Environmental

Module II:
Science
Ecosystem and Biosphere

Image credits to: Auburn University Office of Sustainability

 Environmental
Module II:
Science
Ecosystem and Biosphere
I. Introduction: Ecosystem and Biosphere
Biosphere is the earth’s zone of air, water and soil that has
the capability in supporting life. This zone reaches
about 10 km into the atmosphere and down to
the lowest ocean floor. In simpler term, the
biosphere is the surface of the hierarchy on
earth where living environment and
organism thrive. It contains various
categories of biotic communities known as
biomes. The biomes are in turn composed of
various ecosystems. Ecosystem is the environment
where biotic/ living things live and interact with nonliving things/abiotic factors such as
coral reef, forest, grassland, farm etc. In 1935, the word “ecosystem” was invented by a
British ecologist Sir Arthur George Tansley, who depicted natural system in “constant
interchange” among their biotic and abiotic parts. The cyclic flow of materials from
abiotic environment to the biosphere and then back to the abiotic environment such
as the water, carbon-oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles help maintaining the
ecological balance and provides energy and nutrients needed to sustain life in the
ecosystem.
On a global scale, this movement is referred to as biogeochemical cycling. The
biosphere is a global ecosystem composed of living organisms (biota) and the abiotic
(nonliving) factors from which they derive energy and nutrients. These energy and
nutrients are conitinously transferred and cycled in the ecocsystem. The cycle of energy
is based on the flow of energy through different trophic levels in an ecosystem. The
Earth we live in is capable of sustaining life because of these processes involving
maintaining the ecological balance between living and nonliving things.
In this unit, we will learn more about the different types of biomes,
biogeochemical cycles, and how energy flows in the ecosystem. As we go through the
chapters, consider and compare the conditions in each biomes that help shape them.
We will also be able to examine the importance of the cycles of elements of life and
how human activities can distrupt these cycles and harm the ecosystem. Finally, we will
explore in greater depth how the energy and nutrients are being transferred throughout
the ecosytem to sustain life.
II. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
a. Describe the basic types of biomes in the Earth
b. Discuss the biogeochemical cycles of water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus and
explain how human activities have impacted these cycles
c. Differentiate between food chains and food webs and recognize the importance of
each
d. Describe how organisms acquire energy in a food web and in associated food
chains.

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 Environmental
Module II:
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Ecosystem and Biosphere
III. LEARNING CONTENT
A. TOPIC OUTLINE
 Biomes
Terrestrial biomes
Aquatic Biomes
 Biogeochemical Cycles
Water cycle
Carbon-Oxygen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
 Energy flow through Ecosystem
Primary Productivity
Trophic levels
Energy Flow and 10% Rule
Food Chains and Food web
B. TOPIC DISCUSSIONS

CHAPTER 1 | ECOSYSTEM AND BIOSPHERE

SECTION I BIOMES: TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC

A BIOME is a large-scale community of

organisms, primarily defined on land by the
dominant plant types that exist in geographic
regions of the planet with similar climatic
conditions. Biomes are named and categorized
based on the climate, plants and animals that
exist there. Land-based biomes are called
terrestrial biomes. Water-based biomes are called
aquatic biomes. Temperatures, precipitation
amounts and prevalent organisms characterize
the biomes of the world. Terrestrial biomes include
tropical rainforests, temperate forests, temperate
grasslands, deserts, tundra, taiga, savanna and
chaparral while aquatic biomes include marine
and freshwater biomes. If we know the range of
temperature and precipitation in a particular Fig. 1: Precipitation and temperature are the two most
place, we can generally predict what kind of important climatic variables that determine the type of biome
in a particular location. Credit: ―Climate influence on
biome is likely to occur there, in the absence of terrestrial biome‖ by Navarras is in the Public Domain, CC0
human disturbance.

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 Environmental
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Fig. 2: Major world biomes. Compare this map with figure 1 for generalized temperature and moisture
conditions that control biome distribution.

Another important characteristic of each biome is its biodiversity, or the number and
variety of different biological species that live there. Species not only create much of the
structure and functions of an ecosystem but, also generate emergent properties, such as
productivity, homeostasis, and resilience. Productivity, the rate at which plants produce
biomass, varies a great deal from warm to cold climates and from wet to dry environments.
The amount of resources we can extract, such as timber, fish, or crops, depends largely on a
biome’s biological productivity. Similarly, homeostasis (stability) and resilience (the ability to
recover from disturbance) also depend on biodiversity and productivity.

