Fluids Full Final Course

Elementary Fluid Mechanics
Recommended Books:
Text Book:
 Fluid Mechanics With Engineering Applications (10th
Edition)
by E. John Finnemore & Joseph B. Franzini
Reference Books:
 A textbook of Hydraulics, Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic
Machines (19th Edition) by R.S. Khurmi
 Applied Fluid Mechanics (6th Edition) by Robert L. Mott
 Fluid Mechanics by A.K Jain
Properties of Fluids
Lecture - 1
Fluid
 A fluid is defined as:
“A substance that continually deforms (flows) under
an applied shear stress regardless of the magnitude
of the applied stress”.
 It is a subset of the phases of matter and includes
liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic
solids.
Fluid
 It can also be defined as a material in which movement occurs
continuously under the application of a tangential shear stress.
 Example:
 A simple example is shown in Figure, in which a timber board floats on a reservoir

of water. If a force F, is applied to one end of the board, then the board transmits a
tangential shear stress to the reservoir surface. The board and the water beneath
will continue to move as long as F and shear stress are nonzero, which means that
water satisfies the definition of a fluid. Air is another fluid-that is commonly
encountered in civil engineering applications.
Mechanics
 Mechanics can be defined as a branch of science
which deals with the motion of objects and forces
acting on them.
 Mechanics can be divided into two categories:
 Fluid Mechanics
 Solid Mechanics
Fluid Vs Solid Mechanics
 Fluid mechanics:
“The study of the physics of materials which take the shape of
their container.” Or
“Branch of Engg. science that studies fluids and forces on
them.”
 Solid Mechanics:
“The study of the physics of materials with a defined rest
shape.”
 Fluid Mechanics can be further subdivided into fluid statics, the
study of fluids at rest, and kinematics, the study of fluids in motion
and fluid dynamics, the study of effect of forces on fluid motion.
 In the modern discipline called Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD), computational approach is used to develop solutions to fluid
mechanics problems.
Distinction between a Solid and a Fluid
Solid Fluid
 Definite Shape and definite  Indefinite Shape and Indefinite
volume. volume & it assumes the shape
 Does not flow easily. of the container which it
occupies.
 Molecules are closer.
 Flow Easily.
 Attractive forces between the
molecules are large enough to  Molecules are far apart.
retain its shape.  Attractive forces between the
 An ideal Elastic Solid deform molecules are smaller.
under load and comes back to  Intermolecular cohesive forces
original position upon removal of in a fluid are not great enough to
load. hold the various elements of
 Plastic Solid does not comes back fluid together. Hence Fluid will
to original position upon removal flow under the action of applied
of load, means permanent stress. The flow will be
deformation takes place. continuous as long as stress is
applied.
Distinction between a Gas and Liquid
 The molecules of a gas are  A liquid is relatively

much farther apart than incompressible.
those of a liquid.  If all pressure, except that
 Hence a gas is very of its own vapor pressure,
compressible, and when is removed, the cohesion
all external pressure is between molecules holds
removed, it tends to expand them together, so that the
indefinitely. liquid does not expand
 A gas is therefore in indefinitely.
equilibrium only when it is  Therefore a liquid may
completely enclosed. have a free surface.
SI Units
FPS Units
Important Terms
 Density (r):
Mass per unit volume of a substance.
 kg/m3 in SI units m
 Slug/ft3 in FPS system of units r=
V
 Specific weight (g):
Weight per unit volume of substance.
w
 N/m3 in SI units g=
 lbs/ft3 in FPS units V
 Density and Specific Weight of a fluid are related as:
g = rg
 Where g is the gravitational constant having value 9.8m/s2 or
32.2 ft/s2.
Important Terms
 Specific Volume (v):
Volume occupied by unit mass of fluid.
 It is commonly applied to gases, and is usually expressed in

cubic feet per slug (m3/kg in SI units).
 Specific volume is the reciprocal of density.
SpecificVolume = v = 1 / r
Important Terms
 Specific gravity:
It can be defined in either of two ways:
a. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to
the density of water at 4°C.
b. Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of a
substance to the specific weight of water at 4°C.
g l rl
s liquid = =
g w rw
Example
The specific wt. of water at ordinary temperature and
pressure is 62.4lb/ft3. The specific gravity of mercury is
13.56. Compute density of water, Specific wt. of mercury,
and density of mercury.
Solution:
1. r water = g water / g = 62.4/32.2 = 1.938 slugs/ft3

2. g mercury = s mercuryg water = 13 .56 x62 .4 = 846 lb / ft 3
3. r mercury = s mercury r water = 13 .56 x1.938 = 26 .3slugs / ft 3
(Where Slug = lb.sec2/ ft)

Example
A certain gas weighs 16.0 N/m3 at a certain temperature and
pressure. What are the values of its density, specific volume,
and specific gravity relative to air weighing 12.0 N/m3
Solution:
1. Density ρ = γ /g
ρ = 16/9.81 = 16.631 kg/m 3
2. Specific volume υ = 1/ρ

u = 1/1.631 = 0.613 m 3 /kg
3. Specific gravity s = γ f /γ air

s = 16/12 = 1.333
Example
The specific weight of glycerin is 78.6 lb/ft3. compute its density
and specific gravity. What is its specific weight in kN/m3
Solution:
1. Density r = g / g
r = 78.6/32.2 = 2.44 slugs/ft 3
2. Specific gravity s = g l / g w
s = 78.6/62.4 = 1.260
so r = 1.260x1000 kg/m 3
r = 1260 Kg/m 3
3. Specific weight in kN/m 3
g =r xg
g = 9.81x1260 = 12.36 kN/m 3
Example
Calculate the specific weight, density, specific volume and
specific gravity of 1litre of petrol weights 7 N.
Solution:
Given Volume = 1 litre = 10-3 m3
Weight = 7 N
1. Specific weight,
w = Weight of Liquid/volume of Liquid
w = 7/ 10-3 = 7000 N/m3
2. Density, r = g /g
r = 7000/9.81 = 713.56 kg/m3
Solution (Cont.):
3. Specific Volume = 1/ r
= 1/713.56
=1.4x10-3 m3/kg
4. Specific Gravity = s =
Specific Weight of Liquid/Specific Weight of Water
= Density of Liquid/Density of Water
s = 713.56/1000 = 0.7136
Example
If the specific gravity of petrol is 0.70.Calculate its Density,
Specific Volume and Specific Weight.
Solution:
Given
Specific gravity = s = 0.70
1. Density of Liquid, r = s x density of water
= 0.70x1000
= 700 kg/m3
2. Specific Volume = 1/ r
= 1/700
= 1.43 x 10-3
3. Specific Weight, = 700x9.81 = 6867 N/m3
Compressibility
 It is defined as: “Change in Volume due to change in Pressure.”
 The compressibility of a liquid is inversely proportional to Bulk Modulus (volume
modulus of elasticity).
 Bulk modulus of a substance measures resistance of a substance to uniform
compression. − dp
Ev =
 It is defined as the ratio between pressure increase and the (dv / v)
resulting decrease in a material's volume.  v 
It is equal to the change in pressure divided by the change Ev = − dp

 dv 
in volume divided by initial volume. The negative sign indicates that an
increase in pressure is accompanied by a decrease in volume.
 Where; v is the specific volume and p is the pressure.
 A large Bulk Modulus indicates a relative incompressible fluid.
 Units: Psi, MPa , As v/dv is a dimensionless ratio, the units of E and p are
identical.
Example
At a depth of 8km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8Mpa. Assume
that the specific weight of sea water at the surface is 10.05 kN/m3
and that the average volume modulus is 2.34 x 103 N/m3 for that
pressure range.
(a) What will be the change in specific volume between that at the
surface ant at that depth?
(b) What will be the specific volume at that depth?
(c) What will be the specific weight at that depth?
Solution:
(a) v 1 = 1 / p1 = g / g 1
Using Equation :
= 9.81 / 10050 = 0.000976 m 3 / kg
− p
v = −0.000976 (81 .8 x10 − 0) /(2.34 x10 )
6 9 Ev =
( v / v )
= -34.1x10 -6
m 3 / kg dv p
−
v Ev
(b) v 2 = v1 + v = 0.000942 m 3 / kg v2 − v1 p −p
− 2 1
v1 Ev
(c) g 2 = g / v2 = 9.81 / 0.000942 = 10410 N / m 3

Viscosity
 Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to deform
under shear stress.
 It is commonly perceived as thickness, or resistance to flow.
 Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and
may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. Motor oil, for
example, has high viscosity and resistance to shear, is
cohesive and feels “sticky,” whereas gasoline has low
viscosity.Similarly, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity,
while vegetable oil is "thick" having a higher viscosity.
 The friction forces in flowing fluid result from the cohesion
and momentum interchange between molecules.
 All real fluids (except super-fluids) have some resistance to
shear stress, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress
is known as an ideal fluid.
 It is also known as Absolute Viscosity or Dynamic
Effect of temperature on Viscosity of
Fluids
 Figure indicates how the viscosities of typical fluids depend on temperature.
 As the temperature increases, the viscosities of all liquids decrease, while the
viscosities of all gases increase.
 This is because the force of cohesion, which diminishes with temperature,
predominates with liquids, while with gases the predominating factor is the
interchange of molecules between the layers of different velocities. Thus a rapidly-
moving gas molecule shifting into a slower moving layer tends to speed up the
latter. And a slow-moving molecule entering a faster-moving layer tends to slow
down the faster-moving layer. This molecular interchange sets up a shear or
produces a friction force between adjacent layers. At higher temperatures
molecular activity increases, so causing the viscosity of gases to increase with
temperature.
Effect of temperature on Viscosity of
Fluids
Trends in viscosity variation with

temperature
Viscosity
Newtons’ Law of Viscosity
 As a fluid moves, a shear stress is developed
in it, the magnitude of which depends on the
viscosity of the fluid.
 Shear stress, denoted by the Greek letter (tau),
τ, can be defined as the force required to slide
one unit area layer of a substance over
another.
 Thus, τ is a force divided by an area and can
be measured in the units of N/m2 (Pa) or lb/ft2.

 Let us consider a liquid element between the fixed plate and
the movable plate at a distance ‘Y’ apart, ‘A’ is the contact
area (Wetted area) of the movable plate, ‘F’ is the force
required to move the plate with a velocity ‘U’.
 According to Newton’s law shear stress is proportional to
shear strain.
 Experiments have shown that: F A
AU
FF U F 
AU
Y
AU Y
FF 1/Y Thus,
Y
 Since, Shear Stress= Shear Force/Area So, τ=F/A
 F/A AU/AY F/A U/Y τF AU
U/Y
Y
 The fact that the shear stress in the fluid is directly
proportional to the velocity gradient (shear strain) can be
stated mathematically as
F U du
 τ U/Y Thus,  = = m = m
A Y dy
 where the constant of proportionality m (the Greek letter miu)

is called the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The term absolute
viscosity is sometimes used.
Kinematic Viscosity
 The kinematic viscosity ν is defined as:
“Ratio of absolute viscosity to density.”
m
=
r
Newtonian Fluid
 A Newtonian fluid; where stress is directly
proportional to rate of strain, and (named for Isaac
Newton) is a fluid that flows like water, its stress versus
rate of strain curve is linear and passes through the
origin. The constant of proportionality is known as the
viscosity.
 A simple equation to describe Newtonian fluid behavior
is
du
 =m
dy
 Where m = absolute viscosity/Dynamic viscosity or

simply viscosity
 = shear stress
 Rheology is the science of the flow and deformation of matter
(liquid or “soft” solid) under the effect of an applied force
 Deformation → change of the shape and the size of a body

due to applied forces (external forces and internal forces)
 Flow → irreversible deformation (matter is not reverted to the

original state when the force is removed) – Elasticity →
reversible deformation (matter is reverted to the original form
after stress is removed)
Elastic Solid:
The solid resists forces that act to change its shape. If the force is not too
great, it deforms only slightly, and reverts to its original shape as soon as the
force is removed. This behavior is called elastic, and the materials that exhibit
it are called elastic solids.
Newtonian Fluid:
A fluid for which the constant of proportionality does not change with the rate
of deformation is called a Newtonian fluid, and this is plotted as a straight line
in Fig. The slope of this line is the absolute viscosity µ. E.g. slurries,
suspensions, gels.
Non-Newtonian Fluid:
Fluids in which µ varies with the rate of deformation. These are relatively
uncommon in engineering usage so we restrict to the common fluids that
under normal conditions obey Newton’s equation of viscosity. E.g.
Quicksand, Corn flour and water, Ketchup.
Ideal Plastic:
A plastic that sustains a certain amount of stress before suffering a plastic flow
corresponds to a straight line intersecting the vertical axis at the yield stress.
E.g. sewage, sludge etc.
Ideal Fluid:
The ideal fluid being incompressible having no viscosity falls on the
horizontal axis, whereas a true elastic solid is plotted on the vertical axis.
Example
Find the kinematic viscosity of liquid in stokes whose
specific gravity is 0.85 and dynamic viscosity is 0.015
poise.
Solution:
Given S = 0.85
m = 0.015 poise
= 0.015 x 0.1 Ns/m2 = 1.5 x 10-3 Ns/m2
We know that S = density of liquid/density of water
density of liquid = S x density of water
r = 0.85 x 1000 = 850 kg/m3
Kinematic Viscosity ,
u = m/ r = 1.5 x 10-3/850
= 1.76 x 10-6 m2/s = 1.76 x 10-6 x 104cm2/s
= 1.76 x 10-2 stokes.
Example
A 1 in wide space between two horizontal plane surface is
filled with SAE 30 Western lubricating oil at 80 F. What
force is required to drag a very thin plate of 4 sq.ft area
through the oil at a velocity of 20 ft/mm if the plate is 0.33
in from one surface.
Solution:
m = 0.0063 lb.sec/ft 2 ( From − A.1)

F U du
 = =m =m
A Y dy
 1 = 0.0063 * (20 / 60) /( 0.33 / 12) = 0.0764lb / ft 2
 2 = 0.0063 * (20 / 60) /( 0.67 / 12) = 0.0394lb / ft 2
F1 =  1 A = 0.0764 * 4 = 0.0305lb
F2 =  2 A = 0.0394 * 4 = 0.158lb
Force = F1 + F2 = 0.463lb
Example
Assuming a velocity distribution as shown in fig., which is a
parabola having its vertex 12 in from the boundary,
calculate the shear stress at y= 0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 inches.
Fluid’s absolute viscosity is 600 P.
Solution
m =600 P= 600 x 0.1=0.6 N-s/m2 =0.6 x (1x2.204/9.81 x 3.282)
=0.6 x 0.020885=0.01253 lb-sec/ft2
Parabola Equation Y=aX2

120-u= a(12-y) 2
u=0 at y=0 so a= 120/122=5/6
u=120-5/6(12-y) 2 du/dy=5/3(12-y)
=m du/dy
y (in) 0 3 6 9 12
du/dy 20 15 10 5 0
 0.251 0.1880 0.1253 0.0627 0

Ideal Fluid
 An ideal fluid may be defined as:
“A fluid in which there is no friction i.e Zero viscosity.”
 Although such a fluid does not exist in reality, many fluids
approximate frictionless flow at sufficient distances, and so
their behaviors can often be conveniently analyzed by
assuming an ideal fluid.
Real Fluid
 In a real fluid, either liquid or gas, tangential or
shearing forces always come into being whenever
motion relative to a body takes place, thus giving
rise to fluid friction, because these forces oppose
the motion of one particle past another.
 These friction forces give rise to a fluid property
called viscosity.
Surface Tension
 Cohesion: “Attraction between molecules of same surface”
It enables a liquid to resist tensile stresses.
 Adhesion: “Attraction between molecules of different surface”
It enables to adhere to another body.
 “Surface Tension is the property of a liquid, which enables it
to resist tensile stress”.
 At the interface between liquid and a gas i.e at the liquid
surface, and at the interface between two immiscible (not
mixable) liquids, the attraction force between molecules form
an imaginary surface film which exerts a tension force in the
surface. This liquid property is known as Surface Tension.
Surface Tension
 As a result of surface tension, the liquid surface has a
tendency to reduce its surface as small as possible. That is
why the water droplets assume a nearly spherical shape.
 Capillary Rise: The phenomenon of rising water in the tube of
smaller diameter is called capillary rise.
Metric to U.S. System Conversions,
Calculations, Equations, and Formulas
 Millimeters (mm) x 0.03937 = inches (")(in)

 Centimeters (cm) x 0.3937 = inches (")(in)
 Meters (m) x 39.37 = inches (")(in)
 Meters (m) x 3.281 = feet (')(ft)
 Meters (m) x 1.094 = yards (yds)
 Kilometers (km) x 0.62137 = miles (mi)
 Kilometers (km) x 3280.87 = feet (')(ft)
 Liters (l) x 0.2642 = gallons (U.S.)(gals)

Calculations, Equations & Formulas
 Bars x 14.5038 = pounds per square inch (PSI)

 Kilograms (kg) x 2.205 = Pounds (P)
 Kilometers (km) x 1093.62 = yards (yds)
 Square centimeters x 0.155 = square inches
 Liters (l) x 0.0353 = cubic feet
 Square meters x 10.76 = square feet
 Square kilometers x 0.386 = square miles
 Cubic centimeters x 0.06102 = cubic inches
 Cubic meters x 35.315 = cubic feet

 Inches (")(in) x 25.4 = millimeters (mm)

 Inches (")(in) x 2.54 = centimeters (cm)
 Inches (")(in) x 0.0254 = meters (m)
 Feet (')(ft) x 0.3048 = meters (m)
 Yards (yds) x 0.9144 = meters (m)
 Miles (mi) x 1.6093 = kilometers (km)
 Feet (')(ft) x 0.0003048 = kilometers (km)

