CIE Physics IGCSE

General practical skills

Analysing results and assessing validity

www.pmt.education
Analysing Data

Precision
In the context of science experiments, ​precision​ refers to ​how close together repeat
readings are​; the closer the readings, the more precise they are. The precision of your
readings can be increased by using instruments with a ​higher resolution​, meaning more
decimal places. For example, a digital thermometer is preferable over an analogue one as it
gives readings to ​more decimal places​.

Accuracy and Errors

The ​accuracy​ of scientific results refers to ​how close the readings are to the true value​.
To increase accuracy, experiments should be ​repeated several times.​ The accuracy of
results can be affected by different types of errors: systematic and random.

Systematic errors​ are due to a ​fault with the equipment​ and these are ​not random​; for
example, not ​calibrating instruments​ properly or not taking into account ​zero error​ (when
an instrument gives a ​false reading when the measured quantity is zero​, e.g. the needle
on an ammeter does not return to zero when no current flows.) These errors can be resolved
by carrying out the ​same experiment using different sets of equipment​.

Random errors​ are due to ​unpredictable changes​ in the experiment and they cause data
to differ from the true amount by a different value each time. These can be the result of not
taking readings the same way each time. For example: ​parallax error​ due to taking readings
from a different position (not eye-level) each time. These errors cannot be completely
resolved since they are unpredictable, but can be reduced by ​increasing the amount of
data​ – having lots of readings makes it easier to identify potential ​anomalies​ within the data.

It is important to remember that ​precision and accuracy are not related​ – it is possible for
repeat readings to be very close together (precise) but nowhere near the true value
(inaccurate).

Also consider how reliable your results are; in other words, if you could repeat the
experiment using the same method and equipment, would you obtain the same result? It is
good practice to repeat an experiment at least twice with the aim of obtaining ​concordant
results, which will also help discount any ​anomalies​.

www.pmt.education
Presenting Data

The results from an experiment should be presented in a​ graph​ (for ​continuous data​) or a
bar chart​ (for data with ​specific categories​), with the​ independent variable on the x-axis
and the ​dependent variable on the y-axis​. When plotting your graph, make sure to choose
an ​appropriate scale​ for each of the axes so that the plotted results make up ​more than
half of the space on the graph​ (to do this, you may need a break in the axes, represented
by a zig-zag line). Ensure both axes are​ labelled ​with the quantity and unit in the same way
as the table headings.

For a graph, a line (or curve) of best fit should be drawn, and there should be an ​equal
number of points on either side of the line​ if possible. This should be done with a ​sharp
pencil​ so the line is thin and easy to read from. If the independent variable is​ directly
proportional​ to the dependent variable, the line of best fit will be a ​straight line through
the origin​.

To determine the ​gradient​ of a line of best fit, you should start by finding two points on the
change in y
line where it is easy to read the x and y values. Then use the formula​ g radient = change in x and
substitute the values from the graph into it.

Drawing graphs
You will not only need to be able to​ read and interpret​ graphs given to you in the exam, you
may also be expected to ​draw ​a graph from a set of data given. Here are some important
tips for drawing graphs:
● Always use a ​sharpened pencil​ and ​ruler ​to draw the axis and line of best fit.
● Label ​the ​axis ​with its variable and its ​units.
● Draw your graph a​ sensible size.
○ Use up at least half of the graph paper given.
● Use a sensible ​scale.
● The ​dependent variable​ goes on the ​vertical y axis.
● The ​independent variable​ goes on the ​horizontal x axis.
● Determine the ​ranges ​of the axis so you can include all the data points collected.
● Give the graph an appropriate ​title .
● Indicate any ​anomalies ​but identify them as anomalous.
○ Ignore these when drawing your line of best fit.
● Draw a​ line of best fit​ if possible.
○ The ‘line’ could be ​straight or curved. ​If the line of best fit is not a straight
line, a freehand continuous curve must be drawn.
○ Never ​just connect the points like a dot-to-dot.
○ Bring a long, ​clear ​ruler to the exam so you can see the data points when
drawing a straight line of best fit.

www.pmt.education
A helpful way to remember which axis the independent and dependent variables go on is to
imagine the letters ‘I’ and ‘D’ sat on their respective axis as shown:

Shown below is an example graph drawn for the following table of results:
Notice that the ​units​ of measurements are only included in the title of each column. Each
measurement of the same type must be given to the same ​degree of accuracy ​- e.g. in the
table below, each weight value is given to three significant figures.

Length (cm) Weight (g)

10 35.0

15 38.5

25 50.0

33 58.0

40 65.0

45 100

58 88.0

59 85.0

70 96.0

www.pmt.education
The ​graph​ to represent this data:

Anomalies
Data points can be considered ​anomalies ​if they do not fit the trend of the data, which
happens as a ​result of random errors​ during the experiment. Anomalies should always be
removed from the data set​ before calculating or concluding anything.