TERRESTRIAL Biomes
There are eight major terrestrial biomes: tropical rainforests, savannas, subtropical
deserts, chaparral, temperate grasslands, temperate forests, boreal forests, and Arctic
tundra. Terrestrial biomes on Earth are each distinguished by characteristic
temperatures and amount of precipitation. Comparing the annual totals of
precipitation and fluctuations in precipitation from one biome to another provides clues
as to the importance of abiotic factors in the distribution of biomes. Temperature
variation on a daily and seasonal basis is also important for predicting the geographic
distribution of the biome and the vegetation type in the biome. The distribution of these

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biomes shows that the same biome can occur in geographically distinct areas with
similar climates (Figure 2).

TROPICAL RAINFORESTS are found in equatorial regions are the most

bio diverse terrestrial biome. This
Fig 3: Bulusan Lake is one of the biodiversity is under extraordinary
most visited place in Sorsogon for threat primarily through logging
its wonderful scenery and serene and deforestation for
atmosphere. Aside from that, this
Tropical Rainforest is a home to agriculture. Tropical rainforests
some endemic species of have also been described as
freshwater fish, birds, mammals nature’s pharmacy because of
and beehives. the potential for new drugs that is
largely hidden in the chemicals
produced by the huge diversity of plants, animals, and other organisms.
The vegetation is characterized by plants with spreading roots and broad leaves that fall off
throughout the year, unlike the trees of deciduous forests that lose their leaves in one season.

The temperature and sunlight profiles of tropical rainforests are stable in comparison to
other terrestrial biomes, with average temperatures ranging from 20oC to 34oC (68o F to 93o
F). Month-to-month temperatures are relatively constant in tropical rainforests, in contrast to
forests farther from the equator. This lack of temperature seasonality leads to year-round
plant growth rather than just seasonal growth. In contrast to other ecosystems, a consistent
daily amount of sunlight (11–12 hours per day year-round) provides more solar radiation and
therefore more opportunity for primary productivity.

The annual rainfall in tropical rainforests ranges from 125 to 660 cm (50–200 in) with
considerable seasonal variation. Tropical rainforests have wet months in which there can be
more than 30 cm (11–12 in) of precipitation, as well as dry months in which there are fewer
than 10 cm (3.5 in) of rainfall. However, the driest month of a tropical rainforest can still
exceed the annual rainfall of some other biomes, such as deserts. Tropical rainforests have
high net primary productivity because the annual temperatures and precipitation values
support rapid plant growth. However, the high amount of rainfall
leaches nutrients from the soils of these
forests. Fig 4: The Amazon Rainforest,
the largest tropical rainforest in
Tropical rainforests are the world, is one of our greatest
characterized by vertical buffers against the climate crisis
layering of vegetation and since the trees can absorb carbon
dioxide, thus keeping it out of the
the formation of distinct atmosphere.
habitats for animals within each Courtesy of:
https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/c0d3c9b650
layer. On the forest floor is a sparse 8248b0ab973d6e5e875919
layer of plants and decaying plant
matter. Above that is an understory of short, shrubby foliage. A layer of

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trees rises above this understory and is topped by a closed upper canopy—the uppermost
overhead layer of branches and leaves. Some additional trees emerge through this closed
upper canopy. These layers provide diverse and complex habitats for the variety of plants,
animals, and other organisms. Many species of animals use the variety of plants and the
complex structure of the tropical wet forests for food and shelter. Some organisms live several
meters above ground, rarely descending to the forest floor. These conditions lead to prolific
plant growth in levels from the forest floor to the canopy. Epiphytic plants grow on trees and
other vegetation. The Amazon Rainforest (Figure 4) is an excellent example of a tropical
rainforest biome.

TEMPERATE FORESTS are the most common biome in eastern

North America, Western Europe,
Fig 5: Ridge upon ridge of forest straddles
the border between North Carolina and Eastern Asia, Chile, and New
Tennessee in Great Smoky Mountains Zealand (Figure 9 below). This
National Park. World renowned for its
diversity of plant and animal life, the beauty biome is found throughout
of its ancient mountains, and the quality of its mid-latitude regions.
remnants of Southern Appalachian mountain
culture, this is America's most visited national. Temperatures range
Courtesy of between –30oC and 30oC (–
parkhttps://smokymountains.com/park/blog/n
ovember-2018-upcoming-events/ 22o F to 86o F) and drop to
below freezing on an annual basis.
These temperatures mean that temperate forests have defined growing
seasons during the spring, summer, and early fall. Precipitation is relatively constant
throughout the year and ranges between 75 cm and 150 cm (29.5–59 in).