 Gallons (gals) x 3.78 = liters (l)

 Cubic feet x 28.316 = liters (l)
 Pounds (P) x 0.4536 = kilograms (kg)
 Square inches x 6.452 = square centimeters
 Square feet x 0.0929 = square meters
 Square miles x 2.59 = square kilometers
 Acres x 4046.85 = square meters
 Cubic inches x 16.39 = cubic centimeters
 Cubic feet x 0.0283 = cubic meters
Fluid Statics
Lecture - 2
Fluid Statics
 Fluid Statics means the study of fluid at rest.
 At rest, there are no shear stresses, the only force is the normal
force due to pressure is present.
 Pressure is defined as:
 “Normal Force per Unit Area” Or
“The amount of force exerted on a unit area of a substance or
on a surface.”
 This can be stated by the equation:
F dF
p= (For Finite Area) p= (For Infinite Area)
A dA
 Units : N/m2(Pa), lbs/ft2 (psf), lbs/in2 (psi)
Example
A load of 200 pounds (lb) is exerted on a piston confining
oil in a circular cylinder with an inside diameter of 2.50
inches (in). Compute the pressure in the oil at the piston.
Solution:
Principles about Pressure
 Two important principles about pressure were described by
Blaise Pascal, a seventeenth-century scientist:
1. Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small volume
of a fluid.
2. In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts
perpendicular to the boundary.
Direction of fluid pressure on boundaries
Pressure at a point is same in all
directions and Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s Law
 According to Pascal’s Law, Pressure or intensity of
pressure at a point in a static fluid will be equal in

all directions.
Let us consider one arbitrary fluid element of

rectangular shape ABC as displayed here in
following figure. Let us assume that width of fluid
element ABC perpendicular to the plane of paper is
unity.
Pascal’s Law and its Derivation
Sin θ= Pzy/Pz
Pz.Sin θ= Pzy
Cos θ= Pzx/Pz 90- θ Pz

Pz.Cos θ= Pzx θ
θ
θ
Pz
Pzy
θ
Pzx
 Let us consider the following terms as mentioned here

 PX = Pressure acting in X- direction over the face AB
 PY = Pressure acting in Y- direction over the face AC
 PZ = Pressure acting in Z- direction over the face BC
 θ = Angle ABC, as displayed above in figure
 dx, dy and ds : Fluid element dimensions
 ρ = Density of the fluid
 Let us analyse here the forces acting on the fluid element
ABC
 Force on the face AB, AC and BC

 FAB = PX x Area of face AB = PX. dy. 1 = PX. dy
 FAC = PY x Area of face AC = PY. dx. 1 = PY. dx
 FBC = PZ x Area of face BC = PZ. ds. 1 = PZ. ds
 Weight of the fluid element,
 W = Volume x Density of fluid x acceleration due to gravity
 W = Area x width of fluid element x Density of fluid x
acceleration due to gravity
 W = (AB x AC/2) x 1 x ρ x g = (dy dx/2) x ρ x g
Considering the forces in X-direction

 FX – FZX = 0
 PX. dy- PZX. ds = 0 PZX = PZ.Cos θ

 PX. dy- PZ.Cos θ.ds = 0
 PX. dy = PZ. ds Cos θ
 As we can see from above fluid element ABC, Cos θ =dy/ds

so,
 dy = ds Cos θ
 PX. dy = PZ. dy
 PX = PZ
Considering the forces in Y-direction

 FY – FZY – W= 0
 PY. dx- PZY. ds - (dy dx/2) x ρ x g = 0 PZY = PZ.Sin θ
 PY. dx- PZ. Sin θ ds - (dy dx/2) x ρ x g = 0
 PY. dx - PZ. ds Sin θ - (dy dx/2) x ρ x g = 0
 As fluid element is very small and therefore, we can neglect the weight of
fluid element
 PY. dx - PZ. ds Sin θ = 0
 As we can see from above fluid element ABC, Sin θ =dx/ds so, dx = ds Sin
θ
 PY. dx - PZ dx = 0
 PY = PZ
 From above two expressions mentioned above, we can write

following equation as:
 PX = PY = PZ
 We can say from above equation that pressure at any point in
X, Y and Z directions will be same.
 Pascal’s Law provides the base for any hydraulic system or we
can say that complete hydraulic system is based on the
principle of Pascal’s Law.
Fluid Statics
Lecture - 3
Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid
(Hydrostatic Law)
❑Hydrostatic law deals with the Variation of Pressure in a
Static Fluid.
❑It states that:

“Rate of increase of pressure in
vertical downward direction must
be equal to Specific Weight of fluid
at that point.”
Hydrostatic Law and its derivation
Consider a three dimensional fluid element at rest along with the
forces acting on it as shown in fig.
Y Py + dPy
Pz + dPz
Px Px + dPx
dy
Pz dz
dx
Z W
Py
 Assume the density of fluid to be constant within the element, since the
element is very small.
 Dimensions of the element are dx,dy,dz.
 W is the weight of the element.
 Force acting in vertical direction are:
 Body force: the action of gravity within the mass of fluid element
 Surface force: force transmitted from the surrounding fluid
 Since the fluid is at rest, the element is in equilibrium and the summation
of forces acting on the element in any direction must be zero.
 If the forces are summed up in horizontal directions that are x or z, they
cancel each other effect because the pressure at same level remains same
and so the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
 The only forces acting are the pressure forces acting on the vertical faces
of the element.
 For the vertical y-force in particular, we have

Pressure force + Gravity force = 0
 Py.dA - (Py + dPy).dA - W = 0
 Py.dA - Py.dA - dPy.dA - W = 0
 - dPy.dA - W = 0 W= ρ g dV dV= dx.dy.dz
W= ρ g(dx.dy.dz)
 -dPy.dA - ρ g(dx.dy.dz) = 0
 - dPy.dA = 0 + ρ g(dx.dy.dz)
 - dPy.dA = ρ g(dx.dy.dz) dA= dx.dz
 - dPy.dA = ρ g(dA.dy) dA= dx.dz
 - dPy = ρ g(dy)
 - dPy/dy = ρ g
 dPy/dy = - ρ g = - γ
- This is the general expression that relates the
variation of pressure in a static fluid to vertical
position. The minus sign indicates that as y gets
larger (increasing elevation), the pressure gets
smaller.
To evaluate the pressure anywhere in a fluid at rest, we must intergate previous
equation between appropriat e chosen limits.
dPy =  dy
 dPy =   dy
Py =  . y
p = y
Say; y = h
p = h
Or
p
h= (Pressure Head)

Pressure expressed in Height of Fluid
 The term elevation means the vertical distance from

some reference level to a point of interest and is
called z.
 A change in elevation between two points is called h.
Elevation will always be measured positively in the
upward direction.
 In other words, a higher point has a larger elevation
than a lower point.
 Fig shows the illustration of reference level for
elevation.
Relationship between Pressure and Elevation:
Pressure Head
 It is the pressure expressed in terms of height of fluid.
p
h=

 h=p/ represents the energy per unit wt. stored in the fluid by
virtue of pressure under which the fluid exists.
Example
An open tank contains water 1.40m deep covered by a 2m
thick layer of oil (s=0.855). What is the pressure head at
the bottom of the tank, in terms of a water column?
Solution:
 w = 9.81kN / m 3
 o = 0.855 x9.81 = 8.39 kN / m 3
For interface : p i =  o ho = 8.39 x 2 = 16 .78 kN / m 2
for water equivalent of oil :
p 16 .78
h oe = i = = 1.710 m
 w 9.81
So h we = hw + h oe = 1.40 + 1.710 = 3.11m
SOLUTION − 2
pb =  o ho +  w hw
= (8.39)2 + 9.81(1.4)
= 30.51kN/m 2
pb 30 .51
hwe = = = 3.11m
w 9.81
Exercises (Assignment):
1. An open tank contains 5 m water covered with 2 m of oil
(=8kN/m3). Find the gauge pressure (a) at interface between
the liquids and at bottom of the tank.
2. An open tank contains 7ft of water covered with 2.2ft oil
(s=0.88). Find the gauge pressure (a) at the interface between
the liquids and (b) at the bottom of the tank.
3. If air had a constant specific weight of 12N/m3and were
incompressible, what would be the height of air surrounding
the earth to produce a pressure at the surface of 101.3 kPa
abs?
Absolute and Gage Pressure
 Atmospheric Pressure: It is the force per unit area exerted by the
weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of Earth (or that
of another planet). It is also called as barometric pressure.
 Gauge Pressure: It is the pressure, measured with the help of

pressure measuring instrument in which the atmospheric pressure is
taken as Datum (reference from which measurements are made).
 Absolute Pressure: It is the pressure equal to the sum of
atmospheric and gauge pressures. Or
 If we measure pressure relative to absolute zero (perfect Vacuum)
we call it absolute pressure.
 Vacuum: If the pressure is below the atmospheric pressure we call it
as vacuum. pabs = patm + p gage
Measurement of Pressure
 There are many ways to measure pressure in a
fluid. Some are discussed here:
1. Barometers
2. Bourdon gauge
3. Pressure transducers
4. Piezometer Column
5. Simple Manometers
6. Differential Manometers
1. Barometers:
 To measure the atmospheric pressure.
 Procedure:
1. Immerse the open end of tube in a liquid
which is open to atmosphere.
2. The liquid will rise in the tube if we
exhaust air from the tube.
3. If all the air is removed and the tube is
long enough, than only pressure on the
surface is the vapour pressure and liquid
will reach its max. possible height (y).
pO = pa = patm = y + pvapour
If the vapour pressure on liquid surface in tube is negligible than :
patm = y
2. Bourdon Gauge:
 The pressure, above or below the atmospheric pressure,
may be easily measured with the help of a bourdon’s tube
pressure gauge.
 It consists on an elliptical tube: bent into an arc of a
circle. This bent up tube is called Bourdon’s tube.
 Tube changes its curvature with
change in pressure inside the tube.
Higher pressure tends to
“straighten” it.
 The moving end of tube rotates
needle on a dial through a linkage
system.
3. Piezometer Column/Tube:
 A piezometer tube is the simplest form
of instrument, used for measuring,
moderate pressure.
 It consists of long tube in which the
liquid can freely rise without
overflowing.
 The height of the liquid in the tube
will give the pressure head (p/)
directly.
 To reduce capillary error, the tube dia
should be at least 0.5 in.
4. Manometer:
 Manometer is an improved form of a piezometer
tube. With its help we can measure comparatively
high pressures and negative pressure also.
Following are few types of manometers.
1. Simple Manometer
2. Micro-manometer
3. Differential manometer
4. Inverted differential manometer
Simple Manometer:
 It consists of a tube bent in U-Shape, one
end of which is attached to the gauge point
and the other is open to the atmosphere.
 Mercury is used in the bent tube which is
13.6 times heavier than water. Therefore it
is suitable for measuring high pressure as
well.
Procedure:
1. Consider a simple Manometer connected to
a pipe containing a light liquid under high
pressure. The high pressure in the pipe will
force the mercury in the left limb of U-tube
to move downward, corresponding the rise
of mercury in the right limb.
Simple Manometer:
2. The horizontal surface, at which the heavy and light liquid meet in
the left limb, is known as datum line. Pressure does not vary in the
X-direction. Statics pressure remain constant in horizontal
direction.
Let h1 = height of light liquid in the left limb above datum.
h2 = height of heavy liquid in the right limb above datum.
h= Pressure in the pipe, expressed in terms of head of water.
s1=Sp. Gravity of light liquid.
s2=Sp. Gravity of heavy liquid.
3. Pressure in left limb above datum = h +s1h1
4. Pressure in right limb above datum = s2h2
5. Since the pressure is both limbs is equal So,
h +s1h1 = s2h2
h= (s2h2 - s1h1)
Simple Manometer:
To measure negative pressure:
In this case negative pressure will suck the light liquid which
will pull up the mercury in the left limb of U-tube.
Correspondingly fall of liquid in the right limb.
6. Pressure in left limb above datum = h +s1h1 + s2h2

7. Pressure in right limb = 0
8. Equating, we get
h = -s1h1-s2h2 = -(s1h1+s2h2)
Example
A simple manometer containing mercury is used to measure the
pressure of water flowing in a pipeline. The mercury level in the open
tube is 60mm higher than that on the left tube. If the height of water in
the left tube is 50mm, determine the pressure in the pipe in terms of
head of water.
Solution:
Pressure head in the left limb above Z - Z
= h + s1h1 = h + (1x50 )
= h + 50 mm
Pressure head in the right limb above Z - Z
= s 2 h2 = 13 .6 x60
= 816 mm
Equating;
h + 50 = 816
h = 766 mm
Example
A simple manometer containing mercury was used to find the
negative pressure in pipe containing water. The right limb of the
manometer was open to atmosphere. Find the negative pressure,
below the atmosphere in the pipe.
Solution:

= h + s1h1 + s 2 h2 = h + (1x50 ) + (13 .6 x50 )
= h + 700 mm
=0
Equating;
h + 700 = 0
h = -700 mm = -7m
Gauge pressure in the pipe = p =  h
9.81x(-7) = - 68.67kN/m 2
= -68.67kPa
= 68.67kPa (Vacuum)
Example
Figure shows a conical vessel having its outlet at A to which U tube
manometer is connected. The reading of the manometer given in
figure shows when the vessel is empty. Find the reading of the
manometer when the vessel is completely filled with water.
Solution:
h 2 = 200 mm = 0.2m
s1 = 1 and s 2 = 13 .6
Let h = Pressure head of mercury in terms on head of water.
1. Let us consider the vesselis to be empty and Z - Z be the datum line.
= s1h1 = 1xh = h
= s 2 h2 = 13 .6 x0.2 = 2.72 m
Equating; h = 2.72m
2. Consider t he vesselto be completely filled with wate r.
As a result, let the mercury level goes down by x meters in the right limb, and
the mercury level go up by the same amount in the left limb.
Therefore total height of water in the right limb
= x + h + 3 = x + 2.72 + 3 = x + 5.72
Pressure head in the right limb = 1(x + 5.72) = x + 5.72
We know that manometer reading in this case :
= 0.2 + 2x
Pressure head in the left limb
= 13.6 (0.2 + 2x) = 2.72 + 27.2x
Equating the pressures:
x + 5.72 = 2.72 + 27.2x
x = 0.115m
and manometer reading = 0.2 + (2x0.115) = 0.43m = 430 mm
Differential Manometer:
 It is a device used for measuring the difference of pressures,
between the two points in a pipe, on in two different pipes.
 It consists of U-tube containing a heavy liquid (mercury)
whose ends are connected to the points, for which the
pressure is to be found out.
Procedure:
❑ Let us take the horizontal surface Z-Z, at which heavy liquid
and light liquid meet in the left limb, as datum line.
❑ Let, h=Difference of levels (also known as differential
manomter reading)
ha, hb= Pressure head in pipe A and B, respectively.
s1, s2= Sp. Gravity of light and heavy liquid respectively.
1. Consider figure (a):
2. Pressure head in the left limb above
Z-Z = ha+s1(H+h)= ha+s1H+s1h
3. Pressure head in the right limb above

Z-Z = hb+s1H+s2h
4. Equating we get,
ha+s1H+s1h = hb+s1H+s2h
ha-hb=s2h-s1h = h(s2-s1)
Two pipes at different levels:
1. Pressure head in the left limb above
Z-Z = ha+s1h1
2. Pressure head in the right limb above
Z-Z = s2h2+s3h3+hb
3. Equating we get,
ha+s1h1 = s2h2+s3h3+hb
Where;
h1= Height of liquid in left limb
h2= Difference of levels of the heavy liquid in the right and
left limb (reading of differential manometer).
h3= Height of liquid in right limb
s1,s2,s3 = Sp. Gravity of left pipe liquid, heavy liquid, right
pipe liquid, respectively.
Example
A U-tube differential manometer connects two pressure pipes A and B.
The pipe A contains carbon Tetrachloride having a Sp. Gravity 1.6
under a pressure of 120 kPa. The pipe B contains oil of Sp. Gravity 0.8
under a pressure of 200 kPa. The pipe A lies 2.5m above pipe B. Find
the difference of pressures measured by mercury as fluid filling U-
tube.
Solution:
Given : s a = 1.6, p a = 120kPa; s b = 0.8, p b = 200kPa;
h1 = 2.5m and s = 13.6
Let h = Differnce of pressure measured by
mercury in terms of head of water.
We know that pressure head in pipe A,
pa 120
= = 12.2m
 9.81
pb 200
Pressure head in pipe B, = = 20.4m
 9.81
We also know that pressure head in Pipe A above Z - Z
= 12.2 + (s a . h1 ) + s.h
= 12.2 + (1.6 x 2.5) + 13.6 x h
= 16.2 + 13.6 h
Pressure head in Pipe B above Z - Z
= 20.4 + s b h = 20.4 + (0.8 x h)
Equating;
16.2 + 13.6 h = 20.4 + (0.8 x h)
h = 0.328 m = 328 mm
Inverted Differential Manometer:
 Type of differential manometer in which an inverted U-tube is used.
 Used for measuring difference of low pressure.
1. Pressure head in the left limb above Z-Z = ha-s1h1
2. Pressure head in the right limb above Z-Z = hb-s2h2-s3h3
3. Equating we get, ha-s1h1 = hb-s2h2-s3h3
(Where; ha, hb are Pressure in pipes A and B

expressed in terms of head of liquid, respectively)
Exercise (Assignment):
1. A simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil (sp.
Gravity = 0.8) flowing in a pipeline. Its right limb is open to the
atmosphere and the left limb is connected to the pipe. The centre
of pipe is 90mm below the level of mercury (sp. Gravity = 13.6)
in the right limb. If the difference of mercury levels in the two
limbs is 150mm, find the pressure of oil in pipe.
2. The pressure of water flowing in a pipeline is measured by a
manometer containing U-tubes as shown in figure. The
measuring fluid is mercury in all the tubes and water is
enclosed between the mercury columns. The last tube is
open to the atmosphere. Find the pressure of oil in the
pipeline.
3. A differential manometer connected at the two points A and
B at the same level in a pipe containing an oil of Sp. Gravity
0.8, shows a difference in mercury levels as 100mm.
Determine the difference in pressures at the two points.
Fluid Statics
Lecture - 3
Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid
(Hydrostatic Law)
❑Hydrostatic law deals with the Variation of Pressure in a
Static Fluid.
❑It states that:

“Rate of increase of pressure in
vertical downward direction must
be equal to Specific Weight of fluid
at that point.”
Consider a three dimensional fluid element at rest along with the
forces acting on it as shown in fig.
Y Py + dPy
Pz + dPz
Px Px + dPx
dy
Pz dz
dx
Z W
Py
 Assume the density of fluid to be constant within the element, since the
element is very small.
 Dimensions of the element are dx,dy,dz.
 W is the weight of the element.
 Force acting in vertical direction are:
 Body force: the action of gravity within the mass of fluid element
 Surface force: force transmitted from the surrounding fluid
 Since the fluid is at rest, the element is in equilibrium and the summation
of forces acting on the element in any direction must be zero.
 If the forces are summed up in horizontal directions that are x or z, they
cancel each other effect because the pressure at same level remains same
and so the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
 The only forces acting are the pressure forces acting on the vertical faces
of the element.
 For the vertical y-force in particular, we have

Pressure force + Gravity force = 0
 Py.dA - (Py + dPy).dA - W = 0
 Py.dA - Py.dA - dPy.dA - W = 0
 - dPy.dA - W = 0 W= gamma. dV W= ρ g dV dV= dx.dy.dz
W= ρ g(dx.dy.dz)
 dPy.dA - ρ g(dx.dy.dz) = 0
 - dPy.dA = 0 + ρ g(dx.dy.dz)
 - dPy.dA = ρ g(dx.dy.dz) dA= dx.dz
 - dPy.dA = ρ g(dA.dy) dA= dx.dz
 - dPy = ρ g(dy)
 - dPy/dy = ρ g
 dPy/dy = - ρ g = - γ
- This is the general expression that relates the
variation of pressure in a static fluid to vertical
position. The minus sign indicates that as y gets
larger (increasing elevation), the pressure gets
smaller.
To evaluate the pressure anywhere in a fluid at rest, we must intergate previous
equation between appropriat e chosen limits.
dPy =  dy
 dPy =   dy
Py =  . y
p = y
Say; y = h
p = h
Or
p
h= (Pressure Head)

Pressure expressed in Height of Fluid
 The term elevation means the vertical distance from

some reference level to a point of interest and is
called z.
 A change in elevation between two points is called h.
Elevation will always be measured positively in the
upward direction.
 In other words, a higher point has a larger elevation
than a lower point.
 Fig shows the illustration of reference level for
elevation.
Relationship between Pressure and Elevation:
Pressure Head
 It is the pressure expressed in terms of height of fluid.
p
h=

 h=p/ represents the energy per unit wt. stored in the fluid by
virtue of pressure under which the fluid exists.
Example
An open tank contains water 1.40m deep covered by a 2m
thick layer of oil (s=0.855). What is the pressure head at
the bottom of the tank, in terms of a water column?
Solution:
 w = 9.81kN / m 3
 o = 0.855 x9.81 = 8.39 kN / m 3
For interface : p i =  o ho = 8.39 x 2 = 16 .78 kN / m 2
for water equivalent of oil :
p 16 .78
h oe = i = = 1.710 m
 w 9.81
So h we = hw + h oe = 1.40 + 1.710 = 3.11m
SOLUTION − 2
pb =  o ho +  w hw
= (8.39)2 + 9.81(1.4)
= 30.51kN/m 2
pb 30 .51
hwe = = = 3.11m
w 9.81
Exercises (Assignment):
1. An open tank contains 5 m water covered with 2 m of oil
(=8kN/m3). Find the gauge pressure (a) at interface between
the liquids and at bottom of the tank.
2. An open tank contains 7ft of water covered with 2.2ft oil
(s=0.88). Find the gauge pressure (a) at the interface between
the liquids and (b) at the bottom of the tank.
3. If air had a constant specific weight of 12N/m3and were
incompressible, what would be the height of air surrounding
the earth to produce a pressure at the surface of 101.3 kPa
abs?
Types of Pressure
 Atmospheric Pressure: It is the force per unit area exerted by the
weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of Earth (or that
of another planet). It is also called as barometric pressure.
 Standard Value of Atmospheric Pressure:

Types of Pressure
 Gauge Pressure: It is the pressure, measured with the help of pressure
measuring instrument in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as Datum
(reference from which measurements are made).
 The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in
the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.
 Absolute Pressure: It is the pressure equal to the sum of atmospheric and
gauge pressures. Or
 If we measure pressure relative to absolute zero (perfect Vacuum) we call
it absolute pressure.
 Vacuum: If the pressure is below the atmospheric pressure we call it as
vacuum.
pabs = patm + p gage

Types of Pressure
17
Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.
Manometry and Pressure Measurement
 The usage of hydrostatic law for pressure

measurement is called as manometry.
 Pressure measurement devices:
Manometers Barometers Mechanical Gauges
Simple Manometers Differential Manometers

Bourdan Tubes
Piezometer U-Tube Manometer

Measurement of Pressure
 There are many ways to measure pressure in a
fluid. Some are discussed here:
1. Barometers
2. Manometers
3. Mechanical gauges
Barometers:
20
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the

atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).
The length or the

cross-sectional area
of the tube has no
effect on the height
of the fluid column of
a barometer,
provided that the
tube diameter is
large enough to
avoid surface tension
The basic barometer. (capillary) effects.
Barometers:
 To measure the atmospheric pressure.
 Procedure:
1. Immerse the open end of tube in a liquid
which is open to atmosphere.
2. The liquid will rise in the tube if we
exhaust air from the tube.
3. If all the air is removed and the tube is
long enough, than only pressure on the
surface is the vapour pressure and liquid
will reach its max. possible height (y).
pO = pa = patm = y + pvapour
If the vapour pressure on liquid surface in tube is negligible than :
patm = y
Bourdon Gauge:
 The pressure, above or below the atmospheric pressure,
may be easily measured with the help of a bourdon’s tube
pressure gauge.
 It consists on an elliptical tube: bent into an arc of a
circle. This bent up tube is called Bourdon’s tube.
 Tube changes its curvature with
change in pressure inside the tube.
Higher pressure tends to
“straighten” it.
 The moving end of tube rotates
needle on a dial through a linkage
system.
Manometers
 It is made up of glass tube which contains some manometric
fluid through which w e can measure pressure at different
points by using hydrostatic law.
 There are two types of manometers.
Simple Manometer
 If the pressure is measured at a particular point, that is called
simple manometer.
Differential Manometer
 If the pressure difference is measured between two points, that
is called differential manometer.
Types of Simple Manometer
 Further there are two types of simple manometers.
1. Piezometer
 It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring moderate
pressure.
 It consists of a glass tube which is attached to a point in a pipe or vessel at
which pressure is to be found.
 Due to pressure difference, the fluid in pipe starts to fill in the piezometric
tube without overflowing at a particular height h.
 Value of h is recorded. By using hydrostatic law, we can find the pressure
of the fluid.
 In piezometer, we don’t use manometric fluid. Here manometric fluid is
the fluid in the pipe.
 To reduce capillary error, the tube dia should be at least 0.5 in.
Patm
Pa > Patm
Drawbacks:
 It can measure positive pressure only. So, it cannot measure vacuum
pressure. It means that if Pa is less than Patm then air from
atmosphere starts to fill in the pipe and we do not get a column of
water that’s why piezometer cannot measure negative pressure.
 It cannot measure high pressure. If the pressure is high, h will be
high. So, it is not possible to insert such a high rise tube.
 It cannot measure pressure of gases because gases don’t have free
surface so we cannot observe the height of column in case of gases.
 Pressure of lighter liquids cannot be measured because a very long
column needs a very long manometric tube.
2. U-Tube Manometer
 To overcome the drawbacks of piezometer, a different type of manometer
was discovered, that was u-tube manometer.
 It is just like piezometer but the basuc difference is that in u-tube
manometer, different manometric fluid is used whose density is higher than
the density of fluid contained in pipe.
 Mercury is used in the bent tube which is 13.6 times heavier than water.
Therefore it is suitable for measuring high pressure as well.
 It consists of u-tube pipe, one end of which is attached to gauge point and
other end is open to atmosphere.
 Higher pressure can be measured.
 It can measure both positive and negative pressure.
Procedure for measuring Positive Pressure
1. Consider a simple U-tube Manometer
connected to a pipe containing a light liquid
under high pressure. The high pressure in
the pipe will force the mercury in the left
limb of U-tube to move downward,
corresponding the rise of mercury in the
right limb.
2. Lower level of the manometric fluid is taken
as reference or datum line z-z. Pressure
does not vary in the X-direction. Statics
pressure remain constant in horizontal
direction.
Let h1 = height of light liquid in the left limb Patm

above datum.
h2 = height of heavy liquid in the right limb

above datum.
h= Pressure in the pipe, expressed in terms

of head of water.
P
h3 = height of heavy liquid in the left and
right limb below datum.
h3
γ1=Specific weight of light liquid.
γ2=Specific weight of heavy liquid.

3. Sign Convention:
Pressure at downward depth= +
Pressure at upward depth= -
4. Write down the manometric equation:
P + γ1.h1 + γ2.h3 - γ2.h3 - γ2.h2 + Patm = 0 ………. Eq. 1
This eq. will give us the absolute pressure. If we have to find the gauge
pressure the eq. will be as:
P + γ1.h1 + γ2.h3 - γ2.h3 - γ2.h2 = 0 ……… Eq. 2 Here Patm = 0
P = - (γ1.h1 + γ2.h3 - γ2.h3 - γ2.h2)
P = - (γ1.h1 - γ2.h2)
Procedure for measuring negative pressure:
In this case negative/low pressure will cause the light liquid to move
backward which will pull up the mercury in the left limb of U-tube.
Correspondingly fall of liquid in the right limb.
Manometric Equation:
P + γ1.h1 + γ2.h2 + γ2.h3 - γ2.h3 = 0 (Gauge Pressure Eq.)
P = - (γ1.h1 + γ2.h2 )
P
h3
Example
A simple manometer containing mercury is used to measure the
pressure of water flowing in a pipeline. The mercury level in the open
tube is 60mm higher than that on the left tube. If the height of water in
the left tube is 50mm, determine the pressure in the pipe in terms of
head of water.
Solution:
γw = 9.81 kN/m3 γm = 133.7 kN/m3
P + γw.hw + γm.hm - γm.hm - γm.hm = 0
P + γw.hw - γm.hm = 0
P + (9.81x 1000).(50/1000) - (133.7x 1000).(60/1000) = 0
P = - 490.5 + 8022 P = 7531.5 N/m2
h = 7531.5/ (9.81x1000)
h = 0.768m h = 768mm
Example
A simple manometer containing mercury was used to find the
negative pressure in pipe containing water. The right limb of the
manometer was open to atmosphere. Find the negative pressure,
below the atmosphere in the pipe.
Solution:
γw = 9.81 kN/m3 γm = 133.7 kN/m3
Pressure in the left limb = P + γw.hw + γm.hm
Pressure in the right limb = 0
Equating, Pressure in the left limb = Pressure in the left limb
P + γw.hw + γm.hm =0
P = - 6.8812 kPa
Second Method
P + γw.hw + γm.hm + γm.h - γm.h = 0
P + (9.81x 1000).(20/1000) + (133.7x 1000).(50/1000) = 0
P = -196.2 – 6685
P = - 6881.2 Pa
P = - 6.8812 kPa
P = 6.8812 kPa (Vacuum)
Example
Figure shows a conical vessel having its outlet at A to which U tube
manometer is connected. The reading of the manometer given in
figure shows when the vessel is empty. Find the reading of the
manometer when the vessel is completely filled with water.
Patm
Patm
B
Solution:
a) When the vessel is empty.
Pb=Pa=Patm
Here we have to find gauge pressure s Patm=0
Pb=Pa=0 Pa-Pb=0
Starting from point A,
Pa + γw.hw + γm.hm - γm.hm - γm.hm1 - Pb = 0
(9.81x 1000).(h) - (133.7x 1000).(200/1000) = 0
h = 2.725 m
Example
water
y y
Solution:
b) Pressure at point A ,When the vessel is completely filled.
Pa= γw.hw1 = (9.81x 1000).(3)
Pa= 29430 Pa
When the vessel is filled with water, as a result, let the mercury level
goes down by y meters in the right limb and goes up by the same
amount in the left limb.
Manometric eq.
Pressure in the left limb = Pressure in the right limb
γm.(y + {200/1000} + y ) = Pa + γw.(h + y)
(133.7x 1000)(2y + 0.2 ) = 29430 + (9.81x1000)(2.72 + y)
y = 0.1145 m = 11.45 cm
Reading of manometer = (2y + 0.2 ) = 2(0.1145) + 0.2
= 0.229 + 0.2 = 0.429 m = 42.9cm
 It is a device used for measuring the difference of pressures, between the two
points in a pipe, on in two different pipes.
 Two types:
 U-Tube Differential Manometer
 Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometer
 It consists of U-tube containing a heavy liquid (mercury) whose ends are
connected to the points, for which the pressure is to be found out.
Procedure:
❑ Let us take the lower level of manometric fluid as datum Z-Z, at which heavy
liquid and light liquid meet in the left limb.
❑ Let, h=Difference of levels (also known as differential manomter reading)
ha, hb= Pressure head in pipe A and B, respectively.
 γ1=Specific weight of light liquid.
 γ2=Specific weight of heavy liquid.
 Consider figure (a):
 Pressure in the left limb above Z-Z =
Pa+γ1 (H+h)= Pa+γ1H+γ1h
 Pressure in the right limb above Z-Z =
Pb+γ1H+γ2h
 Equating we get,
 Pa+γ1H+γ1h = Pb+γ1H+γ2h
 Pa – Pb = γ1H+γ2h - γ1H - γ1h
 Pa – Pb = γ2h - γ1h
 Pa – Pb = (γ2 - γ1)h
Two pipes at different levels:
Pressure in the left limb above Z-Z =
Pa+γ1h1
Pressure in the right limb above Z-Z =
γ2h2+γ3h3+Pb
Equating we get,
Pa+γ1h1 = γ2h2+γ3h3+Pb
Pa- Pb = γ2h2+γ3h3 -γ1h1
Example
tube.
Example
tube.
Solution:
Sa = 1.6 γa = 1.6x9.81x1000 = 15696 N/m3
Pa =120 kPa
Sb = 0.8 γb = 0.8x9.81x1000 = 7848 N/m3
Pb =200 kPa
h1= 2.5m γm= 133.7x1000
Pressure in the left limb above Z-Z =
Pa+γa.h1+ γm.h
Pressure in the right limb above Z-Z =
γbh+Pb
Equating:
Pa+γa.h1+ γm.h = γbh+Pb
(120x1000)+15696(2.5)+ (133.7x1000).h =
(7848)h+(200x1000)
120000 + 39240 + 133700h = 7848h +
200000
133700h - 7848h = 200000 - 120000 -
39240
125852h = 40760
h = 0.323m
Inverted Differential Manometer:
 Type of differential manometer in which an inverted U-tube is used.
 Higher level of manometric fluid in the left limb is taken as datum line.
 Used for measuring low pressure difference.
1. Pressure in the left limb above Z-Z = Pa-γ1h1
2. Pressure in the right limb above Z-Z = Pb-γ2h2-γ3h3
3. Equating we get, Pa-γ1h1 = Pb-γ2h2-γ3h3
(Where; Pa, Pb are Pressure in pipes A and B

respectively)
1. A simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil (sp.
Gravity = 0.8) flowing in a pipeline. Its right limb is open to the
atmosphere and the left limb is connected to the pipe. The centre
of pipe is 90mm below the level of mercury (sp. Gravity = 13.6)
in the right limb. If the difference of mercury levels in the two
limbs is 150mm, find the pressure of oil in pipe.
2. The pressure of water flowing in a pipeline is measured by a
manometer containing U-tubes as shown in figure. The
measuring fluid is mercury in all the tubes and water is
enclosed between the mercury columns. The last tube is
open to the atmosphere. Find the pressure of oil in the
pipeline.
3. A differential manometer connected at the two points A and
B at the same level in a pipe containing an oil of Sp. Gravity
0.8, shows a difference in mercury levels as 100mm.
Determine the difference in pressures at the two points.
Hydrostatic Force on
submerged bodies
HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON
2 SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES
Fluid statics: Deals with problems associated with fluids at rest.
The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid.
Hydrostatics: When the fluid is a liquid.
Aerostatics: When the fluid is a gas.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, and
thus there are no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid trying to deform it.
The only stress we deal with in fluid statics is the normal stress, which is the
pressure, and the variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the
fluid.
The topic of fluid statics has significance only in gravity fields.
The design of many engineering systems such as water dams and liquid
storage tanks requires the determination of the forces acting on the
surfaces using fluid statics.
SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES
 When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the
surface due to the fluid. The determination of these forces is
important in the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and
other hydraulic structures. No tangential force can exist within
a fluid at rest. All forces are normal to the surface.
 If pressure is uniformly distributed over an area, the force is
equal to pressure times the area and the point of application of
force is at the centroid of the area.
 For submerged horizontal areas, the pressure is uniform.
 In case of gases, the pressure variation with vertical distance
is very small due to low specific weight. Therefore when we
compute the static fluid force exerted by a gas, we usually
treat p as a constant. Thus for such cases:
F =  pdA = p  dA = pA
 For a horizontal surface, such as the bottom of a liquid-

filled tank Fig-1, the magnitude of the resultant force is
simply Fr = p.A where p is the uniform pressure on the
bottom and A is the area of the bottom.
 Note that if atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the
bottom the resultant force on the bottom is simply due to
the weight of liquid in the tank. Since the pressure is
constant and uniformly distributed over the bottom, the
resultant force acts through the centroid of the area. For the
more general case in which a submerged plane surface is
inclined the determination of the resultant force acting on
the surface is more involved.
Resultant Force along the Bottom of the tank:

Pressure Force on the lower side of Bottom= + Patm
For upward direction, we take positive
Pressure Force on the upper side of Bottom= - Patm - h
For downward direction, we take negative
Resultant Force due to Fluid Pressure (Water and
Atmosphere)= Fr = + Patm.A – Patm.A - hA
Fr = -
h.A
Negative sign shows resultant pressure force acts downward.
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface: Tank Bottom
Simplest Case: Tank bottom with a Patm
uniform pressure distribution
p = h
Now, the resultant Force:

Patm Patm
FR = p .A
Acts through the Centroid
A = area of the Tank Bottom
Patm
Figure-1
 In this section, the discussion is focused on how to

determine hydrostatic forces exerted on a plane surface
submerged in a static fluid. Determining this hydrostatic
force is particularly crucial in the design of engineering
structures, such as dams, storage tanks and hydraulic
systems. The concept of using a pressure prism to obtain
the hydrostatic force will also be introduced.
HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON
SUBMERGED INCLINED PLANE
SURFACE
 Consider an inclined plane submerged in a static fluid as
shown in the figure.
 The resultant force FR is acting perpendicular to the plane
since no shear force is present when the fluid is at rest.
 FR has a line of action that passes through the point (xcp ,
ycp), which is called the center of pressure.
 Note that the pressure acting perpendicular to the plane
surface is also referred to as the normal stress.
SURFACE
y
ycp
Top View
xcp
SURFACE
Let
 The origin O is at the Free Surface.
 γ = Specific weight of fluid
 is the angle the plane makes with the free surface.
 y is the distance of element from O.
 yc is the distance of centroid of element from O.
 h is depth of element from free surface O.
 hc is depth of centroid of element from free surface O.
SURFACE
 Now take a small differential element dA at a depth of h. The
differential force dF acting on dA is given by
dF= p.dA
dF = γ .h .dA
dF = ρgh.dA
dF = γ .y sin θ .dA = ρg. y sin θ .dA
 The magnitude of the resultant force can be obtained by
integrating the differential force over the whole area
Fr = ∫ dF h=y.sin θ
Fr = ∫ γ .h .dA
Fr = ∫ γ .y sin θ .dA = ∫ ρg. y sin θ .dA
SURFACE
 Since from trigonometry, sin θ = h/y = hc/yc = hcp/ycp
h=y.sin θ
 The integral represents the first moment of the area about the x axis,
which is equal to
 Where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of the plane surface.

hc = yc sinθ yc = hc / sinθ
 Thus,
Fr= p.g. sinθ .yc.A
Fr= p.g.hc.A
SURFACE
 Where hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the
centroid of the plane surface. The resultant force is simplified to
Fr= p.g.hc.A
Fr = γ.hc.A
 Thus, we find the total force on any plane area submerged in a
liquid can be obtained by multiplying the specific weight of the
liquid by the product of the area and the depth of its centroid.
The value of F is independent of the angle of inclination of the
plane so long as the depth of its centroid is unchanged.
 Since γ.hc is the pressure at the centroid, we can also say that the
total force on any plane area submerged in a liquid is the product
of the area and the pressure at its centroid.
Point of Application of Hydrostatic
Force
Center of Pressure
 The point of application of the resultant pressure
force on a submerged area is called the center of
pressure. We need to know its location whenever we
wish to work with the moment of this force.
 The most general way of looking at the problem of
forces on a submerged plane area is through the use
of pressure prism concept.
 The line of action of the resultant pressure force must
pass through the centroid of the pressure prism
(volume). As noted, this concept is very convenient to
apply for simple areas such as rectangles.
Point of Application of Hydrostatic
Force
Center of Pressure
 The point of application of the resultant pressure
force can be found by using Varignon’s Theorem.
 The theorem states that the moment of resultant
force is equal to the algebraic sum of
the moments of the component forces.
Fr.y = ∫ Fn. Yn
 Thus, Moment of resultant force about O = Moment of all
forces acting on plane about O
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface: Location( y-coordinate)
Now, we must find the location of the center of Pressure where the Resultant Force Acts:
“The Moments of the Resultant Force must Equal the Moment of the Distributed Pressure Force”
Moments about the x-axis: ycp

And, note h = ysinq
We note,
Second moment of Intertia, Ix dF = γ .y sin θ .dA
Then, ycp ycp Eq. (a)
Parallel Axis Thereom:
Ixc is the second moment of inertia through the centroid
Substituting the parallel Axis thereom, and rearranging:
ycp Eq. (b)
We, note that for a submerged plane, the resultant force always acts below the centroid of the
plane.
ycp = Ixc/yc.A + yc sin θ = hcp/ycp hcp = sin θ. ycp
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane
Surface: Location( y-coordinate)
 The product yc A is the (static)first moment of

area A about OX. Therefore Eq. (a) tells us that
we can obtain the distance from the center of
pressure to the axis where the plane (extended)
intersects the liquid surface by dividing the
moment of inertia of the area A about the surface
axis by its static moment about the same axis.
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface:
Location( y-coordinate(ycp)
 From this equation (b) we see that the location of center of

pressure CP is independent of the angel theta that is, we can
rotate the plane area about axis OX without affecting the
location of P.
 Also, we see that CP is always below the centroid C and that
as the depth of immersion is increased, yc increases and
therefore CP approaches C.
 We can find the lateral position of the center of pressure CP by
considering that the area is made up of a series of elemental
horizontal strips.
 The center of pressure for each strip is at the midpoint of the
strip. Since the moment of the resultant force F must be equal
to the moment of the distributed force system about an axis,
say, the y-axis, Xp can be found as follows:
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface: Location
 hcp = Ixc. sin θ. /yc.A + yc. sin θ

 Since yc = hc/sin θ and hc = sin θ. yc . Thus,
hcp= (Ixc. sin2θ )/hc.A + hc.
 hcp is depth to center of pressure.
Case 1: When plane is vertical. θ=90
hcp= (Ixc. sin290)/hc.A + hc. Sin 90 = 1
Ixc = nonzero value > 0 so, hcp > hc
 It means that the center of pressure for vertical plane lies below
the centroid of plane.
Case 2: When plane is horizontal. θ=0

hcp = (Ixc. sin20)/hc.A + hc. Sin 0 = 0
hcp = 0 + hc.
So, hcp = hc
 It means that the center of pressure and depth of centroid is same
for horizontal plane area.
Location( x-coordinate(xcp)
 We can find the lateral position of the center of pressure CP

by considering that the area is made up of a series of
elemental horizontal strips.
 The center of pressure for each strip is at the midpoint of
the strip. Since the moment of the resultant force F must be
equal to the moment of the distributed force system about
an axis, say, the y-axis, Xcp can be found as follows:
Moments about the y-axis: FR xR =  xdF
A
And, note h = ysinq
xcp
dF = γ .y sin θ .dA
We note,
Second moment of Intertia, Ixy
Then,
Parallel Axis Thereom:
I xy = I xyc + Axc yc Ixc is the second moment of inertia through the centroid
Substituting the parallel Axis thereom, and rearranging:

Geometric Properties
Centroid Coordinates
Areas
Moments of Inertia
Hydrostatic Force: Vertical Wall
Find the Pressure on a Vertical Wall using Hydrostatic Force Method
Pressure varies linearly with depth by the hydrostatic equation:

The magnitude of pressure at the bottom is p = h
The depth of the fluid is “h” into the board O

The width of the wall is “b” into the board
yR = 2/3h
By inspection, the average pressure

occurs at h/2, pav = h/2
b
The resultant force act through the center of pressure, CP:

y-coordinate: 1 bh 3 h
I xc = bh 3 yR = +
12 (bh ) 2
12 h
h
yc = 2
2 h h 2
A = bh yR = + = h
6 2 3
Hydrostatic Force: Vertical Wall
x-coordinate: 0 b Center of Pressure:
I xyc = 0 xR = +
b
h
(bh ) 2
 b 2h 
yc = 2  , 
2 2 3 
b
xR =
A = bh 2
Now, we have both the resultant force and its location.
The pressure prism is a second way of analyzing the forces on a vertical wall.
Pressure Prism Method
 An alternate approach of determining the hydrostatic force is by
means of a pressure prism. Consider a vertical plane submerged
in a static fluid, as shown in the figure. The pressure increases
linearly with the depth. One can then easily construct a
corresponding three-dimensional diagram of the pressure
distribution, and such a volume is called a pressure prism. The
resultant force is the total volume of the pressure prism, that is
FR = Volume = 1/2 (ρgh) (bh) where A = b ∗ h
 The resultant force passes through the centroid of the pressure
prism. For this particular example, the centroid of a triangular
element is located at a distance of h/3 from its base and lies in the
vertical symmetry axis.
 As illustrated, this method is particularly convenient when the
shape of the pressure prism is a common geometry, in which the
volume and centroid can be readily obtained.
Pressure Prism Method
Vertical plane submerged in a static fluid,
Pressure Prism: Vertical Wall
Pressure Prism: A graphical interpretation of the forces due to a fluid acting on
a plane area. The “volume” of fluid acting on the wall is the pressure prism and
equals the resultant force acting on the wall.
Resultant Force:
O Volume
FR =
1
(h )(bh )
2
FR =
1
(h )A
2
Location of the Resultant Force, CP:
The location is at the centroid of the volume of the
pressure prism.
Center of Pressure:
 b 2h 
 , 
2 3 
Pressure Prism: Submerged Vertical Wall
Trapezoidal
The Resultant Force: break into two “volumes” Location of Resultant Force: “use sum of moments”
F1 = (h1 )A Solve for yA

F2 = ( (h2 − h1 ))A
1
2 y1 and y2 is the centroid location for the two
A = b(h2 − h1 ) volumes where F1 and F2 are the resultant forces of
the volumes.
Atmospheric Pressure on a Vertical Wall
Gage Pressure Analysis Absolute Pressure Analysis But,
So, in this case the resultant force is the same as the gag pressure analysis.
It is not the case, if the container is closed with a vapor pressure above it.
If the plane is submerged, there are multiple possibilities.
Problem
The cubic tank shown in Fig. is half full of water. Find
(a) the pressure on the bottom of the tank, (b) the
force exerted by the fluids on a tank wall, and (c)
the location of the center of pressure on a wall.
Solution:
(a) p bott = pair +  water hwater = 8 + 9.81x1
= 17.81kN/m 2 = 17.81kPa
(b) The force action on the tank end is divided into two components,
labeled A and B on the pressure distribution sketch. Componet A
has a uniform pressure distribution, due to the pressure of the
confined air, which acts throughout the water :
FA = pair Aair = 8 x 4 = 32kN
For component B i.e., the varying water pressure distribution
on the lower half of the tank wall, the centroid C of the area
of application is at
h c = yc = 0.5 x1 = 0.5m below the water top surface,
FB =  water hc A water = 9.81x0.5 x 2 = 9.81kN
Total Force = FA + FB = 32 + 9.81 = 41.8kN
(c) The location of centers of pressure of the component forces,
as distance y p below the water top surface, are
(y p ) A = 0m
below the water top surface, to the centroid of the 2m square
area for the uniform air pressure.
2 2
(y p ) B = hwater = (1) = 0.667 m
3 3
below the water top surface for the varying pressure on the
rectangular wetted wall area.
We can also find by using this equation :
I
y p = yc + c
yc A
bh3
y c = 0.5m, Ic = = 2 x13 / 12 = 0.1667 m 4 A = bh = 2m 2
12
y p = 0.667 m
Taking moments : F(yp ) = FA (y p ) A + FB (y p ) B
y p = 0.1565m below the water top surface.
Problem
Water and oil in an open storage tank are in
contact with the end wall as shown in Fig. S3.7. (a)
Find the pressure at the bottom (lowest point) of the
tank caused by the liquids. Also find (b) the total
force exerted on the end wall by the liquids, and
(c) the depth of its center of pressure.
Solution:
(a) P bott =  oil h oil +  water h water
= (0.8x62.4Ib/ft3) (1.5ft) + (62.4Ib/ft3) (1.0 ft)
= 137.3 lb/ft3 = 0.953psi
(b) The force acting on the end consists of three components,

labeled A, B and D, on the pressure distribution sketch.
Note that component B has a uniform pressure distribution,
due to the oil (A) above, which acts throughout the liquid
below.
As a preliminary, we note for the semicircular end area (r =
1 ft) that
(i) A = pr2/2 = p12/2 = 1.571 ft2;
(ii) from Appendix A, Table A.7, the centroid is 4r/3p=
0.424 ft from the center of the circle, i.e., below the water
top surface.
Solution:
For component A, i.e., the varying oil pressure distribution on the
l.5-ft height of the end wall, the centroid C of the area of
application is at:
hc= yc = 0.5(1.5 ft) = 0.75 ft below the free oil surface,
so, from Eq. (3.16),
FA = oil hc Aoil = (0.8 x 62.4)0.75(1.5 x 2) = 112.3Ib
For component B, the force FB on the water-wetted area of the
end wall due to the uniform pressure produced by the 1.5-ft depth
of oil above is
FB = pA =  h A= (0.8 x 62.4 )1.5(p12/2) = 117.6 lb
For component D, i.e., the varying pressure distribution due to the
water (only) on the water-wetted area of the end wall, the
centroid C is at
hc = yc = 0.424 ft below the water top surface,
so:FD=  hc A = 62.4(0.424) p12/2 = 41.61b
Solution:
The total force F on the end of the tank is therefore

F = FA + FB + FD = 272 lb
(c) As a preliminary to locating the center of

pressure, we note that for the semicircular end
area with D = 2 ft,
(i) from Table A.7: I about the center of the
circle, is I = pD4/128 = p24/128 = 0.393 ft4, and
(ii) by the parallel axis theorem: Ic about the
centroid, distance 0.424 ft below the center of
the circle, is Ic = I + Ad2 = 0.393 + (p12/2) (0.424) 2
= 0.1098 ft4.
Solution:
The locations of the centers of pressure, below the free
oil surface, of the component forces are:
(yp)A = 2/3(1.5 ft) = 1.00 ft for the varying oil pressure on

the oil-wetted area, and
(yp)B = yc = 1.5 + 0.424 = 1.924 ft to the centroid of the

water-wetted semicircular area, for the uniform pressure
on this area due to 1.5 ft of oil above the water; and
Eq. (3.18): ( y ) D = y + I c = 0.424 + 0.1098

= 0.589 ft
p c
yc A 0.424(p 1 / 2)
2
below the water top surface.

