals and
waste, prevail in industrialized countries, where exposure to traditional hazards is low. Each year
contaminated water and poor sanitation contribute to 5.4 billion cases of diarrhea worldwide and
1.6 million deaths, mostly among children under the age of five. Indoor air pollution—a much less
publicized source of poor health—is responsible for more than 1.6 million deaths per year and for
2.7 percent of global burden of disease.
Emerging and reemerging diseases have been defined as infectious diseases of humans whose
occurrence during the past two decades has substantially increased or threatens to increase in the near
future relative to populations affected, geographic distribution, or magnitude of impacts. Antibiotic
resistance is a global problem. New forms of antibiotic resistance can cross international boundaries
and spread between continents. Environmental toxicology is the scientific study of the health effects
associated with exposure to toxic chemicals and systems occurring in the natural, work, and living
environments; the management of environmental toxins and toxicity; and the development of protections
for humans, animals, and plants. Environmental contaminants are chemicals found in the environment
in amounts higher than what would be there naturally. We can be exposed to these contaminants from
a variety of residential, commercial, and industrial sources.

Review Questions

1. The pesticide DDT is an example of which one of the following?

A. Biological agent
B. Atomic agent
C. Chemical agent
D. Capricious agent
E. Inorganic agent

2. From the perspective of human health, malnutrition is important because it…

A. Causes the majority of birth defects
B. Is the primary source of teratogens for most children
C. is an important contributor to child mortality
D. Is the second leading cause of death from emerging disease

174
 E. Increases the occurrence of infectious cancers

3. Antibiotic resistance in organisms is the result of what process?

A. Differentiation
B. Evolution
C. Emergence
D. Succession
E. Fixation

4. Which one of the following is an example of an emerging disease?

A. Malaria
B. Ebola
C. Cancer
D. Heart disease
E. Leukemia

5. “Effective dose – 50%” describes which one of the following?

A. The dose that results in 50% mortality
B. The dose the results in 50% survival
C. The dose that is 50% less than the lethal dose
D. The dose that results in a significant response in 50% of subjects
E. The dose that is 50% more than the minimal dose

6. You are working as an environmental toxicologist for the government. Your results indicate
that a particular chemical causes birth defects. Which one of the following best describes the
effects of this chemical?
A. Teratogen
B. Carcinogen
C. Mutagen
D. Endocrine disruptor
E. Neurotoxicant

7. Which one of the following is most directly associated with radon?

A. Radiation
B. Endocrine disruption
C. Birth defects
D. Biological agents
E. Biomagnification

8. Which one of the following is an example of bioremediation?

A. Adding chemical dispersants following an oil spill
B. Growing large colonies of bacteria to produce antibiotic chemicals
C. Mimicking the processes of natural in a laboratory or industrial context
D. Removing invasive species that are overpopulating an ecosystem
E. Using plants to remove toxic metals from soils following a mining operation

175
9. Which one of the following is not a naturally-occurring element that may be hazardous to
human health?
A. Lead
B. Radon
C. Phthalate
D. Mercury
E. Arsenic

10. Which one of the following is not true regarding the “Love Canal Disaster”?
A. It involved the improper storage of chemical waste
B. It was one of several incidents that led to the creation of the Superfund
C. A school was built on the contaminated site
D. Many homes had to be evacuated due to contamination from various biological agents
E. Many people living in the year reported serious health problems

176
Chapter 7: Water Availability and Use

Great Lakes from Space. The Great Lakes hold 21% of the world’s surface fresh water.
Lakes are an important surface water resource.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Understand how the water cycle operates

• Know the causes and effects of depletion in different water reservoirs
• Understand how we can work toward solving the water supply crisis
• Understand the major kinds of water pollutants and how they degrade water quality
• Understand how we can work toward solving the crisis involving water pollution

Chapter Outline

• 7.1 Water Cycle and Fresh Water Supply

• 7.2 Water Supply Problems and Solutions
• 7.3. Water Pollution
• 7.4. Water Treatment
• 7.5. Case Study: The Aral Sea – Going, Going, Gone

• 7.6. Chapter Resources

177
7.1 Water Cycle and Fresh Water Supply

Water, air, and food are the most important natural resources to people. Humans can live only
a few minutes without oxygen, less than a week without water, and about a month without food.
Water also is essential for our oxygen and food supply. Plants breakdown water and use it to
create oxygen during the process of photosynthesis.
Water is the most essential compound for all living things. Human babies are approximately 75%
water and adults are 60% water. Our brain is about 85% water, blood and kidneys are 83% water,
muscles are 76% water, and even bones are 22% water. We constantly lose water by perspiration; in
temperate climates we should drink about 2 quarts of water per day and people in hot desert climates
should drink up to 10 quarts of water per day. Loss of 15% of body-water usually causes death.
Earth is truly the Water Planet. The abundance of liquid water on Earth’s surface distinguishes
us from other bodies in the solar system. About 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by oceans and
approximately half of Earth’s surface is obscured by clouds (also made of water) at any time. There
is a very large volume of water on our planet, about 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (km3) (330 million
cubic miles) or about 53 billion gallons per person on Earth. All of Earth’s water could cover the
United States to a depth of 145 km (90 mi). From a human perspective, the problem is that over
97% of it is seawater, which is too salty to drink or use for irrigation. The most commonly used water
sources are rivers and lakes, which contain less than 0.01% of the world’s water!
One of the most important environmental goals is to provide clean water to all people. Fortunately,
water is a renewable resource and is difficult to destroy. Evaporation and precipitation combine to
replenish our fresh water supply constantly; however, water availability is complicated by its uneven
distribution over the Earth. Arid climate and densely populated areas have combined in many parts of
the world to create water shortages, which are projected to worsen in the coming years due to population
growth and climate change. Human activities such as water overuse and water pollution have
compounded significantly the water crisis that exists today. Hundreds of millions of people lack access
to safe drinking water, and billions of people lack access to improved sanitation as simple as a pit latrine.
As a result, nearly two million people die every year from diarrheal diseases and 90% of those deaths
occur among children under the age of 5. Most of these are easily prevented deaths.

Water Reservoirs and Water Cycle

Water is the only common substance that occurs naturally on earth in three forms: solid, liquid and gas. It is
distributed in various locations, called water reservoirs. The oceans are by far the largest of the reservoirs
with about 97% of all water but that water is too saline for most human uses (Figure 1). Ice caps and glaciers
are the largest reservoirs of fresh water but this water is inconveniently located, mostly in Antarctica and
Greenland. Shallow groundwater is the largest reservoir of usable fresh water. Although rivers and lakes are
the most heavily used water resources, they represent only a tiny amount of the world’s water. If all of world’s
water was shrunk to the size of 1 gallon, then the total amount of fresh water would be about 1/3 cup, and
the amount of readily usable fresh water would be 2 tablespoons.

178
204 Matthew R. Fisher

Figure 1. Earth’s Water Reservoirs. Bar chart Distribution of Earth’s water including total global water, fresh
water, and surface water and other fresh water and Pie chart Water usable by humans and sources of usable
water. Source: United States Geographical Survey Igor Skiklomanov’s chapter “World fresh water resources”
in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World’s Fresh Water Resources

The water (or hydrologic) cycle (that was covered in Chapter 3.2) shows the movement of water through
different reservoirs, which include oceans, atmosphere, glaciers, groundwater, lakes, rivers, and biosphere.
Solar energy and gravity drive the motion of water in the water cycle. Simply put, the water cycle involves
water moving from oceans, rivers, and lakes to the atmosphere by evaporation, forming clouds. From clouds,
it falls as precipitation (rain and snow) on both water and land. The water on land can either return to the
ocean by surface runoff, rivers, glaciers, and subsurface groundwater flow, or return to the atmosphere by
evaporation or transpiration (loss of water by plants to the atmosphere).

179
Figure 2. The Water Cycle. Arrows depict movement of water to different reservoirs located above, at,
and below Earth’s surface. Source: United States Geological Survey

An important part of the water cycle is how water varies in salinity, which is the abundance of dissolved
ions in water. The saltwater in the oceans is highly saline, with about 35,000 mg of dissolved ions per
liter of seawater. Evaporation (where water changes from liquid to gas at ambient temperatures) is a
distillation process that produces nearly pure water with almost no dissolved ions. As water vaporizes,
it leaves the dissolved ions in the original liquid phase. Eventually, condensation (where water changes
from gas to liquid) forms clouds and sometimes precipitation (rain and snow). After rainwater falls onto
land, it dissolves minerals in rock and soil, which increases its salinity. Most lakes, rivers, and near-
surface groundwater have a relatively low salinity and are called freshwater. The next several sections
discuss important parts of the water cycle relative to fresh water resources.

Primary Fresh Water Resources: Precipitation

Precipitation levels are unevenly distributed around the globe, affecting fresh water availability (Figure 3).
More precipitation falls near the equator, whereas less precipitation tends to fall near 30 degrees north and
south latitude, where the world’s largest deserts are located. These rainfall and climate patterns are related
to global wind circulation cells. The intense sunlight at the equator heats air, causing it to rise and cool, which
decreases the ability of the air mass to hold water vapor and results in frequent rainstorms. Around 30
degrees north and south latitude, descending air conditions produce warmer air, which increases its ability
to hold water vapor and results in dry conditions. Both the dry air conditions

180
and the warm temperatures of these latitude belts favor evaporation. Global precipitation and
climate patterns are also affected by the size of continents, major ocean currents, and mountains.

Figure 3. World Rainfall Map. The false-color map above shows the amount of rain that falls
around the world. Areas of high rainfall include Central and South America, western Africa,
and Southeast Asia. Since these areas receive so much rainfall, they are where most of the
world’s rainforests grow. Areas with very little rainfall usually turn into deserts. The desert
areas include North Africa, the Middle East, western North America, and Central Asia.
Source: United States Geological Survey Earth Forum, Houston Museum Natural Science

Surface Water Resources: Rivers, Lakes, Glaciers

181
 Flowing water from rain and melted snow on land enters river
channels by surface runoff (Figure 4) and groundwater seepage (Figure
5). River discharge describes the volume of water moving through a
river channel over time (Figure 6). The relative contributions of surface
runoff vs. groundwater seepage to river discharge depend on
precipitation patterns, vegetation, topography, land use, and soil
characteristics. Soon after a heavy rainstorm, river discharge increases
due to surface runoff. The steady normal flow of river water is mainly
from groundwater that discharges into the river. Gravity pulls river water
downhill toward the ocean. Along the way the moving water of a river
can erode soil particles and dissolve minerals. Groundwater also
contributes a large amount of the dissolved minerals in river water. The
geographic area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a
drainage basin or watershed. The Mississippi River drainage basin
includes approximately 40% of the U.S., a measure that includes the
smaller drainage basins, such as the Ohio River and Missouri River that
help to comprise it. Rivers are an important water resource for irrigation
of cropland and drinking water for many cities around the world. Rivers
Figure 4. Surface Runoff Surface
runoff, part of overland flow in the that have had international disputes over water supply include the
water cycle Source: James M. Colorado (Mexico, southwest U.S.), Nile (Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan),
Pease at Wikimedia Commons Euphrates (Iraq, Syria,

Turkey), Ganges (Bangladesh, India), and Jordan (Israel, Jordan, Syria).

In addition to rivers, lakes can also be an

excellent source of freshwater for human use.
They usually receive water from surface runoff
and groundwater discharge. They tend to be
short-lived on a geological time-scale because
they are constantly filling in with sediment
supplied by rivers. Lakes form in a variety of
ways including glaciation, recent tectonic uplift
(e.g., Lake Tanganyika, Africa), and volcanic
eruptions (e.g., Crater Lake, Oregon). People
also create artificial lakes (reservoirs) by
damming rivers. Large changes in climate can
result in major changes in a lake’s size. As
Figure 5. Groundwater Seepage. Groundwater
Earth was coming out of the last Ice Age about
seepage can be seen in Box Canyon in Idaho, where
15,000 years ago, the climate in the western approximately 10 cubic meters per second of seepage
U.S. changed from cool and moist to warm and emanates from its vertical headwall. Source: NASA
arid, which caused more than 100 large lakes to
disappear. The Great Salt Lake in Utah is a remnant of a much larger lake called Lake
Bonneville.

182
 Although glaciers represent the largest reservoir of
fresh water, they generally are not used as a water
source because they are located too far from most
people (Figure 7). Melting glaciers do provide a
natural source of river water and groundwater.
During the last Ice Age there was as much as 50%
more water in glaciers than there is today, which
caused sea level to be about 100 m lower. Over the
past century, sea level has been rising in part due to
melting glaciers. If Earth’s climate continues to warm,
the melting glaciers will cause an additional rise in
sea level.
Figure 6. River Discharge Colorado River, U.S..
Rivers are part of overland flow in the water cycle
and an important surface water resource. Source:
Gonzo fan2007 at Wikimedia Commons.

Groundwater Resources

Although most people in the world use surface water,

groundwater is a much larger reservoir of usable fresh
water, containing more than 30 times more water than
rivers and lakes combined. Groundwater is a
particularly important resource in arid climates, where
surface water may be scarce. In addition, groundwater
is the primary water source for rural homeowners,
providing 98% of that water demand in the U.S..
Groundwater is water located in small spaces, called
pore space, between mineral grains and fractures in
subsurface earth materials (rock or sediment). Most Figure 7. Mountain Glacier in Argentina Glaciers
groundwater originates from rain or snowmelt, which are the largest reservoir of fresh water but they
are not used much as a water resource directly
infiltrates the ground and moves downward until it
by society because of their distance from most
reaches the saturated zone (where groundwater
people. Source: Luca Galuzzi – www.galuzzi.it
completely fills pore spaces in earth materials).

Other sources of groundwater include seepage from surface water (lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and
swamps), surface water deliberately pumped into the ground, irrigation, and underground wastewater
treatment systems (septic tanks). Recharge areas are locations where surface water infiltrates the
ground rather than running into rivers or evaporating. Wetlands, for example, are excellent recharge
areas. A large area of sub-surface, porous rock that holds water is an aquifer. Aquifers are commonly
drilled, and wells installed, to provide water for agriculture and personal use.

Water Use in the U.S. and World

People need water, oftentimes large quantities, to produce the food, energy, and mineral resources they
use. Consider, for example, these approximate water requirements for some things people in the
developed world use every day: one tomato = 3 gallons; one kilowatt-hour of electricity from a

183
thermoelectric power plant = 21 gallons; one loaf of bread = 150 gallons; one pound of beef = 1,600
gallons; and one ton of steel = 63,000 gallons. Human beings require only about 1 gallon per day
to survive, but a typical person in a U.S. household uses approximately 100 gallons per day, which
includes cooking, washing dishes and clothes, flushing the toilet, and bathing. The water demand
of an area is a function of the population and other uses of water.

Figure 8. Trends in Total Water Withdrawals by Water-use Category, 1950-2005 Trends

in total water withdrawals in the U.S. from 1950 to 2005 by water use category, including
bars for thermoelectric power, irrigation, public water supply, and rural domestic and
livestock. Thin blue line represents total water withdrawals using vertical scale on right.
Source: United States Geological Survey

184
 Figure 9. Trends in Source of Fresh Water Withdrawals in the U.S. from 1950 to 2005
Trends in source of fresh water withdrawals in the U.S. from 1950 to 2005, including
bars for surface water, groundwater, and total water. Red line gives U.S. population
using vertical scale on right. Source: United States Geological Survey

Global total water use is steadily increasing at a rate greater than world population growth
(Figure 10). During the 20th century global population tripled and water demand grew by a
factor of six. The increase in global water demand beyond the rate of population growth is due
to improved standard of living without an offset by water conservation. Increased production of
goods and energy entails a large increase in water demand. The major global water uses are
irrigation (68%), public supply (21%), and industry (11%).

185
Figure 10. Trends in World Water Use from 1900 to 2000 and Projected to 2025 For each water major
use category, including trends for agriculture, domestic use, and industry. Darker colored bar
represents total water extracted for that use category and lighter colored bar represents water
consumed (i.e., water that is not quickly returned to surface water or groundwater system) for that
use category. Source: Igor A.
Shiklomanow, State Hydrological Institute (SHI, St. Petersburg) and United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, Paris), 1999

186
7.2 Water Supply Problems and Solutions

Water Supply Problems: Resource Depletion

As groundwater is pumped from water wells, there usually is a localized drop in the water table around
the well called a cone of depression. When there are a large number of wells that have been pumping
water for a long time, the regional water table can drop significantly. This is called groundwater
mining, which can force the drilling of deeper, more expensive wells that commonly encounter more
saline groundwater. Rivers, lakes, and artificial lakes (reservoirs) can also be depleted due to overuse.
Some large rivers, such as the Colorado in the U.S. and Yellow in China, run dry in some years. The
case history of the Aral Sea discussed later in this chapter involves depletion of a lake. Finally, glaciers
are being depleted due to accelerated melting associated with global warming over the past century.
Another water resource problem associated
with groundwater mining is saltwater intrusion,
where overpumping of fresh water aquifers near
ocean coastlines causes saltwater to enter fresh
water zones. The drop of the water table around
a cone of depression in an unconfined aquifer
can change the direction of regional groundwater
flow, which could send nearby pollution toward
the pumping well instead of away from it. Finally,
problems of subsidence (gradual sinking of the
land surface over a large area) and sinkholes
(rapid sinking of the land surface over a small
area) can develop due to a drop in the water table. Figure 1. Formation of a Cone of Depression around a
Pumping Water Well Source: Fayette County Groundwater
Water Supply Crisis Conservation District, TX

The water crisis refers to a global situation where people in many areas lack access to sufficient
water, clean water, or both. This section describes the global situation involving water shortages,
also called water stress. In general, water stress is greatest in areas with very low precipitation
(major deserts), large population density (e.g., India), or both. Future global warming could worsen
the water crisis by shifting precipitation patterns away from humid areas and by melting mountain
glaciers that recharge rivers downstream. Melting glaciers will also contribute to rising sea level,
which will worsen saltwater intrusion in aquifers near ocean coastlines.

213

187
Figure 2. Countries Facing Water Stress in 1995 and Projected in 2025 Water stress is defined as
having a high percentage of water withdrawal compared to total available water in the area. Source:
Philippe Rekacewicz (Le Monde diplomatique), February 2006

According to a 2006 report by the United Nations Development Programme, 700 million people (11% of
the world’s population) lived with water stress. Most of them live in the Middle East and North Africa. By
2025, the report projects that more than 3 billion people (about 40% of the world’s population) will live
in water-stressed areas with the large increase coming mainly from China and India. The water crisis
will also impact food production and our ability to feed the ever-growing population. We can expect
future global tension and even conflict associated with water shortages and pollution. Historic and future
areas of water conflict include the Middle East (Euphrates and Tigris River conflict among Turkey, Syria,
and Iraq; Jordan River conflict among Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, and the Palestinian territories), Africa
(Nile River conflict among Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan), Central Asia (Aral Sea conflict among
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan), and south Asia (Ganges River
conflict between India and Pakistan).

Sustainable Solutions to the Water Supply Crisis?

The current and future water crisis described above requires multiple approaches to extending
our fresh water supply and moving towards sustainability. Some of the longstanding traditional
approaches include dams and aqueducts.

188
 Reservoirs that form behind dams in rivers can collect water
during wet times and store it for use during dry spells. They also
can be used for urban water supplies. Other benefits of dams and
reservoirs are hydroelectricity, flood control, and recreation. Some
of the drawbacks are evaporative loss of water in arid climates,
downstream river channel erosion, and impact on the ecosystem
including a change from a river to lake habitat and interference with
migration and spawning of fish.
Aqueducts can move water from where it is plentiful to where it
is needed. Aqueducts can be controversial and politically difficult
especially if the water transfer distances are large. One drawback
is the water diversion can cause drought in the area from where the
water is drawn. For example, Owens Lake and Mono Lake in
central California began to disappear after their river flow was
diverted to the Los Angeles aqueduct. Owens Lake remains almost
completely dry, but Mono Lake has recovered more significantly
due to legal intervention.
One method that can actually increase the amount of
fresh water on Earth is desalination, which involves Figure 3. Hoover Dam, Nevada, U.S.
removing dissolved salt from seawater or saline Hoover Dam, Nevada, U.S.. Behind the
dam is Lake Mead, the largest reservoir
groundwater. There are several ways to desalinate
in U.S.. White band reflects the lowered
seawater including boiling, filtration, and electrodialysis. All water levels in the reservoir due to
of these procedures are moderately to very expensive and drought conditions from 2000 – 2010.
require considerable energy input, making the water Source: Cygnusloop99 at Wikimedia
produced much more expensive than fresh water from Commons
conventional sources. In addition, the
process creates highly saline wastewater, which must be disposed of and
creates significant environmental impact. Desalination is most common in the
Middle East, where energy from oil is abundant but water is scarce.
Conservation means using less water and using it
more efficiently. Around the home, conservation can
involve both engineered features, such as high-
efficiency clothes washers and low-flow showers and
toilets, as well as behavioral decisions, such as
growing native vegetation that require little irrigation
in desert climates, turning off the water while you
brush your teeth, and fixing leaky faucets.
Rainwater harvesting involves catching and storing
rainwater for reuse before it reaches the ground. Another Figure 4. The California Aqueduct California
Aqueduct in southern California, U.S.
important technique is efficient irrigation, which is
Source: David Jordan at en.wikipedia
extremely important because irrigation accounts for a
much larger water demand than public
water supply. Water conservation strategies in agriculture include growing crops in areas where the
natural rainfall can support them, more efficient irrigation systems such as drip systems that minimize
losses due to evaporation, no-till farming that reduces evaporative losses by covering the soil, and

189
reusing treated wastewater from sewage treatment plants. Recycled wastewater has also been
used to recharge aquifers.

Suggested Supplementary Reading:

Weiss, K.R. 2018. Drying Lakes. National Geographic. March. p. 108-133.

This article documents how many lakes across the globe are drying up, the reasons why,
and the effect on humans. Overuse and a warming climate threaten lakes that provide
sustenance and jobs for humans, while also providing critical habitat for animals.
Attribution
Essentials of Environmental Science by Kamala Doršner is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Modified
from the original by Matthew R. Fisher.

190
7.3 Water Pollution

The global water crisis also involves water pollution. For water to be useful for drinking and irrigation, it
must not be polluted beyond certain thresholds. According to the World Health Organization, in 2008
approximately 880 million people in the world (or 13% of world population) did not have access to safe
drinking water. At the same time, about 2.6 billion people (or 40% of world population) lived without
improved sanitation, which is defined as having access to a public sewage system, septic tank, or even
a simple pit latrine. Each year approximately 1.7 million people die from diarrheal diseases associated
with unsafe drinking water, inadequate sanitation, and poor hygiene. Almost all of these deaths are in
developing countries, and around 90% of them occur among children under the age of 5 (Figure 1).
Compounding the water crisis is the issue of social justice; poor people more commonly lack clean water
and sanitation than wealthy people in similar areas. Globally, improving water safety, sanitation, and
hygiene could prevent up to 9% of all disease and 6% of all deaths.
In addition to the global waterborne disease crisis, chemical pollution from agriculture, industry,
cities, and mining threatens global water quality. Some chemical pollutants have serious and well-
known health effects, whereas many others have poorly known long-term health effects. In the U.S.
currently more than 40,000 water bodies fit the definition of “impaired” set by EPA, which means
they could neither support a healthy ecosystem nor meet water quality standards. In Gallup public
polls conducted over the past decade Americans consistently put water pollution and water supply
as the top environmental concerns over issues such as air pollution, deforestation, species
extinction, and global warming.