Deciduous trees are the dominant plant in this biome with fewer evergreen conifers.
Deciduous trees lose their leaves each fall and remain leafless in the winter. Thus, little
photosynthesis occurs during the dormant winter period. Each spring, new leaves appear as
temperature increases. Because of the dormant period, the net primary productivity of
temperate forests is less than that of tropical rainforests. In addition, temperate forests show
far less diversity of tree species than tropical rainforest biomes.

The trees of the temperate forests leaf out and shade much of the ground. However,
more sunlight reaches the ground in this biome than in tropical rainforests because trees in
temperate forests do not grow as tall as the trees in tropical rainforests. The soils of the
temperate forests are rich in inorganic and organic nutrients compared to tropical
rainforests. This is because of the thick layer of leaf litter on forest floors and reduced leaching
of nutrients by rainfall. As this leaf litter decays, nutrients are returned to the soil. The leaf litter
also protects soil from erosion, insulates the ground, and provides habitats for invertebrates
and their predators.

Deciduous broadleaf trees, evergreens and other plants flourish. This biome hosts many
animal species including deer, rabbits, bears, birds, insects and amphibians. The Great
Smoky Mountains National Park (figure 5) hosts temperate forest.

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TEMPERATE GRASSLAND includes steppes, veldts and prairies.
Moderate precipitation, rich soils,
Fig.6: Grasslands occur at midlatitudes on hot summers and cold winters
all continents. Kept open by extreme
temperatures, dry conditions, and
distinguish this biome. The
periodic fires, grasslands can have few trees grow along
surprisingly high plant and animal rivers. Some animals
diversity.
Courtesy of
include deer, gazelles,
https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/7d10 birds, insects and larger
40e743284272879004398168b64f predators such as wolves and
lions. Temperate grassland is found
throughout central North America, where they are also known as
prairies, and in Eurasia, where they are known as steppes. Temperate grasslands have
pronounced annual fluctuations in temperature with hot summers and cold winters. The
annual temperature variation produces specific growing seasons for plants. Plant growth is
possible when temperatures are warm enough to sustain plant growth, which occurs in the
spring, summer, and fall.

Annual precipitation ranges from 25.4 cm to 88.9 cm (10–35 in). Temperate grasslands
have few trees except for those found growing along rivers or streams. The dominant
vegetation tends to consist of grasses. The treeless condition is maintained by low
precipitation, frequent fires, and grazing. The vegetation is very dense and the soils are fertile
because the subsurface of the soil is packed with the roots and rhizomes (underground
stems) of these grasses. The roots and rhizomes act to anchor plants into the ground and
replenish the organic material (humus) in the soil when they die and decay.

Fires, which are a natural disturbance in temperate grasslands, can be ignited by

lightning strikes. It also appears that the lightning-caused fire regime in North American
grasslands was enhanced by intentional burning by humans. When fire is suppressed in
temperate grasslands, the vegetation eventually converts to scrub and dense forests. Often,
the restoration or management of temperate grasslands requires the use of controlled burns
to suppress the growth of trees and maintain the grasses.

SAVANNAS are grasslands with scattered trees and are found in

Africa, South America, and northern
Australia. Savannas are hot, Fig,7: Savanna biome is rich with
herbivores such as elephants,
tropical areas with temperatures
zebras, gazelles, and buffalo. This
averaging from 24oC –29oC proves that a savanna
(75oF –84oF) and an annual demonstrates the biosphere, as it
rainfall of 51–127 cm (20–50 can support animals, which have
in). Savannas have an extensive life and are living creatures.
Courtesy of:
dry season and consequent fires. https://www.thinglink.com/scene/74389422574
9278722
As a result, there are relatively few
trees scattered in the grasses and forbs (herbaceous flowering plants)

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that dominate the savanna. Because fire is an important source of disturbance in this biome,
plants have evolved well developed root systems that allow them to quickly re-sprout after a
fire.