Solution:
for the varying water pressure on the water-

wetted semicircular area,
=1.5 + 0.589 = 2.09 ft below the free
oil surface
Finally,
F(yp) =FA(yp)A +FB (yp)B + FD(yp)D
yp = 1.567 ft
Fluid Statics
Lecture -4
Buoyancy & Stability
Examples of types of Buoyancy Problems:
Introduction:
 Whenever a body is placed over a liquid, either it sinks down
or floats on the liquid.
 Two forces involve are:

1. Gravitational Force
2. Up-thrust of the liquid
 If Gravitation force is more than Upthrust, body will sink.

 If Upthrust is more than Gravitation force, body will float.
Floating and Sinking
 There is always a downward force in
a submerged object, the object’s
weight.
 If the weight of the object is greater
than the buoyant force, the net force
on a submerged object will be
downward and the object will sink.
Sinking and Floating
 The object will only sink

deep enough to displace a
volume of fluid with a
weight equal to its own.
At that point, it will stop
sinking deeper and will
float.
Floating and Sinking
 If the weight of the object is

less than the buoyant force,
the object will float.
 If the weight of the object is

exactly equal to the buoyant
force, the two forces are
balanced.
Ships
 The shape of a ship causes it to displace a greater
volume of water than a solid piece of steel of the
same mass. The greater the volume of water
displaced, the greater the buoyant force. A ship
stays afloat as long as the buoyant force is greater
than its weight.
Buoyancy
 Water exerts a force called a buoyant force that acts
on a submerged object.
 The buoyant force acts in the upward direction,

against the force of gravity, so it makes an object
feel lighter.
Buoyancy
 As you can see in the picture, a fluid

exerts pressure on all surfaces of a
submerged object. Since the pressure
in a fluid increases with depth, the
upward pressure on the bottom of the
object is greater than the downward
pressure on the top. The result is a net
force in the upward direction. This is
the buoyant force.
Buoyancy:
 A body in a fluid, whether floating or submerged, is buoyed
up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
 “The tendency of a fluid to uplift a submerged body, because
of the up-thrust of the fluid, is known as force of buoyancy or
simply buoyancy.”
 The buoyant force acts vertically upward through the centroid
of the displaced volume and can be defined mathematically by
Archimedes’ principle as follows:
Fd = Buoyant force
Fd =  f Vd  f = Specific weight of fluid
Vd = Displaced volume of fluid
Submerged Objects
 Submerged objects take the place
of a volume of fluid equal to it’s
own volume.
 Objects that float on top of the

water only take the place of the
volume of fluid equal to the
volume of the amount of the object
in the fluid.
Archimedes Principle:
 “Whenever a body is immersed wholly or partially
in a fluid, it is buoyed up (i.e lifted up) by a force
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body.”
Center of Buoyancy:
 It is defined as:
“The point, through which the force of buoyancy is supposed
to act.”
 As the force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body, the centre of
buoyancy will be the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced.
 In other words, the centre of buoyancy is the centre of area of
the immersed section.
Problem-1
Find the volume of the water displaced and position of

centre of buoyancy for a wooden block of width 2.5 m and
of depth 1.5 m, when it floats horizontally in water. The
density of wooden block is 650 kg/m3 and its length 6.0 m.
22
Solution:
Problem-2
A wooden block of 4m x 1m x 0.5m in size and of specific gravity 0.75
is floating in water. Find the weight of concrete of specific weight 24k
kN/m3 that may be placed on the block, which will immerse the
wooden block completely.
Solution:
Let W be the weight of Concrete required to be placed on wooden block.
Volume of wooden block = 4 x 1 x 0.5 = 2m3
and its Weight = 9.81 x 0.75 x 2 = 14.72 kN
 Total weight of the block and concrete = 14.72 + W kN

We know that when the block is completely immersed in water,
volume of water displaced = 2m3
 Upward thrust when the block is completely immersed in water
= 9.81 x 2 = 19.62 kN
Now equating the total weight of block and concrete with upward thrust
14.72 + W = 19.62
W = 4.9 kN
Metacentre:
 “Whenever a body, floating in a liquid, is given a small
angular displacement, it starts oscillating about some point.
This point, about which the body starts oscillating, is called
metacentre.”
Metacentric Height:
 “The distance between centre of gravity of a floating body and
the metacentre (i.e distance between cg and m in Fig.) is
called metacentric height.”
 Metacentric height of a floating body is a direct measure of its
stability.
 More the metacentric height of a floating body, more it will
stable and vice versa.
 Some values of metacentric height:
 Merchant Ships = upto 1.0m
 Sailing Ships = upto 1.5m
 Battle Ships = upto 2.0m
 River Craft = upto 3.5m
Metacentric Height:
BM = I/V
BM= Moment of inertia of the plan/ Volume of water displaced
GM = BM  BG
--Now metacentric height,
Note: +ve sign is to be used if G is lower than B and,

–ve sign is to be used if G is higher than B.
Problems:
1. A rectangular block of 5m long, 3m wide and
1.2m deep is immersed 0.8m in the sea water. If
the density of sea water is 10kN/m2, find the
metacentric height of block.
2. A solid cylinder of 2m diameter and 1m height is
made up of a material of Sp. Gravity 0.7and floats
in water. Find its metacentric height.
Conditions of Equilibrium of a Floating
Body:
 A body is said to be in equilibrium, when it remains
in steady state, While floating in a liquid following
are the three conditions of equilibrium of a floating
body:
1. Stable Equilibrium
2. Unstable Equilibrium
3. Neutral Equilibrium
1. Stable Equilibrium:
 A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium, if it
returns back to its original position, when given a
small angular displacement.
 This happens when metacentre (M) is higher than
centre of gravity (G) of the floating body.
2. Unstable Equilibrium:
 A body is said to be in a Unstable equilibrium, if it
does not return back to its original position, when
given a small angular displacement.
 This happens when metacentre (M) is lower than
3. Neutral Equilibrium:
 A body is said to be in a neutral equilibrium, if it
occupies a new position and remains at rest in this
new position, when given a small angular
displacement.
 This happens when metacentre (M) concides with
Problems:
3. A rectangular timber block 2m long, 1.8m wide and 1.2m
deep is immersed in water. If the specific gravity of the
timber is 0.65, prove that it is in stable equilibrium.
4. A cylindrical buoy of 3m diameter and 4m long is weighing
150N. Show that it cannot float vertically in water.
5. A solid cylinder of 360mm long and 80mm diameter has its
base 10mm thick of specific gravity 7. The remaining part of
cylinder is of specific gravity 0.5. Determine, if the cylinder
can float vertically in water.
Hydrostatic Force on
submerged Curved Surfaces
Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
• General theory of plane surfaces does not apply to curved surfaces
• Many surfaces in dams, pumps, pipes or tanks are curved
• No simple formulas by integration similar to those for plane surfaces
• A new method must be used
Then we mark a F.B.D. for the volume:
dAx= dA.cosθ F = sqrt(Fx2 + Fy2)
dAy= dA.sin θ θ = tan-1(Fy/Fx)
dFy
dFx dA dAy
dF
Isolated Volume dAx
Bounded by AB an AC
F1 and F2 is the hydrostatic force on
and BC
dA each planar face
FH and FV is the component of the
F= P.A Fx= integral (dFx) = pghc.A resultant force on the curved surface.
dFx = pgh. dA.sin θ Fy = Integral (dFy) = pg.V = W W is the weight of the fluid volume.
dFy = pgh. dA.cosθ
Problem
Find the horizontal and vertical components of the force exerted by
the fluids on the horizontal cylinder in Fig. if :
a) The fluid to the left of cylinder is a gas confined in a closed tank at a
pressure of 35 kPa.
b) The fluid to the left of cylinder is water with a free surface at an
elevation coincident with the uppermost part of the cylinder.
Assume in both cases that the atmospheric pressure occurs to the right
of the cylinder.
Solution:
The net projection on a vertical plane of the portion of the cylindrical

surface under consideration (see left diagram) is, from the right handed
diagram, ef = 2 + 2cos30 o = 3.73m
(a) For the gas :

Fx = pA2 = 35kN / m 2 (3.73m) = 130.5kN / m to the right
The vertical force of the gas on the surface ' ac' is equal and opposite to that
on the surface ' cd'. Hence the net projection on a horizontal plane for the gas
is af = 2sin30 o = 1m. Thus
Fz = pAx = 35kN / m 2 (1m) = 35kN / m upward
(b) For the fluid :
1 
Fx = hc A = 9.81x x3.73  x3.73
2 
= 68.3kN/m to the right
Net Fz = upward force on surface cde - downward force on surface ca
= weight of volume abcdefa - weight of volume abca
= weight of cross - hatched volume of liquid (1 + 2 + 3)
= 9.81kN/m  3  210 1
( ) 
 2 + 2 sin 30 o x 2 cos 30 o + (1x 2) m 2
2
 360 2 
= 100.0kN / m upward
1
2  210 o = 180 o + 30 o
Kinematics of Fluid Flow
Lecture -5
Introduction
➢ Up till now we have studied the effect of force on

the liquid at rest. Now we will study the motion of
liquids without any reference to the force causing
motion.
➢ This lecture deals with the study of velocity and
acceleration of the liquid particles without taking
into consideration any force or energy.
Introduction
The kinematic behavior of fluid can be described by three major

parameters.
• Displacement
• Velocity
• Acceleration
➢ Kinematic behavior of fluid means that how the fluid particles
are moving at distinct points.

➢ Basically there are two methods to study the motion of fluid
(kinematic behavior of fluid). These are:

• Langrangian Method
• Eulerian Method
Methods of describing fluid motion
Methods of describing fluid motion
Difference Between Open Channel
and Pipe Flow
Types of Flow
 When a fluid is flowing in pipe, the countless small

particles get together and form a flowing stream.
 These particles, while moving, group themselves in a
variety of ways, e.g., they move in a regular
formation, just as disciplined soldiers do; or they may
swirl, like the individuals, in a disorderly crowd.
 The type of flow of a liquid depends upon the
manner in which the particles unite and move.
Types of Flow
➢ Depending on dimensions of flow

➢ One dimensional Flow
➢ Two dimensional Flow
➢ Three dimensional Flow
Types of Flow
Types of Flow
Types of Flow
Compressible Flow Incompressible Flow

 A flow in which the  A flow in which the
volume of fluid and its volume of fluid and its
density changes during the density does not change
flow. during the flow.
 All the gases are generally  All the liquid are generally
considered to have considered to have
compressible flows. incompressible flows.
Types of Flow
Laminar Flow
 The first type of flow is known as laminar, streamline, or

viscous flow.
 This type of flow is characterized by low velocities and
viscous forces are dominant.
 Now we can define Laminar Flow as:
“If the liquid particles appear to move in definite smooth paths
and flow appears to be as a movement of thin layers on top of
each other, then the flow is called laminar flow.”
Turbulent Flow
 The second type of flow is known as turbulent flow.

 This type of flow is characterized by higher
velocities and inertial forces are dominant.
 It can be defined as:
“The liquid particles move in irregular paths which
are not fixed with respect to either time or space.”
Reynolds Experiment
 Osborne Reynolds demonstrated in 1883 that there are two

distinctly different type of fluid flow.
 He injected a fine, threadlike stream of colored liquid having
the same density as water at the entrance to a large glass tube
through which water was flowing from a tank.
 A valve at the discharge
end permitted him to
vary the flow.
Reynold’s Experiment
 When the velocity in the tube was small, he saw this colored
liquid as a straight line throughout the length of the tube,
showing that the particles of water moved in a parallel straight
lines.
 As he gradually increased the velocity of water by opening the
valve further, at a certain velocity the flow changed.
 The line first become wavy, and then at a short distance from
the entrance it broke into numerous vortices, beyond which
the color became uniformly diffused so that no streamlines
could be distinguished.
 Later observations have shown that in this latter type of flow
the velocities are continuously subject to irregular
fluctuations.
Reynolds’ Number
 Reynold number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
 It is used to check that whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
 It is given by formula:
For pipe flows:

 If Re is less than 2000, flow would be laminar
 If Re is in the range of 2000- 4000, flow would be transition
 If Re is greater than 4000, flow would be turbulent
Reynolds’ Number
For open channel flows:

Types of Flow
Types of Flow
Steady Flow Unsteady Flow
 A flow in which all  A flow in which all

conditions (Velocity, conditions (Velocity,
pressure, density, discharge) pressure, density,
at any point in a stream discharge) at any point in a
remains constant with stream changes with
respect to time, but the respect to time is called un-
conditions may be different steady flow.
at different point, is called
steady flow.
Types of Flow
Types of Flow
Uniform Flow Non- Uniform Flow
 If the flow velocity at  If the flow velocity at

a given instant of time a given instant of time
does not change changes within a
within a given length given length of pipe or
of pipe or channel, channel, then the flow
then the flow is called is called non-uniform
uniform flow. flow.
Types of Flow
Flow Types (All Combinations):
 Steady uniform flow:
Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with
time.
 Steady non–uniform flow:
Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do not
change with time.
 Unsteady uniform flow:
At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the
same, but will change with time.
 Unsteady non–uniform flow:
Every condition of the flow may change from point to point
and with time at every point.
Flow Types (All Combinations)
Types of Flow
Types of Flow
Flow Pattern Visualization
• To visualize the flow pattern, different experimental approaches are used. These are:
• Path line
• Stream line
• Streak line
Path Lines
 “A path line is a trace made by single particle over
a period of time.”
Or
 “The path followed by a fluid particle in motion is
called path line.”
 The concept of path line is based upon
Lagrangian’s approach.
 The path line shows the direction of a particle for a
certain period of time or between two given
sections.
Stream Lines
 Streamlines show the mean direction of a number of particles at the same
instant of time.
 The concept of streamlines is based upon Eulerian’s approach.
 Two streamlines never intersect each other.
 Definition:
“The imaginary line, drawn in the fluid in such a way that the tangent to
any point gives the direction of motion at the point, is called stream line.”
 Path lines and streamlines are identical in the steady flow of a fluid.
Streak Lines
 In experimental fluid mechanics, a dye or other tracer is
frequently injected into the flow to trace the motion of the
fluid particles.
 If the flow is laminar, a ribbon of color results. This is called a
streak line, or filament line.
Streak Lines
 “The instantaneous pictures of the position of all
fluid particles in flow, which have passed through a
given point (namely, the point of injection), are
called streak lines.”
 Example:
1. The line formed by smoke particles ejected from a
nozzle.
2. The line of color in a flow into which a dye is
continuously introduced through a small tube, all
dyed fluid particles having passed the tube's end.
Streak Lines
 A streak line is physical line of particles that have
passed through some position in the flow field.
 In a steady flow, streamlines, streaklines, and path
lines coincide.
Mean Velocity and Discharge
Mean Velocity
➢ It is the average velocity passing a given section.
➢ The velocity in the pipe is not constant across the
cross section of pipe. Crossing the centerline of

pipe, the velocity is zero at walls and maximum at
the center then decreasing symmetrically to the
outer wall. This velocity variation across the
section is known as velocity profile or velocity
distribution.
Discharge or Flow Rate

Fluid System and Control Volume
Continuity Equation
Continuity Equation
Continuity Equation
Continuity Equation
Thus,
 If an incompressible liquid is continuously flowing through a
pipe or a channel (whose cross-sectional area may or may not
be constant) the quantity of liquid passing per second is the
same at all sections. This is known as equation of continuity
of liquid flow.
Problem-1
 If pipe 1 diameter = 50mm, mean

velocity 2m/s, pipe 2 diameter
40mm takes 30% of total discharge
and pipe 3 diameter 60mm. What
are the values of discharge and
mean velocity in each pipe?
Problem-2
 Water is flowing through a pipe of 100mm diameter

with an average velocity of 10m/s. Determine rate of
discharge of water in l/s. Also determine the velocity
of water at the other end of the pipe, if the diameter
of the pipe is gradually changed to 200mm.
Problem-3
 A pipe AB branches into two pipes C and D as shown

in figure.
C
B
A
D
The pipe has diameter of 0.45m at A, 0.3m at B,0.2m
at C and 0.15m at D. Find the discharge at A, if the
velocity of water at A is 2m/s. Also find out the
velocities at B and D, if the velocity at C is 4m/s.
Fluid Dynamics
(Energy Consideration in Steady Flow)
Lecture - 6
Introduction
 Up till now we have studied the motion of liquid
particle without taking into consideration any force
or energy causing the flow.
 This lecture deals with the motion of liquids and
the forces causing the flow from a viewpoint of
energy considerations.
 The first law of thermodynamics tells us that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed. But it
can of course, be changed from one form to other.
It follows that all forms of energy are equivalent.
Introduction
 Fluid Dynamics deals with the study of motion of
fluid flow along with the force causing the flow.
 The study of this force is done using Newton’s
second law of motion i.e F=ma. Here F is resultant
force or net force. This law is also called as law of
net force.
 There are different types of forces being applied on
fluid when the fluid is in motion. In fluid dynamics,
total five forces are considered which are given as:
Introduction
 Fg = Force of Gravity
 Fp = Force of Pressure
 Fv = Viscous Force
 Ft = Force due to turbulence
 Fc = Force due to Compressibility
 Thus, Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft + Fc (General Form)
Introduction
 From this equation when we eliminate different

kinds of forces, different equations of fluid motion
are developed which are further used in fluid
dynamics.
 If we neglect, Fc = Force due to Compressibility
then the equation would be Reynolds Equation
which is given as:
 Reynolds’ Equation = Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft
Introduction
 If Ft and Fc both are neglected, then the resulting

equation would be Navier- Stokes equation given
as:
 Navier- Stokes’ equation = Fnet = Fg + Fp + Fv
 If Fv, Ft and Fc are neglected, then the resultant
force would be given by Euler Equation:
 Euler’s Equation = Fnet = Fg + Fp
Bernoullis’ Theorem
Derivation of Bernoullis’ Equation by
integration of Euler’s Equation
Introduction to Bernoulli’s Theorem for ideal flow
Bernoullis’ Theorem:
This equation represents the conservation of energy. It states that
for ideal fluid flow, the total energy (total head) of moving fluid
should remain same at each section of fluid system.
Mathematically:
p V2
Total head = z  constant (along a streamline) (5.7)
 2g
EQUATION FOR STEADY MOTION OF AN IDEAL
FLUID ALONG A STREAMLINE, AND BERNOULLI'S
THEOREM
 As we know that in Euler’s equation of motion, only two

forces are considered that are Fg and Fp.
Euler’s Equation = Fnet = Fg + Fp
 The resultant force will be the sum
of gravity force and pressure force.
 To derive this equation, consider a
streamline S. Now we consider a
cylindrical element of fluid along
this streamline with cross section
area dA. Let ds is the length of this
cylindrical element. Pressure force
will be normal to dA cross section
area.
EQUATION FOR STEADY MOTION OF AN IDEAL
FLUID ALONG A STREAMLINE, AND BERNOULLI'S
THEOREM
 Let specific weight of fluid is γ and

gravitational acceleration is g.
 Element is moving along streamline.
Acceleration “a” is produced which
is given by Newtons’ second law,
Fs = m.as {P+(dP/ds).ds}.dA
 For complete derivation

refer to hard notes.
Bernoulli’s Theorem in terms of unit
weight, mass and volume
 For the case of an incompressible fluid
(g=constant), we can integrate Euler eq. to give:
 Energy per unit weight:
p V2
z  constant (along a streamline) (5.7)
 2g
 We know this famous equation as Bernoulli's theorem, in
honor of Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), the Swiss physicist
who presented this theorem in 1738. If we multiply each term
first by g and then by r, we obtain the alternate forms:
Bernoulli’s Theorem in terms of unit
weight, mass and volume
 Energy per unit mass:
p V2
gz  constant (along a streamline) (5.8)
p 2
 Energy per unit volume:
1
p z  pV 2 constant (along a streamline) (5.9)
2
 The constant (of integration) is known as the Bernoulli
constant.
Assumptions:
1. It assumes viscous (friction) effects are negligible