Figure 1. This work was created by the World Health Organization.

191
Any natural water contains dissolved chemicals, some of which are important human nutrients while
others can be harmful to human health. The concentration of a water pollutant is commonly given
in very small units such as parts per million (ppm) or even parts per billion (ppb). An arsenic
concentration of 1 ppm means 1 part of arsenic per million parts of water. This is equivalent to one
drop of arsenic in 50 liters of water. To give you a different perspective on appreciating small
concentration units, converting 1 ppm to length units is 1 cm (0.4 in) in 10 km (6 miles) and
converting 1 ppm to time units is 30 seconds in a year. Total dissolved solids (TDS) represent
the total amount of dissolved material in water. Average TDS values for rainwater, river water, and
seawater are about 4 ppm, 120 ppm, and 35,000 ppm, respectively.

Water Pollution Overview

Water pollution is the contamination of water by an

excess amount of a substance that can cause harm to
human beings and/or the ecosystem. The level of water
pollution depends on the abundance of the pollutant, the
ecological impact of the pollutant, and the use of the water.
Pollutants are derived from biological, chemical, or physical
processes. Although natural processes such as volcanic
eruptions or evaporation sometimes can cause water
pollution, most pollution is derived from human, land-based
activities (Figure 2). Water pollutants can move through
different water reservoirs, as the water carrying them
progresses through stages of the water cycle (Figure 3).
Water residence time (the average time that a water
molecule spends in a water reservoir) is very important to
pollution problems because it affects pollution potential.
Water in rivers has a relatively short residence time, so
pollution usually is there only briefly. Of course, pollution in
rivers may simply move to another reservoir, such as the
ocean, where it can cause further problems. Groundwater is
typically characterized by slow flow and longer residence
time, which can make groundwater pollution particularly
problematic. Finally, pollution residence time can be much Figure 2. Water Pollution. Obvious water
greater than the water residence time because a pollutant pollution in the form of floating debris; invisible
water pollutants sometimes can be much more
may be taken up for a long time within the ecosystem or
harmful than visible ones. Source: Stephen
absorbed onto sediment.
Codrington at Wikimedia Commons

192
 Figure 3. Sources of Water Contamination. Sources of some water pollutants and movement of
pollutants into different water reservoirs of the water cycle. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

Pollutants enter water supplies from point

sources, which are readily identifiable and
relatively small locations, or nonpoint sources,
which are large and more diffuse areas. Point
sources of pollution include animal factory farms
(Figure 4) that raise a large number and high
density of livestock such as cows, pigs, and
chickens. Also, pipes included are pipes from a
factories or sewage treatment plants. Combined
sewer systems that have a single set of
underground pipes to collect both sewage and
storm water runoff from streets for wastewater
treatment can be major point sources of Figure 4. Large animal farms are often referred to as
pollutants. During heavy rain, storm water runoff concentrated feeding operations (CFOs). These farms are
may exceed sewer capacity, causing it to back up considered potential point sources of pollution because
and spilling untreated sewage directly into untreated animal waste may enter nearby waterbodies as
untreated sewage. Credit: ehp.gov
surface waters (Figure 5).
Nonpoint sources of pollution include
agricultural fields, cities, and abandoned mines. Rainfall runs over the land and through the ground,
picking up pollutants such as herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizer from agricultural fields and lawns; oil,
antifreeze, animal waste, and road salt from urban areas; and acid and toxic elements from abandoned
mines. Then, this pollution is carried into surface water bodies and groundwater. Nonpoint source
pollution, which is the leading cause of water pollution in the U.S., is usually much more difficult and

193
expensive to control than point source pollution because of its low concentration, multiple
sources, and much greater volume of water.

Figure 5. Combined Sewer System A combined sewer system is a possible major point source of water
pollution during heavy rain due to overflow of untreated sewage. During dry weather (and small storms), all
flows are handled by the publicly owned treatment works (POTW). During large storms, the relief structure
allows some of the combined stormwater and sewage to be discharged untreated to an adjacent water
body. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency at Wikimedia Commons

Types of Water Pollutants

Oxygen-demanding waste is an extremely important pollutant to ecosystems. Most surface

water in contact with the atmosphere has a small amount of dissolved oxygen, which is needed
by aquatic organisms for cellular respiration. Bacteria decompose dead organic matter and
remove dissolved oxygen (O2) according to the following reaction:
organic matter+O2→CO2+H2O
Too much decaying organic matter in water is a pollutant because it removes oxygen from water,
which can kill fish, shellfish, and aquatic insects. The amount of oxygen used by aerobic (in the
presence of oxygen) bacterial decomposition of organic matter is called biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD). The major source of dead organic matter in many natural waters is sewage; grass and leaves
are smaller sources. An unpolluted water body with respect to BOD is a turbulent river that flows through
a natural forest. Turbulence continually brings water in contact with the atmosphere where the O 2
content is restored. The dissolved oxygen content in such a river ranges from 10 to 14 ppm O 2, BOD is
low, and clean-water fish such as trout. A polluted water body with respect to oxygen is a stagnant deep
lake in an urban setting with a combined sewer system. This system favors a high input of dead organic
carbon from sewage overflows and limited chance for water circulation and contact with the atmosphere.
In such a lake, the dissolved O2 content is ≤5 ppm O2, BOD is high, and low O2-tolerant fish, such as
carp and catfish dominate.
Excessive plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P), are pollutants closely related to
oxygen-demanding waste. Aquatic plants require about 15 nutrients for growth, most of which are plentiful
in water. N and P are called limiting nutrients, however, because they usually are present in

194
water at low concentrations and therefore restrict the total amount of plant growth. This explains why N
and P are major ingredients in most fertilizer. High concentrations of N and P from human sources
(mostly agricultural and urban runoff including fertilizer, sewage, and phosphorus-based detergent) can
cause cultural eutrophication, which leads to the rapid growth of aquatic producers, particularly algae.
Thick mats of floating algae or rooted plants lead to a form of water pollution that damages the
ecosystem by clogging fish gills and blocking sunlight. A small percentage of algal species produce
toxins that can kill animals, including humans. Exponential growths of these algae are called harmful
algal blooms. When the prolific algal layer dies, it becomes oxygen-demanding waste, which can create
very low O2 concentrations in the water (< 2 ppm O2), a condition called hypoxia. This results in a dead
zone because it causes death from asphyxiation to organisms that are unable to leave that environment.
An estimated 50% of lakes in North America, Europe, and Asia are negatively impacted by cultural
eutrophication. In addition, the size and number of marine hypoxic zones have grown dramatically over
the past 50 years including a very large dead zone located offshore Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico.
Cultural eutrophication and hypoxia are difficult to combat, because they are caused primarily by
nonpoint source pollution, which is difficult to regulate, and N and P, which are difficult to remove from
wastewater.
Pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms, e.g., viruses, bacteria, parasitic worms, and
protozoa, which cause a variety of intestinal diseases such as dysentery, typhoid fever, and cholera.
Pathogens are the major cause of the water pollution crisis discussed at the beginning of this section.
Unfortunately nearly a billion people around the world are exposed to waterborne pathogen pollution
daily and around 1.5 million children mainly in underdeveloped countries die every year of waterborne
diseases from pathogens. Pathogens enter water primarily from human and animal fecal waste due to
inadequate sewage treatment. In many underdeveloped countries, sewage is discharged into local
waters either untreated or after only rudimentary treatment. In developed countries untreated sewage
discharge can occur from overflows of combined sewer systems, poorly managed livestock factory
farms, and leaky or broken sewage collection systems. Water with pathogens can be remediated by
adding chlorine or ozone, by boiling, or by treating the sewage in the first place.
Oil spills are another kind of organic pollution. Oil spills can result from supertanker accidents
such as the Exxon Valdez in 1989, which spilled 10 million gallons of oil into the rich ecosystem of
coastal Alaska and killed massive numbers of animals. The largest marine oil spill was the
Deepwater Horizon disaster, which began with a natural gas explosion (Figure 6) at an oil well 65
km offshore of Louisiana and flowed for 3 months in 2010, releasing an estimated 200 million
gallons of oil. The worst oil spill ever occurred during the Persian Gulf war of 1991, when Iraq
deliberately dumped approximately 200 million gallons of oil in offshore Kuwait and set more than
700 oil well fires that released enormous clouds of smoke and acid rain for over nine months.

195
 During an oil spill on water, oil floats to the surface
because it is less dense than water, and the lightest
hydrocarbons evaporate, decreasing the size of the
spill but polluting the air. Then, bacteria begin to
decompose the remaining oil, in a process that can
take many years. After several months only about
15% of the original volume may remain, but it is in
thick asphalt lumps, a form that is particularly harmful
to birds, fish, and shellfish. Cleanup operations can
include skimmer ships that vacuum oil from the water
surface (effective only for small spills),
controlled burning (works only in early stages before
the light, ignitable part evaporates but also pollutes
Figure 6. Deepwater Horizon Explosion Boats
fighting the fire from an explosion at the Deepwater the air), dispersants (detergents that break up oil to
Horizon drilling rig in Gulf of Mexico offshore accelerate its decomposition, but some dispersants
Louisiana on April 20, 2010. Source: United States may be toxic to the ecosystem),
Coast Guard via Wikimedia Commons and bioremediation (adding microorganisms that
specialize in quickly decomposing oil, but this can
disrupt the natural ecosystem).
Toxic chemicals involve many different kinds and sources, primarily from industry and mining.
General kinds of toxic chemicals include hazardous chemicals and persistent organic pollutants that
include DDT (pesticide), dioxin (herbicide by-product), and PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls, which
were used as a liquid insulator in electric transformers). Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are long-
lived in the environment, biomagnify through the food chain, and can be toxic. Another category of
toxic chemicals includes radioactive materials such as cesium, iodine, uranium, and radon gas, which
can result in long-term exposure to radioactivity if it gets into the body. A final group of toxic chemicals
is heavy metals such as lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, and chromium, which can accumulate through
the food chain. Heavy metals are commonly produced by industry and at metallic ore mines. Arsenic
and mercury are discussed in more detail below.
Arsenic (As) has been famous as an agent of death for many centuries. Only recently have scientists
recognized that health problems can be caused by drinking small arsenic concentrations in water over
a long time. It enters the water supply naturally from weathering of arsenic-rich minerals and from
human activities such as coal burning and smelting of metallic ores. The worst case of arsenic poisoning
occurred in the densely populated impoverished country of Bangladesh, which had experienced
100,000s of deaths from diarrhea and cholera each year from drinking surface water contaminated with
pathogens due to improper sewage treatment. In the 1970s the United Nations provided aid for millions
of shallow water wells, which resulted in a dramatic drop in pathogenic diseases. Unfortunately, many
of the wells produced water naturally rich in arsenic. Tragically, there are an estimated 77 million people
(about half of the population) who inadvertently may have been exposed to toxic levels of arsenic in
Bangladesh as a result. The World Health Organization has called it the largest mass poisoning of a
population in history.
Mercury (Hg) is used in a variety of electrical products, such as dry cell batteries, fluorescent light
bulbs, and switches, as well as in the manufacture of paint, paper, vinyl chloride, and fungicides.
Mercury acts on the central nervous system and can cause loss of sight, feeling, and hearing as
well as nervousness, shakiness, and death. Like arsenic, mercury enters the water supply naturally
from weathering of mercury-rich minerals and from human activities such as coal burning and metal
processing. A famous mercury poisoning case in Minamata, Japan involved methylmercury-rich

196
industrial discharge that caused high Hg levels in fish. People in the local fishing villages ate
fish up to three times per day for over 30 years, which resulted in over 2,000 deaths. During
that time the responsible company and national government did little to mitigate, help alleviate,
or even acknowledge the problem.
Hard water contains abundant calcium and magnesium, which reduces its ability to develop
soapsuds and enhances scale (calcium and magnesium carbonate minerals) formation on hot water
equipment. Water softeners remove calcium and magnesium, which allows the water to lather easily
and resist scale formation. Hard water develops naturally from the dissolution of calcium and
magnesium carbonate minerals in soil; it does not have negative health effects in people.
Groundwater pollution can occur from underground sources and all of the pollution sources that
contaminate surface waters. Common sources of groundwater pollution are leaking underground
storage tanks for fuel, septic tanks, agricultural activity, landfills, and fossil fuel extraction. Common
groundwater pollutants include nitrate, pesticides, volatile organic compounds, and petroleum products.
Another troublesome feature of groundwater pollution is that small amounts of certain pollutants, e.g.,
petroleum products and organic solvents, can contaminate large areas. In Denver, Colorado 80 liters of
several organic solvents contaminated 4.5 trillion liters of groundwater and produced a 5 km long
contaminant plume. A major threat to groundwater quality is from underground fuel storage tanks. Fuel
tanks commonly are stored underground at gas stations to reduce explosion hazards. Before 1988 in
the U.S. these storage tanks could be made of metal, which can corrode, leak, and quickly contaminate
local groundwater. Now, leak detectors are required and the metal storage tanks are supposed to be
protected from corrosion or replaced with fiberglass tanks. Currently there are around 600,000
underground fuel storage tanks in the U.S. and over 30% still do not comply with EPA regulations
regarding either release prevention or leak detection.

197
7.4 Water Treatment

Resolution of the global water pollution crisis requires multiple approaches to improve the quality
of our fresh water and move towards sustainability. The most deadly form of water pollution,
pathogenic microorganisms that cause waterborne diseases, kills almost 2 million people in
underdeveloped countries every year. The best strategy for addressing this problem is proper
sewage (wastewater) treatment. Untreated sewage is not only a major cause of pathogenic
diseases, but also a major source of other pollutants, including oxygen-demanding waste, nutrients
(N and P, particularly), and toxic heavy metals. Wastewater treatment is done at a sewage
treatment plant in urban areas and through a septic tank system in rural areas.
The main purpose of sewage (wastewater) treatment is to remove organic matter (oxygen-
demanding waste) and kill bacteria. Special methods also can be used to remove nutrients and
other pollutants. The numerous steps at a conventional sewage treatment plant include
pretreatment (screening and removal of sand and gravel), primary treatment (settling or floatation
to remove organic solids, fat, and grease), secondary treatment (aerobic bacterial decomposition
of organic solids), tertiary treatment (bacterial decomposition of nutrients and filtration),
disinfection (treatment with chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet light, or bleach to kill most microbes), and
either discharge to surface waters (usually a local river) or reuse for some other purpose, such as
irrigation, habitat preservation, and artificial groundwater recharge (Figure 1).
The concentrated organic solid produced during primary and secondary treatment is called sludge, which
is treated in a variety of ways including landfill disposal, incineration, use as fertilizer, and anaerobic bacterial
decomposition, which is done in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic decomposition of sludge produces
methane gas, which can be used as an energy source. To reduce water pollution problems, separate sewer
systems (where street runoff goes to rivers and only wastewater goes to a wastewater treatment plant) are
much better than combined sewer systems, which can overflow and release untreated sewage into surface
waters during heavy rain. Some cities such as Chicago, Illinois have constructed large underground caverns
and also use abandoned rock quarries to hold storm sewer overflow. After the rain stops, the stored water
goes to the sewage treatment plant for processing.

198
 Figure 1. Steps at a Sewage Treatment Plant The numerous processing steps at a conventional sewage
treatment plant include pretreatment (screening and removal of sand and gravel), primary treatment
(settling or floatation to remove organic solids, fat, and grease), secondary treatment (aerobic bacterial
decomposition of organic solids), tertiary treatment (bacterial decomposition of nutrients and filtration),
disinfection (treatment with chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet light, or bleach), and either discharge to surface
waters (usually a local river) or reuse for some other purpose, such as irrigation, habitat preservation,
and artificial groundwater recharge. Source: Leonard G.via Wikipedia

A septic tank system is an individual sewage treatment system for homes in typically rural
settings. The basic components of a septic tank system (Figure 2) include a sewer line from
the house, a septic tank (a large container where sludge settles to the bottom and
microorganisms decompose the organic solids anaerobically), and the drain field (network of
perforated pipes where the clarified water seeps into the soil and is further purified by bacteria).
Water pollution problems occur if the septic tank malfunctions, which usually occurs when a
system is established in the wrong type of soil or maintained poorly.

199
 For many developing countries, financial aid is
necessary to build adequate sewage treatment
facilities. The World Health Organization estimates
an estimated cost savings of between $3 and $34
for every $1 invested in clean water delivery and
sanitation. The cost savings are from health care
savings, gains in work and school productivity, and
prevented deaths. Simple and inexpensive
techniques for treating water at home include
chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection. Another
alternative is to use constructed wetlands
technology (marshes built to treat contaminated
water), which is simpler and cheaper than a
conventional sewage treatment plant.

Bottled water is not a sustainable solution to the

water crisis. Bottled water is not necessarily any
safer than the U.S. public water supply, it costs on
average about 700 times more than U.S. tap water,
and every year it uses approximately 200 billion
plastic and glass bottles that have a relatively low
rate of recycling. Compared to tap water, it uses
much more energy, mainly in bottle manufacturing
and long-distance transportation. If you don’t like
the taste of your tap water, then please use a water
Figure 2. Septic System Septic tank system for sewage
filter instead of bottled water!
treatment. Source: United States Geological Survey

CLEAN WATER ACT

During the early 1900s rapid industrialization
in the U.S. resulted in widespread water pollution
due to free discharge of waste into surface waters.
The Cuyahoga River in northeast Ohio caught
fire numerous times, including a famous fire in
1969 that caught the nation’s attention. In 1972
Congress passed one of the most important
environmental laws in U.S. history, the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act, which is more
commonly called the Clean Water Act . The
purpose of the Clean Water Act and later
amendments is to maintain and restore water
quality, or in simpler terms to make our water
Figure 3. Cuyahoga River on fire. Source: National swimmable and fishable. It became illegal to
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration dump pollution into surface water unless there
was formal permission and U.S. water quality
improved significantly as a result. More progress is needed because currently the EPA considers over

200
40,000 U.S. water bodies as impaired, most commonly due to pathogens, metals, plant
nutrients, and oxygen depletion. Another concern is protecting groundwater quality, which is
not yet addressed sufficiently by federal law.

201
7.5 Case Study: The Aral Sea - Going, Going, Gone

A comparison of the Aral Sea in 1989 (left) and 2014 (right). Credit: This
work is in the Public Domain, CC0

The Aral Sea is a lake located east of the Caspian Sea between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan in central
Asia. This area is part of the Turkestan desert, which is the fourth largest desert in the world; it is
produced from a rain shadow effect by Afghanistan’s high mountains to the south. Due to the arid and
seasonally hot climate there is extensive evaporation and limited surface waters in general. Summer
temperatures can reach 60οC (140οF)! The water supply to the Aral Sea is mainly from two rivers, the
Amu Darya and Syr Darya, which carry snow melt from mountainous areas. In the early 1960s, the then-
Soviet Union diverted the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers for irrigation of one of the driest parts of
Asia to produce rice, melons, cereals, and especially cotton. The Soviets wanted cotton or white gold
to become a major export. They were successful, and, today Uzbekistan is one of the world’s largest
exporters of cotton. Unfortunately, this action essentially eliminated any river inflow to the Aral Sea and
caused it to disappear almost completely.

229

202
 In 1960, Aral Sea was the fourth largest inland
water body; only the Caspian Sea, Lake Superior,
and Lake Victoria were larger. Since then, it has
progressively shrunk due to evaporation and lack
of recharge by rivers. Before 1965, the Aral Sea
received 2060 km3 of fresh water per year from
rivers and by the early 1980s it received none. By
2007, the Aral Sea shrank to about 10% of its
original size and its salinity increased from about
1% dissolved salt to about 10% dissolved salt,
which is 3 times more saline than seawater. These
changes caused an enormous
environmental impact. A once thriving fishing
industry is dead as are the 24 species of fish that
used to live there; the fish could not adapt to the
more saline waters. The current shoreline is tens
of kilometers from former fishing towns and
commercial ports. Large shing boats lie in the
dried up lakebed of dust and salt. A frustrating Figure 2. Map of Aral Sea Area Map shows lake size in
part of the river diversion project is that many of 1960 and political boundaries of 2011. Countries in yellow
the irrigation canals were poorly built, allowing are at least partially in Aral Sea drainage basin. Source:
abundant water to leak or evaporate. An Wikimedia Commons
increasing number of dust storms blow salt,
pesticides, and herbicides into nearby towns causing a variety of respiratory illnesses including
tuberculosis.
The wetlands of the two river deltas and their
associated ecosystems have disappeared. The
regional climate is drier and has greater
temperature extremes due to the absence of
moisture and moderating influence from the lake.
In 2003, some lake restoration work began on the
northern part of the Aral Sea and it provided
some relief by raising water levels and reducing
salinity somewhat. The southern part of the Aral
Sea has seen no relief and remains nearly
completely dry. The destruction of the Aral Sea is
one of the planet’s biggest environmental
disasters and it is caused entirely by humans.
Lake Chad in Africa is another example of a
Figure 3. This abandoned ship lies in a dried up lake bed
that was the Aral Sea near Aral, Kazakhstan Source:
massive lake that has nearly disappeared for the
Staecker at Wikimedia Commons same reasons as the Aral Sea. Aral Sea and Lake
Chad are the most extreme examples of large
lakes destroyed by unsustainable diversions
of river water. Other lakes that have shrunk significantly due to human diversions of water
include the Dead Sea in the Middle East, Lake Manchar in Pakistan, and Owens Lake and
Mono Lake, both in California.

203
7.6 Chapter Resources

Summary

Precipitation—a major control of fresh water availability—is unevenly distributed around the globe. More
precipitation falls near the equator, and landmasses there are characterized by a tropical rainforest climate.
Less precipitation tends to fall near 2030 north and south latitude, where the world’s largest deserts are
located. The water crisis refers to a global situation where people in many areas lack access to sufficient
water or clean water or both. The current and future water crisis requires multiple approaches to extending
our fresh water supply and moving towards sustainability. Some of the longstanding traditional approaches
include dams and aqueducts. Water pollution is the contamination of water by an excess amount of a
substance that can cause harm to human beings and the ecosystem. The level of water pollution depends
on the abundance of the pollutant, the ecological impact of the pollutant, and the use of the water. The most
deadly form of water pollution, pathogenic microorganisms that cause waterborne diseases, kills almost 2
million people in underdeveloped countries every year. Resolution of the global water pollution crisis requires
multiple approaches to improve the quality of fresh water. The best strategy for addressing this problem is
proper sewage treatment. Untreated sewage is not only a major cause of pathogenic diseases, but also a
major source of other pollutants, including oxygen-demanding waste, plant nutrients, and toxic heavy metals.

