Refrigeration and Air-conditioning I

Refrigeration and Air-conditioning I

Prof JF Kanyua

Module I (Part B): Comfort and Inside Design Conditions

1) Metabolism and Comfort

Unlike a machine which can tolerate wide variations in temperature, the

human body can only tolerate a narrow range of body mean

temperature (36oC to38oC)

Also unlike a machine, the human body has an appreciation of comfort.

Defining “comfort’’ is difficult because it is subjective.

2) Body Mechanisms, Heat Transfer and Thermo-static Control.

In order to have a clear picture of the performance of the human body,

we need to understand the following body mechanisms:

Food Digestion

Digested food + O2 (Breathing) Emission of Carbon Dioxide + Useful

Work + Storage of Energy and Others + Liberation of Heat + Emission of

Solid and Liquid Waste Products.

The chemical changes occurring in the digestive system, liver, and other

parts of the body, and the muscular contraction/expansion and brain

function release thermal energy which is transported throughout the

body by circulation of blood so that it can be lost to the outside world. In

this way, the temperature of the deep tissues is kept at a relatively

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constant average value of 37.2oC which is essential for preservation of

good health.

The efficiency of the body is defined as:

η = W/ (M-44)

W=Rate of Working

M=Metabolic Rate of Energy Production for a Particular Activity

44 W/m2 = Basal Metabolic Rate per Unit Area of Boditory Surface.

When at rest, W=0 and therefore η =0

When waking up 1:4 gradient at10 kph, η =20%

This means that the range of η is quite narrow. This implies that most of

the energy produced by the bodily metabolism is dissipated as heat to

the environment.

It also implies that the persons engaged in very little activity (W 0)

will store a large amount of energy (fat) in their bodies.

In good health, the thermo-regulatory system of the body exercises

automatic control over the temperature of the deep tissues by

establishing correct thermal balance between the body and the

surroundings. Apart from good health, the comfort of person also

depends on this balance. Comfort may therefore be interpreted as the

ease with which such thermal equilibrium is achieved.

ASHRAE defines comfort as:

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 That state of mind which expresses satisfaction with thermal

environment.

However, this is subjective.

Body Mechanism of Heat Transfer and Thermostatic Control.

Modes of heat exchange between the body and its environment:

Body Mechanism of Heat Transfer and Thermostatic Control.

Modes of heat exchange between the body and its environment:

1: Evaporation (E)

2: Rotation (R1)

3: Convective (C1)

4: Conductive (C2)

5: Respiration (R2)

6: Body Waste (BW)

7: Storage of heat in the body (S)

8: metabolism (M)

9: work (W)

M – W (8-9) = 1+2+3+4+5+6+7

Assuming the storage of heat (positive or negative) in the body is S, we

can write the energy balance as:

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M-W=E+R1+C1+C2+R2+BW

Conductive heat loss (C2) is normally small due to the small area of

contact.

BW is normally ignored.

S is the element which would cause deep tissue temperature to rise or

fall.

When a person is normally clothed, healthy and engaged is non-

strenuous (light)

Activity, S=0 and the thermo-regulation system of the body is able to

modify the

Losses by radiation (R) and convection (C) to maintain a steady,

satisfactory temperature.

3) Metabolic Rates
Metabolism is defined as “All the chemical changes going on in the cells

of an organism”.

For purposes of airconditioning, the main interest is in quantities of

sensible and latent heat dissipated by the body to its environment as a

consequence of the chemical changes as expressed by equation:

M-W=E+R+C+D+S+BW

People vary in:

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 Shape

 Surface area

 Mass

And therefore their metabolic rates vary widely

Heat emission rates from a body have traditionally been expressed as X

Watts/m2

Recent changes in technology permits accurate determination of weight

and body surface areas.

4) Basic Definitions
Exhalation: Flow of breath out of an organism (e.g. human being). In

humans it is the movement of air from the lungs out of the airways, to

the external environment during breathing.

Inhalation: (AKA Inspiration). Air or other gases entering the lungs

Transpiration: Process of water movement through a plant and its

evaporation from aerial parts such as leaves, stems, flowers, etc.

Perspiration: The process of sweating. Also known as sweating. The

production of fluids secreted by the sweat glands in the skin of

mammals.

The fluid secreted is a salty watery fluid.

Perspiration occurs all the time, but is enhanced when a person is very

warm as a results of strenuous exercise, hot weather etc.

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Respiration

 The action of breathing

 A process of living organisms involving the production of energy (in

a form that can be used by cells in animals), typically with intake of

oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide from the oxidation of

complex organic substances.

The metabolic rate depends on the activity, age and health of a person.

Indicative figures:

Metabolic Rates for Various Activities

Activity Total Heat Production Watts

Activity Total Heat Production (Watts)
Sleeping 80.5
Sitting 117.2
Standing 127.8
Strolling (2.5km/hr.) 192.6
Walking (4.2km.hr) 263.7
Typing 161.2
Shovelling sand 536.2
Swimming fast (3.22km/hr.) 1230.5

5) Evaporative Losses
Evaporative losses occur in the following ways:

a) Exhalation of saturated water vapour from the lungs.

b) By continual normal process of muscular perspiration.