(Fv=0)
2. It assumes the flow is steady (dv/dt=0) and
irrotational (Ft=0)
3. The equation applies along a streamline.
4. It assumes the fluid to be incompressible (Fc=0)
5. It assumes no energy is added to or removed from
the fluid along the streamline (Ideal fluid flow)
Problem:
 Glycerin (specific gravity 1.26) in a processing plant flows in
a pipe at a rate of 700 L/s. At a point where the pipe diameter
is 600 mm, the pressure is 300 kPa. Find the pressure at a
second point where the pipe diameter is 300 mm if the second
point is 1.0 m lower than the first point, neglect the head loss.
Solution:
Assignment:
1. Assume frictionless flow in a long, horizontal, conical pipe, which has a
diameter of 3.6 ft at entrance and 2.4 ft at exit. The pressure head at the
smaller end is 15 ft of water. If water flows through this cone at the rate
of 95 cfs, find the velocities at the two ends and the pressure head at the
larger end.
2. Assume the flow to be frictionless in the siphon shown in Fig., where a =
3 ft, b = 12 ft. Find the rate of discharge in cfs and the pressure head at B
if the pipe has a uniform diameter of 3 in.
3. Application of Bernoulli’s Theorem in real world…

Energy Considerations in steady flow
 The energy, in general, may be defined as:

“The capacity to do work.”
Or
 “Quantity that is often understood as the ability of
a physical system to do work on other physical
systems.”
 Since work is defined as a force acting through a
distance (a length of space), energy is always
equivalent to the ability to exert pulls or pushes
against the basic forces of nature, along a path of a
certain length.
Energies of a flowing fluid
 Though the energy exists in many forms, yet the
following are important from the subject point of
view.
1. Potential Energy
2. Kinetic Energy
3. Pressure Energy
1. Potential Energy
 Energy of an object or a system due to the position
of the body or the arrangement of the particles of
the system.
PE in terms of Fluid
 “It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle by
virtue of its position.”
 A fluid particle of weight W situated a distance z
above datum possesses a potential energy of Wz.
 Thus its potential energy per unit weight is z,
measured in units ft.lb/lb=ft or N.m/N=m.
 The particle's potential energy per unit mass is gz,
measured in units of ft2/sec2 or m2/s2;
 ts potential energy per unit volume is pgz, measured
in units of lb/ft2 or N/m2.
2. Kinetic Energy
 Anything that is moving contains kinetic energy.
 The kinetic energy of an object is
the energy which it possesses due to its motion.
 It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a
body of a given mass from rest to its
stated velocity.
 E.g. Wind, waves,
falling rocks
KE in terms of Fluid
 A body of mass m when moving at a velocity V possesses a
kinetic energy, KE = ½ m V 2.
 Thus if a fluid were flowing with all particles moving at the
same velocity, its kinetic energy would also be ½ m V2;
 for unit weight of the fluid we can write this as:
1 1
mV 2 ( p)V 2 2
KE V
2 2  (5.1a)
Weight  pg 2g
 where  represents the volume of the fluid mass. In BG units

we express V2/2g in ft-lb/lb = ft and in SI units as N .m/N = m.
KE in terms of Fluid
 Similarly,
1
mV 2
KE 2 V2
  (5.1b)
Mass m 2
1 1
mV 2 ( p)V 2
KE 2 2 pV 2
   (5.1c)
Volume   2
 The units of V2/2 of course are ft2/sec2 in BG units or m2/s2 in

SI units. The units of pV2/2 are lb/ft2 or N/m2, which are units
of pressure.
True KE
 In most situations the velocities of the different fluid particles
crossing a section are not the same, so it is necessary to
integrate all portions of the stream to obtain the true value of
the kinetic energy.
 It is convenient to express the true value in terms of the mean
velocity V and a factor a (alpha), known as the kinetic-energy
correction factor or coriolis coefficient. Then,
True KE V2
 (5.2)
Weight 2g
 For laminar flow in a circular pipe, a2 , for turbulent flow in pipes, ranges from
1.01 to 1.15, but it is usually between 1.03 and 1.06.
3. Pressure Energy
 It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by
virtue of its existing pressure.
 A particle of fluid has energy due to its pressure
above datum, most usually its pressure above
atmospheric, although we normally do not refer to
this as pressure energy.
 From Eq. (3.4) this pressure is p = gh, and so the
depth of liquid that would produce this pressure, or
the "pressure head", is h=p/g.
Bernoullis’ Equation in Real Fluids
EQUATION FOR STEADY MOTION OF A REAL
FLUID ALONG A STREAMLINE
Energy Consideration in Real Steady Flow
EQUATION FOR STEADY MOTION OF A REAL
FLUID ALONG A STREAMLINE
 Following the same procedure as in the previous section, except that now we shall
consider a real fluid. The real fluid element in a stream tube depicted is in Fig.,
except that now with the real fluid there is an additional force acting because of
fluid friction. As we know that in Euler’s equation of motion for ideal flow, only
two forces are considered that are Fg and Fp.
Euler’s Equation = Fnet = Fg + Fp
 So, for real fluid, Euler’s equation becomes,
 Euler’s Equation = Fnet = Fg + Fp + Ft
Thus, Ft = t. A = t. (P)ds
P = Perimeter of cylindrical element
 Where t (tau) is the shear stress at the

boundary of the element and

 (P)ds is the area over which the shear stress
acts, P being the perimeter of the end area
A, which may have any shape.
EQUATION FOR STEADY MOTION OF A REAL FLUID
ALONG A STREAMLINE
For derivation, refer to class notes…

Incompressible Fluid:
 For an incompressible fluid ( g = constant), Bernoulli’s
equation for real flow is represented as:
p2 p1 V22 V12  PL
_ z 2 z1   =
  2g 2g A
 Or Energy per unit weight:
p1 V 2 
 z1  1   PL p V 2 
= 2 z 2  2  (5.12)
 2 g  A  2 g 
   
Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
2. Incompressible fluid
3. Along a streamline
4. No energy added or removed
Head:
 If we compare real flow Bernoulli equation with
ideal flow equation, we see again the only difference
is the additional term   PL /(A) , which represents
the loss of energy per unit weight due to fluid friction
between points 1 and 2.
 The dimensions of this energy loss term are length
only, which agrees with all the other terms in Eq.
(5.12), and so this term is a form of head.
Wall friction head loss:
 The friction causing this loss of energy occurs over the
boundary or surface of the element, of area PL. When, as
occurs often, we consider the stream tube to fill the conduit,
pipe, or duct conveying the fluid, PL becomes the inside
surface area of the conduit wall, and t becomes the shear
stress at the wall, to. Then we can call this energy loss term
the
 Wall friction head loss:
 PL
hf = 0 (5.13)
A
 Energy per unit weight:
p1 V 2  p V 2 
 z1  1 h f = 2 z 2  2  (5.14)
 2g   2g 
   
Pipe friction head loss:
 If, as is most common, the conduit is a circular pipe of
diameter D, then P / A =D /(D 2 / 4) =4 / D ,and Eq.
(5.13) becomes the
 Pipe friction head loss:
4 0 L
hf = (5.15)
D
 Fluid friction loss from any such cause, including wall or pipe
friction, we commonly refer to as head loss, denoted by hL. So
wall friction head loss is usually a part of, but it may be all of,
the total head loss. In a given conduit, then hL ≥ hf.
Problem
 Water flows through a 150-ft-long, 9-in-diameter pipe at 3.8
cfs. At the entry point, the pressure is 30 psi; at the exit point,
15 ft higher than the entry point, the pressure is 20 psi.
Between these two points, find (a) the pipe friction head loss,
(b) the wall shear stress, and (c) the friction force on the pipe.
Solution:
Exercise
1. ( 5.3.1) A vertical pipe of 4 ft diameter and 60 ft long has a pressure head
of 22.7 ft of water at its upper end. When the flow of water through it is
such that the mean velocity is 16 fps, the pipe friction head loss is hf =
2.8 ft. Find the pressure head at the lower end of the pipe when the flow
is (a) downward; (b) upward.
2. (5.3.4) In Fig. the pipe AB is of uniform diameter and h = 28 ft. The
pressure at A is 30 psi and at B is 40 psi. In which direction is the flow,
and what is the pipe friction head loss in feet of the fluid if the liquid has
a specific weight of (a) 35 Ib/ft3, (b) 92 Ib/ft3?
Exercise
3. (5.3.6) Water flows through a pipe at 14 cfs. At a point where
the pipe diameter is 18 in, the pressure is 30 psi; at a second
point, further along the flow path and 2 ft lower than the first,
the diameter is 9 in and the pressure is 18 psi. Find the pipe
friction head loss between the two points. Neglect other head
losses.
4. (5.3.7) Water at 20°C flows up a straight 180-mm-diameter
pipe that slopes at 12° to the horizontal. Find the shear stress
at the wall, if the pressure is 100 kPa at point 1, and 25 kPa at
higher point 2 that is 30 m further along the pipe.
HEAD
p1 V 2  p V 2 
 z1  1 hL = 2 z 2  2  (5.28)
 2g   2g 
   
 In above equation each term has the dimensions of length. Thus
p/g, called the pressure head, represents the energy per unit
weight stored in the fluid by virtue of the pressure under which the
fluid exists.
 Z called the elevation head or potential head, represents the
potential energy per pound of fluid;
 V2/2g, called the velocity head, represents the kinetic energy per
pound of fluid.
 We call the sum of these three terms the total head, usually denoted
by H, so that p V2
H = z  (5.35)
 2g
Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem
Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem
 The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great

many situations not just the pipe flow we have
been considering up to now.
 In the following sections we will see some
examples of its application to flow measurement
from tanks, within pipes as well as in open
channels.
1. Venturimeter
2. Orificemeter
3. Pitot tube
1. Venturimeter:
 The Venturimeter is a device for measuring discharge
in a pipe.
 It consists of three parts.
a. Convergent Cone
b. Throat
c. Divergent Cone
a. Convergent Cone:
 It is a short pipe which converges from a diameter d1
(diameter of a pipe in which a venturimeter is fitted)
to a smaller diameter d2.
 The convergent cone is also known as inlet of the
venturimeter.
 The slope of the converging sides is between 1in 4 or
1in 5.
b. Throat:
 It is a small portion of circular pipe in which the
diameter d2 is kept constant.
c. Divergent Cone:
 It is a pipe, which diverges from a diameter d2 to a
large diameter d1.
 The divergent cone is also known as outlet of
venturimeter.
 The length of the divergent cone is about 3 to 4
times than that of convergent cone.
How it operates?
 It consists of a rapidly converging section, which
increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces
the pressure (acceleration b/w section 1-2).
 It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe
by a gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section
(deceleration b/w section 2-3).
 By measuring the pressure differences the
discharge can be calculated.
 This is a particularly accurate method of flow
measurement as energy losses are very small.
Why the divergent cone is made longer?
 As a result of retardation (section 2-3), the velocity decreases

and pressure increases.
 If the pressure is rapidly recovered, then there is every
possibility for the stream of liquid to break away from the
walls of meter.
 In order to avoid the tendency of breaking away the stream of
liquid, the divergent cone is made sufficiently longer.
 Another reason is to minimize friction losses.
 Divergent cone is 3 to 4 times longer than convergent cone.
Measurement of Discharge:
 Consider a venturimeter through which some liquid is
flowing.
Let
 p1 = Pressure at section 1
 V1 = Velocity of water at section 1
 z1 = Datum head at section 1
 a1 = Area of venturimeter at section 1
 p2, V2, z2, a2 = Corresponding values at section 2

Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections 1 and 2 i.e,
p1 V12 p 2 V2 2
z1   z 2  (1)
 2g  2g
Let datum line be the axis of venturimeter,
Now z1 0 and z 2 0
p1 V12 p 2 V2 2
   
 2g  2g
p1 p2 V2 2 V12
or    (2)
  2g 2g
Since the discharge at Section 1 & 2 is continuous, therefore
a2V2
V1  ( a 1V1 a 2V2 )
a1
2a 22V2 2
V1  2
a1
Substituting value in equation 2.
p1 p2 V2 2 a 22V2 2
   2
  2 g a1 . 2g
V2 2 a12 a 22 
 

2g  a 2 
 1 
p1 p2
We know that  is the difference between th e pressure heads
 
at section 1 & 2. When the pipe is horizontal , this difference represents
the venturi head and is denoded by h.
V2 2 a12 a 22



or h 
2g  a2 
 1 
 a12 
V22 2 gh 2 
a a 2 
1 2 
 
 a1 
V2  2 gh 
 a 2 a 2 

 1 2 
We know that discharge through a venturimter,

Q Coefficent of Venturimter . a 2 . V2
Q C . a 2 . V2
 
 Ca a 
Q  1 2  2 gh
 a 2 a 2 
 1 2 
Note:
The venturi head (h), in above equation is taken in terms of
liquid head. But, in actual practice, this head is given as
mercury head. In such a case the mercury head should be
converted into the liquid head.
h = (13.6 - s) / s x Head of mercury
Where, 13.6 is Sp. gravity of mercury and ‘s’ is Sp. gravity of Oil.
Inclined Venturimeter:
Problems:
1. A venturimeter with a 150mm diameter at inlet and 100mm at throat is laid
with its axis horizontal and is used for measuring the flow of oil (Sp. Gravity=
0.9). The oil-mercury differential manometer shows a gauge difference of
200mm. Assume coefficient of meter as 0.98. Calculate discharge in liters per
minute. (Ans, Q=3834 lit/min).
Problems:
2. A venturimeter is to be filled to a 250mm diameter pipe, in
which the maximum flow is 7200 lit/min and the pressure head
is 6m of water. What is the minimum diameter of throat, so that
there is no negative head in it? (Ans, 117mm)
3. A 300mm x 150mm venturimeter is provided in a vertical
pipeline carrying oil of Sp. Gravity 0.9, the flow being upwards.
The difference in elevations of the throat section and entrance
section of the venturimeter is 300mm. The differential U tube
mercury manometer shows a gauge deflection of 250mm.
Calculate
i) discharge of the oil
ii) pressure difference b/w the entrance and throat section.
(Ans, i) Q = 149 lit/s ii) 3.695m)
2. Orifice Meter:
 An orifice meter is used to measure the discharge in a pipe. It
consists of a plate having a sharp edged circular hole known
as an orifice. This plate is fixed inside a pipe.
Measurement of Discharge:
 A mercury manometer is inserted to know the difference of
pressure between the pipe and the throat. ( i.e., orifice)
Let
 h = Reading of mercury manometer
 p1 = Pressure at the inlet
 V1 = Velocity of liquid at inlet
 a1 = Area of pipe at inlet
 p2, V2, a2 = Corresponding values at throat

Applying Bernoulli's equation for inlet of pipe and the throat,
p1 V12 p 2 V2 2
z1   z 2  (1)
 2g  2g
p1 p 2 V2 2 V12
   ( z1 z 2 )
  2g 2g
V2 2 V12
or h 
1
  V22 V12
2g 2g 2g
 )
Since the discharge is continuous, therefore
a 2V2
V1  ( a 1V1 a 2V2 )
a1
2a22V2 2
V1  2
a1
Substituting value in equation 2.
1  a 2 2
V  V2 2 a12 a 22 
h  V22  2 22   
2g  a1  2g  a 2 
   1 
 a12 
V2 2 gh 2
2 
a a 2 
1 2 
 
 a1 
V2  2 gh 
 a 2 a 2 

 1 2 
We know that discharge,

Q Coefficent of Orifice Meter . a 2 . V2
Q C . a 2 . V2
 
 Ca a 
Q  1 2  2 gh (Same as venturimeter)
 a 2 a 2 
 1 2 
Problem:
 An orifice meter consisting of 100 mm diameter orifice in a
250mm diameter pipe has coefficient equal to 0.65. The pipe
delivers oil (Sp. Gravity 0.8). The pressure difference on the
two sides of the orifice plate is measured by a mercury oil
differential manometer. If the differential gauge reads 80mm
of mercury, calculate the rate of flow in lit/s. (Ans, 82 lit/s)
3. Pitot Tube:
 A Pitot tube is an instrument to determine the velocity of flow
at the required point in a pipe or a stream.
 It consists of glass tube bent a through 90o
 The lower end of the tube faces the direction of the flow.
 The liquid rises up in the tube due to the pressure exerted by
the flowing liquid .
 By measuring the rise of liquid in the tube, we can find out the
velocity of the liquid flow.
Finding Velocity:
 Let
 h = Height of liquid in the pitot tube above the surface.
 H = Depth of tube in the liquid
 V = velocity of the liquid
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation for the section 1 & 2.
V2
H  H h
2g
V2
h
2g
V  2 gh
Problem:
 A pitot tube was inserted in a pipe to measure the
velocity of water in it. If the water rises in the tube is
200mm. Find velocity of water. (Ans, 1.98m/s)
Flow Measuring Devices
Discharge Measuring Devices
 Orifice
 Notches
 Weirs
 Mouthpieces
 Nozzles
FLOW THROUGH
ORIFICES
Measurement of Discharge
Introduction:
 “Orifice is an opening in a vessel through which the
liquid flows out.”
 This hole or opening is called an orifice, so long as
the level of the liquid on the upstream side is above
the top of the orifice.
 The usual purpose of an orifice is the measurement of
discharge.
 It can be provided in the vertical side of the vessel or
in the base. But the former is more common.
Types of Orifices According to:
• Small
Size • Large
• Circular
Shape • Rectangular
• Triangular
Shape of the • Sharp-edged