Review Questions

1. Approximately 97% of all water on Earth is found in what reservoir?

A. Oceans
B. Lakes
C. Streams
D. Groundwater
E. Glaciers and ice caps

2. The majority of freshwater, whether accessible to humans or not, is contained in what reservoir?

A. Ocean
B. Lakes
C. Streams
D. Groundwater
E. Glaciers and ice caps

3. You are studying a river and notice that it contains chemical waste. You have thoroughly
searched the entire length of the stream and ruled out that the waste is directly entering the
stream. Instead, the waste must by entering by one of its many tributary streams. Because
these streams empty into the river you are studying, they must be within the same…
A. Watershed

204
 B. Irrigation district
C. Riparian area
D. Aqueduct
E. Water zone

4. Adding water to a recharge area would have what practical effect?

A. Increased amount of groundwater
B. A more pronounced cone of depression
C. Depletion of an aquifer
D. Less infiltration
E. Greater precipitation

5. With removal of groundwater, which of the following may result?

A. subsidence
B. sinkholes
C. cone of depression
D. decreased water table
E. All of the above.

6. For individuals living in areas where no freshwater is available, which one of the following
would produce water that could be used for drinking?
A. desalination
B. groundwater mining
C. sublimation
D. transpiration
E. saltation

7. Three carcinogens are equally harmful at equal concentrations. In a terrible industrial

accident, 2 tons of each type of carcinogen were discharged into a river at the same time. The
residence times of each pollutant is as follows: Chemical X = 2.8 days; Chemical Y = 3.5 days;
Chemical Z = 17.2 hours. Which one possesses the greatest risk of exposure to the nearby
community over the course of a week following the spill?
A. Chemical X
B. Chemical Y
C. Chemical Z
D. All chemicals provided equal likelihood of exposure

8. Fertilizers applied to residential lawns and gardens can end up in water bodies through the process
of surface run-off or movement through ground water. This type of pollution would be considered…
A. Point source
B. Bioremediation
C. Non-point source
D. Throughput sourcing
E. Tangential

205
9. Which one of the following would most directly prevent a dead zone from forming in a
water body that is already experiencing eutrophication?
A. Increase the O2 concentration in the water
B. Lower the nutrient levels
C. Increase the amount of algae and phytoplankton
D. Increase the amount of bacteria that decompose dead organic matter
E. Make the water more hypoxic

10. If you analyzed waste water directly after primary treatment, what would you notice?
A. Harmful bacteria and other biological agents have been killed or removed
B. The water is potable
C. Much of the dissolved solids have been removed
D. Many suspended solids have been removed
E. The water is mostly sludge

206
Chapter 8: Food & Hunger

By learning skills like composting, crop diversification, organic

pesticide production, seed multiplication and agro-forestry
farmers in Malawi are increasing their ability to feed their
families over the long term.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Understand the major drivers of food insecurity

• Recognize the role of women in food and nutritional security
• Classify key food and nutritional sources
• Identify benefits and risks of genetic engineering

Chapter Outline

• 8.1 Food Security

• 8.2 Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
• 8.3 Chapter Resources

207
8.1 Food Security

Progress continues in the fight against hunger, yet an unacceptably large number of people lack
the food they need for an active and healthy life. The latest available estimates indicate that about
795 million people in the world – just over one in nine –still go to bed hungry every night, and an
even greater number live in poverty (defined as living on less than $1.25 per day). Poverty—not
food availability—is the major driver of food insecurity. Improvements in agricultural productivity are
necessary to increase rural household incomes and access to available food but are insufficient to
ensure food security. Evidence indicates that poverty reduction and food security do not necessarily
move in tandem. The main problem is lack of economic (social and physical) access to food at
national and household levels and inadequate nutrition (or hidden hunger). Food security not only
requires an adequate supply of food but also entails availability, access, and utilization by all—
people of all ages, gender, ethnicity, religion, and socioeconomic levels.

From Agriculture to Food Security

Agriculture and food security are inextricably linked. The agricultural sector in each country is
dependent on the available natural resources, as well as the politics that govern those
resources. Staple food crops are the main source of dietary energy in the human diet and
include things such as rice, wheat, sweet potatoes, maize, and cassava.

Food security

Food security is essentially built on four pillars: availability, access, utilization and stability . An
individual must have access to sufficient food of the right dietary mix (quality) at all times to be food
secure. Those who never have sufficient quality food are chronically food insecure.
When food security is analyzed at the national level, an understanding not only of national production is
important, but also of the country’s access to food from the global market, its foreign exchange earnings,
and its citizens’ consumer choices. Food security analyzed at the household level is conditioned by a
household’s own food production and household members’ ability to purchase food of the right quality and
diversity in the market place. However, it is only at the individual level that the analysis can be truly accurate
because only through understanding who consumes what can we appreciate the impact of sociocultural and
gender inequalities on people’s ability to meet their nutritional needs.The definition of food security is often
applied at varying levels of aggregation, despite its articulation at the individual level. The importance of a
pillar depends on the level of aggregation being addressed. At a global level, the important pillar is food
availability. Does global agricultural activity produce sufficient food to feed all the world’s inhabitants? The
answer today is yes, but it may not be true in the future given the impact of a growing world population,
emerging plant and animal pests and diseases, declining soil productivity and environmental quality,
increasing use of land for fuel rather than food, and lack of attention to agricultural research and development,
among other factors.
The third pillar, food utilization, essentially translates the food available to a household into

208
nutritional security for its members. One aspect of utilization is analyzed in terms of distribution
according to need. Nutritional standards exist for the actual nutritional needs of men, women, boys,
and girls of different ages and life phases (that is, pregnant women), but these “needs” are often
socially constructed based on culture. For example, in South Asia evidence shows that women eat
after everyone else has eaten and are less likely than men in the same household to consume
preferred foods such as meats and fish. Hidden hunger commonly results from poor food
utilization: that is, a person’s diet lacks the appropriate balance of macro- (calories) and
micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Individuals may look well nourished and consume sufficient
calories but be deficient in key micronutrients such as vitamin A, iron, and iodine.
When food security is analyzed at the national level, an understanding not only of national
production is important, but also of the country’s access to food from the global market, its
foreign exchange earnings, and its citizens’ consumer choices. Food security analyzed at the
household level is conditioned by a household’s own food production and household members’
ability to purchase food of the right quality and diversity in the market place. However, it is only
at the individual level that the analysis can be truly accurate because only through
understanding who consumes what can we appreciate the impact of sociocultural and gender
inequalities on people’s ability to meet their nutritional needs.
Food stability is when a population, household, or individual has access to food at all times and does
not risk losing access as a consequence of cyclical events, such as the dry season. When some lacks
food stability, they have malnutrition, a lack of essential nutrients. This is economically costly because
it can cost individuals 10 percent of their lifetime earnings and nations 2 to 3 percent of gross domestic
product (GDP) in the worst-affected countries (Alderman 2005). Achieving food security is even more
challenging in the context of HIV and AIDS. HIV affects people’s physical ability to produce and use
food, reallocating household labor, increasing the work burden on women, and preventing widows and
children from inheriting land and productive resources.

Obesity

Obesity means having too much body fat. It is not the same as overweight, which means weighing too
much. Obesity has become a significant global health challenge, yet is preventable and reversible. Over
the past 20 years, a global overweight/obesity epidemic has emerged, initially in industrial countries and
now increasingly in low- and middle-income countries, particularly in urban settings, resulting in a triple
burden of undernutrition, micronutrient deficiency, and overweight/obesity. There is significant variation
by region; some have very high rates of undernourishment and low rates of obesity, while in other
regions the opposite is true (Figure 1).

209
 However, obesity has increased to the extent
that the number of overweight people now
exceeds the number of underweight people
worldwide. The economic cost of obesity has
been estimated at $2 trillion, accounting for about
5% of deaths worldwide. Almost 30% of the
world’s population, or 2.1 billion people, are
overweight or obese, 62% of whom live in
developing countries.
Obesity accounts for a growing level and share
of worldwide noncommunicable diseases,
including diabetes, heart disease, and certain
life and
cancers that can reduce quality of Figure 1. Obesity and undernourishment by region.

increase public health costs of already under-

resourced developing countries. The number of
overweight children is projected to double by 2030. Driven primarily by increasing availability
of processed, affordable, and effectively marketed food, the global food system is falling short
with rising obesity and related poor health outcomes. Due to established health implications
and rapid increase in prevalence, obesity is now a recognized major global health challenge.

Suggested Supplementary Reading:

McMillan, T. 2018. How China Plans to Feed 1.4 Billion Growing Appetites. National Geographic.
February.

210
8.2 Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

In the early 1990s, an emerging disease was

destroying Hawaii’s production of papaya and
threatening to decimate the $11 million industry
(Figure 1). Fortunately, a man named Dennis
Gonsalves, who was raised on a sugar plantation and
then became a plant physiologist at Cornell University,
would develop papaya plants genetically engineered
to resist the deadly virus. By the end of the decade,
the Hawaiian papaya industry and the livelihoods of
many farmers were saved thanks to the free
distribution of Dr. Gonsalves seeds.
The development of a new strain of crop is an
example of agricultural biotechnology: a range of
igure 1. The symptoms of papaya ringspot virus tools that include both traditional breeding techniques
are shown on the tree (a) and fruit (b). “This work” and more modern lab-based methods. Traditional
is in the Public Domain, CC0. methods date back thousands of years, whereas
biotechnology uses the tools of genetic engineering
developed over the last few decades. Genetic engineering is the name for the methods that
scientists use to introduce new traits to an organism. This process results in genetically
modified organisms, or GMO. For example, plants may be genetically engineered to produce
characteristics to enhance the growth or nutritional profile of food crops. GMO that are crop
species are commonly called genetically engineered crops, or GE crops for short

The History of Genetic Modification of Crops

Nearly all the fruits and vegetables found in your local market would not occur naturally. In fact, they
exist only because of human intervention that began thousands of years ago. Humans created the vast
majority of crop species by using traditional breeding practices on naturally-occurring, wild plants. These
practices rely upon selective breeding (human assisted-breeding of individuals with desirable traits).
Traditional breeding practices, although low-tech and simple to perform, have the practical outcome of
modifying an organism’s genetic information, thus producing new traits.
An interesting example is maize (corn). Biologists have discovered that maize was developed
from a wild plant called teosinte. Through traditional breeding practices, humans living thousands
of years ago in what is now Southern Mexico began selecting for desirable traits until they were
able to transform the plant into what is now known as maize. In doing so, they permanently (and
unknowingly) altered its genetic instructions, allowing for new traits to emerge. Considering this
history, we might ask the question: is there really such a thing as “non-GMO” maize?

211
Figure 2. A wild grass called teosinte was genetically modified through selective breeding to produce what is
now known as maize (corn). This process of transformation started thousands of years ago by indigenous
people of what is now Mexico. “This work” by Nicolle Rager Fuller, National Science Foundation is in
the Public Domain, CC0.

212
 This history of genetic modification is common to nearly
all crop species. For example, cabbage, broccoli, Brussel
sprouts, cauliflower, and kale were all developed from a
single species of wild mustard plant (Figure 2). Wild
nightshade was the source of tomatoes, eggplant,
tobacco, and potatoes, the latter developed by humans
7,000 – 10,000 years ago in South America.

Traditional Breeding v. Modern Genetic Engineering

To produce new traits in livestock, pets, crops, or other type

of organism, there almost always has to be an underlying
change in that organism’s genetic instructions. What many
people might not understand is that traditional breeding
practices do, in fact, result in permanent genetic changes
and is therefore a type of genetic modification. This
misunderstanding may arise because traditional breeding
Figure 3. Brassica oleracea is a plant in
practices do not require sophisticated laboratory equipment
the mustard family and is known as wild
or any knowledge of genetics, which some may see as a cabbage. From it were developed many
perquisite for genetic modification. familar crops, such as cauliflower,
How do traditional breeding practices compare to modern broccoli, Brussel sprouts, and of course,
genetic engineering? Both result in changes to an organism’s cabbage. “Brassica oleracea
genetic information, but the magnitude of those changes varies wild” by Kulac is licensed under
amongst the two techniques (Figure 3). Traditional breeding CC BY-SA 4.0
shuffles all of the genes between the two organisms being bred, which can number into the tens of
thousands (maize, for example, has 32,000 genes). When mixing such a large number of genes, the
results can be unpredictable. Modern genetic engineering is more precise in the sense that biologists
can modify just a single gene. Also, genetic engineering can introduce a gene between two distantly-
related species, such as inserting a bacterial gene into a plant. Such transfer might seem unusual, but
it is not without its equivalent in nature. In a process called horizontal gene transfer, DNA from one
species can be inserted into a different species. One recent study, for example, has found that humans
contain about 150 genes from other species, including bacteria.

213
Figure 4. Both traditional breeding and modern genetic engineering produce genetic modifications.
Genetic engineering allows for fewer and more precise genetic modifications. FDA graphic by Michael
J. Ermarth (Methods of Plant Breeding) [CC0 Public Domain], via Wikimedia Commons.

214
Potential Benefits of Genetic Engineering

Enhanced nutrition

Advances in biotechnology may provide consumers

with foods that are nutritionally-enriched (Figure 4),
longer-lasting, or that contain lower levels of certain
naturally occurring toxins present in some food plants.
For example, developers are using biotechnology to try
to reduce saturated fats in cooking oils, reduce allergens
in foods, and increase disease-fighting nutrients in foods.
Biotechnology may also be used to conserve natural
resources, enable animals to more effectively use
nutrients present in feed, decrease nutrient runoff into
rivers and bays, and help meet the increasing world food Figure 5. White rice and Golden rice. Genetically
and land demands. engineered “Golden Rice” contains up to 35 μg β-
carotene per gram of rice, which could prevent
Cheaper and More Manageable Production millions of cases of blindness worldwide.

Biotechnology may provide farmers with tools that can make production cheaper and more manageable.
For example, some biotechnology crops can be engineered to tolerate specific herbicides, which make
weed control simpler and more efficient. Other crops have been engineered to be resistant to specific
plant diseases and insect pests, which can make pest control more reliable and effective, and/or can
decrease the use of synthetic pesticides. These crop production options can help countries keep pace
with demands for food while reducing production costs.

Improved pest control

Biotechnology has helped to make both pest control and weed management safer and easier
while safeguarding crops against disease. For example, genetically engineered insect-resistant
cotton has allowed for a significant reduction in the use of persistent, synthetic pesticides that
may contaminate groundwater and the environment. In terms of improved weed control,
herbicide-tolerant soybeans, cotton, and corn enable the use of reduced-risk herbicides that
break down more quickly in soil and are non-toxic to wildlife and humans.

Potential Concerns about Genetically Engineered Crops

The complexity of ecological systems presents considerable challenges for experiments that
assess the risks and benefits of GE crops. Assessing such risks is difficult, because both natural
and human-modified systems are highly complex and fraught with uncertainties that may not
be clarified until long after an experimental introduction has been concluded. Critics of GE crops
warn that their cultivation should be carefully considered within broader ecosystems because
of their potential benefits and hazards to the environment.
In addition to environmental risks, some people are concerned about potential health risks of GE crops

215
because they feel that genetic modification alters the intrinsic properties, or essence, of an
organism. As discussed above, however, it is known that both traditional breeding practices and
modern genetic engineering produce permanent genetic modifications. Further, traditional breeding
practices actually have a larger and more unpredictable impact on a species’ genetics because of
its comparably crude nature. Considering this, it is wise that both new GE crops and traditionally
produced crops should be studied for potential human health risks.
To address these various concerns, the US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and
Medicine (NASEM) published a comprehensive, 500-page report in 2016 that summarized the
current scientific knowledge regarding GE crops. The report, titled Genetically Engineered Crops:
Experiences and Prospects, reviewed more than 900 research articles, in addition to public
comments and expert testimony. Results from this seminal report, hereafter referred to as the “GE
Crop Report” for brevity, is shared in the various subsections below.

Interbreeding with Native Species

Through interbreeding, or hybridization, GE crops might share their genetically-modified DNA

with wild relatives. This could affect the genetics of those wild relatives and have unforeseen
consequences on their populations, and could even have implications for the larger ecosystem.
For example, if a gene engineered to confer herbicide resistance were to pass from a GE crop
to a wild relative, it might transform the wild species into a ‘super weed’ – a species that could
not be controlled by herbicide. Its rampant growth could then displace other wild species and
the wildlife that depends on it, thus inflecting ecological harm.
NASEM’s GE Crop Report did find some evidence of genetic transfer between GE crops and
wild relatives. However, there was no evidence of ecological harm from that transfer. Clearly,
continued monitoring, especially for newly-developed crops, is warranted.

Consumers Right to Choose

The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement has made stringent efforts to
keep GE crops out of organic production, yet some US organic farmers have found their corn
(maize) crops, including seeds, contain detectable levels of genetically engineered DNA. The
organic movement is firm in its opposition to any use of GE crops in agriculture, and organic
standards explicitly prohibit their use (however, keep in mind that even “organic” maize has
incurred significant genetic modification compared to its wild relative, teosinte). The farmers,
whose seed is contaminated, have been under rigid organic certification, which assures that
they did not use any kind of genetically modified materials on their farms.
Any trace of GE crops must have come from outside their production areas. While the exact origin is
unclear at this time, it is likely that the contamination has been caused by pollen drift from GE crop fields
in surrounding areas. However, the contamination may have also come from the seed supply. Seed
producers, who intended to supply GE crop-free seed, have also been confronted with genetic
contamination and cannot guarantee that their seed is 100% GE crop-free.

Long-Term Ecological Effects

An early study indicated the pollen from a particular type of genetically modified corn may be harmful

216
to the caterpillars of monarch butterflies, This type of corn, known as Bt corn, is genetically
modified to produce a bacterial protein that acts as an insecticide. This trait is favorable
because it reduces the amount of insecticides used by farmers. Pollen from Bt corn can be
harmful to caterpillars, but only at very high concentrations. These concentrations are seldom
reached in nature and follow-up studies have found the effect of Bt corn to be negligible.
NASEM’s GE Crop Report documents that the validity of that initial monarch study was
questioned by other scientists and this ultimately led to a large, multi-national study funded by the
US and Canada. They found that the vast majority of Bt corn grown did not represent a risk to
monarchs. However, one strain of Bt corn did, and it was consequently removed from the market.
The GE Crop Report also mentioned a separate threat to monarch: loss of milkweed, which
is critical to the butterfly’s lifecycle. Some GE crops are engineered to resist the herbicide
glyphosate. Farmers using these crops can spray their entire field with the herbicide, which kills
milkweed but not their GE crop. This can lower the amount of milkweed growing within the
habitat range of monarchs. The report concluded that more studies are needed to quantify the
actual impact this may be having on monarch populations.

Human Health Risk

At least some of the genes used in GE crops may not have been used in the food supply before,
so GM foods may pose a potential risk for human health, such as producing new allergens. But
this is also true of crops generated by traditional breeding practices (because both produce
genetic modifications and thus new traits).
Like other ‘controversial’ scientific issues, the scientific consensus on GE crops is quite clear: they
are safe. The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization has concluded that risks to human and animal
health from the use of GMOs are negligible. NASEM’s GE Crop Report found “no substantiated
evidence of a difference in risks to human health between current commercially available genetically
engineered (GE) crops and conventionally bred crops, nor did it find conclusive cause-and-effect
evidence of environmental problems from the GE crops.” The American Medical Association’s Council
on Science and Public Health, in 2012, stated that “Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close
to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and/or
substantiated in the peer-reviewed literature.” Similar statements have been made by the US National
Resource Council and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, which publishes the
preeminent scholarly journal, Science.
The potential of GE crops to be allergenic is one of the potential adverse health effects and it should
continue to be studied, especially because some scientific evidences indicates that animals fed GE crops
have been harmed. NASEM’s GE Crop Report concluded that when developing new crops, it is the product
that should be studied for potential health and environmental risks, not the process that achieved that product.
What this means is, because both traditional breeding practices and modern genetic engineering produce
new traits through genetic modification, they both present potential risks. Thus, for the safety of the
environment and human health, both should be adequately studied.

Intellectual Property Rights

Intellectual property rights are one of the important factors in the current debate on GE crops. GE crops can
be patented by Agri-businesses, which can lead to them controlling and potentially exploiting agricultural
markets. Some accuse companies, such as Monsanto, of allegedly controlling seed

217
production and pricing, much to the detriment of farmers. NASEM’s GE Crop Report recommends
more research into how the concentration of seed-markets by a few companies, and the
subsequent reduction of free market competition, may be affecting seed prices and farmers.
It should be noted that crops developed by traditional breeding can also be legally protected
and controlled in ways similar to GE crops. Jim Myers, from Oregon State University notes that
“In all but a few cases, all contemporary varieties developed by private breeders are [legally]
protected, and most public varieties are protected as well.”

Are GE Crops the Solution We Need?

Significant resources, both financial and intellectual, have been allocated to answering the
question: are GE crops safe? After many hundreds of scientific studies, the answer is yes. But
a significant question still remains: are they necessary? Certainly, such as in instances like
Hawaii’s papaya, which were threated with eradication due to an aggressive disease, genetic
engineering was a quick and effective solution that would have been extremely difficult, if not
impossible, to solve using traditional breeding practices.
However, in many cases, the early promises of GE crops – that they would improve nutritional quality of
foods, confer disease resistance, and provide unparalleled advances in crop yields – have largely failed to
come to fruition. NASEM’s GE Crop Report states that while GE crops have resulted in the reduction of
agricultural loss from pests, reduced pesticide use, and reduced rates of injury from insecticides for farm
workers, they have not increased the rate at which crop yields are advancing when compared to non-GE
crops. Additionally, while there are some notable exceptions like golden rice or virus-resistant papayas, very
few GE crops have been produced to increase nutritional capacity or to prevent plant disease that can
devastate a farmer’s income and reduce food security. The vast majority of GE crops are developed for only
two purposes: to introduce herbicide resistance or pest resistance.
Genetic engineering of crops represents in important tool in a world of rapidly changing
climate and a burgeoning human population, but as you will see in the next chapter, it is only
one of many tools that agriculturists can use to produce enough food for all humans while
simultaneously working to conserve the environment.

Suggested Supplementary Reading:

Achenbach, J. 2015. “Why Do Many Reasonable People Doubt Science?” National

Geographic Magazine. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2015/03/science-
doubters-climate-change-vaccinations-gmos/

NASEM. 2016.Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects. http://nas-

sites.org/ge-crops/ category/report/

218
8.3 Chapter Resources

Summary

Progress continues in the fight against hunger, yet an unacceptably large number of people still lack the
food they need for an active and healthy life. About 795 million people in the world still go to bed hungry
every night, and an even greater number live in poverty. Poverty is the major driver of food insecurity.
Improvements in agricultural productivity are necessary to increase rural household incomes and
access to available food but are insufficient to ensure food security. Food security is essentially built on
four pillars: availability, access, utilization and stability. Women are crucial in the translation of the
products of a vibrant agriculture sector into food and nutritional security for their households. They are
often the farmers who cultivate food crops and produce commercial crops alongside the men in their
households as a source of income. Over the past 20 years, a global obesity epidemic has emerged.
Due to established health implications and rapid increase in prevalence, obesity is now a recognized
major global health challenge, and no national success stories in curbing its growth have so far been
reported. Genetic engineering is the name for methods that scientists use to introduce new traits or
characteristics to an organism. Advocates say that application of genetic engineering in agriculture has
resulted in benefits to farmers, producers, and consumers. Critics advise that the risks for the
introduction of a GMO into each new ecosystem need to be examined on a case-by-case basis,
alongside appropriate risk management measures.