SUBTROPICAL DESERTS exist between 15o and 30o north and south
latitude and are centered on the
Tropic of Cancer and the
Fog 8: Blooming Marigolds in Big Bend Tropic of Capricorn. Deserts
National Park, Texas
When conditions are right, spring are frequently located on
splashes the Chihuahuan Desert with the downwind or lee
color side of mountain ranges,
Courtesy of E. Dan Klepper, and
https://texashighways.com
which create a rain
shadow after prevailing winds
drop their water content on the
mountains. This is typical of the North American deserts, such as the
Mohave and Sonoran deserts. Deserts in other regions, such as the
Sahara Desert in northern Africa or the Namib Desert in southwestern Africa are dry because
of the high-pressure, dry air descending at those latitudes.

Subtropical deserts are very dry; evaporation typically exceeds precipitation. Subtropical
hot deserts can have daytime soil surface temperatures above 60oC (140o F) and nighttime
temperatures approaching 0oC (32o F). Subtropical deserts are characterized by low annual
precipitation of fewer than 30 cm (12 in) with little monthly variation and lack of predictability
in rainfall. Some years may receive tiny amounts of rainfall, while others receive more. In
some cases, the annual rainfall can be as low as 2 cm (0.8 in) in subtropical deserts located
in central Australia (―the Outback‖) and northern Africa.

The low species diversity of this biome is closely related to its low and unpredictable
precipitation. Despite the relatively low diversity, desert species exhibit
fascinating adaptations to the harshness
of their environment. Very dry deserts Fig 9: Welwitschia Mirabilis is a plant
lack perennial vegetation that lives which is endemic to the Namib desert
from one year to the next; in Namibia and Southern Angola. It
has unique structures on their leaves
instead, many plants are that allow them to harvest moisture
annuals that grow quickly from the dew that forms at night.
They also have the ability to perform
and reproduce when rainfall
CAM photosynthesis; they are the
does occur, then they die. only gymnosperm that has this ability.
Perennial plants in deserts are Courtesy of:
https://www.thinglink.com/scene/743894225749278722
characterized by adaptations that
conserve water: deep roots, reduced foliage, and water-storing stems.
Seed plants in the desert produce seeds that can lie dormant for extended
periods between rains. Most animal life in subtropical deserts has adapted to a nocturnal life,
spending the hot daytime hours beneath the ground. The Namib Desert is the oldest on the

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planet, and has probably been dry for more than 55 million years. It supports a number of
endemic species (species found only there) because of this great age. For example, the
unusual gymnosperm Welwitschia mirabilis (figure 9) is the only extant species of an entire
order of plants. There are also five species of reptiles considered endemic to the Namib.

In addition to subtropical deserts there are cold deserts that experience freezing
temperatures during the winter and any precipitation is in the form of snowfall. The largest of
these deserts are the Gobi Desert in northern China and southern Mongolia, the Taklimakan
Desert in western China, the Turkestan Desert, and the Great Basin Desert of the United
States.

The CHAPARRAL is also called SCRUB FOREST and is found

in California, along the
Fig 10: Chaparral, vegetation composed Mediterranean Sea, and
of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs, along the southern coast
bushes, and small trees usually less than of Australia (Figure 7
2.5 m (about 8 feet) tall; together they
often form dense thickets. Chaparral is below). The annual
found in regions with a climate similar to rainfall in this biome
that of the Mediterranean area,
ranges from 65 cm to
characterized by hot, dry summers and
mild, wet winters. Courtesy of: 75 cm (25.6–29.5 in) and
www.britanica.com the majority of the rain falls in
the winter. Summers are very
dry and many chaparral plants are dormant during the
summertime. The chaparral vegetation is dominated by shrubs and is adapted to periodic
fires, with some plants producing seeds that germinate only after a hot fire. The ashes left
behind after a fire are rich in nutrients like nitrogen and fertilize the soil, promoting plant
regrowth. Fire is a natural part of the maintenance of this biome.

TUNDRA: The coldest weather on Earth belongs to the arctic and alpine tundras.
Depicted by its scanty rainfall and low temperatures, the arctic tundra possesses a stratum of
permanently frozen subsoil called permafrost. The Arctic tundra lies north of the subarctic
boreal forests and is located throughout the Arctic regions of the
Northern Hemisphere. Tundra also
exists at elevations above the Fig. 11: Tundra is no doubt the coldest
tree line on mountains. The biome on earth and can be found in
regions just below the Arctic ice caps,
average winter mostly in Alaska, Canada and Siberia.
temperature is –34°C (– The tundra biome is characterized by
29.2°F) and the freezing temperatures and permafrost.
It's treeless and consists of large
average summer stretches of bare ground, rock and low
temperature is 3°C–12°C vegetation, including mosses and small
(37°F –52°F). Plants in the shrubs. Courtesy of
https://traveltips.usatoday.com
Arctic tundra have a short
growing season of approximately 50–60 days. However, during this