• Bell-mouthed
edge
Nature of • Fully submerged
• Partially submerged
Discharge
Important Terms:
 Jet of Water:
“The continuous stream of liquid, that comes out or
flows out of an orifice, is known as Jet of water.”
 Vena Contracta:
 Vena contracta is the point in a fluid stream where
the diameter of the stream is the least, and fluid
velocity is at its maximum.
Vena Contracta:
 Consider a tank, fitted with an orifice. The liquid particle, in
order to flow out through the orifice, move towards the orifice
from all directions.
 A few of the particles first move downward, then take a turn
to enter into the orifice and then finally flow through it.
 It may be noted, that the liquid particles lose some energy,
while taking the turn to enter into the orifice.
 It has been thus observed that the jet, after leaving the orifice,
gets contracted.
 The maximum contraction takes place at a section slightly on
the downstream side of the orifice, where the jet is more or
less horizontal. Such a section is known as vena contracta as
shown by section C (1-2) in figure.
Vena Contracta:
Hydraulic Coefficients:
Following four coefficients are known as hydraulic coefficients
or orifice Coefficient.
1) Coefficient of contraction
2) Coefficient of velocity
3) Coefficient of discharge
4) Coefficient of resistance
1. Coefficient of Contraction:
 “The ratio of area of jet, at vena contracta, to the area of
orifice is known as coefficient of contraction.”
 Mathematically,
Area of jet at vena Contracta

Cc 
Area of Orifice
 The value varies slightly with the available head of the liquid,
size and the shape of the orifice.
 An average value of Cc is about 0.64.
2. Coefficient of Velocity:
 “The ratio of actual velocity of the jet, at vena contracta, to the
theoretical velocity is known as coefficient of velocity.”
 Mathematically,
Actual velocity of jet at vena Contracta

Cv 
Theoretical velocity of jet
 The difference between the velocities is due to friction of the

orifice.
 The value of coefficient of velocity varies slightly with the
different shapes of the edges of the orifices.
 For a sharp edged orifice, the value of Cv increases with the
head of water.
2. Coefficient of Velocity:
 The following table gives the values of Cv for an orifice of
10mm diameter with the corresponding head (given by
Weisback).
H 20mm 500mm 3.5m 20m 100m
Cv 0.959 0.967 0.975 0.991 0.994
Note:
 An Average value of Cv is about 0.97.
 The theoretical velocity of jet at vena contracta is given by
relation :
V  2 gh
Where, h is head of water at vena contracta.
3. Coefficient of Discharge:
 “It is the ratio of actual discharge through an orifice to the
theoretical discharge.”
 Mathematically,
Actual discharge
Cd 
Theoretical discharge
Actual velocity x Actual area

Theoretical velocity x Theoretical area
C v x C c
 Average value of coefficient of discharge varies from 0.60 to
0.64.
4. Coefficient of Resistance:
 “The ratio of loss of head in the orifice to the head of water
available at the exit of the orifice is known as coefficient of
resistance.”
 Mathematically,
Loss of head in the orifice
Cr 
Head of water
 The loss of head in the orifice takes place, because the walls
of the orifice offer some resistance to the liquid as it comes
out.
 The coefficient of resistance is generally neglected, while
solving numerical.
Problems:
1. A jet of water issues from an orifice of diameter 20mm
under a head of 1m. What is the coefficient of discharge for
the orifice, if actual discharge is 0.85lit/s. (Ans, 0.61)
2. A 60mm diameter orifice is discharging water under a head
of 9m. Calculate the actual discharge through the orifice in
Lit/s and actual velocity of the jet in m/s at vena contracta, if
Cd = 0.625 and Cv = 0.98. (Ans, Q = 23.5 lit/s & Vac =
13m/s)
Flow Over NOTCHES
Introduction
 A notch may be defined as:
“An opening in one side of a tank or a reservoir,
like a large orifice, with the upstream liquid level
below the top edge of the opening”
Introduction
 Since the top edge or the notch above the liquid level,
serves no purpose, therefore a notch may have only
the bottom edge and sides.
 The bottom edge, over which the liquid flows, is
known as sill or crest of the notch and the sheet of
liquid flowing over a notch (or a weir) is known as
nappe or vein.
 A notch is usually made of a metallic plate and is
used to measure the discharge of liquids.
Types:
 There are many types of notches, depending upon
their shapes. But the following are important from
the subject point of view.
1. Rectangular notch
2. Triangular notch
3. Trapezoidal notch
4. Stepped notch
Discharge over a Rectangular Notch
 Consider a rectangular notch. in one side of a tank

over which the water is flowing as shown in Fig.
 Let
H = Height of water above sill of the notch,
b = Width or length of the notch, and
Cd = Coefficient of discharge.
Let us consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness dh at a
depth of h from the water level as shown in Fig.
 Area of the strip = b.dh (i)
 We know that theoretical velocity of water through the strip
 2 gh (ii)
 Discharge through the strip,

dq = Cd x Area of strip x Theoretical velocity
Cd b.dh 2 gh
 The total discharge, over the whole notch, may be found out
by integrating the above equation within the limits 0 and H.
H

Q  C d .bdh 2 gh
0
H
1
C d .b 2 g 0
h 2 dh
H
3  H
h 2  2 3
C d .b 2 g    C d .b 2 g 
h2
3  3 
 

0

2 

0
2 3
 C d .b 2 g H 2
3
 Note: Sometimes the limits of integration, in the above
equation, are from H1 to H2 (i.e. the liquid level is at a height
of H1 above the top of the notch and H2 above the bottom of
the notch, instead of 0 to H; then the discharge over such a
notch will be given by the equation.
2
 
Q  Cd .b 2 g H 23 / 2 H13 / 2
3
Problem-1
A rectangular notch 0.5 meters wide has a constant head
of 400 mm. Find the discharge over the notch, in litres per
second, if coefficient of discharge for the notch is 0.62.
Solution:
Given :
b 0.5m
H 400mm 0.4m
C d 0.62
Discharge over the rectangula r notch,
2 3
Q  C d .b 2 g H 2
3
Putting values,
2
Q  x0.62 x0.5 2 x9.810.4 3 / 2 m 3 / sec
3
Q 0.915 x0.253 0.231m 3 / s 231 litres / s
Problem-2
A rectangular notch has a discharge of 21.5 cubic meters per
minute, when the head of water is half the length of the notch.
Find the length of the notch. Assume Cd = 0.6.
Solution:
Given :
Q 21.5m 3 / min 21.5 / 60 0.358m 3 / s
H b/2 0.5b
C d 0.6
Discharge over the rectangula r notch,
2 3
Q  Cd .b 2 g H 2
3
Putting values,
3
5
2 b  2
0.358  x0.6 xb 2 x9.81  0.626b 2
3 2 
5
0.358
b 
2
0.572 b 0.8m
0.626
Discharge over a Triangular Notch
 A triangular notch it also called a V-notch.

Consider a triangular notch, in one side of the tank,
over which the water is flowing.
 Let
H = Height of the liquid above the apex of the notch
q = Angle of the notch
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
 From the geometry of the figure, we find that the width of the
notch at the water surface

2 H tan
2
 Now let us consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness dh,
and at a depth h from the water level as shown in previous
Fig.
 We know that the width of the strip


2H h tan
 Area of the strip 2

2H h tan .dh
2
 We know that theoretical velocity of water through the strip
 2 gh
 and discharge over the notch,
dq = Cd x Area of strip x Theoretical velocity

C d .2H h tan dh 2 gh
2
 The total discharge, over the whole notch, may be found out by
integrating the above equation, within the limits 0 and H.

Q 
H
C d .2H h tan dh. 2 gh
0 2

H h  h.dh
H
2C d 2 g tan
20

Hh h dh
H 1/ 2 3/ 2
C d 2 g tan
20
H
 3 5 
 H .h 2 h 2  If  90 o ,
2C d 2 g tan   
2 3 5 

 2 2  C d 0.6 and
0
8 
5 g 9.81m/s 2
 Cd 2 g tan xH 2
15 2 then Q 1.417 H 5/2
Advantages of a Triangular Notch over a
Rectangular Notch
1. Only one reading i.e., head (H) is required to be
taken for the measurement of discharge, in a given
triangular notch.
2. If, in a triangular notch the angle of the notch i.e.
θ=90°, the formula becomes very simple (i.e., Q =
1.417H5/2) to remember.
3. A triangular notch gives more accurate results for
low discharges than a rectangular notch.
4. The same triangular notch can measure a wide
range of flows accurately.
Problem-3
A right-angled V-notch was used to measure the discharge of a
centrifugal pump. If the depth of water at V-notch is 200 mm,
calculate the discharge over the notch in litres per minute.
Assume coefficient of discharge as 0.62.
Solution:
Given :
 90o , H 200mm 0.2m
C d 0.62
Discharge over the triangula r notch,
8  5
Q  Cd 2 g tan xH 2
15 2
Putting values,
5
8
Q  x0.62 x 2 x9.81 tan 450 x(0.2) 2 m 3 / sec
15
Q 1.465 x0.018 0.026m 3 / sec
Q 26 Lit / s 1560 Lit / min
Problem-4
During an experiment in a laboratory, 280 litres of water
flowing over a right-angled notch was collected in one minute. If
the head of the sill is 100mm, calculate the coefficient of
discharge of the notch.
Solution:
Given :
Q 280lit / min 0.0047 m 3 / s
H 100mm 0.1m
Discharge over the triangula r notch,

5
8
15 2
Putting values,
5
8
0.0047  Cd 2 x981 tan 450 x(0.1) 2 0.0075Cd
15
C d 0.0047 / 0.0075 0.627
Problem-5
A Rectangular channel 1.5 meter wide is used to carry 0.2 cubic

meter of water. The rate of flow is measured by placing a V-
notch weir. If the maximum depth of water is not to exceed 1.2
meter, find the position of the apex of the notch from the bed of
the channel. Assume Cd = 0.6.
Solution:
Given :
Width of rectangula r notch (b) 1.5m
Q 0.2m 3 / s,  90o , C d 0.6
Let H Height of water above the apex of notch.
We know that Discharge over the triangula r notch (Q),

5
8
15 2
Putting values,
5
8
0.2  x0.6 2 x9.81 tan 450 x( H ) 2 1.417 H 5 / 2
15
H 0.46m
Apex 1.2 0.46 0.74m
Problem-6
Water flows over a rectangular notch of 1 meter length over a
depth, of 150 mm. Then the same quantity of water passes through
a triangular right-angled notch. Find the depth of water through
the notch.
Take the coefficients of discharges, for the rectangular and
triangular notch, as 0.62 and 0.59 respectively.
Solution:
Given :
For rectangula r notch b 1.5m
H1 150mm 0.15m
C d 0.62
For triangular notch
 90o and C d 0.59
First of all, consider t he flow of water over rectangula r notch.
5
2
Q  Cd b 2 g xH 2
3
Putting values,
5
2
Q  x0.62 x1x 2 x9.81x(0.15) 2
3
Q 1.831x0.058 0.106m 3 / s
Now consider t he flow of water over the triangula r notch.
We know that discharge over the triangula r notch,

5
8
15 2
8 0
5
0.106  x0.59 2 x9.81 tan 45 xH 2 2
15
H 2 0.357 m
Discharge over a Trapezoidal Notch
 A trapezoidal notch is a combination of a rectangular notch

and two triangular notches as shown in Fig.
 It is thus obvious, that the discharge over such notch will be
the sum of the discharges over the rectangular and triangular
notches.
 Consider a trapezoidal notch ABCD as shown in Fig. For

analysis is purpose split up the notch into a rectangular notch
BCFE and two triangular notches ABE and DCF. The
discharge over these two triangular notches is equivalent to
the discharge over a single triangular notch of angle θ.
 Let
H = Height of the liquid above the sill of the notch.
Cd1 = Coefficient of discharge for the rectangular portion
Cd2 = Coefficient of discharge for the triangular portions
b = Breadth of the rectangular portion of the notch, and
q =Angle, which the sides make, with the vertical.
 Discharge over the trapezoidal notch,

Q = Discharge over the Rectangular notch+
Discharge over the Triangular notch.

3 5
2 8
 Cd 1.b 2 g H  Cd 2 2 g tan H
2 2
3 15 2
Problem-7
A trapezoidal notch of 1.2m wide at the top and 450mm at the
bottom is 300mm high. Find the discharge through the notch, if
the head of water is 225mm. Take coefficient of discharge as 0.6.
Solution:
Given :
Width of notch 1.2m
b 450mm 0.45m
Height of notch 300mm 0.3m
H 225mm 0.225m and C d 0.6
From the geometry of notch, we find that,
 1200 450 1 750
tan  x  1.25
2 2 300 600
and the discharge over the trapezoidal notch,

3 5
2 8
Q  Cd .b 2 g H 2  Cd 2 g tan H 2
3 15 2
3 5
2 8
Q  x0.6 x0.45 2 x9.81x(0.225) 2  x0.6 x 2 x9.81x1.25 x(0.225) 2
3 15
Q 0.085 0.043 0.0128m 3 / s 128lit / s
Discharge over a Stepped Notch
 A stepped notch is a combination of rectangular

notches as shown in figure. It is thus obvious that
the discharge over such a notch will be the sum of
the discharges over the different rectangular
notches.
 Consider a stepped notch as shown in figure. For the purpose
of analysis, let us split up the notch into three rectangular
notches 1, 2 and 3. The total discharge over the notch will be
the sum of the discharges over the three rectangular notches.
 Let,
 H1, H2 and H3 = Height of water above the crest of notch 1,
notch 2 and notch 3 respectively
 L1, L2 and L3 = Length of the notch 1, notch 2 and notch 3
respectively
 Cd = Coefficient of discharge of all notches
 Total Discharge = Discharge over rectangular notch
(1) + Discharge over rectangular notch (2) +
Discharge over rectangular notch (3)
 Discharge through the stepped notch = Q1 + Q2 +
Q3

 Find the discharge in m3 /s over a stepped notch
shown in figure. The level of water coincides with
the top of the notch. Take Cd for all sections 0.6.
All dimensions are in mm.
 (Ans: Discharge over the notch = 0.779 m3 /s )
Flow over Weirs
Introduction
 A structure, used to dam up a stream or river;
over which the water flows, is called a weir.
 The conditions of flow, in the case of a weir are
practically the same, as those of a rectangular notch.
That is why, a notch is sometimes called as a weir
and vice versa.
 The only difference between a notch and a weir is,
that the notch is of a small size; but the weir is of a
bigger one. Moreover, a notch is usually made in a
plate, whereas a weir is usually made of masonry or
concrete.
Types of Weirs
• Rectangular
Shape • Cippoletti (Trapezoidal)
Nature of • Ordinary
Discharge • Submerged or drowned
• Narrow Crested
Width of Crest • Broad Crested
• Sharp Crested
Nature of Crest • Ogee
Discharge over a Rectangular Weir
 Consider a rectangular weir, over which the water is flowing.
 Let
H = Height of the water, above the crest of the weir,
L = Length of the weir, and
Cd = Coefficient of discharge.
 Let us consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness dh at a

depth h from the water surface as shown in.
Area of strip = L.dh
 We know that theoretical velocity of water through the strip is,
 2 gh
 dq = Cd x Area of strip x Theoretical velocity
Cd .L.dh 2 gh
 The total discharge, over the weir, may be found out by
integrating the above equation within the limits 0 and H.
H

Q  C d L.dh 2 gh
0
H

C d .L 2 g h1/ 2 dh
0
H
 
h 3 / 2 
C d .L 2 g  
3 

2  0
2
Q  C d .L 2 g h 0
3
 
3/ 2 H
2
 C d .L 2 g xH 3 / 2
3
Note:
Sometimes, the limit of integration to the above equation, are
from H1 to H2. (i.e,. the liquid level is at a height of H1 above
the top of the weir and H2 above the bottom of the weir)
instead of 0 and H; then the discharge over such a weir win be
given be the equation.
2
Q  Cd L
3

2 g H 23 / 2 H13 / 2 
Problems:
1. A rectangular weir 4.5 meters long has a head of
water 30 cm, Determine the discharge over the weir,
if coefficient of discharge is 0.6. (Ans. 1310 Lit/s)
2. A weir 8 m long is to be built across a rectangu-lar
channel to discharge a flow of 9 m3/sec. If the
maximum depth of water on the upstream side of
the weir is to be 2 m. what should be the height of
the weir? Neglect end contraction. Adopt Cd = 0.26
(Ans. 1.28m)
Problems:
3. The daily record of rainfall over a catchment area is
0.2 million cubic meters. It has been found that 80%
of the rainwater reaches the storage reservoir and
then passes over a rectangular weir. What should be
the length of the weir, if the water is not to rise more
than 400mm above the crest?
Assume suitable value of coefficient of discharge for
the weir as 0.61. (Ans. 4.06 m)
Francis’s Formula for Discharge over a
Rectangular Weir (Effect of End Contraction)
 Francis, after carrying out a series of experiments, proposed

an empirical formula for the discharge over a rectangular weir.
He found that the length of the stream of liquid, while flowing
over a weir, gets contracted at the ends of the sill as shown in
Fig.
 This end contraction, of the stream of liquid, is known as

lateral contraction or side contraction.
 Francis also found that the amount of the end contractions
depend upon the conditions of sides of the channel and top of
the sill, as well as velocity of liquid.
 But an approximate value of end contraction, at each end, is
1/10 of the height of the liquid above the sill of the weir. Thus
if, there are two end contractions only (as in the case of simple
rectangular weir) the effective length of the weir is(L – 0.2 H).
Substituting this value of length in equation for discharge,
3
2
Q  Cd L 0.2 H  2 g x H 2
3
 Sometimes, the total length of a weir is divided into a number

of bays or spans by vertical posts as shown in Fig. In such a
case, the number of end contractions will be twice the number
of bays, or spans, into which the weir is divided. Thus, in
general, we may write the empirical formula proposed by
3
Francis as: 2
Q  C d L 0.1nH  2 g xH 2
3
 Where, n = No. of end contractions.
 Now substituting Cd = 0.623 and g = 9.81 m/sec2 in the
general equation for discharge,
3
Q 1.84L 0.1nH  2
Note: When the end contractions are suppressed, the value of