Drawing conclusions
When drawing conclusions from an experiment it is important to ​reference the data.​ In the
exam this includes ​giving examples of data​ collected to illustrate a ​trend or pattern​ and
averages ​such as the ​mean and ranges​. You are expected to use a ​calculator ​when
necessary, such as when calculating these averages. An ​explanation ​of the trends and
observations from your experiment should accompany the data you’ve included in your
conclusion. These explanations should draw upon ​scientific knowledge​ from your entire
course.

An example conclusion
The data collected shows that as the length of oak leaves increases, the weight of them also
increases linearly. For instance, a leaf which measured 10 cm weighed only 35.0 g whereas
a leaf which measured 59 cm weighed 85.0 g. The explanation for this is that longer leaves
have a larger surface area and, therefore, a greater mass. If I were to repeat this experiment
I would measure longer leaves to investigate whether the trend remains the same and if it
remains linear for lengths past 80 cm.

This conclusion includes:

● The ​pattern/trend
● Data points ​to illustrate the trend
● A ​scientific explanation​ for the trend
● A short ​evaluation

www.pmt.education
Exam questions
As well as drawing graphs you will need to be able to ​interpret and read graphs​ given to
you in the exam. Possible skills you could be tested on include:
● Reading data points​ off a graph
● Drawing ​an appropriate​ line of best fit
○ Remember it may not be straight!
● Suggesting the​ type of graph​ you would use for a given set of data
○ General rule of thumb - if ​quantitative ​use a​ scatter graph​, if ​qualitative ​use
a ​bar chart.
● Identifying ​patterns ​and ​trends
● Drawing conclusions​ from the graph which must include ​referencing data points
● Comparing ​2 similar graphs
○ For instance, comparing 2 graphs which have the same dependent and
independent variables but a different subject of study (e.g. for the example
above, comparing that graph to another graph which shows the lengths and
weights for a different species of leaf).

Validity

Validity​ is the extent to which your results are able to answer the question you originally
asked. Before analysing results, reread the introduction to remind yourself of the ​aims​ of the
experiment, as well as any ​theories​ underlying the research area. This will help you think
about whether your results answer your question.

Some things that may ​reduce​ the validity of your experiment include;
● Resolution​ of equipment; if your equipment is not very precise, you may not have
the correct amount of substance.
● Size of ​increments​; with equipment such as pipettes, only a fixed increment size is
available, limiting the accuracy of your measurements.
● Confounding​ variables; these are any variables other than your independent
variable(s) that affect your dependent variable. It is important to try and control for
confounds, however this is not always possible e.g. temperature of the room.
● Error types; ​random​ errors do not have any identifiable cause and therefore cannot
be corrected. Instead you must make new measurements. ​Systematic​ errors result
in measured values that differ by the same amount every time. The cause can be
identified and thereby the error eliminated. ​Experimenter ​errors occur through
human error e.g. the researcher might misread a measurement, or write something
down incorrectly.

www.pmt.education
 CIE Physics IGCSE

General practical skills

Planning experiments and improving technique

www.pmt.education
Key Terms
Independent variable (IV)​: the thing you are going to ​change
Dependent variable (DV)​: the thing you are going to ​measure ​(it is dependent on the
independent variable)
Control variables​: the things you are going to ​keep the same​ (so that the results are as
reliable as possible.)

Planning the Experiment

When planning an investigation, the first step is to​ identify your variables​: What are you
going to change? What are you going to measure? What is going to stay the same?
The ​control variables​ in an experiment are incredibly important in ensuring the test is ​fair​.

Before starting the experiment you must also ​evaluate the dangers​ in a​ risk assessment
(detailed in a previous section) to ensure that it is safe to continue.

Conducting the Experiment

During the experiment, make sure all control variables are kept constant, and take care to
follow the precautions set out in your risk assessment.

In order to make the results as reliable as possible, you should ​repeat the experiment a
few times​ so that you have more data to work with. This will allow you to easily identify any
anomalous results (and remove them from the data set so they do not affect any further
calculations), and determine the mean for each set of readings. Repeating the experiment
will also give an idea of how reliable your results are: if repeat readings are all very different,
it is likely they are unreliable. You should also use the best equipment available –
instruments with the ​highest resolution ​– to ​maximise precision​.

Reflecting on how well your plan worked

Did you choose the right range of values for your IV? Was your DV affected by your IV in the
way you expected? Was your measuring equipment sensitive enough to detect the change?
Were there any confounding variables that you were unaware of, or unable to control for?
Did you choose the right apparatus for your needs?

