Partial Fractions: Syllabus Requirements
Partial Fractions: Syllabus Requirements
Partial Fractions: Syllabus Requirements
H2 MATHEMATICS
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PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Syllabus Requirements:
Skills of partial fractions decomposition are required in topics such as Series and Sequences,
Integration and Differential Equations.
References:
1. Pure Mathematics by Andy Martin
2. Pure Mathematics 1 by L Bostock and S Chandler
Section 1: Polynomials
1.1 Definition of a Polynomial
A polynomial of degree n is an expression of the form
an x n + an −1 x n −1 + an − 2 x n − 2 + ....... + a1 x + a0
where an , an −1 , an − 2 ,..., a1 , a0 are all real constants and n is a non-negative integer.
1
NO! It is not a polynomial since the power of x in x is
2
2 x + x2 − 1
and is not an integer.
1 1
x+ NO! It is not a polynomial since the power of x in is −1 and
x x
is a negative number.
[Examples] For the EQUATION x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0 , only some values of x (in this case, that
would be x = 1 and x = 2) will satisfy the equation. Usually we will solve the
equation for these values of x.
1
For the EQUIVALENCE x 2 − 3 x + 2 ≡ ( x − 1)( x − 2 ) , all values of x will
Example 1.2.1
Given that x − 4 ≡ A( x − 1)2 + B ( 2 x + 1) ( x − 1) + C ( 2 x + 1) , find the values of A, B and C.
Solution
x − 4 ≡ A( x − 1) 2 + B ( 2 x + 1) ( x − 1) + C ( 2 x + 1)
Comparing coefficients of x 2 : 0 = A + 2 B ⇒ B = 1
Method 2 :
x − 4 ≡ A( x − 1) 2 + B ( 2 x + 1) ( x − 1) + C ( 2 x + 1)
Comparing coefficients of
x2 : 0 = A + 2B ⇒ A = - 2B --------(1)
x : 1 = -2A – B + 2C -----(2)
constant : -4 = A – B + C -------(3)
Substitute (1) into (2) and (3) :
(2) becomes 1 = 3B + 2C ----------(4)
(3) becomes -4 = -3B + C ----------(5)
Solving (4) and (5) : -3 = 3C ⇒ C = -1 , B = 1 , A = -2
1 x 2 + 3x
[Examples] (i) and 2 are rational functions.
x +1 x + 5x − 6
1
(ii) is not a rational function since the denominator x + 1 is not a
x +1
polynomial.
[NOTE]
P( x)
• If the degree of P(x) < the degree of Q(x), is called a proper fraction.
Q( x)
2
P( x)
• If the degree of P(x) ≥ the degree of Q(x), is called an improper fraction.
Q( x)
3x 2 + 2 x + 1
[Examples] (i) is a proper fraction.
4 x3 + 3
x3 + 1 2x 4 + 3
(ii) and are improper fractions.
2x 3 + x − 1 x 2 − x − 10
x 3 − 2x + 1
(iii) is an improper fraction. :
( x 2 + 1)( x − 2)
Conversely, we can also resolve a single fraction into the sum of two or more fractions called
partial fractions.
2x 3 1 2 1
Example: = − +
(1 + x 2 )(1 − x) 2 1+ x 2 1− x (1 − x) 2
P( x)
To resolve a single fraction into partial fractions, the following rules must be observed:
S ( x)
3.1 Rule 1:
P( x)
must be a proper fraction and there should be no common factors in the
S ( x)
numerator and denominator.
An improper fraction must first be converted into the sum of a polynomial and a
proper fraction.
3
Example 3.1.1:
4 x 3 − 3x + 2
- improper fraction
(2 x − 1)( x + 2)
4 x 3 − 3x + 2 4 x 3 − 3x + 2
=
(2 x − 1)( x + 2) 2 x 2 + 3x − 2
10 x − 4
= 2x − 3 + by long division
(2 x − 1)( x + 2)
2 x 2 + 3x + 5
=
( )
2 x 2 + 5 x + 6 − 10 x − 12 + 3 x + 5
x2 + 5x + 6 x + 5x + 6
2
7x + 7
= 2−
x + 5x + 6
2
Review Question
x2 + 3 R ( x) R ( x)
Express into the form Q ( x ) + where is a proper fraction.
2x + x + 1
2
S ( x) S ( x)
1 5− x
[Answer: + ]
(
2 2 2 x2 + x + 1 )
3.2 Rule 2:
Example 3.2.1
2x + 1
Express in partial fractions
x + 5x + 6
2
Solution
2x + 1 2x + 1
= ( x + 3)( x + 2)
x2 + 5x + 6
2x + 1 A B
Let ≡ +
( x + 3)( x + 2) x + 3 x + 2
4
Multiplying both sides by the LCM (x + 3)( x + 2 )
⇒ 2 x + 1 = A( x + 2 ) + B ( x + 3)
Solving for A and B:
Let x = -3, -5 = -A ⇒ A = 5
Let x = -2, -3 = B
2x + 1 5 3
Therefore, = − .
x + 5x + 6 x + 3 x + 2
2
Example 3.2.2
10 x − 4
Express in partial fractions.