If in the above equation, is taken as zero.
Problems:
1. A 30 meters long weir if divided into 10 equal bays
by vertical posts each 0.6 meter wide. Using
Francis' formula, calculate the discharge over the
weir, under an effective head of 1 meter. (Ans. 41.6
cumecs)
2. A reservoir has a catchment area of 25 square kilo
meters. The maximum rainfall over the area is 2.5
cm per hour, 40% of which flows to the reservoir
over a weir. Using Francis' formula, find the length
of the weir. The head of water over the water should
not exceed 80 cm. (Ans. 52.74m)
Flow through Mouthpieces
 We know that discharge through an orifice depends upon its
coefficient of discharge. It was felt by the engineers that the
discharge through an orifice is too less (due to low value of
coefficient of discharge).
 It was found after conducting series of experiments by
engineers that if a short pipe be fitted to an orifice, it will
increase the value of coefficient of discharge and of course
discharge too.
 Such a pipe whose length is generally more than 2 times the
diameter of the orifice and is fitted (externally or internally) to
the orifice is known as mouthpiece.
Flow through Mouthpieces
Flow through Nozzles
 A nozzle is a tapering mouthpiece, which is fitted to the outlet
end of a pipe.
 A nozzle is generally, used to have a high velocity of water,
as it converts pressure head into kinetic head at its outlet.
 A high velocity of water is required in fire fighting, service
station, mining power development etc.
Vortex Flow
Vortex
 In fluid dynamics, a vortex is a region within a fluid where
the flow is mostly a spinning motion about an imaginary axis,
straight or curved. That motion pattern is called a vortical
flow.
 Some common examples are the whirlpools often seen
around the boats and paddles, and the winds
surrounding hurricanes, tornadoes and dust devils.
Vortex Flow:
 If we take a cylindrical vessel, containing some liquid, and
start rotating it, about its vertical axis, we see that the liquid
will also start revolving along with the vessel.
 After some time, we shall see that the liquid surface no longer
remains level. But it has been depressed down at the axis of its
rotation and has risen up near
the wall of the vessel on all sides.
 This type of flow, in which a
liquid flows continuously round
a curved path about a fixed axis
of rotation is called vortex flow.
Types:
1. Forced or Rotational Flow
2. Free or Ir-rotational Flow
1. Forced Vortex Flow:
 It is a type of vortex flow, in which the vessel, containing a liquid, is
forced to rotate about the fixed vertical axis with the help of a torque.
 If the applied torque is removed the rotational motion will be slowly
destroyed.
 Now consider a cylindrical vessel containing a liquid initially up to AA as
shown in figure.
1. Forced Vortex Flow:
 Let the vessel be rotated about its vertical axis O-O. It will be
noticed that the liquid surface, in the vessel, no longer remains
level. But it has depressed down at the axis of its rotation and
has risen up near the wall of the vessel on all sides (Fig. b).
 If the vessel is revolved with the increased angular velocity, it
will be noticed that the liquid has depressed down to greater
extent at its axis of rotation, risen up to greater height near the
walls of the vessel (Fig. c).
 If we further increase the velocity of rotation, the liquid will
spill out of the vessel and ultimately the axial depth of liquid
will become zero.
2. Free Vortex:
 It is a type of flow, in which the liquid particles
describe circular paths, about a fixed vertical axis,
without any external force acting on the particles.
 The common example of a free vortex occurs when
the water escapes, through the hole in the bottom of a
wash basin.
Dimensional Analysis
• It is a pure mathematical technique to establish a

relationship between physical quantities involved in
a fluid phenomenon by considering their dimensions.
Benefits for students
• Reliable problem solving approach

• Reduces errors in algebra
• Reinforces unit conversion
• Simplifies computation
• Improves understanding of maths applications
• Multiple ways to solve the same problem
Dimensional Analysis refers to the physical

nature of the quantity (Dimension) and the
type of unit used to specify it.
Distance has dimension L.
Area has dimension L2.
Volume has dimension L3.
Time has dimension T.
Speed has dimension L/T
Application of Dimensional Analysis
• Development of an equation for fluid phenomenon
• Conversion of one system of units to another
• Reducing the number of variables required in an

experimental program so that number of experiments to
be performed is reduced ,e.g.,
Dimensional Homogeneity
• Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity
The fundamental dimensions and their respective powers
should be identical on either side of the sign of equality.
• Take a simple example, the expression x + y = z when x =1, y

=2 and z =3 is clearly numerically true but only if the
dimensions of x, y and z are identical.
• Thus, 1 elephant +2 aeroplanes =3 days is clearly nonsense
but 1 metre +2 metre =3 metre is wholly accurate.
• An equation is only dimensionally homogeneous if all the
terms have the same dimensions.
Fundamental Dimensions
• We may express physical quantities in either mass-length-time
(MLT) system or force-length-time (FLT) system.
• MLT system
• FLT system
• This is because these two systems are interrelated through
Newton’s second law, which states that force equals mass times
acceleration,
F = ma 2nd Law of motion
F = ML/T2
F = MLT-2 or M = FL-1T+2
• Through this relation, we can covert from one system to the other.
Other than convenience, it makes no difference which system we
use, since the results are the same.
• There are seven basic quantities which are
referred to as fundamental quantities or
fundamental dimensions.
• These fundamental quantities are given as
under:
Derived Quantities/ Derived Dimensions
• The dimensions or quantities derived from

fundamental dimensions/ quantities are called
as derived quantities.
• A physical quantity which has more than one
fundamental dimension.
• For example: force, velocity and acceleration
Dimensions of Some Common Physical
Quantities
[x], Length – L [Q], Discharge – L3T-1

[m], Mass – M [r], Mass Density – ML-3
[t], Time – T [P], Pressure – ML-1T-2
[v], Velocity – LT-1 [E], Energy – ML2T-2
[a], Acceleration – LT-2
[F], Force – MLT-2
Basic Concepts
• All theoretical equations that relate physical quantities must be
dimensionally homogeneous. That is, all the terms in an equation
must have the same dimensions. For example
Q = A.V (homogeneous)
L3T-1 = L3T-1
• We do, however sometimes use no homogeneous equation, the
best known example in fluid mechanics being the Manning
equation.
Mannings equation is an empirical equation. Generally the use of

such equations is limited to specialized areas.
Methods for Dimensional Analysis
• Rayleigh’s Method
• Buckingham’s ∏-method
Rayleigh’s Method
Functional relationship between variables is
expressed in the form of an exponential
relation which must be dimensionally
homogeneous
if “y” is a function of independent variables x1,

x2, x3, ….. xn, then
y f ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,.......xn )
Rayleigh’s Method
In exponential form as:
y  [( x1 ) , ( x2 ) , ( x3 ) ,.......( xn ) ]
a b c z
Rayleigh’s Method
• Write fundamental relationship of the given data

• Procedure
Write the same equation in exponential form
• Select suitable system of fundamental dimensions
• Substitute dimensions of the physical quantities
• Apply dimensional homogeneity
• Equate the powers and compute the values of the
exponents
• Substitute the values of exponents
• Simplify the expression
Rayleigh’s Method
• For further understanding, lets explore the
equation for the velocity (V) of a pressure wave
through a fluid.
• First it should be visualised what physical factors

actually influence the velocity
• Compressibility density
E ρ and kinematic viscosity
υ (nu) are the physical factors influencing the
motion
Rayleigh’s Method
• The dimensions of these quantities will be
L  F  M 
V  , E 2  2 
T L  LT 
M  L  2
  3 
,  
L  T 
Rayleigh’s Method
V CEa  b d
C is the dimensionless constant. Substituting the
dimensions a b 2 d
L M M L 
 2  3  
T LT L T 


Rayleigh’s Method
• For dimensional homogeneity, the exponents
of each dimension must be identical on both
sides.
0 a b
• For M 1 a 3b 2d
1  2a d
• For L
• For T
Rayleigh’s Method
• Solving the above equations, we get
a 1 / 2
b 1/ 2
d 0
• So finally,
E
V C

Rayleigh’s Method
• Dimensional analysis was developed in such

way by Lord Rayleigh.
• Very serviceable method but has been
superseded.
• Method is ideal up to three independent variables,
can be used for four.
• A more generalized method of dimension analysis developed by
E. Buckingham.
• This arranges the variables into a lesser number of
dimensionless groups of variables. Because Buckingham used ∏
(pi) to represent the product of variables in each groups, we call
this method Buckingham pi theorem.
• “If ‘n’ is the total number of variables in a dimensionally
homogenous equation containing ‘m’ fundamental dimensions,
then they may be grouped into (n-m) ∏ terms.
f(X1, X2, ……Xn) = 0
Buckingham’s ∏ method
then the functional relationship will be written as
Ф (∏1 , ∏2 ,………….∏n-m) = 0
The final equation obtained is in the form of:
∏1= f (∏2,∏3,………….∏n-m) = 0
• Suitable where n ≥ 4
• Not applicable if (n-m) = 0
•
Procedure
List all physical variables and note ‘n’ and ‘m’.
n = Total no. of variables
m = No. of fundamental dimensions (That is, [M], [L], [T])
• Compute number of ∏-terms by (n-m)
• Write the equation in functional form
• Write equation in general form
• Select repeating variables.
• Solve each ∏-term for the unknown exponents by
dimensional homogeneity.
• As far as possible, do not select a dependent variable as a repeating
variable.
• The no of repeating variable should be equal to no of fundamental
dimensions that is:
No of repeating variable= m
• No of total variables in pi equations= m₊1
Rules for Repeating Variables
• Placement of repeating variable is:
• Ist repeating variable should be a geometric quantity like length, width,
diameter, radius, area. If in a problem three quantities like length, volume,
area are given, then you have to select the lower order quantity that is
length as a first repeating variable.
• Second repeating variable should be a flow property (kinematic property)
like discharge, velocity, acceleration of flow
• Third repeating variable should be a fluid property like density, surface
tension, viscosity etc.
• The repeating variable must not form a dimensionless group.
• Repeating variables must contain all of the m fundamental dimensions
• Any two repeating variables must not have same dimensional formula like
kinetic energy and potential energy both have same dimensional formula
Rules for Repeating Variables
so such quantities can not be used as repeating variables.
Example:
• Let us apply Buckingham’s ∏ method to an example problem that of the
drag forces FD exerted on a submerged sphere as it moves through a
viscous fluid. We need to follow a series of following steps when applying
Buckingham’s ∏ theorem.
• Step 1: Visualize the physical problem, consider the factors that are of
influence and list and count the n variables.
We must first consider which physical factors influence the drag force.
Certainly, the size of the sphere and the velocity of the sphere must be
important. The fluid properties involved are the density ρ and the viscosity
μ. Thus we can write
f (FD, D, V, ρ, μ) = 0
Here we used D, the sphere diameter, to represent sphere size, and f
stands for “some function”.
We see that n = 5.
• Step 2: Choose a dimensional system (MLT or FLT) and list the dimensions
of each variables. Find m, the number of fundamental dimensions
involved in all the variables.
Choosing the MLT system, the dimensions are respectively
MLT-2 , L , LT-1 , ML-3 , ML-1T-1
We see that M, L and T are involved in this example. So m = 3.
• Step 3: Determine n-m, the number of dimensionless ∏ groups needed.

In our example this is 5 – 3 = 2, so we can write Ф(∏1. ∏2) = 0
• Step 4: Form the ∏ groups by multiplying the product of the primary

(repeating) variables, with unknown exponents, by each of the remaining
variables, one at a time. We choose ρ, D, and V as the primary variables.
Then the ∏ terms are:
1  a1
D b1V c1 
Buckingham’s ∏
2  D V FD
a b
method
c 2 2 2
• Step 5: To satisfy dimensional homogeneity, equate the

exponents of each dimension on both sides on each pi
equation and so solve for the exponents. Using the principle
of dimensional homogeneity, we can solve for the exponents
on each side of the equation.
• Since π-terms are dimensionless, they can be replaced by
M0L0T0.
• So our expressions will look like
a1 c1
0 0 M  b1 
0 L M 
M L T  3  L   
L  T LT 
M : 0 a1 1
L : 0 3a1 b1 c1 1
T : 0 c1 1
• Solving,
a1 1; b1 1; c1 1

thus

1
  DV 
1  
1
D V 
1 
1
 
  

 DV  
• As R  DV / 
R = Reynolds Number= Ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces
1 R 1
and
FD
2 
 D 2V 2
 
1 , 2 0
 1 FD 
 
R , 
0
  D 2
V 2

Rearrange the pi groups as desired. The pi theorem states that
the ∏s are related. In this example hence
 
1 , 2 0
 1 FD 
 
R , 
0
  D 2
V 2

FD/(ρ V2 D2) = Ф (R)-1

So that FD = ρ V2 D2 Ф (R)-1
• This shows that the drag force depends upon the Reynold’s
number which is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
• Dimensional analysis only provides a partial solution to the

fluid problems as it depends entirely on the ability of the
individual to perceive the factors influencing a fluid
phenomenon.
• So if an important variable is omitted, then the results could

be entirely different.
Buckingham Pi Method
• PROBLEM
• Derive an expression for the shear stress at
the pipe wall when an incompressible fluid
flows through a pipe under pressure. Use
dimensional analysis with the following
significant parameters: pipe diameter D, flow
velocity V, and viscosity µ and density ρ of the
fluid.
• SOLUTION:
• PROBLEM
• The critical depth yc in a V-shaped channel
depends upon the discharge Q, acceleration
due to gravity g, and the vertex angle θ made
by the two side-walls of the channel. Using
the method of dimensional analysis derive an
equation for the critical depth.
• SOLUTION:

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Elementary Fluid Mechanics

 A simple example is shown in Figure, in which a timber board floats on a reservoir

 The molecules of a gas are  A liquid is relatively

 It is commonly applied to gases, and is usually expressed in

1. r water = g water / g = 62.4/32.2 = 1.938 slugs/ft3

(Where Slug = lb.sec2/ ft)

2. Specific volume υ = 1/ρ

3. Specific gravity s = γ f /γ air

(c) g 2 = g / v2 = 9.81 / 0.000942 = 10410 N / m 3

Trends in viscosity variation with

be measured in the units of N/m2 (Pa) or lb/ft2.

 where the constant of proportionality m (the Greek letter miu)

 Where m = absolute viscosity/Dynamic viscosity or

 Deformation → change of the shape and the size of a body

 Flow → irreversible deformation (matter is not reverted to the

m = 0.0063 lb.sec/ft 2 ( From − A.1)

Parabola Equation Y=aX2

 0.251 0.1880 0.1253 0.0627 0

 Millimeters (mm) x 0.03937 = inches (")(in)

 Meters (m) x 39.37 = inches (")(in)

 Meters (m) x 3.281 = feet (')(ft)

 Meters (m) x 1.094 = yards (yds)

 Kilometers (km) x 0.62137 = miles (mi)

 Kilometers (km) x 3280.87 = feet (')(ft)

 Liters (l) x 0.2642 = gallons (U.S.)(gals)

 Bars x 14.5038 = pounds per square inch (PSI)

 Kilometers (km) x 1093.62 = yards (yds)

 Square centimeters x 0.155 = square inches

 Liters (l) x 0.0353 = cubic feet

 Square meters x 10.76 = square feet

 Square kilometers x 0.386 = square miles

 Cubic centimeters x 0.06102 = cubic inches

 Cubic meters x 35.315 = cubic feet

 Inches (")(in) x 25.4 = millimeters (mm)

 Inches (")(in) x 0.0254 = meters (m)

 Feet (')(ft) x 0.3048 = meters (m)

 Yards (yds) x 0.9144 = meters (m)

 Miles (mi) x 1.6093 = kilometers (km)

 Feet (')(ft) x 0.0003048 = kilometers (km)

 Gallons (gals) x 3.78 = liters (l)

pressure at a point in a static fluid will be equal in

Let us consider one arbitrary fluid element of

Cos θ= Pzx/Pz 90- θ Pz

 Let us consider the following terms as mentioned here

 Force on the face AB, AC and BC

Considering the forces in X-direction

 PX. dy- PZX. ds = 0 PZX = PZ.Cos θ

 PX. dy = PZ. ds Cos θ

 As we can see from above fluid element ABC, Cos θ =dy/ds

Considering the forces in Y-direction

 From above two expressions mentioned above, we can write

❑It states that:

 For the vertical y-force in particular, we have

 The term elevation means the vertical distance from

 Gauge Pressure: It is the pressure, measured with the help of

6. Pressure in left limb above datum = h +s1h1 + s2h2

Pressure head in the left limb above Z - Z

3. Pressure head in the right limb above