Review Questions

1. Which one of the following is not one of the four pillars of food security?
A. Availability
B. Access
C. Utilization
D. Transformation
E. Stability

2. Which one of the following statements is false regarding selective breeding?

A. It results in genetic changes in the offspring
B. It is anthropogenic
C. Is reliant upon modern, lab-based methods
D. It can produce new traits over time
E. It was responsible for creating many common crops, such as maize (corn)

3. The US National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with other
organizations such as the American Medical Association, have determined that GE crops…
A. Are safe to consume
B. Likely pose a risk to human health

219
252 Matthew R. Fisher
C. Pose a serious risk to human health
D. Should be banned
E. Have not been scientifically studied and therefore they cannot make any
recommendations.

4. Which one of the following regions has obesity rates that are lower than rates of
undernourishment?

A. Middle East and North Africa

B. Latin America and Caribbean
C. Europe and Central Asia
D. South Asia

5. Potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco were are developed by humans many thousands of years
ago by the genetic modification of wild nightshade species. Specifically, these crops were
developed using…
A. Selective breeding
B. Horizontal gene transfer
C. Epigenetics
D. Natural selection
E. Anthropogenesis

220
Chapter 9: Conventional & Sustainable Agriculture

Women farmers planting a rice field in West Sumatra.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe the components of soils

• Discuss how land use affects global ecosystem conditions
• Identify environmental effects of pesticides
• Recognize the relationship between exposure to POPs and human health
• Explain alternative practices in farming and soil management

Chapter Outline

• 9.1 Soil Profiles and Processes

• 9.2 Soil-Plant Relations
• 9.3 Conventional Agriculture
• 9.4 Pests and Pesticides
• 9.5 Sustainable Agriculture
• 9.6 Chapter Resources

221
9.1 Soil Profiles & Processes

What is Soil?

The word “soil” has been defined differently by different

scientific disciplines. In agriculture and horticulture, soil
generally refers to the medium for plant growth, typically
material within the upper meter or two (Figure 1). We will use
this definition in this chapter. Soil consists predominantly of
mineral matter, but also contains organic matter (humus) and
living organisms. The pore spaces between mineral grains are
filled with varying proportions of water and air.
In common usage, the term soil is sometimes restricted to only
the dark topsoil in which we plant our seeds or vegetables. In a
more broad definition, civil engineers use the term soil for any
unconsolidated (soft when wet) material that is not considered
bedrock. Under this definition, soil can be as much as several
hundred feet thick! Ancient soils, sometimes buried and preserved
in the subsurface, are referred to as paleosols (Figure 2) and
reflect past climatic and environmental conditions.

Figure 1. Soil Profile. Photograph

shows a soil profile from South Dakota
with A, E, and Bt horizons. The yellow
arrows symbolize translocation of fine
clays to the Bt horizon. The scale is in
feet. Source: University of Idaho and
modified by D. Grimley.

222
Importance of Soil

Soil is important to our society primarily because it provides

the foundation of agriculture and forestry. Of course, soil is also
a critical component for terrestrial ecosystems, and thus
important to animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms.
Soil plays a role in nearly all biogeochemical cycles on the
Earth’s surface. Global cycling of key elements such as carbon
(C), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), and phosphorous (P) all pass through
soil. In the hydrologic cycle, soil helps to mediate the flow of
precipitation from the surface into the groundwater.
Microorganisms living in soil can also be important components of
biogeochemical cycles through the action of decomposition and
other processes such as nitrogen fixation.

Soil Forming Factors

Figure 2. Modern versus Buried Soil
The fundamental factors that affect soil genesis can be categorized
Profiles. A buried soil profile, or
into five elements: climate, organisms, relief, parent material, and
paleosol (above geologist ‘s head),
time. One could say that the relief, climate, and organisms dictate the
represents soil development during the
last interglacial period. A modern soil local soil environment and act together to cause weathering and
profile (Alfisol) occurs near the land mixing of the soil parent material over time. As soil is formed it often
surface. Source: D. Grimley. has distinct layers, which are formally described as “horizons.” Upper
horizons (labeled as the A and O horizons) are
richer in organic material and so are important in plant growth, while deeper layers (such as
the B and C horizons) retain more of the original features of the bedrock below (Figure 3).

223
Climate

The role of climate in soil development includes aspects of

temperature and precipitation. Soils in very cold areas with
permafrost conditions tend to be shallow and weakly
developed due to the short growing season. Organic rich
surface horizons are common in low-lying areas due to
limited decomposition. In warm, tropical soils, soils tend to
be thicker, with extensive leaching and mineral alteration. In
such climates, organic matter decomposition and chemical
weathering occur at an accelerated rate.

Organisms

Animals, plants, and microorganisms all have

important roles in soil development processes, in
providing a supply of organic matter, and/or in nutrient Figure 3. This images shows the different
cycling. Worms, nematodes, termites, ants, gophers, horizons, or layers, in soil. This work by
moles, etc. all cause considerable mixing of soil and Wilsonbiggs is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
help to blend soil, aerate and lighten the soil by creating
pores (which help store water and air).
Plant life provides organic matter to soil and helps to recycle nutrients with uptake by roots in the
subsurface. The type of plant life that occurs in a given area, such as types of trees or grasses, depends on
the climate, along with parent material and soil type. With the annual dropping of leaves and needles, trees
tend to add organic matter to soil surfaces, helping to create a thin, organic-rich A or O horizon over time.
Grasses, on the other hand, have a considerable root and surface masses that add to the soil each fall for
annuals and short-lived perennials. For this reason, grassland soils have much thicker A horizons with higher
organic matter contents, and are more agriculturally productive than forest soils.

Relief (Topography and Drainage)

The local landscape can have a surprisingly strong effect on the soils that form on site. The local topography
(relief) can have important microclimatic effects as well as affecting rates of soil erosion. In comparison to
flat regions, areas with steep slopes overall have more soil erosion, more runoff of rainwater, and less water
infiltration, all of which lead to more limited soil development in very hilly or mountainous areas. In the
northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes are exposed to more direct sunlight angles and are thus warmer
and drier than north-facing slopes. The cooler, moister north-facing slopes have a more dynamic plant
community due to less evapotranspiration and, consequently, experience less erosion because of plant
rooting of soil and have thicker soil development.
Soil drainage affects organic matter accumulation and preservation, and local vegetation types. Well-
drained soils, generally on hills or sideslopes, are more brownish or reddish due to conversion of ferrous iron
(Fe2+) to minerals with ferric (Fe3+) iron. More poorly drained soils, in lowland, alluvial plains or upland
depressions, tend more be more greyish, greenish-grey (gleyed), or dark colored, due to iron reduction (to
Fe2+) and accumulation and preservation of organic matter in areas tending towards anoxic. Areas with poor
drainage also tend to be lowlands into which soil material may wash and accumulate

224
from surrounding uplands, often resulting in overthickened A or O horizons. In contrast, steeply
sloping areas in highlands may experience erosion and have thinner surface horizons.

Parent Material

The parent material of a soil is the material from which the soil has developed, whether it be river sands,
shoreline deposits, glacial deposits, or various types of bedrock. In youthful soils, the parent material
has a clear connection to the soil type and has significant influence. Over time, as weathering processes
deepen, mix, and alter the soil, the parent material becomes less recognizable as chemical, physical,
and biological processes take their effect. The type of parent material may also affect the rapidity of soil
development. Parent materials that are highly weatherable (such as volcanic ash) will transform more
quickly into highly developed soils, whereas parent materials that are quartz-rich, for example, will take
longer to develop. Parent materials also provide nutrients to plants and can affect soil internal drainage
(e.g. clay is more impermeable than sand and impedes drainage).

Time

In general, soil profiles tend to become thicker (deeper), more developed, and more altered over time.
However, the rate of change is greater for soils in youthful stages of development. The degree of soil
alteration and deepening slows with time and at some point, after tens or hundreds of thousands of
years, may approach an equilibrium condition where erosion and deepening (removals and additions)
become balanced. Young soils (< 10,000 years old) are strongly influenced by parent material and
typically develop horizons and character rapidly. Moderate age soils (roughly 10,000 to 500,000 years
old) are slowing in profile development and deepening, and may begin to approach equilibrium
conditions. Old soils (>500,000 years old) have generally reached their limit as far as soil horizonation
and physical structure, but may continue to alter chemically or mineralogically.
Soil development is not always continual. Geologic events can rapidly bury soils (landslides,
glacier advance, lake transgression), can cause removal or truncation of soils (rivers, shorelines)
or can cause soil renewal with additions of slowly deposited sediment that add to the soil (wind or
floodplain deposits). Biological mixing can sometimes cause soil regression, a reversal or bump in
the road for the normal path of increasing development over time.

225
9.2 Soil-Plant Interactions

Soil plays a key role in plant growth. Beneficial aspects to plants include providing physical
support, water, heat, nutrients, and oxygen (Figure 1). Mineral nutrients from the soil can
dissolve in water and then become available to plants. Although many aspects of soil are
beneficial to plants, excessively high levels of trace metals (either naturally occurring or
anthropogenically added) or applied herbicides can be toxic to some plants.

The ratio of solids/water/air in soil is also critically

important to plants for proper oxygenation levels
and water availability. Too much porosity with air
space, such as in sandy or gravelly soils, can
lead to less available water to plants, especially
during dry seasons when the water table is low.
Too much water, in poorly drained regions, can
lead to anoxic conditions in the soil, which may
be toxic to some plants.

Nutrient Uptake by Plants

Several elements obtained from soil are

considered essential for plant growth. Figure 1. Soil-Plant Nutrient Cycle. This figure illustrates
Macronutrients, including C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, the uptake of nutrients by plants in the forest-soil
Mg, and S, are needed by plants in significant ecosystem. Source: U.S. Geological Survey.
quantities. C, H, and O are mainly obtained from
the atmosphere or from rainwater. These three elements are the main components of most
organic compounds, such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. The other six
elements (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S) are obtained by plant roots from the soil and are variously
used for protein synthesis, chlorophyll synthesis, energy transfer, cell division, enzyme
reactions, and homeostasis (the process regulating the conditions within an organism).
Micronutrients are essential elements that are needed only in small quantities, but can still be limiting
to plant growth since these nutrients are not so abundant in nature. Micronutrients include iron (Fe),
manganese (Mn), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu). There are
some other elements that tend to aid plant growth but are not absolutely essential.
Micronutrients and macronutrients are desirable in particular concentrations and can be
detrimental to plant growth when concentrations in soil solution are either too low (limiting) or too
high (toxicity). Mineral nutrients are useful to plants only if they are in an extractable form in soil
solutions, such as a dissolved ion rather than in solid mineral. Many nutrients move through the soil
and into the root system as a result of concentration gradients, moving by diffusion from high to low
concentrations. However, some nutrients are selectively absorbed by the root membranes,
enabling concentrations to become higher inside the plant than in the soil.

226
9.3 Conventional Agriculture

The prevailing agricultural system, variously called “conventional farming,” “modern agriculture,” or
“industrial farming,” has delivered tremendous gains in productivity and efficiency. Food production
worldwide has risen in the past 50 years; the World Bank estimates that between 70 percent and 90
percent of the recent increases in food production are the result of conventional agriculture rather than
greater acreage under cultivation. U.S. consumers have come to expect abundant and inexpensive food.
Conventional farming systems vary from farm
to farm and from country to country. However,
they share many characteristics such as rapid
technological innovation, large capital
investments in equipment and technology, large-
scale farms, single crops (monocultures);
uniform high-yield hybrid crops, dependency on
agribusiness, mechanization of farm work, and
extensive use of pesticides, fertilizers, and
herbicides. In the case of livestock, most
production comes from systems where animals
are highly concentrated and confined.
Both positive and negative consequences have
come with the bounty associated with industrial Figure 1. Conventional agriculture is dependent on large
farming. Some concerns about conventional investments in mechanized equipment powered mostly by
agriculture are presented below. fossil fuels. This has made agriculture efficient, but has
had an impact on the environment. Cotton Harvest by
Kimberly Vardeman is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
Ecological Concerns

Agriculture profoundly affects many ecological systems. Negative effects of current practices
include the following:
Decline in soil productivity can be due to wind and water erosion of exposed topsoil, soil compaction, loss
of soil organic matter, water holding capacity, and biological activity; and salinization (increased salinity) of
soils in highly-irrigated farming areas. Converting land to desert (desertification) can be caused by
overgrazing of livestock and is a growing problem, especially in parts of Africa.
Agricultural practices have been found to contribute to non-point source water pollutants that include salts,
fertilizers (nitrates and phosphorus, especially), pesticides, and herbicides. Pesticides from every chemical
class have been detected in groundwater and are commonly found in groundwater beneath agricultural areas.
They are also widespread in the nation’s surface waters. Eutrophication and “dead zones” due to nutrient
runoff affect many rivers, lakes, and oceans. Reduced water quality impacts agricultural production, drinking
water supplies, and fishery production. Water scarcity (discussed in the previous chapter) in many places is
due to overuse of surface and ground water for irrigation with little concern for the natural cycle that maintains
stable water availability.
Other environmental ills include over 400 insects and mite pests and more than 70 fungal pathogens that
have become resistant to one or more pesticides. Pesticides have also placed stresses on pollinators and
other beneficial insect species. This, along with habitat loss due to converting wildlands into
227
agricultural fields, has affected entire ecosystems (such as the practice of converting tropical
rainforests into grasslands for raising cattle).
Agriculture’s link to global climate change is just beginning to be appreciated. Destruction of
tropical forests and other native vegetation for agricultural production has a role in elevated
levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Recent studies have found that soils may
be large reservoirs of carbon.

Economic and Social Concerns

Economically, the U.S. agricultural sector includes a history of increasingly large federal
expenditures. Also observed is a widening disparity among the income of farmers and the
escalating concentration of agribusiness—industries involved with manufacture, processing,
and distribution of farm products—into fewer and fewer hands. Market competition is limited
and farmers have little control over prices of their goods, and they continue to receive a smaller
and smaller portion of consumer dollars spent on agricultural products.
Economic pressures have led to a tremendous loss to the number of farms, particularly small
farms, and farmers during the past few decades. More than 155,000 farms were lost from 1987 to
1997. Economically, it is very difficult for potential farmers to enter the business today because of
the high cost of doing business. Productive farmland also has been swallowed up by urban and
suburban sprawl—since 1970, over 30 million acres have been lost to development.

Impacts on Human Health

Many potential health hazards are tied to farming practices. The general public may be affected by
the sub-therapeutic use of antibiotics in animal production and the contamination of food and water
by pesticides and nitrates. These are areas of active research to determine the levels of risk. The
health of farm workers is also of concern, as their risk of exposure is much higher.

Philosophical Considerations

Historically, farming played an important role in our development and identity as a nation. From
strongly agrarian roots, we have evolved into a culture with few farmers. Less than two percent
of Americans now produce food for all U.S. citizens. Can sustainable and equitable food
production be established when most consumers have so little connection to the natural
processes that produce their food? What intrinsically American values have changed and will
change with the decline of rural life and farmland ownership?
World population continues to grow. According to recent United Nations population projections,
the world population will grow to 9.7 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100. The rate of population
increase is especially high in many developing countries. In these countries, the population factor,
combined with rapid industrialization, poverty, political instability, and large food imports and debt
burden, make long-term food security especially urgent.

228
9.4 Pests & Pesticides

Pests and Pesticides

Pests are organisms that occur where they are not wanted or that cause damage to crops or humans or
other animals. Thus, the term “pest” is a highly subjective term. A pesticide is a term for any substance
intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest. Though often misunderstood to refer
only to insecticides, the term pesticide also applies to herbicides, fungicides, and various other substances
used to control pests. By their very nature, most pesticides create some risk of harm—pesticides can cause
harm to humans, animals, and/or the environment because they are designed to kill or otherwise adversely
affect living things. At the same time, pesticides are useful to society because they can kill potential disease-
causing organisms and control insects, weeds, worms, and fungi.

Pest Control is a Common Tool

The management of pests is an essential part of agriculture,

public health, and maintenance of power lines and roads.
Chemical pest management has helped to reduce losses in
agriculture and to limit human exposure to disease vectors,
such as mosquitoes, saving many lives. Chemical pesticides
can be effective, fast acting, adaptable to all crops and
Figure 1. The cotton boll weevil is considered situations. When first applied, pesticides can result in
a major pest because of the damage it does to impressive production gains of crops. However, despite
cotton plants. This work by Jimmy Smith is these initial gains, excessive use of pesticides can be
licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 . ecologically unsound, leading to the destruction of natural
enemies, the increase of pesticide resistance, and outbreaks
of secondary pests.
These consequences have often resulted in higher production costs as well as environmental and human
health costs– side-effects which have been unevenly distributed. Despite the fact that the lion’s share of
chemical pesticides are applied in developed countries, 99 percent of all pesticide poisoning cases occur in
developing countries where regulatory, health and education systems are weakest. Many farmers in
developing countries overuse pesticides and do not take proper safety precautions because they do not
understand the risks and fear smaller harvests. Making matters worse, developing countries seldom have
strong regulatory systems for dangerous chemicals; pesticides banned or restricted in industrialized
countries are used widely in developing countries. Farmers’ perceptions of appropriate pesticide use vary by
setting and culture. Prolonged exposure to pesticides has been associated with several chronic and acute
health effects like non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, leukemia, as well as cardiopulmonary disorders, neurological
and hematological symptoms, and skin diseases.

229
 BOX 1. HUMAN HEALTH, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF PESTICIDE
USE IN POTATO PRODUCTION IN ECUADOR

The International Potato Center (CIP) conducted an interdisciplinary and inter-institutional

research intervention project dealing with pesticide impacts on agricultural production, human
health, and the environment in Carchi, Ecuador. Carchi is the most important potato-growing
area in Ecuador, where smallholder farmers dominate production. They use tremendous
amounts of pesticides for the control of the Andean potato weevil and the late blight fungus.
Virtually all farmers apply class 1b highly toxic pesticides using hand pump backpack sprayers.
The study found that the health problems caused by pesticides are severe and are affecting a high
percentage of the rural population. Despite the existence of technology and policy solutions, government policies
continue to promote the use of pesticides. The study conclusions concurred with those by the pesticide industry,
“that any company that could not ensure the safe use of highly toxic pesticides should remove them from the
market and that it is almost impossible to achieve safe use of highly toxic pesticides among small farmers in
developing countries.”
Source: Yanggen et al. 2003.

POPs

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a group of organic chemicals, such as DDT, that
have been widely used as pesticides or industrial chemicals and pose risks to human health
and ecosystems. POPs have been produced and released into the environment by human
activity. They have the following three characteristics:
Persistent : POPs are chemicals that last a long time in the environment. Some may resist breakdown
for years and even decades while others could potentially break down into other toxic substances.
Bioaccumulative: POPs can accumulate in animals and humans, usually in fatty tissues and
largely from the food they consume. As these compounds move up the food chain, they
concentrate to levels that could be thousands of times higher than acceptable limits.
Toxic: POPs can cause a wide range of health effects in humans, wildlife and fish. They have been linked
to effects on the nervous system, reproductive and developmental problems, suppression of the immune
system, cancer, and endocrine disruption. The deliberate production and use of most POPs has been banned
around the world, with some exemptions made for human health considerations (e.g., DDT for malaria
control) and/or in very specific cases where alternative chemicals have not been identified. However, the
unintended production and/or the current use of some POPs continue to be an issue of global concern. Even
though most POPs have not been manufactured or used for decades, they continue to be present in the
environment and thus potentially harmful. The same properties that originally made them so effective,
particularly their stability, make them difficult to eradicate from the environment.

POPs and Health

The relationship between exposure to environmental contaminants such as POPs and human health is
complex. There is mounting evidence that these persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic chemicals (PBTs)
cause long-term harm to human health and the environment. Drawing a direct link, however, between
exposure to these chemicals and health effects is complicated, particularly since humans are exposed on a
daily basis to many different environmental contaminants through the air they breathe, the water they drink,
and the food they eat. Numerous studies link POPs with a number of adverse effects in humans. These
include effects on the nervous system, problems related to reproduction and development, cancer,

230
and genetic impacts. Moreover, there is mounting public concern over the environmental
contaminants that mimic hormones in the human body (endocrine disruptors).
As with humans, animals are exposed to POPs in the environment through air, water and food.
POPs can remain in sediments for years, where bottom-dwelling creatures consume them and who
are then eaten by larger fish. Because tissue concentrations can increase or biomagnify at each
level of the food chain, top predators (like largemouth bass or walleye) may have a million times
greater concentrations of POPs than the water itself. The animals most exposed to PBT
contaminants are those higher up the food web such as marine mammals including whales, seals,
polar bears, and birds of prey in addition to fish species such as tuna, swordfish and bass (Figure
2). Once POPs are released into the environment, they may be transported within a specific region
and across international boundaries transferring among air, water, and land.

Figure 2. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification. U.S. EPA. Great Lakes: The Great Lakes Atlas:
Chapter Four the Great Lakes Today – Concerns. January 2009

“Grasshopper Effect”

While generally banned or restricted, POPs

make their way into and throughout the
environment on a daily basis through a cycle of
long-range air transport and deposition called the
“grasshopper effect.”The “grasshopper”
processes, illustrated in Figure 3, begin with the
release of POPs into the environment. When
POPs enter the atmosphere, they can be carried
with wind currents, sometimes for long distances. Figure 3. How POPs move throughout the environment.
Through atmospheric processes, they are Source: Environment Canada. The Science and the
Environment Bulletin. May/June 1998

deposited onto land or into water ecosystems

where they accumulate and potentially cause
damage. From these ecosystems, they evaporate, again entering the atmosphere, typically traveling from
warmer temperatures toward cooler regions. They condense out of the atmosphere whenever the
temperature drops, eventually reaching highest concentrations in circumpolar countries. Through these

231
processes, POPs can move thousands of kilometers from their original source of release in a
cycle that may last decades.

232
9.5 Sustainable Agriculture

“Sustainable agriculture” was addressed by Congress in the 1990 “Farm Bill”. Under that law,
“the term sustainable agriculture means an integrated system of plant and animal production
practices having a site-specific application that will, over the long term:

• satisfy human food and fiber needs;

• enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the
agricultural economy depends;
• make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and
integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls;
• sustain the economic viability of farm operations; and
• enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.”

Organic Farming is Good for Farmers, Consumers and the Environment

Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances
biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. Organic food is produced by farmers who
emphasize the use of renewable resources and the conservation of soil and water to enhance
environmental quality for future generations. Organic meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products come from
animals that are given no antibiotics or growth hormones. Organic food is produced without using most
conventional pesticides, fertilizers made with synthetic ingredients or sewage sludge, or GMOs.
Organic production, with the corresponding practices to maintain soil fertility and soil health is therefore a
more benign alternative to conventional, high-value horticulture. The organic food movement has been
endorsed by the UN’s Food and Agricultural Organization, which maintains in a 2007 report that organic
farming fights hunger, tackles climate change, and is good for farmers, consumers, and the environment.
The strongest benefits of organic agriculture are its use of resources that are independent of fossil fuels, are
locally available, incur minimal environmental stresses, and are cost effective.