(2 x − 1)( x + 2)
Solution
10 x − 4 A B
Let ≡ + .
(2 x − 1)( x + 2) 2 x − 1 x + 2
1
10( ) − 4 2 10(−2) − 4 24
2
By cover up method, A = = ; B= =
1 5 2(−2) − 1 5
+2
2
10 x − 4 2 24
Therefore, ≡ +
(2 x − 1)( x + 2) 5(2 x − 1) 5( x + 2)
Solution
x2 − x +1 3
= 1+
x − x−2
2
(x − 2)(x + 1)
3 A B
Let ≡ + .
( x − 2)( x + 1) x − 2 x + 1
5
3 3
By cover up method, A = =1 ; B= = −1
2+1 − 1− 2
x2 − x +1 1 1
Therefore, = 1+ − .
x − x−2
2
x − 2 x +1
Review Question:
5 x − 17 2 3
Express in partial fractions. [Ans: + ]
x − 7 x + 12
2
x−3 x−4
3.3 Rule 3:
px 2 + qx + r A B C
= + +
( ax + b )( cx + d )
2
( ax + b ) ( cx + d ) ( cx + d )2
Example 3.3.1
1 − 8x − x 2
Express in partial fractions.
(x + 1)(x − 1) 2
Solution
1 − 8x − x 2 A B C
Let 2 ≡ + +
( x + 1)( x − 1) x + 1 x − 1 ( x − 1) 2
1 − 8x − x 2 = A(x − 1) 2 + B (x + 1)(x − 1) + C (x + 1)
Let x = 1, -8 = 2C ⇒ C = −4
Let x = -1, 8 = 4A ⇒ A=2
Compare the coefficient of x2, − 1= A + B
⇒ B = −3
1 − 8x − x 2 2 3 4
Therefore, ≡ − − .
( x + 1)( x − 1) 2
x + 1 x − 1 ( x − 1) 2
Review Question:
18 x − 9 −5 5 3
Express in partial fractions. [Ans: + + ]
( x + 2 )( x − 1) x + 2 x − 1 ( x − 1)2
2
6
3.4 Rule 4:
px 2 + qx + r A Bx + C
= + 2
( ax + b ) ( x 2 + c 2 ) (
( ax + b ) x + c 2 )
Example 3.4.1
x2 − 3
Express in partial fractions.
( x − 1)( x 2 + 1)
Solution
x2 − 3 A Bx + C
Let ≡ + 2 (Note that discriminant of x2 +1 = -4 < 0)
( x − 1)( x + 1)
2
x −1 x +1
x2 − 3 − 1 2x + 2
Therefore ≡ +
( x − 1)( x + 1) 2
x −1 x2 + 1
Solution:
3x 3 + 12
is an improper fraction.
( x − 1) ( x 2 + 2 )
3x 3 + 12 3x3 + 12
=
( x − 1) ( x 2 + 2 ) (x 3
− x2 + 2 x − 2 )
=
( )
3 x3 − x 2 + 2 x − 2 + 3x 2 − 6 x + 6 + 12
= 3+
(
3 x2 − 2 x + 6 ) = 3+
(
3 x2 − 2 x + 6 )
(x 3
− x + 2x − 2
2
) (x 3
− x + 2x − 2
2
) ( x − 1) ( x + 2 )
2
7
Let
(
3 x2 − 2 x + 6 ) =
A Bx + C
+ 2
( x − 1) ( x + 2 )
2
( x − 2 ) x +2( )
( ) ( )
⇒ 3 x 2 − 2 x + 6 = A x 2 + 2 + ( Bx + C )( x −1)
⇒ A=5
Comparing coefficients of x 2 : 3 = A + B ⇒ B = −2
Comparing the constants : 18 = 2A – C ⇒ C = -8
3x3 + 12 5 −2 x − 8
∴ = 3+ + 2
( x − 1) ( x 2
+2 ) (
x −1 x + 2 )
5 2( x + 4)
= 3+ − 2
(
x −1 x + 2 )
Review Question:
3x 2 − 2 x + 7 3 2
Express in partial fractions. [Ans: − ]
( x − 2) ( x 2
+1 ) x − 2 x2 + 1
Appendix :
Cover-up Rule (Very useful method )
This method can be used when the denominator consists of distinct (non-repeated) linear
factors.
f (x ) A B f ( x) B(x − a )
Consider ≡ + , ie ≡ A+ ( note ! )
(x − a )(bx + c) x − a bx + c (bx + c) bx + c
To find A: We ‘cover’ (x − a ) on the LHS and substitute x = a . The value obtained is A.
f (a )
i.e. A = .
b (a ) + c
c
To find B: We ‘cover’ (bx + c) on the LHS and substitute x = − . The value obtained is
b
c
f (− )
b
B. i.e. B = .
c
− −a
b
8
Summary
When expressing a rational function into partial fractions, the following rules must be
observed :
Rule 1 : An improper fraction must first be converted into the sum
P( x) of a polynomial and a proper fraction.
must be a proper fraction
S ( x)
and there should be no common
factors in the numerator and
denominator.
Rule 2 :
Rule 3 :