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time, there are almost 24 hours of daylight and plant growth is rapid. The annual precipitation
of the Arctic tundra is low (15–25 cm or 6–10 in) with little annual variation in precipitation.
There is also little evaporation because of the cold temperatures. Plants in the Arctic tundra
are generally low to the ground and include low shrubs, grasses, lichens, and small flowering
plants (Figure 11 below). There is little species diversity, low net primary productivity, and low
above-ground biomass. The soils of the Arctic tundra may remain in a perennially frozen state
referred to as permafrost. The permafrost makes it impossible for roots to penetrate far into
the soil and slows the decay of organic matter, which inhibits the release of nutrients from
organic matter. The melting of the permafrost in the brief summer provides water for a burst
of productivity while temperatures and long days permit it. During the growing season, the
ground of the Arctic tundra can be completely covered with plants or lichens.

Altitude is the key to alpine tundra locations; they exist near the summits of mountains
worldwide. The coldest biome, the treeless Arctic tundra, receives only about 60 growing
days and low precipitation. Plants consist mostly of shrubs, lichens, mosses, sedges and
liverworts. Tundra animals include lemmings, caribou, migratory birds, mosquitos, flies and fish.
An example is the High Arctic Tundra in the islands of the Arctic Ocean.

The BOREAL FOREST, also known as TAIGA or CONIFEROUS

FOREST, is found roughly
between 50 and 60o north
o
Fig. 12: The Interior Alaska/Yukon
Lowland Taiga Ec0-region has retained latitude across most of
intact ecosystems, with healthy Canada, Alaska, Russia,
populations of all natural top predators
and northern Europe.
including bears, porcupine, herds of
Central Arctic, and Western Arctic Boreal forests are also
caribou. Courtesy of found above a certain
https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregio
elevation (and below high
ns/na0607
elevations where trees
cannot grow) in mountain
ranges throughout the Northern Hemisphere. This biome has cold, dry
winters and short, cool, wet summers. The annual precipitation is from 40 cm to 100 cm (15.7–
39 in) and usually takes the form of snow; relatively little evaporation occurs because of the
cool temperatures.

The long and cold winters in the boreal forest have led to the predominance of cold-
tolerant cone-bearing plants. These are evergreen coniferous trees like pines, spruce, and fir,
which retain their needle-shaped leaves year-round. Evergreen trees can photosynthesize
earlier in the spring than deciduous trees because less energy from the Sun is required to
warm a needle-like leaf than a broad leaf. Evergreen trees grow faster than deciduous trees
in the boreal forest. In addition, soils in boreal forest regions tend to be acidic with little
available nitrogen. Leaves are a nitrogen-rich structure and deciduous trees must produce a
new set of these nitrogen-rich structures each year. Therefore, coniferous trees that retain

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nitrogen-rich needles in a nitrogen limiting environment may have had a competitive
advantage over the broad-leafed deciduous trees.

The net primary productivity of boreal forests is lower than that of temperate forests and
tropical wet forests. The aboveground biomass of boreal forests is high because these slow-
growing tree species are long-lived and accumulate standing biomass over time. Species
diversity is less than that seen in temperate forests and tropical rainforests. Boreal forests lack
the layered forest structure seen in tropical rainforests or, to a lesser degree, temperate
forests. The structure of a boreal forest is often only a tree layer and a ground layer. When
conifer needles are dropped, they decompose more slowly than broad leaves; therefore,
fewer nutrients are returned to the soil to fuel plant growth. Taiga hosts coniferous trees and
low plants. Animal species of the taiga include bears, moose, lynx, deer, hares and
woodpeckers, among others. An example of this is the Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
(figure 12).

AQUATIC Biomes
The aquatic biome is the largest of all the biomes, covering about 75 percent of Earth's
surface. This biome is usually divided into two categories: freshwater and marine.

Marine Biomes Freshwater Biomes

*ocean is the largest marine biome. It is a continuous *include lakes and ponds (standing water) as
body of salt water that is relatively uniform in chemical
composition; it is a weak solution of mineral salts and well as rivers and streams (flowing water).
decayed biological matter They also include wetlands.