IPM is a Combination of Common-Sense Practices

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) refers to a mix of farmer-driven, ecologically-based pest control
practices that seeks to reduce reliance on synthetic chemical pesticides. It involves (a) managing pests
(keeping them below economically damaging levels) rather than seeking to eradicate them; (b) relying,
to the extent possible, on non-chemical measures to keep pest populations low; and (c) selecting and
applying pesticides, when they have to be used, in a way that minimizes adverse effects on beneficial
organisms, humans, and the environment. It is commonly understood that applying an IPM approach
does not necessarily mean eliminating pesticide use, although this is often the case because pesticides
are often over-used for a variety of reasons.
The IPM approach regards pesticides as mainly short-term corrective measures when more

233
270 Matthew R. Fisher

ecologically based control measures are not working adequately (sometimes referred to as using
pesticides as the “last resort”). In those cases when pesticides are used, they should be selected and
applied in such a manner as to minimize the amount of disruption that they cause to the environment,
such as using products that are non-persistent and applying them in the most targeted way possible).

Biological Control

Biological control (biocontrol) is the use of one biological

species to reduce populations of a different species. There has
been a substantial increase in commercialization of biocontrol
products, such as beneficial insects, cultivated predators and
natural or non-toxic pest control products. Biocontrol is being
mainstreamed to major agricultural commodities, such as
cotton, corn and most commonly vegetable crops. Biocontrol is
also slowly emerging in vector control in public health and in
areas that for a long time mainly focused on chemical vector
control
in mosquito/malaria—and black fly/ onchocerciasis—control
programs. Successful and commercialized examples of
biocontrol include ladybugs to depress aphid populations, Figure 1. Young larvae of the leaf-beetle feed in
and on the developing buds of plants, often
parasitic wasps to reduce moth populations, use of the
destroying them. This may stunt plant growth
bacterium Bacillus thuringenensis to kill mosquito and moth
and delay or prevent flowering. Adults (shown)
larvae, and introduction of fungi, such as Trichoderma, to and older larvae feed on leaves and cause
suppress fungal-caused plant diseases, leaf beetle severe defoliation. Leaf-beetles can be used to
(Galerucella calmariensis) to suppress purple loosestrife, a as a biocontrol for invasive plants such
noxious weed (Figure 1). In all of these cases, the idea is not as purple loosestrife.
to completely destroy the pathogen or
pest, but rather to reduce the damage below economically significant values.

Intercropping Promotes Plant Interactions

Intercropping means growing two or more crops in

close proximity to each other during part or all of their life
cycles to promote soil improvement, biodiversity, and pest
management. Incorporating intercropping principles into
an agricultural operation increases diversity and
interaction between plants, arthropods, mammals, birds
and microorganisms resulting in a more stable crop-
ecosystem and a more efficient use of space, water,
sunlight, and nutrients (Figure 2). This collaborative type
of crop management mimics nature and is subject to
fewer pest outbreaks, improved nutrient cycling and crop
Figure 2. Intercropping alyssum (the nutrient uptake, and increased water infiltration and
flowering plants shown center left) with moisture retention. Soil quality, water quality and wildlife
organic romaine lettuce for aphid control.
habitat all benefit.

234
Organic Farming Practices Reduce Unnecessary Input Use

In modern agricultural practices, heavy machinery is used to prepare the seedbed for planting,
to control weeds, and to harvest the crop. The use of heavy equipment has many advantages
in saving time and labor, but can cause compaction of soil and disruption of the natural soil
organisms. The problem with soil compaction is that increased soil density limits root
penetration depth and may inhibit proper plant growth.
Alternative practices generally encourage minimal tillage or no tillage methods. With proper
planning, this can simultaneously limit compaction, protect soil organisms, reduce costs (if
performed correctly), promote water infiltration, and help to prevent topsoil erosion (Figure 3).

Tillage of fields does help to break up clods that

were previously compacted, so best practices may
vary at sites with different soil textures and
composition. Another aspect of soil tillage is that
it may lead to more rapid decomposition of organic
matter due to greater soil aeration. Over large areas
of farmland, this has the unintended consequence
of releasing more carbon and nitrous oxides
(greenhouse gases) into the atmosphere, thereby
contributing to global warming effects. In no-till
farming, carbon can actually become sequestered
into the soil. Thus, no-till farming may be Figure 3. Farmers should consider no-till farming as the
advantageous to sustainability issues on the local most important tool to prevent loss of soil moisture.
scale and the global scale. No-till systems of
conservation farming have proved a major success in Latin America and are being used in
South Asia and Africa.

Crop Rotation

Crop rotations are planned sequences of crops over time on the same field. Rotating crops provides
productivity benefits by improving soil nutrient levels and breaking crop pest cycles. Farmers may also
choose to rotate crops in order to reduce their production risk through diversification or to manage scarce
resources, such as labor, during planting and harvesting timing. This strategy reduces the pesticide costs by
naturally breaking the cycle of weeds, insects and diseases. Also, grass and legumes in a rotation protect
water quality by preventing excess nutrients or chemicals from entering water supplies.

235
 BOX 2. AN ALTERNATIVE TO SPRAYING: BOLLWORM CONTROL IN SHANDONG

Farmers in Shandong (China) have been using innovative methods to control bollworm infestation in cotton
when this insect became resistant to most pesticides. Among the control measures implemented were:

1. The use of pest resistant cultivars and interplanting of cotton with wheat or maize.
2. Use of lamps and poplar twigs to trap and kill adults to lessen the number of adults.
3. If pesticides were used, they were applied on parts of cotton plant’s stem rather than by
spraying the whole field (to protect natural enemies of the bollworm).

These and some additional biological control tools have proved to be effective in controlling insect
populations and insect resistance, protecting surroundings and lowering costs.

The Future of the Sustainable Agriculture Concept

Many in the agricultural community have adopted the sense of urgency and direction pointed to by the
sustainable agriculture concept. Sustainability has become an integral component of many government,
commercial, and non-profit agriculture research efforts, and it is beginning to be woven into agricultural
policy. Increasing numbers of farmers and ranchers have embarked on their own paths to sustainability,
incorporating integrated and innovative approaches into their own enterprises.

Suggested Supplementary Reading

McMillan, T. 2018. “Menu of the Future: Insects, Weeds, and Bleeding Veggie Burgers.”
National Geographic. November
Attribution
Essentials of Environmental Science by Kamala Doršner is licensed under CC BY 4.0. Modified
from the original by Matthew R. Fisher.

236
9.6 Chapter Resources

Summary

In agriculture and horticulture, soil generally refers to the medium for plant growth, typically material within
the upper meter or two. Soil plays a key role in plant growth. Beneficial aspects to plants include providing
physical support, heat, water, nutrients, and oxygen. Heat, light, and oxygen are also obtained by the
atmosphere, but the roots of many plants also require oxygen. The prevailing agricultural system has
delivered tremendous gains in productivity and efficiency. Food production worldwide has risen in the past
50 years. On the other hand, agriculture profoundly affects many ecological systems. Negative effects of
current practices include ecological concerns, economic and social concerns and human health concerns.
Pesticides from every chemical class have been detected in groundwater and are commonly found in
groundwater beneath agricultural areas. Despite impressive production gains, excessive use of pesticides
has proven to be ecologically unsound, leading to the destruction of natural enemies, the increase of pest
resistance pest resurgence and outbreaks of secondary pests. These consequences have often resulted in
higher production costs and lost markets due to undesirable pesticide residue levels, as well as
environmental and human health costs. Alternative and sustainable practices in farming and land use include
organic agriculture, integrated pest management and biological control.

Review Questions

1.Which of the following is not one of the five soil-forming factors?

A. Climate
B. Organisms
C. Relief
D. Transpiration rate
E. Time

2. You analyze a soil sample for a farmer that has been dealing with fertility issues on her land.
You find that it is deficient in all of the soil-derived macronutrients. Which one of the following
is macronutrient derived from the soil?
A. carbon
B. nitrogen
C. hydrogen
D. iron
E. oxygen

3. The farmer adjacent to your land plants a single crop (soybean) over their entire 100
hectare field. This practice is known as a…
A. Monoculture
B. Crop plot

237
 C. Agriplot
D. Rotational farming
E. Millibar

4. Salinization is bad for farmers because it results in…

A. Pesticide resistance
B. Increased salts in the soil
C. Nutrient-poor soils
D. Blight
E. Desertification

5. Besides being long-lasting, persistent organic pollutants share which of the following characteristics:

A. accumulate in higher trophic levels and are toxic

B. accumulate in lower trophic levels and are toxic
C. accumulate in higher trophic levels and are infectious biological agents
D. accumulate in lower trophic levels and are infectious biological agents
E. Are toxic and infectious

6. The grasshopper effect explains which one of the following phenomena?

A. The mass migration patterns of insects that are similar to, and include, grasshoppers
B. The lowering of nutrient capacity in soils due to the action of certain types of organisms
C. The long-range movement of certain types of pollutants across different regions of the Earth D.
The long-range atmospheric distribution of soil following tilling by farm equipment
E. The spread of invasive species through international trade in potted plants

7. An important goal of integrated pest management is to reduce the amount of

pests while also…
A. Reducing the amount of genetically modified crops grown
B. Reducing the amount of fertilizer used
C. Introducing species that prey upon and destroy pest species
D. Integrating market-based strategies for maximization of profits
E. Reducing the amount of synthetic chemical pesticides used

8. Which one of the following describes the use of organisms to control pests?
A. Bioremediation
B. Intercropping
C. Species niche partitioning
D. Vector control
E. Biological control

9. What practice allows farmers to improve soil fertility, diversify their crops, and reduce
pesticide costs by naturally breaking the cycle of weeds, insects, and diseases?
A. Monoculture
B. Biological control
C. Crop sharing
D. Crop rotation

238
 E. Soil tilling

10.Which one of the following is more indicative of conventional agriculture, and

not sustainable agriculture?
A. Biological control
B. Intercropping
C. Monocultures
D. Integrated pest management
E. Minimal tillage

239
Chp 10: Air Pollution, Climate Change, &
Ozone Depletion

Traffic congestion is a daily reality of India’s urban centers.

Slow speeds and idling vehicles produce, per trip, 4 to 8
times more pollutants and consume more carbon footprint
fuels, than free flowing traffic. This 2008 image shows
traffic congestion in Delhi.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Identify sources of air pollution

• List common air pollutants
• Explain how the greenhouse effect causes the atmosphere to retain heat
• Explain how we know that humans are responsible for recent climate change
• List some effects of climate change
• Identify some climate change policies and adaptation measures
Chapter Outline
• 10.1 Atmospheric Pollution
• 10.2 Ozone Depletion
• 10.3 Acid Rain10.4 Climate Change
• 10.5 Chapter Resources

240
10.1 Atmospheric Pollution

Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as gaseous and particulate
contaminants that are present in the earth’s atmosphere. Chemicals discharged into the air that
have a direct impact on the environment are called primary pollutants. These primary pollutants
sometimes react with other chemicals in the air to produce secondary pollutants.
Air pollution is typically separated into two categories: outdoor air pollution and indoor air pollution.
Outdoor air pollution involves exposures that take place outside of the built environment. Examples
include fine particles produced by the burning of coal, noxious gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides and carbon monoxide; ground-level ozone and tobacco smoke. Indoor air pollution involves
exposures to particulates, carbon oxides, and other pollutants carried by indoor air or dust. Examples
include household products and chemicals, out-gassing of building materials, allergens (cockroach and
mouse dropping, mold, pollen), and tobacco smoke.

Sources of Air Pollution

A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not move, also known as a point
source. Stationary sources include factories, power plants, and dry cleaners. The term area source is used
to describe many small sources of air pollution located together whose individual emissions may be below
thresholds of concern, but whose collective emissions can be significant. Residential wood burners are a
good example of a small source, but when combined with many other small sources, they can contribute to
local and regional air pollution levels. Area sources can also be thought of as non-point sources, such as
construction of housing developments, dry lake beds, and landfills.
A mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving under its own
power. In general, mobile sources imply “on-road” transportation, which includes vehicles such
as cars, sport utility vehicles, and buses. In addition, there is also a “non-road” or “off-road”
category that includes gas-powered lawn tools and mowers, farm and construction equipment,
recreational vehicles, boats, planes, and trains.
Agricultural sources arise from operations that raise animals and grow crops, which can generate
emissions of gases and particulate matter. For example, animals confined to a barn or restricted area
produce large amounts of manure. Manure emits various gases, particularly ammonia into the air. This
ammonia can be emitted from the animal houses, manure storage areas, or from the land after the
manure is applied. In crop production, the misapplication of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can
potentially result in aerial drift of these materials and harm may be caused.
Unlike the above mentioned sources of air pollution, air pollution caused by natural sources
is not caused by people or their activities. An erupting volcano emits particulate matter and
gases, forest and prairie fires can emit large quantities of “pollutants”, dust storms can create
large amounts of particulate matter, and plants and trees naturally emit volatile organic
compounds which can form aerosols that can cause a natural blue haze. Wild animals in their
natural habitat are also considered natural sources of “pollution”.

279

241
Six Common Air Pollutants

The most commonly found air pollutants are particulate matter , ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide,
sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. These pollutants can harm health and the environment, and
cause property damage. Of the six pollutants, particle pollution and ground-level ozone are the most
widespread health threats. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates them by
developing criteria based on considerations of human and environmental health.
Ground-level ozone is not emitted directly into the air, but is created by chemical reactions between
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight. Emissions from
industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are
some of the major sources of NOx and VOC. Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of health problems,
particularly for children, the elderly, and people of all ages who have lung diseases such as asthma. Ground
level ozone can also have harmful effects on sensitive vegetation and ecosystems. (Ground-level ozone
should not be confused with the ozone layer, which is high in the atmosphere and protects Earth from
ultraviolet light; ground-level ozone provides no such protection).
Particulate matter, also known as particle pollution, is a complex mixture of extremely small
particles and liquid droplets. Particle pollution is made up of a number of components, including
acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles. The
size of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health problems. EPA is
concerned about particles that are 10 micrometers in diameter or smaller because those are
the particles that generally pass through the throat and nose and enter the lungs. Once inhaled,
these particles can affect the heart and lungs and cause serious health effects.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas emitted from combustion processes.
Nationally and, particularly in urban areas, the majority of CO emissions to ambient air come from
mobile sources. CO can cause harmful health effects by reducing oxygen delivery to the body’s
organs (like the heart and brain) and tissues. At extremely high levels, CO can cause death.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as “oxides of nitrogen,”
or nitrogen oxides (NOx). Other nitrogen oxides include nitrous acid and nitric acid. EPA’s National
Ambient Air Quality Standard uses NO2 as the indicator for the larger group of nitrogen oxides.
NO2 forms quickly from emissions from cars, trucks and buses, power plants, and off-road
equipment. In addition to contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone, and fine particle
pollution, NO2 is linked with a number of adverse effects on the respiratory system.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gasses known as “oxides of sulfur.” The
largest sources of SO2 emissions are from fossil fuel combustion at power plants (73%) and other
industrial facilities (20%). Smaller sources of SO 2 emissions include industrial processes such as
extracting metal from ore, and the burning of high sulfur containing fuels by locomotives, large ships,
and non-road equipment. SO2 is linked with a number of adverse effects on the respiratory system.
Lead is a metal found naturally in the environment as well as in manufactured products. The
major sources of lead emissions have historically been from fuels in on-road motor vehicles (such
as cars and trucks) and industrial sources. As a result of regulatory efforts in the U.S. to remove
lead from on-road motor vehicle gasoline, emissions of lead from the transportation sector
dramatically declined by 95 percent between 1980 and 1999, and levels of lead in the air decreased
by 94 percent between 1980 and 1999. Today, the highest levels of lead in air are usually found
near lead smelters. The major sources of lead emissions to the air today are ore and metals
processing and piston-engine aircraft operating on leaded aviation gasoline.

242
Indoor Air Pollution (Major concerns in developed countries)

Most people spend approximately 90 percent of their time indoors. However, the indoor air we
breathe in homes and other buildings can be more polluted than outdoor air and can increase the
risk of illness. There are many sources of indoor air pollution in homes. They include biological
contaminants such as bacteria, molds and pollen, burning of fuels and environmental tobacco
smoke, building materials and furnishings, household products, central heating and cooling
systems, and outdoor sources. Outdoor air pollution can enter buildings and become a source of
indoor air pollution.
Sick building syndrome is a term used to describe situations in which building occupants
have health symptoms that are associated only with spending time in that building. Causes
of sick building syndrome are believed to include inadequate ventilation, indoor air pollution,
and biological contaminants. Usually indoor air quality problems only cause discomfort. Most
people feel better as soon as they remove the source of the pollution. Making sure that your
building is well-ventilated and getting rid of pollutants can improve the quality of your indoor
air.

Secondhand Smoke (Environmental Tobacco Smoke)

Secondhand smoke is the combination of smoke that comes from a cigarette and
smoke breathed out by a smoker. When a non-smoker is around someone smoking,
they breathe in secondhand smoke.
Secondhand smoke is dangerous to anyone who breathes it in. There is no safe amount of
secondhand smoke. It contains over 7,000 harmful chemicals, at least 250 of which are
known to damage human health. It can also stay in the air for several hours after somebody
smokes. Even breathing secondhand smoke for a short amount of time can hurt your body.
Over time, secondhand smoke can cause serious health issues in non-smokers. The only
way to fully protect non-smokers from the dangers of secondhand smoke is to not allow
smoking indoors. Separating smokers from nonsmokers (like “no smoking” sections in
restaurants)‚ cleaning the air‚ and airing out buildings does not completely get rid of
secondhand smoke.
Source: Smokefree.gov

243
10.2 Ozone Depletion

The Ozone Layer

Ozone (O3) is a gaseous molecule that occurs in

different parts of the atmosphere (Figure 1). It is very
reactive chemically and is dangerous to plant and
animal life when present in the lower portions of the
atmosphere. This type of ozone, called ground-level
ozone, is a significant hazard to human health and is
associated with pollution from vehicle exhaust and
other anthropogenic emissions (see section 10.1).
Ozone that occurs in the upper atmosphere is naturally
occurring and beneficial to life due to its role in blocking harmful
radiation from the sun. This type of ozone is called
Figure 1. The ozone molecule is comprised
stratospheric ozone . Ozone in the stratosphere (Figure 2)
of three oxygen atoms covalently bonded.
forms when the two oxygen atoms in an O2 molecule are broken
“Ozone” by UCAR (Randy Russell) is licensed
apart by the energy of sunlight. Each lone oxygen atom can under CC BY-SA.
then combine with a different O2 molecule to form O3, ozone.
The ozone layer is the portion of the stratosphere
where ozone molecules are present, mixed in among the other gases that comprise the
atmosphere (Figure 2).
Radiation from the sun is also called
electromagnetic radiation, or simply referred to
as light. The sun emits different types of light
including but not limited to x-rays, visible light,
microwaves, and ultraviolet light. The various
types of light are distinguished by their different
wavelengths. As wavelength decreases, the
amount of energy in that light increases.
Ultraviolet light, for example, has shorter
wavelengths than visible light and is thus more
energetic. Ozone molecules absorb ultraviolet
Figure 2. The ozone layer occurs in the region of (UV) light, which is advantageous for life on
the atmosphere called the stratosphere. This Photo Earth because UV light can break down
by NC Climate Office is licensed under CC BY-SA. important biomolecules such as DNA, which
can lead to cell death and mutations.
Ozone Depletion

Unfortunately, the ozone layer that protects life on Earth from harmful UV light has been depleted due
to human activities. The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) and other
ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are emitted into the atmosphere. CFCs were used by industry as
refrigerants, degreasing solvents, and propellants. In the lower atmosphere, CFC molecules are

244
 extremely stable chemically and do not dissolve in rain, and thus can linger for long periods.
After several years, ODS molecules eventually reach the ozone layer in the stratosphere, which
starts at about 10 kilometers above the Earth’s surface.
Once in the stratosphere, CFCs and other
ODS destroy ozone molecules. In the case of
CFCs, UV light in the stratosphere knocks
loose a chlorine atom from the molecule,
which can then destroy numerous ozone
molecules, as shown in Figure 3.
In effect, ODS are removing ozone faster than
it is created by natural processes (as described
above), and this leads to a thinning of the ozone
layer. This thinning represents a reduction in
concentration of ozone molecules in a particular
portion of the stratosphere. Areas where the
ozone layer has thinned are commonly referred to
as holes, although this is not entirely accurate
Figure 3. CFCs destroy ozone (O3) when a
because ozone is still present, it just exists at
chlorine atom breaks lose from the CFC and
interacts with the oxygen atoms in the ozone concentrations much lower than normal.
molecule. This Photo by UCAR is licensed under CC
BY-SA-NC. Policies to Reduce Ozone Destruction

Tackling the issue of ozone layer destruction is an example of global cooperation that
produced meaningful action on a large-scale environmental problem. In 1973, scientists first
calculated that CFCs could reach the stratosphere and destroy ozone. Based only on their
calculations, the United States and most Scandinavian countries banned CFCs in spray cans
in But more confirmation that CFCs break down ozone was needed before additional action was
1978.
taken. In 1985, members of the British Antarctic Survey reported that a 50% reduction in the ozone
layer had been found over Antarctica in the previous three springs, a very important finding.
Two years after that seminal British Antarctic Survey report, an agreement titled the
“Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer” was ratified by nations all
over the world. The Montreal Protocol, as it is commonly called, controls the production and
emission of 96 chemicals that damage the ozone layer. As a result, CFCs have been mostly phased
out since 1995, although they were used in developing nations until 2010. Some of the less
hazardous substances will not be phased out until 2030. The Montreal Protocol also requires that
wealthier nations donate money to develop technologies that will replace these chemicals.

245
Figure 4. Ozone levels over North America decreased between 1974 and 2009. Models of the future predict
what ozone levels would have been if CFCs were not being phased out. Warmer colors indicate more ozone.

The Montreal Protocol was a success and scientists have found that the ozone layer is recovering
and the size of the ozone “holes” are shrinking, thanks to a drastic reduction in emission of ODS
like CFCs. The recovery process is slow, however, because CFCs take many years to reach the
stratosphere and can survive there a long time before they break down and are rendered harmless.
Thus, it will take many more decades for the ozone layer to fully recover.
Constant vigilance and monitoring are needed, however, as illegal production and emission
of CFCs and other ODS threaten recovery efforts. In 2018, scientists from the US National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration reported that emissions of a particular type of CFC
had increased 25% since 2012. Follow-up studies have since approximated the emissions as
originating in particular regions of eastern Asia.

246
Health and Environmental Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

Figure 5. The ozone layer absorbs UV-B and UV-C light, protecting life on Earth from its harmful effects.
This Photo by NASA is licensed under CCO Public Domain.