Suggesting improvements
Here are some common issues that can affect the results of experiments;
● Small ​sample size
● Experiment was ​not repeated
● Equipment ​not precise
● Certain variables were ​not controlled

www.pmt.education
 CIE Physics IGCSE

General practical skills

Recording observations and measurements

www.pmt.education
Measurements and Observations

Two methods of recording data are ​observations​ and ​measurements​. Both can be
recorded using different methods e.g. tables, written statements, drawings, tally charts.
When using tables ensure you use a ruler and a pencil, and include headings with units.

Observations
Observations are a more ​qualitative​ form of recording results. This involves writing down
exactly​ what you ​see​ happening during the experiment. There is ​always​ something to
observe; even if nothing happens you can write ‘no change’. A good tip is to use four of your
senses​ when recording observations;
1. What can you ​see​? This is the most obvious one, and therefore easiest to spot. Does
anything change colour? Is there fizzing?
2. What can you ​smell​? Is there a nice smell, like fruit? Or a less pleasant smell, like
rotten eggs?
3. What can you ​feel​? Is something getting warmer, or colder?
4. What can you ​hear​? This is the trickiest one as experiments rarely produce noise.
Listen carefully, and you may hear popping or whistling if gas is being produced.

Measurements
Measurements are a more ​quantitative​ form of recording results. This involves exact
numbers, either obtained from apparatus such as scales, or counted frequencies. Some
examples of things you can measure include weight, length, volume (of liquid or gas),
temperature, pH.

It is important to be as ​accurate​ as you can when taking measurements; ask someone else
to check if you are not sure. Record results to the ​same precision​ as your equipment e.g. if
using a measuring cylinder with 1cm​3​ increments, do not record 0.5cm​3​. Always use SI units,
e.g. millimetres not inches.

www.pmt.education
Recording Measurements
When conducting an experiment, you must ​record all measurements taken ​(e.g.
temperature, mass or time), and in most cases this should be ​presented in a table​. This
table should have the independent variable in the left-hand column and the dependent
variable should go along the top, with the recorded data filling the main body of the table.
The headings should be in the format ​‘quantity/unit’​.

An example table is shown below:

Potential Difference / V
(dependent variable)

Length / m Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Mean

(independent variable)

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.10 0.09 0.15 0.12 0.12

0.20 0.22 0.22 0.25 0.23

0.30 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.35

0.40 0.51 0.43 0.47 0.47

www.pmt.education
 CIE Physics IGCSE

General practical skills

Safe use of apparatus

www.pmt.education
Setting Up and Using Apparatus Safely

Setting Up Apparatus
When setting up the apparatus for an experiment, ensure you follow ​all instructions
carefully so as to minimise the chances of somebody getting hurt or of making a mistake and
getting inaccurate results. For example, when creating a circuit, ensure the ​power is always
off​ before making any changes, and be sure to connect everything in the ​correct places​ so
that you get the right measurements.

Using Apparatus Safely

As with setting up the experiment, ensure that you ​follow the method carefully​ all the way
through. There may also be a ​risk assessment​ within the instructions which you should be
aware of and follow all precautions. If one does not already exist, then you should carry out
your own risk assessment, detailing all ​possible hazards​, why they are hazardous (what is
the risk?), and then what you can do to​ minimise the risk​. For example:

Hazard Risk Precautions

Using a Bunsen Can start a fire or Ensure all loose or hanging clothing is removed or
burner burn someone kept away from the Bunsen burner (e.g. ties or
blazers) and ​hair is tied up​. The flame should be
off or on the ​safety flame​ when not in use.
Heatproof mats​ should also be placed under the
Bunsen burner.

Using hanging Masses can fall and Stand away from the hanging masses and wear
masses hit someone protective, closed-toe shoes.

Stretching a spring The spring may break Wear goggles​ to protect your eyes from any sharp
and hit someone pieces of metal and do not overload the spring.

During the experiment

Follow all instructions ​exactly​, making sure you do not try and take short cuts. You may find
it helpful to tick off steps as you complete them so that you do not make any errors. If you
are using multiple test tubes or other containers, ​label​ them so that you know what is inside.
Do not leave your experiment ​unattended​ while it is running. If you are walking around the
room, exercise caution, particularly if there are ​other people​ also running experiments.

Be careful when touching apparatus during the experiment, as accidents might happen. Be
especially wary if the apparatus is ​hot​; do not attempt to touch it with your bare hands. If you
injure​ yourself e.g. receive a cut or a burn, alert someone ​immediately​, even if it does not
seem serious. If a piece of apparatus ​breaks​, alert someone and do not try to fix it yourself.

www.pmt.education
When you finish
Remember to not touch any apparatus that has been hot until it has ​completely​ cooled
down. Walk carefully when ​carrying​ apparatus, particularly glass or heavy items. Leave
your safety equipment on until the very end.

www.pmt.education