Humans rely on freshwater biomes to provide aquatic

resources for drinking water, crop irrigation, sanitation,
Within the ocean, coral reefs are a second kind of and industry. These various roles and human benefits are
marine biome. Estuaries, coastal areas where salt water referred to as ecosystem services. Lakes and ponds are
and fresh water mix, form a third unique marine biome. found in terrestrial landscapes and are, therefore,
connected with abiotic and biotic factors influencing these
terrestrial biomes.

THE MARINE BIOMES

OCEAN: The ocean is categorized by several areas or zones (Figure 13). All of the
ocean’s open water is referred to as the pelagic zone. The benthic zone extends along the
ocean bottom from the shoreline to the deepest parts of the ocean floor. Within the pelagic
realm is the photic zone, which is the portion of the ocean that light can penetrate

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(approximately 200 m or 650 ft). At depths greater than 200 m, light cannot penetrate; thus,
this is referred to as the aphotic zone. The majority of the ocean is aphotic and lacks
sufficient light for photosynthesis. The deepest part of the ocean, the Challenger Deep (in the
Mariana Trench, located in the western Pacific Ocean), is about 11,000 m (about 6.8 mi)
deep. To give some perspective on the depth of this trench, the ocean is, on average, 4267
m. These zones are relevant to freshwater lakes as well.

The physical diversity of the ocean is a significant influence on plants, animals, and other
organisms. The ocean is categorized into different zones based on how far light reaches into
the water. Each zone has a distinct group of species adapted to the biotic and abiotic
conditions particular to that zone.

Fig.13: Distance from shore and depth of water define ocean zones

In intertidal zone, organisms are exposed to air and sunlight at low tide and are
underwater most of the time, especially during high tide. Therefore, living things that thrive in
the intertidal zone are adapted to being dry for long periods of time. The shore of the
intertidal zone is also repeatedly struck by waves, and the organisms found there are
adapted to withstand damage from the pounding action of the waves. The exoskeletons of
shoreline crustaceans (such as the shore crab, Carcinus maenas) are tough and protect
them from desiccation (drying out) and wave damage.

The neritic zone extends from the intertidal zone to depths of about 200 m (or 650 ft) at
the edge of the continental shelf. Because light can penetrate this depth, photosynthesis

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can occur. The water here contains silt and is well-oxygenated, low in pressure, and stable in
temperature. Phytoplankton and floating Sargassum (a type of free-floating marine
seaweed) provide a habitat for some sea life found in the neritic zone. Zooplankton, protists,
small fishes, and shrimp are found in the neritic zone and are the base of the food chain for
most of the world’s fisheries.

Beyond the neritic zone is the open ocean area known as the oceanic zone. Within the
oceanic zone there is thermal stratification where warm and cold waters mix because of
ocean currents. Abundant plankton serves as the base of the food chain for larger animals
such as whales and dolphins. Nutrients are scarce and this is a relatively less productive part
of the marine biome. When photosynthetic organisms and the protists and animals that feed
on them die, their bodies fall to the bottom of the ocean where they remain. The majority of
organisms in the aphotic zone include sea cucumbers (phylum Echinodermata) and other
organisms that survive on the nutrients contained in the dead bodies of organisms in the
photic zone.

The deepest part of the ocean is the abyssal zone, which is at depths of 4000 m or
greater. The abyssal zone is very cold and has very high pressure, high oxygen content, and
low nutrient content. There are a variety of invertebrates and fishes found in this zone, but the
abyssal zone does not have plants because of the lack of light. Cracks in the Earth’s crust
called hydrothermal vents are found primarily in the abyssal zone. Around these vents
chemosynthetic bacteria utilize the hydrogen sulfide and other minerals emitted as an
energy source and serve as the base of the food chain found in the abyssal zone.

Beneath the water is the benthic zone, which is comprised of sand, silt, and dead
organisms. This is a nutrient-rich portion of the ocean because of the dead organisms that fall
from the upper layers of the ocean. Because of this high level of nutrients, a diversity of
sponges, sea anemones, marine worms, sea stars, fishes, and bacteria exist.

CORAL REEFS are among the best-known marine systems, because of their extraordinary
biological productivity and their diverse and beautiful organisms such as invertebrates that
live in warm, shallow waters within the photic zone of the ocean. Reefs are colonies of
minute, colonial animals (―coral polyps‖) that live symbiotically with photosynthetic algae.