There are three types of UV light, each distinguished by their wavelengths: UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C.
Stratospheric ozone molecules absorb all of the sun’s UV-C light and most of its UV-B light (Figure 5).
Reductions in stratospheric ozone levels led to higher levels of UV-B reaching the Earth’s surface,
which is a serious hazard to human health. Studies have shown that in the Antarctic the amount of
UV-B measured at the surface can double due to thinning of the ozone layer. UV-B is harmful to
cells because it can interact with biomolecules like DNA and damage it. This can lead to mutations
and cell death. UV-B cannot penetrate multicellular organisms very far and thus tends to only affect
cells near the surface, such as in the skin of animals. Microbes like bacteria, however, are
composed of only one cell and can therefore be killed by UV-B.
Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UV-B causes certain types of skin
cancers in humans and plays a major role in development of malignant melanoma (a
particularly dangerous form of skin cancer). In addition, UV-B causes cataracts, a clouding of
the lens in the eye that can lead to poor vision or even blindness.
It is important to note that all sunlight contains some UV-B light, even with normal
stratospheric ozone levels. Therefore, it is important to protect your skin and eyes from the sun.
Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UV-B and the risk of health effects.

247
10.3 Acid Rain

Acid rain is a term referring to a mixture of wet

and dry deposition (deposited material) from the
atmosphere containing higher than normal
amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. The
precursors, or chemical forerunners, of acid rain
formation result from both natural sources, such
as volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-
made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion.
Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the
atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other
Figure 1. Processes involved in acid deposition. chemicals to form various acidic compounds. The
result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric
acid. When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released from power plants and other
sources, prevailing winds blow these compounds across state and national borders, sometimes
over hundreds of miles.
Acid rain is measured using a scale called “pH.” The lower a substance’s pH, the more acidic
it is. Pure water has a pH of 7.0. However, normal rain is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide
(CO2) dissolves into it forming weak carbonic acid, giving the resulting mixture a pH of
approximately 5.6 at typical atmospheric concentrations of CO 2. As of 2000, the most acidic
rain falling in the U.S. has a pH of about 4.3.

Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain causes acidification of lakes and streams and contributes to the damage of trees at high
elevations (for example, red spruce trees above 2,000 feet) and many sensitive forest soils. In addition,
acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable buildings,
statues, and sculptures that are part of our nation’s cultural heritage. Prior to falling to the earth, sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) gases and their particulate matter derivatives—sulfates and
nitrates—contribute to visibility degradation and harm public health.
The ecological effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in the aquatic, or water, environments, such as
streams, lakes, and marshes. Most lakes and streams have a pH between 6 and 8, although some lakes are
naturally acidic even without the effects of acid rain. Acid rain primarily affects sensitive bodies of water,
which are located in watersheds whose soils have a limited ability to neutralize acidic compounds (called
“buffering capacity”). Lakes and streams become acidic (i.e., the pH value goes down) when the water itself
and its surrounding soil cannot buffer the acid rain enough to neutralize it. In areas where buffering capacity
is low, acid rain releases aluminum from soils into lakes and streams; aluminum is highly toxic to many
species of aquatic organisms. Acid rain causes slower growth, injury, or death of forests . Of course, acid
rain is not the only cause of such conditions. Other factors contribute to the overall stress of these areas,
including air pollutants, insects, disease, drought, or very cold weather. In
287

248
most cases, in fact, the impacts of acid rain on trees are due to the combined effects of acid
rain and these other environmental stressors.
Acid rain and the dry deposition of acidic
particles contribute to the corrosion of metals
(such as bronze) and the deterioration of paint
and stone (such as marble and limestone).
These effects significantly reduce the societal
value of buildings, bridges, cultural objects
(such as statues, monuments, and
tombstones), and cars (Figure 2).
Sulfates and nitrates that form in the atmosphere
from sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
emissions contribute to visibility impairment,
meaning we cannot see as
far or as clearly through the air. The pollutants Figure 2. A gargoyle that has been damaged by acid rain.
that cause acid rain—sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx)—damage human health. These gases interact in the atmosphere to
form fine sulfate and nitrate particles that can be transported long distances by winds and
inhaled deep into people’s lungs. Fine particles can also penetrate indoors. Many scientific
studies have identified a relationship between elevated levels of fine particles and increased
illness and premature death from heart and lung disorders, such as asthma and bronchitis.

249
10.4 Global Climate Change

Earth’s Temperature is a Balancing Act

Earth’s temperature depends on the balance between energy entering and leaving the planet. When
incoming energy from the sun is absorbed, Earth warms. When the sun’s energy is reflected back into
space, Earth avoids warming. When energy is released from Earth into space, the planet cools. Many
factors, both natural and human, can cause changes in Earth’s energy balance, including:

• Changes in the greenhouse effect, which affects the amount of heat retained
by Earth’s atmosphere;
• Variations in the sun’s energy reaching Earth;
• Changes in the reflectivity of Earth’s atmosphere and surface.

Scientists have pieced together a picture of Earth’s climate, dating back hundreds of
thousands of years, by analyzing a number of indirect measures of climate such as ice cores,
tree rings, glacier size, pollen counts, and ocean sediments. Scientists have also studied
changes in Earth’s orbit around the sun and the activity of the sun itself.
The historical record shows that the climate varies naturally over a wide range of time scales. In
general, climate changes prior to the Industrial Revolution in the 1700s can be explained by natural
causes, such as changes in solar energy, volcanic eruptions, and natural changes in greenhouse
gas (GHG) concentrations. Recent changes in climate, however, cannot be explained by natural
causes alone. Research indicates that natural causes are very unlikely to explain most observed
warming, especially warming since the mid-20th century. Rather, it is extremely likely that human
activities, especially our combustion of fossil fuels, explains most of that warming. The scientific
consensus is clear: through alterations of the carbon cycle, humans are changing the global climate
by increasing the effects of something known as the greenhouse effect.

The Greenhouse Effect Causes the Atmosphere to Retain Heat

Gardeners that live in moderate or cool environments use greenhouses because they trap heat
and create an environment that is warmer than outside temperatures. This is great for plants
that like heat, or are sensitive to cold temperatures, such as tomato and pepper plants.
Greenhouses contain glass or plastic that allow visible light from the sun to pass. This light,
which is a form of energy, is absorbed by plants, soil, and surfaces and heats them. Some of
that heat energy is then radiated outwards in the form of infrared radiation, a different form of
energy. Unlike with visible light, the glass of the greenhouse blocks the infrared radiation,
thereby trapping the heat energy, causing the temperature within the greenhouse to increase.
The same phenomenon happens inside a car on a sunny day. Have you ever noticed how much hotter a
car can get compared to the outside temperature? Light energy from the sun passes through the windows
and is absorbed by the surfaces in the car such as seats and the dashboard. Those warm surfaces then

250
radiate infrared radiation, which cannot pass through the glass. This trapped infrared energy causes the air
temperatures in the car to increase. This process is commonly known as the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect also happens with the entire Earth. Of course, our planet is not surrounded by
glass windows. Instead, the Earth is wrapped with an atmosphere that contains greenhouse gases
(GHGs). Much like the glass in a greenhouse, GHGs allow incoming visible light energy from the sun to
pass, but they block infrared radiation that is radiated from the Earth towards space (Figure 1). In this
way, they help trap heat energy that subsequently raises air temperature. Being a greenhouse gas is a
physical property of certain types of gases; because of their molecular structure they absorb
wavelengths of infrared radiation, but are transparent to visible light. Some notable greenhouse gases
are water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4). GHGs act like a blanket, making
Earth significantly warmer than it would otherwise be. Scientists estimate that average temperature on
Earth would be -18º C without naturally-occurring GHGs.

What is Global Warming?

Global warming refers to the recent and ongoing rise in global average temperature near Earth’s surface. It is
caused mostly by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global warming is causing
climate patterns to change. However, global warming itself represents only one aspect of climate change.

What is Climate Change?

Climate change refers to any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an
extended period of time. In other words, climate change includes major changes in temperature,
precipitation, or wind patterns, among other effects, that occur over several decades or longer.

Figure 1. Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

251
The Main Greenhouse Gasses

The most important GHGs directly emitted by humans include CO2 and methane. Carbon
dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas that is contributing to recent global climate
change. CO2 is a natural component of the carbon cycle, involved in such activities as
photosynthesis, respiration, volcanic eruptions, and ocean-atmosphere exchange. Human
activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, release very large
amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere, causing its concentration in the atmosphere to rise.
Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased by 45% since pre-industrial times, from approximately
280 parts per million (ppm) in the 18th century to 408 ppm in 2018. The current CO 2 level is higher than it
has been in at least 800,000 years, based on evidence from ice cores that preserve ancient atmospheric
gases. Human activities currently release over 30 billion tons of CO 2 into the atmosphere every year. While
some some volcanic eruptions released large quantities of CO2 in the distant past, the U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) reports that human activities now emit more than 135 times as much CO2 as volcanoes each
year. This human-caused build-up of CO2 in the atmosphere is like a tub filling with water, where more water
flows from the faucet than the drain can take away.

Figure 2. This graph, based on the comparison of atmospheric samples contained in ice cores and more
recent direct measurements, provides evidence that atmospheric CO2 has increased since the Industrial
Revolution. (Credit: Vostok ice core data/J.R. Petit et al.; NOAA Mauna Loa CO2 record.)

Methane (CH4) is produced through both natural and human activities. For example, wetlands, agricultural
activities, and fossil fuel extraction and transport all emit CH 4. Methane is more abundant in Earth’s
atmosphere now than at any time in at least the past 650,000 years. Due to human activities, CH 4
concentrations increased sharply during most of the 20th century and are now more than two and-a-half
times pre-industrial levels. In recent decades, the rate of increase has slowed considerably.

Other Greenhouse Gasses

Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas and also the most important in terms of its contribution
to the natural greenhouse effect, despite having a short atmospheric lifetime. Some human activities can
influence local water vapor levels. However, on a global scale, the concentration of water vapor is controlled
by temperature, which influences overall rates of evaporation and precipitation. Therefore, the global
concentration of water vapor is not substantially affected by direct human emissions.

252
 Ground-level ozone (O3), which also has a short atmospheric lifetime, is a potent greenhouse
gas. Chemical reactions create ozone from emissions of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
compounds from automobiles, power plants, and other industrial and commercial sources in the
presence of sunlight (as discussed in section 10.1). In addition to trapping heat, ozone is a pollutant
that can cause respiratory health problems and damage crops and ecosystems.

Changes in the Sun’s Energy Affect how Much Energy Reaches Earth

Climate can be influenced by natural changes that affect how much solar energy reaches Earth. These
changes include changes within the sun and changes in Earth’s orbit. Changes occurring in the sun
itself can affect the intensity of the sunlight that reaches Earth’s surface. The intensity of the sunlight
can cause either warming (during periods of stronger solar intensity) or cooling (during periods of weaker
solar intensity). The sun follows a natural 11-year cycle of small ups and downs in intensity, but the
effect on Earth’s climate is small. Changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit as well as the tilt and position
of Earth’s axis can also affect the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface.
Changes in the sun’s intensity have influenced Earth’s climate in the past. For example, the so-
called “Little Ice Age” between the 17th and 19th centuries may have been partially caused by a
low solar activity phase from 1645 to 1715, which coincided with cooler temperatures. The Little Ice
Age refers to a slight cooling of North America, Europe, and probably other areas around the globe.
Changes in Earth’s orbit have had a big impact on climate over tens of thousands of years. These
changes appear to be the primary cause of past cycles of ice ages, in which Earth has experienced
long periods of cold temperatures (ice ages), as well as shorter interglacial periods (periods
between ice ages) of relatively warmer temperatures.
Changes in solar energy continue to affect climate. However, solar activity has been relatively
constant, aside from the 11-year cycle, since the mid-20th century and therefore does not
explain the recent warming of Earth. Similarly, changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit as well as
the tilt and position of Earth’s axis affect temperature on relatively long timescales (tens of
thousands of years), and therefore cannot explain the recent warming.

Changes in Reflectivity Affect How Much Energy Enters Earth’s System

When sunlight energy reaches Earth it can be reflected or absorbed. The amount that is reflected
or absorbed depends on Earth’s surface and atmosphere. Light-colored objects and surfaces, like
snow and clouds, tend to reflect most sunlight, while darker objects and surfaces, like the ocean
and forests, tend to absorb more sunlight. The term albedo refers to the amount of solar radiation
reflected from an object or surface, often expressed as a percentage. Earth as a whole has an
albedo of about 30%, meaning that 70% of the sunlight that reaches the planet is absorbed. Sunlight
that is absorbed warms Earth’s land, water, and atmosphere.
Albedo is also affected by aerosols. Aerosols are small particles or liquid droplets in the atmosphere that
can absorb or reflect sunlight. Unlike greenhouse gases (GHGs), the climate effects of aerosols vary
depending on what they are made of and where they are emitted. Those aerosols that reflect sunlight, such
as particles from volcanic eruptions or sulfur emissions from burning coal, have a cooling effect. Those that
absorb sunlight, such as black carbon (a part of soot), have a warming effect.
Natural changes in albedo, like the melting of sea ice or increases in cloud cover, have contributed to
climate change in the past, often acting as feedbacks to other processes. Volcanoes have played a
noticeable role in climate. Volcanic particles that reach the upper atmosphere can reflect enough sunlight

253
back to space to cool the surface of the planet by a few tenths of a degree for several years.
Volcanic particles from a single eruption do not produce long-term change because they remain
in the atmosphere for a much shorter time than GHGs.
Human changes in land use and land cover have changed Earth’s albedo. Processes such
as deforestation, reforestation, desertification, and urbanization often contribute to changes in
climate in the places they occur. These effects may be significant regionally, but are smaller
when averaged over the entire globe.

Scientific Consensus: Global Climate Change is Real

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created in 1988 by the United Nations
Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization. It is charged with the task of evaluating
and synthesizing the scientific evidence surrounding global climate change. The IPCC uses this information
to evaluate current impacts and future risks, in addition to providing policymakers with assessments. These
assessments are released about once every every six years. The most recent report, the 5th Assessment,
was released in 2013. Hundreds of leading scientists from around the world are chosen to author these
reports. Over the history of the IPCC, these scientists have reviewed thousands of peer-reviewed, publicly
available studies. The scientific consensus is clear: global climate change is real and humans are very likely
the cause for this change.
Additionally, the major scientific agencies of the United States, including the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
also agree that climate change is occurring and that humans are driving it. In 2010, the US National
Research Council concluded that “Climate change is occurring, is very likely caused by human activities,
and poses significant risks for a broad range of human and natural systems”. Many independent
scientific organizations have released similar statements, both in the United States and abroad. This
doesn’t necessarily mean that every scientist sees eye to eye on each component of the climate change
problem, but broad agreement exists that climate change is happening and is primarily caused by
excess greenhouse gases from human activities. Critics of climate change, driven by ideology instead
of evidence, try to suggest to the public that there is no scientific consensus on global climate change.
Such an assertion is patently false.

Current Status of Global Climate Change and Future Changes

Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere will continue to increase unless the billions of tons of
anthropogenic emissions each year decrease substantially. Increased concentrations are expected to:

254
 • Increase Earth’s average temperature,
• Influence the patterns and
amounts of precipitation,
• Reduce ice and snow cover, as
well as permafrost,
• Raise sea level,
• Increase the acidity of the oceans.

These changes will impact our food supply,

water resources, infrastructure, ecosystems,
and even our own health. The magnitude and
rate of future climate change will primarily
depend on the following factors:

• The rate at which levels of greenhouse

gas concentrations in our atmosphere
continue to increase,
• How strongly features of the climate
(e.g., temperature, precipitation, and sea
level) respond to the expected increase in
greenhouse gas concentrations,
• Natural influences on climate (e.g., from
volcanic activity and changes in the
sun’s intensity) and natural processes
Figure 3. Ice at the Russian Vostok station in East
within the climate system (e.g., changes Antarctica was laid down over the course 420,000 years
in ocean circulation patterns). and reached a depth of over 3,000 m. By measuring the
amount of CO2 trapped in the ice, scientists have
determined past atmospheric CO 2 concentrations.
Past and Present-day GHG Emissions Will
Temperatures relative to modern day were determined
Affect Climate Far into the Future from the amount of deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen)

Many greenhouse gases stay in the atmosphere for present.

long periods of time. As a result, even if emissions stopped increasing, atmospheric greenhouse gas
concentrations would continue to remain elevated for hundreds of years. Moreover, if we stabilized
concentrations and the composition of today’s atmosphere remained steady (which would require a dramatic
reduction in current greenhouse gas emissions), surface air temperatures would continue to warm. This is
because the oceans, which store heat, take many decades to fully respond to higher greenhouse gas
concentrations. The ocean’s response to higher greenhouse gas concentrations and higher temperatures
will continue to impact climate over the next several decades to hundreds of years.

Future Temperature Changes

Climate models project the following key temperature-related changes:

Key Global Projections

255
 • Average global temperatures are expected to increase by 2°F to 11.5°F by 2100, depending on
the level of future greenhouse gas emissions, and the outcomes from various climate models.
• By 2100, global average temperature is expected to warm at least twice as
much as it has during the last 100 years.
• Ground-level air temperatures are expected to continue to warm more rapidly over
land than oceans.
• Some parts of the world are projected to see larger temperature increases than
the global average.

Future Precipitation and Storm Events

Patterns of precipitation and storm events, including both rain and snowfall are likely to change.
However, some of these changes are less certain than the changes associated with
temperature. Projections show that future precipitation and storm changes will vary by season
and region. Some regions may have less precipitation, some may have more precipitation, and
some may have little or no change. The amount of rain falling in heavy precipitation events is
likely to increase in most regions, while storm tracks are projected to shift towards the poles.
Climate models project the following precipitation and storm changes:

• Global average annual precipitation through the end of the century is expected to increase,
although changes in the amount and intensity of precipitation will vary by region.

• The intensity of precipitation events will likely increase on average. This will be
particularly pronounced in tropical and high-latitude regions, which are also expected
to experience overall increases in precipitation.

• The strength of the winds associated with tropical storms is likely to increase. The
amount of precipitation falling in tropical storms is also likely to increase.

• Annual average precipitation is projected to increase in some areas and decrease in others.

Future Ice, Snowpack, and Permafrost

Arctic sea ice is already declining drastically. The area of snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere has
decreased since 1970. Permafrost temperature has increased over the last century, making it more
susceptible to thawing. Over the next century, it is expected that sea ice will continue to decline, glaciers will
continue to shrink, snow cover will continue to decrease, and permafrost will continue to thaw.
For every 2°F of warming, models project about a 15% decrease in the extent of annually
averaged sea ice and a 25% decrease in September Arctic sea ice. The coastal sections of the
Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are expected to continue to melt or slide into the ocean. If
the rate of this ice melting increases in the 21st century, the ice sheets could add significantly
to global sea level rise. Glaciers are expected to continue to decrease in size. The rate of
melting is expected to continue to increase, which will contribute to sea level rise.

256
Future Sea Level Change

Warming temperatures contribute to sea level rise by expanding ocean water, melting mountain glaciers
and ice caps, and causing portions of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets to melt or flow into the
ocean. Since 1870, global sea level has risen by about 8 inches. Estimates of future sea level rise vary
for different regions, but global sea level for the next century is expected to rise at a greater rate than
during the past 50 years. The contribution of thermal expansion, ice caps, and small glaciers to sea
level rise is relatively well-studied, but the impacts of climate change on ice sheets are less understood
and represent an active area of research. Thus, it is more difficult to predict how much changes in ice
sheets will contribute to sea level rise. Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets could contribute an additional
1 foot of sea level rise, depending on how the ice sheets respond.
Regional and local factors will influence future relative sea level rise for specific coastlines around the
world. For example, relative sea level rise depends on land elevation changes that occur as a result of
subsidence (sinking) or uplift (rising), in addition to things such as local currents, winds, salinity, water
temperatures, and proximity to thinning ice sheets. Assuming that these historical geological forces continue,
a 2-foot rise in global sea level by 2100 would result in the following relative sea level rise:

• 2.3 feet at New York City

• 2.9 feet at Hampton Roads, Virginia
• 3.5 feet at Galveston, Texas
• 1 foot at Neah Bay in Washington state

Future Ocean Acidification

Ocean acidification is the process of ocean waters decreasing in pH. Oceans become more acidic as
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the atmosphere dissolve in the ocean. This change is measured on
the pH scale, with lower values being more acidic. The pH level of the oceans has decreased by
approximately 0.1 pH units since pre-industrial times, which is equivalent to a 25% increase in acidity.
The pH level of the oceans is projected to decrease even more by the end of the century as CO 2
concentrations are expected to increase for the foreseeable future. Ocean acidification adversely affects
many marine species, including plankton, mollusks, shellfish, and corals. As ocean acidification
increases, the availability of calcium carbonate will decline. Calcium carbonate is a key building block
for the shells and skeletons of many marine organisms. If atmospheric CO2 concentrations double, coral
calcification rates are projected to decline by more than 30%. If CO 2 concentrations continue to rise at
their current rate, corals could become rare on tropical and subtropical reefs by 2050.

Spread of Disease

This rise in global temperatures will increase the range of disease-carrying insects and the
viruses and pathogenic parasites they harbor. Thus, diseases will spread to new regions of the
globe. This spread has already been documented with dengue fever, a disease the affects
hundreds of millions per year, according to the World Health Organization. Colder temperatures
typically limit the distribution of certain species, such as the mosquitoes that transmit malaria,
because freezing temperatures destroy their eggs.

257
 Not only will the range of some disease-causing insects expand, the increasing
temperatures will also accelerate their lifecycles, which allows them to breed and multiply
quicker, and perhaps evolve pesticide resistance faster. In addition to dengue fever, other
diseases are expected to spread to new portions of the world as the global climate warms.
These include malaria, yellow fever, West Nile virus, zika virus, and chikungunya.

Climate change affects everyone

Our lives are connected to the climate. Human societies have adapted to the relatively
stable climate we have enjoyed since the last ice age which ended several thousand
years ago. A warming climate will bring changes that can affect our water supplies,
agriculture, power and transportation systems, the natural environment, and even our
own health and safety.
Carbon dioxide can stay in the atmosphere for nearly a century, on average, so Earth
will continue to warm in the coming decades. The warmer it gets, the greater the risk for
more severe changes to the climate and Earth’s system. Although it’s difficult to predict
the exact impacts of climate change, what’s clear is that the climate we are accustomed
to is no longer a reliable guide for what to expect in the future.
We can reduce the risks we will face from climate change . By making choices that reduce
greenhouse gas pollution, and preparing for the changes that are already underway, we can reduce
risks from climate change. Our decisions today will shape the world our children and grandchildren
will live in.

You Can Take Action

You can take steps at home, on the road, and in your office to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and the risks associated with climate change. Many of these steps can save you money. Some,
such as walking or biking to work, can even improve your health! You can also get involved on a
local or state level to support energy efficiency, clean energy programs, or other climate programs.

Suggested Supplementary Reading:

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2013. 5th Assessment: Summary for

Policymakers. <http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-
report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_SPM_FINAL.pdf>

NASA. 2018. Global Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. Website.
<https://climate.nasa.gov/> This website by NASA provides a multi-media smorgasbord of
engaging content. Learn about
climate change using data collected by NASA satellites and more.