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c) By Emergency mechanism of sweating.

Insensible perspiration results in body fluids oozing through the skin

under osmotic pressure and forming microscopic droplets on the surface

which, because of their small sizes, evaporate virtually instantaneously

and are not felt or seen(hence the term insensible)

Sweating occurs when the body temperature rises and the thermo-

regulatory system increases the evaporation losses by operating sweat

glands selectively and flooding strategic surfaces.

In extreme cases, the whole body may be covered with sweat that must

evaporate on the skin to give a cooling effect. If the sweat rolls off or is

absorbed by clothing its cooling influence will be nullified or greatly

reduced.

In comfortable conditions, sweating should not occur.

Evaporative loss is a function of the difference in vapour pressure

between the water on the skin and that of the ambient air. Evaporative

loss also depends on the relative velocity of air over the wet surface.

Empirical Equations for Evaporation:

a) Evaporative Loss (Watts/m2) = (0.0885+0.0779V) (Pw-Ps)

Which is applicable to parallel air flow over a lake surface (or

water).This equation gives an underestimate.

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b) Evaporative loss (Watts/m2) = (0.01873+0.1614V) (Pw-Ps) for transverse

flow (e.g. across a wet bulb thermometer)

Velocity V in m/s

Vapour pressure of the Water, PW in Pa

Vapour pressure of Ambient Air, Ps in Pa

6) Losses by Radiation
Loss occurs if skin temperature exceeds that of surrounding surfaces.

Trm: Average temperature of the surrounding surfaces. (Mean Radiant

Temperature)

Trm may vary from place to place in a room.

Body surface temperature is influenced by:

 Type of clothing worn.

 Extent of clothing.

 Activity of the individual.

 Performance of thermo-regulatory system.

 Rate of loss of heat to the environment.

7) Loss by Convection
Loss by convection occurs if the skin temperature exceeds that of the

ambient air (dry bulb)

Bodily surface temperature is influence by:

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 Type of clothing worn.

 Extent of clothing.

 Activity of the individual.

 Performance of thermo-regulatory system.

 Rate of loss of heat to the environment.

For a normally clothed, healthy, sedentary person the typical valves for

heat transfer are:

 Evaporation (Respiration + Insensible Perspiration Without

Sweating): 25%

 Radiation :

45%

 Convection :

30%

From these figures we infer that the following properties of the space

(Environment) influence these heat transfer mechanisms therefore

influence comfort and can be modified to influence the contribution of

each mode of heat transfer.

i. Dry bulb temperature (affects evaporation and convection)

ii. Relative humidity (affects evaporation only)

iii. Air velocity (affects evaporation and convection)

iv. Mean radiant temperature (affects radiation only)

The first three can be influenced by the design of the airconditioning

system. The last item is not controlled by the design of the

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airconditioning system but is immensely influenced by architectural

design.

Air movement (velocity) is very important since it is related to the air

temperature and the part of the body it blows on. Air movement should

be designed such that:

 Air velocity at terminal devices is such that the maximum centre line

velocity of 0.25 m/s at the end of the throw is not exceeded.

 Head to feet temperature gradient should not normally exceed 1.50C

and should never exceed 3.00C.

8) Signalling
Signals sent from brain via nerve impulses in response to changes in

blood temperature to regulate flow of heat from warmer deep tissues to

the cooler surface tissues.

Regulation is done by:

 Changing the rate of sweat production below the skin, or

 By dilating or constricting blood vessels beneath the skin (vascular

system)

Vasco -dilation increases flow of blood to the surface and so the flow of

heat from the deeper tissues.

Vasco-constriction reduces the flow of blood, the skin temperature and

bodily heat loss.

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Note the following limiting temperatures:

 A temperature of 460C triggers a response of pain.

 Mean skin temperature for sedentary workers:

 Comfortable : 33.30C

 Uncomfortably cold : 31.10C

 Shivering cold : 30.00C

 Extreme cold 29.00C

For a more active (strenuous) activity, the above temperatures may be

reported as comfortable.

In the case of skin temperature on hands:

 Uncomfortable : 200C

 Extremely cold : 150C

 Painful : 50C

9) Ambient Temperatures Higher Than Skin Temperature:

Air surrounding the surface of the body provides an insulating effect so

that temperatures higher than the skin temperature can be borne.

e.g.:

 50 minutes at 820 C

 32 minutes at 930 C

 24 minutes at 1150 C

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For lightly clad person in surroundings with dew point approaches 300C

Tolerance increases rapidly as dew point approaches 360C.

Failure of thermo- regulatory system and ill- health may cause damage

to the brain and body if sweating ceases.

10) Clothing
Clothing refers to any items worn to:

 Hide private parts of the body

 Protect the body from high and/or low atmospheric temperature

 Protect the body from high indoor temperature

 Protect hands and feet from high and low temperature

 Protect parts of the body from any form of injury

 Etc

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