Calcium-rich coral skeletons shelter the algae, and algae nourish the coral animals. The
complex structure of a reef also shelters countless species of fish, worms, crustaceans, and
other life-forms. Reefs occur where the water is shallow and clear enough for sunlight to
reach the photosynthetic algae. They cannot tolerate abundant nutrients in the water, as
nutrients support tiny, floating plants and animals called plankton, which block sunlight. Reefs
are among the most endangered biological communities. Sediment from coastal
development, farming, sewage, or other pollution can reduce water clarity and smother
coral.

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Destructive fishing practices, including dynamite and
cyanide poison, have destroyed many Asian reefs. Reefs
can also be damaged or killed by changes in
temperature, by invasive fish, and by diseases. Coral
bleaching, the whitening of reefs due to
stress, often followed by coral death, is a
growing and spreading problem that
worries marine biologists.

Fig. 14: The Great Barrier Reef is a well-known

reef system located several miles off the
.
northeastern coast of Australia, now facing the
possibility of destruction because of Climate
Change and Global Warming.

ESTUARIES: W h e r e t h e O c e a n M e e t s Fr e s h W a t e r
Are biomes that occur where a source of fresh water, such as a river, meets the ocean.
Therefore, both fresh water and salt water are found in the same vicinity; mixing results in a
diluted (brackish) saltwater. Estuaries form protected areas where many of the young
offspring of crustaceans, mollusks, and fish begin their lives. Salinity
is a very important factor that influences the organisms and the
adaptations of the organisms found in estuaries. The salinity of
estuaries varies and is based on the rate of flow of its
freshwater sources. Once or twice a day, high tides bring salt
water into the estuary. Low
Fig. 15: The Rio de Plata Estuary-the tides occurring at the
estuary formed by the confluence of the
Uruguay and the Paraná rivers at Punta
same frequency reverse
Gorda. Courtesy of the current of salt water.
https://upload.wikimedia.org
The short-term and rapid
variation in salinity due to the
mixing of fresh water and salt water is a difficult physiological challenge for the plants and
animals that inhabit estuaries. Many estuarine plant species are halophytes: plants that can
tolerate salty conditions. Halophytic plants are adapted to deal with the salinity resulting
from saltwater on their roots or from sea spray. In some halophytes, filters in the roots remove
the salt from the water that the plant absorbs. Other plants are able to pump oxygen into
their roots. Animals, such as mussels and clams (phylum Mollusca), have developed
behavioral adaptations that expend a lot of energy to function in this rapidly changing

Image credits to: Auburn University Office of Sustainability

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Module II:
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Ecosystem and Biosphere
environment. When these animals are exposed to low salinity, they stop feeding, close their
shells, and switch from aerobic respiration (in which they use gills) to anaerobic respiration (a
process that does not require oxygen). When high tide returns to the estuary, the salinity and
oxygen content of the water increases, and these animals open their shells, begin feeding,
and return to aerobic respiration.

THE FRESHWATER BIOMES

Lakes and ponds can
range in area from a few Fig. 16: Bulusan Lake nestled at the foot of the
square meters to active Bulusan Volcano in Sorsogon province;
Bulusan Lake's landscape is lush, and its
thousands of square surroundings quiet except for the occasional
kilometers. rustling of leaves, the gentle paddling from
Temperature is an canoes, and the distant chirping of birds. Not
to mention the greenish water because of its
important abiotic
rock, sandy and muddy waterbed that
factor affecting living
creates magical scenery. Courtesy of
things found in lakes and http://www.whatshappening.com.ph
ponds. In the summer,
thermal stratification of lakes and ponds occurs when the upper layer of
water is warmed by the sun and does not mix with deeper, cooler water. Light can penetrate
within the photic zone of the lake or pond.

Phytoplanktons (small photosynthetic organisms such as algae and cyanobacteria that

float in the water) are found here and carry out photosynthesis, providing the base of the
food web of lakes and ponds. Zooplankton (very small animals that float in the water), such
as rotifers and small crustaceans, consume these phytoplankton. At the bottom of lakes and
ponds, bacteria in the aphotic zone break down dead organisms that sink to the bottom.

Nitrogen and phosphorus are important limiting nutrients in lakes and ponds. Because of
this, they are determining factors in the amount of phytoplankton growth in lakes and ponds.
When there is a large input of nitrogen and phosphorus (from sewage and runoff from
fertilized lawns and farms, for example), the growth of algae skyrockets, resulting in a large
accumulation of algae called an algal bloom. Algal blooms can
become so extensive that they reduce light penetration in
water.