258
10.5 Chapter Resources

Summary

Air pollution can be thought of as gaseous and particulate contaminants that are present in the earth’s
atmosphere. Chemicals discharged into the air that have a direct impact on the environment are called
primary pollutants. These primary pollutants sometimes react with other chemicals in the air to produce
secondary pollutants. The commonly found air pollutants, known as criteria pollutants, are particle
pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. These
pollutants can harm health and the environment, and cause property damage. The historical record
shows that the climate system varies naturally over a wide range of time scales. In general, climate
changes prior to the Industrial Revolution in the 1700s can be explained by natural causes, such as
changes in solar energy, volcanic eruptions, and natural changes in greenhouse gas concentrations.
Recent climate changes, however, cannot be explained by natural causes alone. Natural causes are
very unlikely to explain most observed warming, especially warming since the mid-20th century. Rather,
human activities can explain most of that warming.
The primary human activity affecting the amount and rate of climate change is greenhouse gas
emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere will
continue to increase unless the billions of tons of our annual emissions decrease substantially.
Increased concentrations are expected to increase Earth’s average temperature, influence the patterns
and amounts of precipitation, reduce ice and snow cover, as well as permafrost, raise sea level and
increase the acidity of the oceans. These changes will impact our food supply, water resources,
infrastructure, ecosystems, and even our own health. Acid rain is a term referring to a mixture of wet
and dry deposition from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric
acids. The precursors of acid rain formation result from both natural sources, such as volcanoes and
decaying vegetation, and man-made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion. Acid rain causes acidification of lakes and streams,
contributes to the damage of trees and many sensitive forest soils. In addition, acid rain accelerates the
decay of building materials and paints, contributes to the corrosion of metals and damages human
health. The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
are emitted into the atmosphere. Reductions in stratospheric ozone levels lead to higher levels of UVB
reaching the Earth’s surface. The sun’s output of UVB does not change; rather, less ozone means less
protection, and hence more UVB reaches the Earth. Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of
UVB tat lead to negative health and environmental effects.

Review Questions

1. Ground-level ozone…
A. Protects us from radiation
B. Is a primary pollutant
C. Is a secondary pollutant
D. Reduces visibility but is mostly harmless to human health

259
 E. Is emitted from motor vehicles

2. Secondary pollutants are pollutants…

A. Emitted from non-point sources
B. That are created from the reaction of primary pollutants and other chemicals
C. That are less hazardous than primary pollutants
D. That have reduced ability to stay aloft in the atmosphere
E. Emitted by Class 2 polluters

3. Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer occurs when molecules of ozone are destroyed
by chemicals such as…
A. CFC
B. DDT
C. O3
D. PCB
E. CH4

4. What is the function of the stratospheric ozone layer?

A. Provides the biosphere with a source of elemental oxygen
B. Protects against ultraviolet light
C. Shields the Earth from high-energy cosmic rays
D. Protects organisms from infrared radiation
E. Creates UVB radiation for vitamin D synthesis

5. Anthropogenic causes of acid rain are primarily due to which one of the following?
A. Destruction of the ozone layer
B. Emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the combustion of fossil fuels
C. Emissions of carbon dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels
D. Industrial emissions of acids
E. Acids formed in the contrails of airplanes

6. The scientific consensus regarding global climate change is that these changes are…
A. Caused by natural, Earth-based phenomena such as volcanoes
B. Poorly understood and no scientific conclusions can be made at this time
C. Primarily caused by human activities
D. Caused by eccentricity in Earth’s orbit and by changes in solar intensity
E. No greater or different than changes seen in the medieval times

7. Greenhouse gases are known to raise air temperatures by…

A. absorbing infrared radiation
B. creating heat through chemical reactions with atmospheric pollutants
C. absorbing incoming visible light from the sun
D. trapping high energy molecules and atomic particles
E. releasing heat stored in high-altitude catalytic cycles

260
8. Changes in reflectivity of visible light affect how much energy enters Earth’s system.
What term is used by scientists to describe the reflectivity of a surface?
A. Contrastivity
B. Libido
C. Mirror-effect
D. Alluvium
E. Albedo

9. What is the primary cause of ocean acidification?

A. Atmospheric CO2 dissolving in ocean water
B. Increases in acid rain
C. Increased erosion of acid-containing rocks
D. Water draining into the ocean has a higher pH from industrial pollutants
E. All of the above

10. Which one of the following is not a predicted consequence of global climate change?
A. Spread of diseases carried by insects, such as malaria
B. Rise in sea levels
C. Increases in the global average air and ocean temperatures
D. Intensity of precipitation events will likely increase on average.
E. All of the above

261
Chapter 11: Conventional & Sustainable Energy

Wind farm near Copenhagen, Denmark. In 2014 wind power met

39% of electricity demand in Denmark.

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• Outline the history of human energy use

• Understand the challenges to continued reliance on fossil energy
• Outline environmental impacts of energy use
• Understand the global capacity for each non-renewable energy source
• Evaluate the different energy sources based on their environmental impact
• Understand the key factors in the growth of renewable energy sources

Chapter Outline

• 12.1 Challenges and Impacts of Energy Use

• 12.2 Non-Renewable Energy Sources
• 12.3 Renewable Energy Sources
• 12.4 Combined Heat and Power as an Alternative Energy Source

262
• 12.5 Hydrogen and Electricity as Alternative Fuels
• 12.6 Electricity Grid and Sustainability Challenges
• 12.7 Chapter Resources

263
11.1 Challenges and Impacts of Energy Use

Energy for lighting, heating and cooling our buildings, manufacturing products, and powering our
transportation systems comes from a variety of natural sources. The earth’s core provides
geothermal energy. The gravitational pull of moon and sun create tides. The sun emits light
(electromagnetic radiation), which creates wind, powers the water (hydrologic) cycle, and enables
photosynthesis. Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria utilize solar energy to grow and create biomass
that can be burned and used for biofuels, such as wood, biodiesel, bioethanol. Over the course of
millions of years, biomass from photosynthetic organisms can create energy-rich fossil fuels
through the geologic process of burial and transformation through heat and pressure.
Each of these types of energy can be defined as renewable or non-renewable. Renewable
energy sources can be replenished within human lifespans. Examples include solar, wind, and
biomass energy. Non-renewable energy is finite and cannot be replenished within a human
timescale. Examples include nuclear energy and fossil fuels, which take millions of years to
form. All energy sources have and some environmental and health cost, and the distribution of
energy is not equally distributed among all nations.

Environmental and Health Challenges of Energy Use

The environmental impacts of energy use on humans and the planet can happen anywhere during
the life cycle of the energy source. The impacts begin with the extraction of the resource. They
continue with the processing, purification or manufacture of the source; its transportation to place
of energy generation, and ends with the disposal of waste generated during use.
Extraction of fossil fuels can be used as a case study because its use has significant impacts on the
environment. As we mine deeper into mountains, farther out at sea, or farther into pristine habitats, we risk
damaging fragile environments, and the results of accidents or natural disasters during extraction processes
can be devastating. Fossils fuels are often located far from where they are utilized so they need to be
transported by pipeline, tankers, rail or trucks. These all present the potential for accidents, leakage and
spills. When transported by rail or truck energy must be expended and pollutants are generated. Processing
of petroleum, gas and coal generates various types of emissions and wastes, as well as utilizes water
resources. Production of energy at power plants results in air, water, and, often, waste emissions. Power
plants are highly regulated in the Unites States by federal and state law under the Clean Air and Clean Water
Acts, while nuclear power plants are regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

264
Geopolitical Challenges of Fossil Fuels

The use of fossil fuels has allowed much of the global population to
reach a higher standard of living. However, this dependence on fossil
fuels results in many significant impacts on society. Our modern
technologies and services, such as transportation and plastics depend
in many ways on fossil fuels. If supplies become limited or extremely
costly, our economies are vulnerable. If countries do not have fossil
fuel reserves of their own, they incur even more risk. The United
States has become more and more dependent on foreign oil since
1970 when our own oil production peaked. The United States
imported over half of the crude oil and refined petroleum products that
we consumed during 2009. Just over half of these imports came from
the Western Hemisphere (Figure 2). Figure 2. Sources of United States
Net Petroleum Imports, 2009
The major holder of oil reserves is the Organization of Petroleum Figure illustrates that the United
Exporting Countries, (OPEC) (Figure 3). As of 2018, there were 15 States imported over half of the
member countries in OPEC: Algeria, Angola, Congo, Ecuador, crude oil and refined petroleum
Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, products that it consumed during
Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. OPEC 2009. Source: U.S. Energy
attempts to influence the amount of oil available to the world by Information Administration,
assigning a production quota to each member except Iraq, for which Petroleum Supply Annual, 2009,
no quota is presently set. preliminary data.

Overall compliance with these quotas is mixed since the

individual countries make the actual production decisions. All
of these countries have a national oil company but also allow
international oil companies to operate within their borders.
They can restrict the amounts of production by those oil
companies. Therefore, the OPEC countries have a large
influence on how much of world demand is met by OPEC and
non-OPEC supply. A recent example of this is the price
increases that occurred during the year 2011 after multiple
popular uprisings in Arab countries, including Libya.

This pressure has lead the United States to developing policies Figure 3. Proven Oil Reserves Holders Pie
that would reduce reliance on foreign oil such as developing chart shows proven oil reserves holders.
additional domestic sources and obtaining it from non-Middle Source: C. Klein-Banai using data from BP
Eastern countries such as Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, and Statistical Review of World Energy (2010)

Nigeria. However, since fossil fuel reserves create jobs and provide dividends to investors, a lot is
at stake in a nation that has oil reserves. Oil wealth may be shared with the country’s inhabitants
or retained by the oil companies and dictatorships, such as in Nigeria prior to the 1990s.

265
Figure 4. Fuel Type and Carbon Emissions The two charts show
the relationship between fuel type and carbon emissions for U.S.
energy consumption in 2010. Source: U.S. Energy Information
Administration

266
11.2 Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels comes from the organic matter of plants, algae, and cyanobacteria that was buried,
heated, and compressed under high pressure over millions of years. The process transformed the
biomass of those organisms into the three types of fossil fuels: oil, coal, and natural gas.

Petroleum (oil)

Thirty seven percent of the world’s energy consumption and 43% of the United States energy
consumption comes from oil. Scientists and policy-makers often discuss the question of when the
world will reach peak oil production, the point at which oil production is at its greatest and then
declines. It is generally thought that peak oil will be reached by the middle of the 21st Century,
although making such estimates is difficult because a lot of variables must be considered. Currently
world reserves are 1.3 trillion barrels, or 45 years left at current level of production.

Environmental Impacts of Oil Extraction and Refining

Oil is usually found one to two miles (1.6 – 3.2 km) below the Earth’s surface, whether that is on
land or ocean. Once oil is found and extracted it must be refined, which separates and prepares
the mix of crude oil into the different types for gas, diesel, tar, and asphalt. Oil refining is one of top
sources of air pollution in the United States for volatile organic hydrocarbons and toxic emissions,
and the single largest source of carcinogenic benzene. When petroleum is burned as gasoline or
diesel, or to make electricity or to power boilers for heat, it produces a number of emissions that
have a detrimental effect on the environment and human health:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas and a source of climate change.

• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) causes acid rain, which damages plants and animals that live
in water, and it increases or causes respiratory illnesses and heart diseases,
particularly in vulnerable populations like children and the elderly.
• Nitrous oxides (NOx) and Volatile Organic Carbons (VOCs) contribute to ozone at
ground level, which is an irritant and causes damage to the lungs.
• Particulate Matter (PM) produces hazy conditions in cities and scenic areas, and
combines with ozone to contribute to asthma and chronic bronchitis, especially in
children and the elderly. Very small, or “fine PM,” is also thought to penetrate the
respiratory system more deeply and cause emphysema and lung cancer.
• Lead can have severe health impacts, especially for children.

There are other domestic sources of oil that are being considered as conventional resources and
are being depleted. These include tar sands – deposits of moist sand and clay with 1-2 percent

267
bitumen (thick and heavy petroleum rich in carbon and poor in hydrogen). These are removed by strip
mining (see section below on coal). Another source is oil shale, which is sedimentary rock filled with
organic matter that can be processed to produce liquid petroleum. Extracted by strip mining or creating
subsurface mines, oil shale can be burned directly like coal or baked in the presence of hydrogen to
extract liquid petroleum. However, the net energy values are low and they are expensive to extract and
process. Both of these resources have severe environmental impacts due to strip mining, carbon dioxide,
methane and other air pollutants similar to other fossil fuels.
As the United States tries to extract more oil from its own dwindling resources, they are
drilling even deeper into the earth and increasing the environmental risks. The largest United
States oil spill to date began in April 2010 when an explosion occurred on Deepwater Horizon
Oil Rig killing 11 employees and spilling nearly 200 million gallons of oil before the resulting
leak could be stopped. Wildlife, ecosystems, and people’s livelihood were adversely affected.
A lot of money and huge amounts of energy were expended on immediate clean-up efforts.
The long-term impacts are still not known. The National Commission on the Deepwater Horizon
Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling was set up to study what went wrong.

The Global Dependence of Transportation on Oil

Two-thirds of oil consumption is devoted to transportation, providing fuel for cars, trucks, trains and
airplanes. For the United States and most developed societies, transportation is woven into the fabric
of our lives, a necessity as central to daily operations as food or shelter. The concentration of oil reserves
in a few regions or the world makes much of the world dependent on imported energy for transportation.
The rise in the price of oil in the last decade makes dependence on imported energy for transportation
an economic as well as an energy issue. The United States, for example, now spends upwards of $350
billion annually on imported oil, a drain of economic resources that could be used to stimulate growth,
create jobs, build infrastructure and promote social advances at home.

268
Coal

Unlike oil, coal is a solid. Due to its relatively low cost

and abundance, coal is used to generate about half of
the electricity consumed in the United States. Coal is the
largest domestically produced source of energy. Coal
production has doubled in the United States over the last
sixty year (Figure 1). Current world reserves are
estimated at 826,000 million tonnes, with nearly 30% of
that in the United States. It is a major fuel resource that
the United States controls domestically.
Coal is plentiful and inexpensive, when looking only at
the market cost relative to the cost of other sources of
electricity, but its extraction, transportation, and use
produces a multitude of environmental impacts that the
market cost does not truly represent. Coal emits sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and mercury, which have been
linked to acid rain, smog, and health issues. Burning of coal Figure 1. Historic U.S. Coal Production
emits higher amounts of carbon dioxide per unit of energy Graph shows U.S. Coal Production from
than the use of oil or natural gas. Coal accounted for 35% 1950-2010. Source: U.S. Energy
of the total United States emissions of carbon dioxide Information Administration
released into the Earth’s atmosphere in 2010. Ash
generated from combustion contributes to water contamination. Some coal mining has a
negative impact on ecosystems and water quality, and alters landscapes and scenic views
(such as with mountaintop mining).
There are also significant health effects and risks to coal miners and those living in the vicinity of coal
mines. Traditional underground mining is risky to mine workers due to the risk of entrapment or death.
Over the last 15 years, the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration has published the number of
mine worker fatalities and it has varied from 18-48 per year. Twenty-nine miners died on April 6, 2010
in an explosion at the Upper Big Branch coal mine in West Virginia, contributing to the uptick in deaths
between 2009 and 2010. In other countries, with less safety regulations, accidents occur more
frequently. In May 2011, for example, three people died and 11 were trapped in a coalmine in Mexico
for several days. There is also risk of getting black lung disease (pneumoconiosis). This is a disease
of the lungs caused by the inhalation of coal dust over a long period of time. It causes coughing and
shortness of breath. If exposure is stopped the outcome is good. However, the complicated form may
cause shortness of breath that gets increasingly worse.

269
 Mountaintop mining (MTM), while less
hazardous to workers, has particularly
detrimental effects on land resources. MTM is a
surface mining practice involving the removal of
mountaintops to expose coal seams, and
disposing of the associated mining waste in
adjacent valleys. This form of mining is very
damaging to the environment because it literally
removes the tops of mountains, destroying the
existing habitat. Additionally, the debris from
Figure 2. Mountaintop Removal Coal Mining in Martin
County, Kentucky Photograph shows mountaintop coal MTM is dumped into valleys burying streams and
removal mining in Martin County, Kentucky. Source: other important habitat.
Flashdark.
Natural Gas

Natural gas meets 20% of world energy needs and 25% of United States needs. Natural gas
is mainly composed of methane (CH 4) and is a very potent greenhouse gas. There are two
types of natural gas. Biogenic gas is found at shallow depths and arises from anaerobic decay
of organic matter by bacteria, like landfill gas. Thermogenic gas comes from the compression
of organic matter and deep heat underground. They are found with petroleum in reservoir rocks
and with coal deposits, and these fossil fuels are extracted together.
Natural gas is released into the atmosphere from coal mines, oil and gas wells, and natural gas
storage tanks, pipelines, and processing plants. These leaks are the source of about 25% of total U.S.
methane emissions, which translates to three percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. When
natural gas is produced but cannot be captured and transported economically, it is “flared,” or burned
at well sites, which converts it to CO 2. This is considered to be safer and better than releasing methane
into the atmosphere because CO2 is a less potent greenhouse gas than methane.
In the last few years a new reserve of natural gas has been identified: shale resources. The United
States possesses 2,552 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) (72.27 trillion cubic meters) of potential natural gas
resources, with shale resources accounting for 827 Tcf (23.42 tcm). As natural gas prices increased it
has become more economical to extract the gas from shale. Figure 3 shows the past and forecasted
U.S. natural gas production and the various sources. The current reserves are enough to last about 110
years at the 2009 rate of U.S. consumption (about 22.8 Tcf per year -645.7 bcm per year).

270
 Figure 3. U.S. Natural Gas Supply, 1990-2035 Graph shows U.S. historic and
projected natural gas production from various sources. Source: U.S. Energy
Information Administration

Natural gas is a preferred fossil fuel when considering its environmental impacts. Specifically,
when burned, much less carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide are omitted than
from the combustion of coal or oil. It also does not produce ash or toxic emissions.
Natural gas production can result in the production of large volumes of contaminated water. This
water has to be properly handled, stored, and treated so that it does not pollute land and water supplies.
Extraction of shale gas is more problematic than traditional sources due to a process nicknamed
fracking, or fracturing of wells, since it requires large amounts of water (Figure 4). The technique uses
high-pressure fluids to fracture the normally hard shale deposits and release gas and oil trapped inside
the rock. To promote the flow of gas out of the rock, small particles of solids are included in the fracturing
liquids to lodge in the shale cracks and keep them open after the liquids are depressurized. The
considerable use of water may affect the availability of water for other uses in some regions and this
can affect aquatic habitats. If mismanaged, hydraulic fracturing fluid can be released by spills, leaks, or
various other exposure pathways. The fluid contains potentially hazardous chemicals such as
hydrochloric acid, glutaraldehyde, petroleum distillate, and ethylene glycol. The risks of fracking have
been highlighted in popular culture in the documentary, Gasland (2010).

271
Figure 4. Graphic illustrates the process of hydraulic fracturing. Source: Al Granberg, ProPublica.

The raw gas from a well may contain many other compounds besides the methane that is being
sought, including hydrogen sulfide, a very toxic gas. Natural gas with high concentrations of
hydrogen sulfide is usually flared which produces CO2, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, and many other compounds. Natural gas wells and pipelines often have engines to run
equipment and compressors, which produce additional air pollutants and noise.

Contributions of Coal and Natural Gas to Electricity Generation

At present the fossil fuels used for electricity generation in the US are predominantly coal (44%) and
natural gas (23%); petroleum accounts for approximately 1%. Coal electricity traces its origins to the
early 20th Century, when it was the natural fuel for steam engines given its abundance, high energy
density and low cost. Natural Gas is a later addition to the fossil electricity mix, arriving in significant
quantities after World War II and with its greatest growth since 1990. Of the two fuels, coal emits almost
twice the carbon dioxide as natural gas for the same heat output, making it significantly greater
contributor to global warming and climate change.

272
The Future of Natural Gas and Coal

The future development of coal and natural gas depend on the degree of public and regulatory
concern for carbon emissions, and the relative price and supply of the two fuels. Supplies of coal
are abundant in the United States, and the transportation chain from mines to power plants is well
established. The primary unknown factor is the degree of public and regulatory pressure that will
be placed on carbon emissions. Strong regulatory pressure on carbon emissions would favor
retirement of coal and addition of natural gas power plants. This trend is reinforced by the recent
dramatic expansion of shale gas reserves in the United States due to advances in drilling
technology. Shale natural gas production has increased 48% annually in the years 2006 – 2010,
with more increases expected. Greater United States production of shale gas will gradually reduce
imports and could eventually make the United States a net exporter of natural gas.

Figure 5. Global Carbon Cycle, 1990s The global carbon cycle for the 1990s, showing the main annual fluxes
in GtC yr–1: pre-industrial ‘natural’ fluxes in black and ‘anthropogenic’ fluxes in red. Source: Climate Change
2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, figure 7.3

Nuclear Power

Nuclear power is energy released from the radioactive decay of elements, such as uranium,
which releases large amounts of energy. Nuclear power plants produce no carbon dioxide and,
therefore, are often considered an alternative fuel (fuels other than fossil fuels). Currently,
world production of electricity from nuclear power is about 19.1 trillion KWh, with the United
States producing and consuming about 22% of that. Nuclear power provides about 9% of the
electricity in the United States (Figure 7).

273
 There are environmental challenges with nuclear power. Mining and refining uranium ore and making
reactor fuel demands a lot of energy. Also, nuclear power plants are very expensive and require large
amounts of metal, concrete, and energy to build. The main environmental challenge for nuclear power is
the wastes including uranium mill tailings, spent (used) reactor fuel, and other radioactive wastes. These
materials have long radioactive half-lives and thus remain a threat to human health for thousands of
years. The half life of a radioactive element is the time it takes for 50% of the material to radioactively
decay. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulates the operation of nuclear power plants and
the handling, transportation, storage, and disposal of radioactive materials to protect human health and
the environment.
By volume, the waste produced from mining uranium, called uranium mill tailings, is the largest
waste and contains the radioactive element radium, which decays to produce radon, a radioactive gas.
High-level radioactive waste consists of used nuclear reactor fuel. This fuel is in a solid form consisting
of small fuel pellets in long metal tubes and must be stored and handled with multiple containment, first
cooled by water and later in special outdoor concrete or steel containers that are cooled by air. There is
no long-term storage facility for this fuel in the United States.
There are many other regulatory precautions
governing permitting, construction, operation,
and decommissioning of nuclear power plants
due to risks from an uncontrolled nuclear
reaction. The potential for contamination of air,
water and food is high should an uncontrolled
reaction occur. Even when planning for worst-
case scenarios, there are always risks of
unexpected events. For example, the March 2011
earthquake and subsequent tsunami that hit Japan Figure 7. U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source,
resulted in reactor meltdowns at the Fukushima 2009 Renewable energy makes up 8% of U.S. energy
Daiichi Nuclear Power Station, causing massive consumption. Source: U.S. Energy Information
damage to the surrounding area. Administration

Debating Nuclear Energy

From a sustainability perspective, nuclear electricity presents an interesting dilemma. On the one hand,
nuclear electricity produces no carbon emissions, a major sustainable advantage in a world facing
anthropogenic climate change. On the other hand, nuclear electricity produces dangerous waste that i) must
be stored out of the environment for thousands of years, ii) can produce bomb-grade plutonium and uranium
that could be diverted by terrorists or others to destroy cities and poison the environment, and iii) threatens
the natural and built environment through accidental leaks of long-lived radiation. Thoughtful scientists, policy
makers, and citizens must weigh the benefit of this source of carbon-free electricity against the environmental
risk of storing spent fuel, the societal risk of nuclear proliferation, and the impact of accidental or deliberate
release of radiation. There are very few examples of humans having the power to permanently change the
dynamics of the earth. Global climate change from carbon emissions is one example, and radiation from the
explosion of a sufficient number of nuclear weapons is another. Nuclear electricity touches both of these
opportunities, on the positive side for reducing carbon emissions and on the negative side for the risk of
nuclear proliferation.
Nuclear electricity came on the energy scene remarkably quickly. Following the development of
nuclear technology at the end of World War II for military ends, nuclear energy quickly acquired a new

274
 Environmental
Biology 317

peacetime path for inexpensive production of electricity. Eleven years after the end of
World War II, a very short time in energy terms, the first commercial nuclear reactor
produced electricity at Calder Hall in Sellafield, England. The number of nuclear reactors
grew steadily to more than 400 by 1990, four years after the Chernobyl disaster in 1986
and eleven years following Three Mile Island in 1979. Since 1990, the number of
operating reactors has remained approximately flat, with new construction balancing
decommissioning due to public and government reluctance to proceed with nuclear
electricity expansion plans.
The outcome of this debate will determine whether the world experiences a nuclear renaissance
that has been in the making for several years. The global discussion has been strongly impacted by
the unlikely nuclear accident in Fukushima, Japan in March 2011. The Fukushima nuclear disaster
was caused by an earthquake and tsunami that disabled the cooling system for a nuclear energy
complex consisting of operating nuclear reactors and storage pools for underwater storage of spent
nuclear fuel ultimately causing a partial meltdown of some of the reactor cores and release of
significant radiation. This event, 25 years after Chernobyl, reminds us that safety and public confidence
are especially important in nuclear energy; without them expansion of nuclear energy will not happen.