As a result, the lake or pond becomes aphotic and

photosynthetic plants
Fig. 17: Lake Erie is the fourth-largest rooted in the lake
lake of the five Great Lakes in North bottom cannot
America, and the eleventh-largest survive. When
globally if measured in terms of the algae die
surface area.

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 Environmental
Module II:
Science
Ecosystem and Biosphere
and decompose, severe oxygen depletion of the water occurs. Fishes and other organisms
that require oxygen are then more likely to die, and resulting dead zones are found across
the globe. Lake Erie and the Gulf of Mexico represent freshwater and marine habitats where
phosphorus control and storm water runoff pose significant environmental challenges.

Rivers and Streams are continuously moving bodies of water that carry large amounts of
water from the source, or headwater, to a lake or ocean. The
largest rivers include
the Nile River in Fig. 18: The Cagayan River, also known as
the Rio Grande de Cagayan, is the longest
Africa, the river and the largest river by discharge
Amazon River in volume of water in the Philippines. It has
South America, a total length of approximately 518
and the Mississippi kilometers and a drainage basin covering
River in North 27,753 square kilometers.
America.

Abiotic features of rivers and streams vary along the length

of the river or stream. Streams begin at a point of origin referred
to as source water. The source water is usually cold, low in nutrients,
and clear. The channel (the width of the river or stream) is narrower than at any other place
along the length of the river or stream. Because of this, the current is often faster here than at
any other point of the river or stream.

The fast-moving water results in minimal silt accumulation at the bottom of the river or
stream, therefore the water is clear. Photosynthesis here is mostly attributed to algae that are
growing on rocks; the swift current inhibits the growth of phytoplankton. An additional input
of energy can come from leaves or other organic material that falls into the river or stream
from trees and other plants that border the water. When the leaves decompose, the organic
material and nutrients in the leaves are returned to the water. Plants and animals have
adapted to this fast-moving water. For instance, leeches (phylum Annelida) have elongated
bodies and suckers on both ends. These suckers attach to the substrate, keeping the leech
anchored in place. Freshwater trout species (phylum Chordata) are an important predator in
these fast-moving rivers and streams.

As the river or stream flows away from the source, the width of the channel gradually
widens and the current slows. This slow-moving water, caused by the gradient decrease and
the volume increase as tributaries unite, has more sedimentation. Phytoplankton can also be
suspended in slow-moving water. Therefore, the water will not be as clear as it is near the
source. The water is also warmer. Worms (phylum Annelida) and insects (phylum Arthropoda)
can be found burrowing into the mud. The higher order predator vertebrates (phylum
Chordata) include waterfowl, frogs, and fishes. These predators must find food in these slow
moving, sometimes murky, waters and, unlike the trout in the waters at the source, these

Image credits to: Auburn University Office of Sustainability

 Environmental
Module II:
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Ecosystem and Biosphere
vertebrates may not be able to use vision as their primary sense to find food. Instead, they
are more likely to use taste or chemical cues to find prey.

Wetlands are environments in which the soil is either permanently or periodically saturated
with water. Wetlands are different from lakes because wetlands are shallow bodies of water
that may periodically dry out. Emergent vegetation consists of wetland plants that are
rooted in the soil but have portions of leaves, stems, and flowers extending above the
water’s surface. There are several types of wetlands including marshes,
swamps, bogs, mudflats, and
Fig. 18: Agusan Marsh Wildlife salt marshes.
Sanctuary is a protected area in
Agusan del Sur, Philippines declared Like terrestrial biomes,
by the former President Fidel V. aquatic biomes are
Ramos. The marshland acts like a
influenced by abiotic
sponge, as it is nestled in the
midwaters of the Agusan River factors. In the case of
drainage basin. Within its lakes, aquatic biomes the
several floating communities can be abiotic factors include light,
found temperature, flow regime,
and dissolved solids.

REFERENCES:

 (Fig.13): https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f-
d%3Ac6f6fa450fe01ce3717277c61df3cfae73bc6c71d4f4281be0a9b498%2BIMAGE_TINY%2BIM
AGE_TINY.1
 Cunningham, W.P. & Cunningham, M.A. (2017). Principles of Environmental Science: Inquiry and
Applications, 8th Edition. McGraw-Hill Education

Image credits to: Auburn University Office of Sustainability