275
11.3 Renewable Energy Sources

Hydropower

Hydropower (hydroelectric) relies on water to

spin turbines and create electricity. It is
considered a clean and renewable source of
energy because it does not directly produce
pollutants and because the source of power is
regenerated. Hydropower provides 35% of the
United States’ renewable energy consumption.

Hydropower dams and the reservoirs they create

can have environmental impacts. For example,
migration of fish to their upstream spawning
areas can be obstructed by dams. In areas where
salmon must travel upstream to spawn, such as
along the Columbia River in Washington and
Oregon, the dams block their way. This problem Figure 1. Hoover Power Plant View of Hoover Power
can be partially alleviated by using “fish ladders” Plant on the Colorado River as seen from above. Source:

U.S. Department of the Interior

that help salmon get around the dams. Fish
traveling downstream, however, can get killed or
injured as water moves through turbines in the dam. Reservoirs and operation of dams can also affect
aquatic habitats due to changes in water temperatures, water depth, chemistry, flow characteristics, and
sediment loads, all of which can lead to significant changes in the ecology and physical characteristics
of the river both upstream and downstream. As reservoirs fill with water it may cause natural areas,
farms, cities, and archeological sites to be inundated and force populations to relocate.

276
Small hydropower systems

Large-scale dam hydropower projects are often

criticized for their impacts on wildlife habitat,
fish migration, and water flow and quality.
However, small run-of- the-river projects are
free from many of the environmental problems
associated with their large-scale relatives because
they use the natural flow of the river, and thus
produce relatively little change in the stream
channel and flow. The dams built for some run-
of-the-river projects are very small and impound
little water, and many projects do not require a
dam at all. Thus, effects such as oxygen
depletion, increased temperature, decreased flow,
and impeded upstream migration are not
problems for many run-of-the-river projects.

Small hydropower projects offer emissions-free Figure 2. Microhydropower system. Although there are
power solutions for many remote communities several ways to harness the moving water to produce
throughout the world, such as those in Nepal, energy, run-of-the-river systems, which do not require
large storage reservoirs, are often used for microhydro,
India, China, and Peru, as well as for highly and sometimes for small-scale hydro, projects. For
industrialized countries like the United States. run-of-the-river hydro projects, a portion of a river’s water
Small hydropower systems are those that is diverted to a channel, pipeline, or pressurized pipeline
generate between .01 to 30 MW of electricity. (penstock) that delivers it to a waterwheel or turbine. The
Hydropower systems that generate up to 100 moving water rotates the wheel or turbine, which spins a
kilowatts (kW) of electricity are often called shaft. The motion of the shaft can be used for mechanical
micro hydropower systems (Figure 2). Most of processes, such as pumping water, or it can be used to

power an alternator or generator to generate electricity.

the systems used by home and small business
owners would qualify as microhydropower
systems. In fact, a 10 kW system generally can provide enough power for a large home, a small resort,
or a hobby farm.

Municipal Solid Waste

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is commonly known as garbage and can create electricity by burning it directly
or by burning the methane produced as it decays. Waste to energy processes are gaining renewed interest
as they can solve two problems at once: disposal of waste and production of energy from a renewable
resource. Many of the environmental impacts are similar to those of a coal plant: air pollution, ash generation,
etc. Because the fuel source is less standardized than coal and hazardous materials may be present in MSW,
incinerators and waste-to-energy power plants need to clean the gases of harmful materials. The U.S. EPA
regulates these plants very strictly and requires anti-pollution devices to be installed. Also, while incinerating
at high temperature many of the toxic chemicals may break down into less harmful compounds. The ash
from these plants may contain high concentrations of various metals

277
that were present in the original waste. If ash is clean enough it can be “recycled” as an MSW
landfill cover or to build roads, cement block and artificial reefs

Biofuel

Biomass refers to material made by organisms, such

as cells and tissues. In terms of energy production,
biomass is almost always derived from plants, and to a
lesser extent, algae. For biomass to be a sustainable
option, it usually needs to come from waste material, such
as lumber mill sawdust, paper mill sludge, yard waste, or
oat hulls from an oatmeal processing plant, material that
would otherwise just rot. Livestock manure and human
waste could also be considered biomass. The use of
biomass can help mitigate climate change because when
burned it adds
Figure 3. Woodchips Photograph shows a no new carbon to the atmosphere. Thinking back to
pilewoodchips,
of which are a type of biomass. thecarbon cycle (chapter 3), you will recall
Source: Ulrichulrich photosynthesis
that removes CO2 through the process of carbon
fixation. When biomass is burnt, CO2 is created, but this is equal to the amount of CO 2
captured during carbon fixation. Thus, biomass is a
carbon neutral energy source because it doesn’t add new CO2 to the carbon cycle. Each type of
biomass must be evaluated for its environmental and social impact in order to determine if it is really
advancing sustainability and reducing environmental impacts. For example, cutting down large
swaths of forests just for energy production is not a sustainable option because our energy demands
are so great that we would quickly deforest the world, destroying critical habitat.

Burning
Wood
Using wood, and charcoal made from wood, for heating and cooking can replace fossil fuels
and may result in lower CO2 emissions. If wood is harvested from forests or woodlots that have
to be thinned or from urban trees that fall down or needed be cut down anyway, then using it for
biomass does not impact those ecosystems. However, wood smoke contains harmful pollutants
like carbon monoxide and particulate matter. For home heating, it is most efficient and least
polluting when using a modern wood stove or fireplace insert that are designed to release small
amounts of particulates. However, in places where wood and charcoal are major cooking and
heating fuels such as in undeveloped countries, the wood may be harvested faster than trees can
Biomass
grow can
resulting in be used in small power plants. For instance, Colgate College has had a
deforestation.
wood-burning boiler since the mid-1980’s and in one year it processed approximately
20,000 tons of locally and sustainably harvested wood chips, the equivalent of 1.17
million gallons (4.43 million liters) of fuel oil, avoiding 13,757 tons of emissions and
saving the university over $1.8 million in heating costs. The University’s steam-
generating wood-burning facility now satisfies more than 75% of the campus’s heat and
domestic hot water needs.

278
Landfill Gas or Biogas

Landfill gas (biogas) is a sort of man-made “biogenic” gas as discussed above. Methane is
formed as a result of biological processes in sewage treatment plants, waste landfills, anaerobic
composting, and livestock manure management systems. This gas is captured and burned to
produce heat or electricity. The electricity may replace electricity produced by burning fossil
fuels and result in a net reduction in CO2 emissions. The only environmental impacts are from
the construction of the plant itself, similar to that of a natural gas plant.

Bioethanol and Biodiesel

Bioethanol and biodiesel are liquid biofuels manufactured from plants, typically crops. Bioethanol can
be easily fermented from sugar cane juice, as is done in Brazil. Bioethanol can also be fermented from
broken down corn starch, as is mainly done in the United States. The economic and social effects of
growing plants for fuels need to be considered, since the land, fertilizers, and energy used to grow
biofuel crops could be used to grow food crops instead. The competition of land for fuel vs. food can
increase the price of food, which has a negative effect on society. It could also decrease the food supply
increasing malnutrition and starvation globally. Also, in some parts of the world, large areas of natural
vegetation and forests have been cut down to grow sugar cane for bioethanol and soybeans and palm-
oil trees to make biodiesel. This is not sustainable land use. Biofuels may be derived from parts of plants
not used for food, such as stalks, thus reducing that impact. Biodiesel can be made from used vegetable
oil and has been produced on a very local basis. Compared to petroleum diesel, biodiesel combustion
produces less sulfur oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and unburned and other
hydrocarbons, but it produces more nitrogen oxide.
Liquid biofuels typically replace petroleum and are used to power vehicles. Although ethanol-
gasoline mixtures burn cleaner than pure gasoline, they also are more volatile and thus have
higher “evaporative emissions” from fuel tanks and dispensing equipment. These emissions
contribute to the formation of harmful, ground level ozone and smog. Gasoline requires extra
processing to reduce evaporative emissions before it is blended with ethanol.

Geothermal Energy

Five percent of the United States’ renewable energy comes from geothermal energy: using
the heat of Earth’s subsurface to provide endless energy. Geothermal systems utilize a heat-
exchange system that runs in the subsurface about 20 feet (5 meters) below the surface where
the ground is at a constant temperature. The system uses the earth as a heat source (in the
winter) or a heat sink (in the summer). This reduces the energy consumption required to
generate heat from gas, steam, hot water, and conventional electric air-conditioning
systems.The environmental impact of geothermal energy depends on how it is being used.
Direct use and heating applications have almost no negative impact on the environment.
Geothermal power plants do not burn fuel to generate electricity so their emission levels are very low.
They release less than 1% of the carbon dioxide emissions of a fossil fuel plant. Geothermal plants use
scrubber systems to clean the air of hydrogen sulfide that is naturally found in the steam and hot water. They
emit 97% less acid rain-causing sulfur compounds than are emitted by fossil fuel plants. After the steam and
water from a geothermal reservoir have been used, they are injected back into the earth.

279
Solar Energy

Solar power converts the energy of light into electrical energy and has
minimal impact on the environment, depending on where it is placed. In
2009, 1% of the renewable energy generated in the United States was
from solar power (1646 MW) out of the 8% of the total electricity
generation that was from renewable sources. The manufacturing of
photovoltaic (PV) cells generates some hazardous waste from the
chemicals and solvents used in processing. Often solar arrays are placed
on roofs of buildings or over parking lots or integrated into construction in
other ways. However, large systems may be placed on land and
particularly in deserts where those fragile ecosystems could be damaged
if care is not taken. Some solar thermal systems use potentially
hazardous fluids (to transfer heat) that require proper handling and
disposal. Concentrated solar systems may need to be cleaned regularly
with water, which is also needed for cooling the turbine-generator. Using
water from underground wells may affect the ecosystem in some arid Figure 4. Rooftop Solar
locations. Installations Rooftop solar
installation on Douglas Hall at the
University of Illinois at Chicago has
Wind no effect on land resources, while
producing electricity with zero
emissions. Source: Office of
Wind energy is a renewable energy source that is clean and has very
Sustainability, UIC
few environmental challenges. Wind turbines are becoming a more
prominent sight across the United States, even in regions that are
considered to have less wind potential. Wind turbines (often called windmills) do not release emissions
that pollute the air or water (with rare exceptions), and they do not require water for cooling. The U.S.
wind industry had 40,181 MW of wind power capacity installed at the end of 2010, with 5,116 MW
installed in 2010 alone, providing more than 20% of installed wind power around the globe. According
to the American Wind Energy Association, over 35% of all new electrical generating capacity in the
United States since 2006 was due to wind, surpassed only by natural gas.

280
 Because a wind turbine has a small physical
footprint relative to the amount of electricity it
produces, many wind farms are located on crop
and pasture land. They contribute to economic
sustainability by providing extra income to
farmers and ranchers, allowing them to stay in
business and keep their property from being
developed for other uses. For example, energy
can be produced by installing wind turbines in the
Appalachian mountains of the United States
instead of engaging in mountain top removal for
coal mining. Offshore wind turbines on lakes or
the ocean may have smaller environmental
impacts than turbines on land.
Figure 5. Twin Groves Wind Farm, Illinois Wind power is
becoming a more popular source of energy in the United
States. Source: Office of Sustainability, UIC
Wind turbines do have a few environmental
challenges. There are aesthetic concerns to some
people when they see them on the landscape. A
few wind turbines have caught on fire, and some have leaked lubricating fluids, though this is relatively
rare. Some people do not like the sound that wind turbine blades make. Turbines have been found to
cause bird and bat deaths particularly if they are located along their migratory path. This is of particular
concern if these are threatened or endangered species. There are ways to mitigate that impact and it is
currently being researched. There are some small impacts from the construction of wind projects or
farms, such as the construction of service roads, the production of the turbines themselves, and the
concrete for the foundations. However, overall analysis has found that turbines make much more energy
than the amount used to make and install them.

Interest in Renewable Energy

Strong interest in renewable energy in the modern era arose in response to the oil shocks of the 1970s,
when the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) imposed oil embargos and raised
prices in pursuit of geopolitical objectives. The shortages of oil, especially gasoline for transportation,
and the eventual rise in the price of oil by a factor of approximately 10 from 1973 to 1981 disrupted the
social and economic operation of many developed countries and emphasized their precarious
dependence on foreign energy supplies. The reaction in the United States was a shift away from oil and
gas to plentiful domestic coal for electricity production and the imposition of fuel economy standards for
vehicles to reduce consumption of oil for transportation. Other developed countries without large fossil
reserves, such as France and Japan, chose to emphasize nuclear (France to the 80% level and Japan
to 30%) or to develop domestic renewable resources such as hydropower and wind (Scandinavia),
geothermal (Iceland), solar, biomass and for electricity and heat. As oil prices collapsed in the late 1980s
interest in renewables, such as wind and solar that faced significant technical and cost barriers, declined
in many countries, while other renewables, such as hydropower and biomass, continued to experience
growth.
The increasing price and volatility of oil prices since 1998, and the increasing dependence of many
developed countries on foreign oil (60% of United States and 97% of Japanese oil was imported in 2008)
spurred renewed interest in renewable alternatives to ensure energy security. A new concern, not known

281
in previous oil crises, added further motivation: our knowledge of the emission of greenhouse gases and their
growing contribution to climate change. An additional economic motivation, the high cost of foreign oil
payments to supplier countries (approximately $350 billion/year for the United States at 2011 prices), grew
increasingly important as developed countries struggled to recover from the economic recession of 2008.
These energy security, carbon emission, and climate change concerns drive significant increases in fuel
economy standards, fuel switching of transportation from uncertain and volatile foreign oil to domestic
electricity and biofuels, and production of electricity from low carbon sources.

Physical Origin of Renewable Energy

Although renewable energy is often classified as hydro, solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, wave
and tide, all forms of renewable energy arise from only three sources: the light of the sun, the heat
of the earth’s crust, and the gravitational attraction of the moon and sun. Sunlight provides by far
the largest contribution to renewable energy. The sun provides the heat that drives the weather,
including the formation of high- and low-pressure areas in the atmosphere that make wind. The sun
also generates the heat required for vaporization of ocean water that ultimately falls over land
creating rivers that drive hydropower, and the sun is the energy source for photosynthesis, which
creates biomass. Solar energy can be directly captured for water and space heating, for driving
conventional turbines that generate electricity, and as excitation energy for electrons in
semiconductors that drive photovoltaics. The sun is also responsible for the energy of fossil fuels,
created from the organic remains of plants and sea organisms compressed and heated in the
absence of oxygen in the earth’s crust for tens to hundreds of millions of years. The time scale for
fossil fuel regeneration, however, is too long to consider them renewable in human terms.
Geothermal energy originates from heat rising to the surface from earth’s molten iron core
created during the formation and compression of the early earth as well as from heat produced
continuously by radioactive decay of uranium, thorium and potassium in the earth’s crust. Tidal
energy arises from the gravitational attraction of the moon and the more distant sun on the
earth’s oceans, combined with rotation of the earth. These three sources – sunlight, the heat
trapped in earth’s core and continuously generated in its crust, and gravitational force of the
moon and sun on the oceans – account for all renewable energy.

Capacity and Geographical Distribution

Although renewable energies such as wind and solar have experienced strong growth in recent years,
they still make up a small fraction of the world’s total energy needs. The largest share comes from
traditional biomass, mostly fuel wood gathered in traditional societies for household cooking and heating,
often without regard for sustainable replacement. Hydropower is the next largest contributor, an
established technology that experienced significant growth in the 20th Century. The other contributors
are more recent and smaller in contribution: water and space heating by biomass combustion or
harvesting solar and geothermal heat, biofuels derived from corn or sugar cane, and electricity
generated from wind, solar and geothermal energy. Wind and solar electricity, despite their large
capacity and significant recent growth, still contributed less than 1% of total energy in 2008.
The potential of renewable energy resources varies dramatically. Solar energy is by far the most
plentiful, delivered to the surface of the earth at a rate of 120,000 Terawatts (TW), compared to the
global human use of 15 TW. To put this in perspective, covering 100×100 km2 of desert with 10%
efficient solar cells would produce 0.29 TW of power, about 12% of the global human demand for

282
electricity. To supply all of the earth’s electricity needs (2.4 TW in 2007) would require 7.5 such
squares, an area about the size of Panama (0.05% of the earth’s total land area). The world’s
conventional oil reserves are estimated at three trillion barrels, including all the oil that has
already been recovered and that remain for future recovery. The solar energy equivalent of
these oil reserves is delivered to the earth by the sun in 1.5 days.
The geographical distribution of useable renewable energy is quite uneven. Sunlight, often
thought to be relatively evenly distributed, is concentrated in deserts where cloud cover is rare.
Winds are up to 50% stronger and steadier offshore than on land. Hydroelectric potential is
concentrated in mountainous regions with high rainfall and snowmelt. Biomass requires available
land that does not compete with food production, and adequate sun and rain to support growth.

283
11.4 Chapter Resources

Summary

We derive our energy from a multitude of resources that have varying environmental challenges related to
air and water pollution, land use, carbon dioxide emissions, resource extraction and supply, as well as related
safety and health issues. Each resource needs to be evaluated within the sustainability paradigm. Coal (45
percent) and gas (23 percent) are the two primary fossil fuels for electricity production in the United States.
Coal combustion produces nearly twice the carbon emissions of gas combustion. Increasing public opinion
and regulatory pressure to lower carbon emissions are shifting electricity generation toward gas and away
from coal. Oil for transportation and electricity generation are the two biggest users of primary energy and
producers of carbon emissions in the United States. Transportation is almost completely dependent on oil
and internal combustion engines for its energy. The concentration of oil in a few regions of the world creates
a transportation energy security issue. Nuclear electricity offers the sustainable benefit of low carbon
electricity at the cost of storing spent fuel out of the environment for up to hundreds of thousands of years.
Reprocessing spent fuel offers the advantages of higher energy efficiency and reduced spent fuel storage
requirements with the disadvantage of higher risk of weapons proliferation through diversion of the
reprocessed fuel stream.
Strong interest in renewable energy arose in the 1970s as a response to the shortage and high price
of imported oil, which disrupted the orderly operation of the economies and societies of many developed
countries. Today there are new motivations, including the realization that growing greenhouse gas
emission accelerates global warming and threatens climate change, the growing dependence of many
countries on foreign oil, and the economic drain of foreign oil payments that slow economic growth and
job creation. There are three ultimate sources of all renewable and fossil energies: sunlight, the heat in
the earth’s core and crust, and the gravitational pull of the moon and sun on the oceans. Renewable
energies are relatively recently developed and typically operate at lower efficiencies than mature fossil
technologies. Like early fossil technologies, however, renewables can be expected to improve their
efficiency and lower their cost over time, promoting their economic competitiveness and widespread
deployment. The future deployment of renewable energies depends on many factors, including the
availability of suitable land, the technological cost of conversion to electricity or other uses, the costs of
competing energy technologies, and the future need for energy.

Review Questions

1. Which one of the following is not a renewable source of energy?

A. Nuclear
B. Wind
C. Solar
D. Hydropower
E. Geothermal

2. Coal, oil, and natural gas are created _______ and contain the remains of__________.

284
 A. over millions of years; algae and plants
B. over millions of years; dinosaurs and other animals
C. over hundreds of years; algae and plants
D. over hundreds of years; dinosaurs and other animals
E. instantaneously; comet fragments

3. Which one of the following is a consortium of oil-producing countries that hold a significant
portion of the world’s oil reserves (and thus influence global oil prices)?
A. UAE
B. OPEC
C. UN
D. CITES
E. UNESCO

4. About 44% of the electricity in the US is produced from _________. It produces about twice
as much CO2 as an equivalent amount of _______.
A. Burning natural gas; coal
B. Hydropower; solar
C. Natural gas; Geothermal
D. Hydropower; geothermal
E. Burning coal; natural gas

5. Which one of the following is not true regarding nuclear power?

A. Energy is captured from the radioactive decay of elements
B. Nuclear power is considered an alternative fuel
C. Radioactive wastes must be stored 2-5 years before disposal
D. No CO2 is directly produced in nuclear power plants
E. Nuclear power is used to produce electricity

6. Which one of the following directly produces CO2 but is considered carbon neutral?
A. Wind
B. Biodiesel
C. Oil
D. Coal
E. Hydropower

7. The original source of energy that powers both wind energy and hydropower is…
A. Precipitation
B. Rotation of the Earth
C. The sun
D. Gravity
E. Radioactive decay within the Earth’s mantle

8. Burning sawdust that is leftover from lumber production and using it to generate electricity
would be an example of which one of the following?
A. Municipal solid waste

285
 B. Biofuel
C. Biogas
D. Bioethanol
E. Biofission

9. In the process of fracking, how is gas and oil extracted?

A. Layers of earth are stripped away from the surface, exposing the fossil fuels
B. Mining tunnels are created and the fossil fuels are extracted by teams working below
ground
C. Ocean sediments are mined and the fossil fuels are chemically extracted
D. High-pressure fluids are injected underground to force out the fossil fuels
E. Offshore drilling pads tap into pre-existing cracks in the Earth’s crust

10. What fundamental similarity is shared between the following energy sources: biogas
and municipal solid waste?
A. Both burn waste to generate CO2, which itself is burned to create electricity
B. Both chemically transform waste into oil
C. Both trap the heat generated from decaying waste and use it to generate energy
D. Both rely on the generation and combustion of methane
E. Both produce no CO2

286
Afterword

Congratulations, you made it to the end of the text!

This work is in the Public Domain, CC0

287