Theory of Magnetism: Section One: Reading Comprehension
Theory of Magnetism: Section One: Reading Comprehension
Theory of Magnetism
To understand the magnetic behavior of materials, it is necessary to take a
microscopic view of matter. A suitable starting point is the composition of the
atom, which Bohr described as consisting of a heavy nucleus and a number of
electrons moving around the nucleus in specific orbits. Closer investigation
reveals that the atom of any substance experiences a torque when placed in a
magnetic field; this is called a magnetic moment. The resultant magnetic
moment of an atom depends upon three factors-the positive charge of the
nucleus spinning on its axis, the negative charge of the electron spinning on
its axis, and the effect of the electrons moving in their orbits. The magnetic
moment of the spin and orbital motions of the electron far exceeds that of the
spinning proton. However, this magnetic moment can be affected by the
presence of an adjacent atom. Accordingly, if two hydrogen atoms are
combined to form a hydrogen molecule, it is found that the electron spins, the
proton spins, and the orbital motions of the electrons of each atom oppose
each other so that a resultant magnetic moment of zero should be expected.
Although this is almost the case, experiment reveals that the relative permea-
bility of hydrogen is not equal to 1 but rather is very slightly less than unity.
In other words, the molecular reaction is such that when hydrogen is the
medium there is a slight decrease in the magnetic field compared with free
space. This behavior occurs because there is a precessional motion of all
rotating charges about the field direction, and the effect of this precession is
to set up a field opposed to the applied field regardless of the direction of
spin or orbital motion. Materials in which this behavior manifests itself are
called diamagnetic for obvious reasons. Besides hydrogen, other materials
possessing this characteristic are silver and copper.
Continuing further with the hydrogen molecule, let us assume next that
it is made to lose an electron, thus yielding the hydrogen ion. Clearly,
complete neutralization of the spin and orbital electron motions no longer
takes place. In fact, when a magnetic field is applied, the ion is so oriented
that its net magnetic moment aligns itself with the field, thereby causing a
slight increase in flux density.This behavior is described as paramagnetism and
١
is characteristic of such materials as aluminum and platinum. Paramagnetic materials
have a relative permeability slightly in excess of unity.
So far we have considered those elements whose magnetic properties differ only
very slightly from those of free space. As a matter of fact the vast majority of materials
fall within this category. However, there is one class of materials-principally iron and its
alloys with nickel, cobalt, and alumi- num-for which the relative permeability is very
many times greater than that of free space. These materials are called ferromagnetic
and are of great importance in electrical engineering. We may ask at this point why iron
(and its alloys) is so very much more magnetic than other elements. Essentially, the
answer is provided by the domain theory of magnetism. Like all metals, iron is crystalline in
structure with the atoms arranged in a space lattice. However, domains are subcrystalline
particles of varying sizes and shapes containing about 10 atoms in a volume of
approximately cubic centimeters. The distinguishing feature of the domain is that the
magnetic moments of its constituent atoms are all aligned in the same direction Thus in a
ferromagnetic material, not only must there exist a magnetic moment due to a nonneutra-
lized spin of an electron in an inner orbit, but also the resultant spin of all neighboring
atoms in the domain must be parallel.
2
one of six directions-left, right, up, down, out, or in-depending upon the direction of the
applied magnetizing force. Figure l-l(a) shows the unmagnetized configuration. Figure
l-l(b) depicts the result of applying a force from left to right of such magnitude as to
effect alignment of all the domains. When this state is reached the iron is said to be
saturated-there is no further increase in flux density over that of free space for further
increases in magnetizing force.
Large increases in the temperature of a magnetized piece of iron bring about a
decrease in its magnetizing capability. The temperature increase enforces the agitation
existing between atoms until at a temperature of 750°C the agitation is so severe that it
destroys the parallelism existing between the magnetic moments of the
neighboring atoms of the domain and thereby causes it to lose its magnetic property. The
temperature at which this occurs is called the curie point.
3
2. It is true that .......... .
a. paramagnetic materials provide a small penetration of the magnetic
field
b. paramagnetic materials provide a great penetration of the magnetic
field
c. the resultant magnetic moment of an atom depends on its spinning
axis
d. the resultant magnetic moment o f an atom depends on the nucleus
spinning on its axis
3. According to the text, .......... .
a. two atoms of hydrogen, if combined, pronounce a permeability
greater than 1
b. two atoms of hydrogen, if combined, give rise to a high magnetic
moment
c. diamagnetic materials have magnetic properties more than those of
free space
d. diamagnetic materials have magnetic properties less than those of
free space
4. Paramagnetism is based on the fact that the magnetic moment of a
paramagnetic material, when placed in a magnetic field, .......... .
a. results in a decrease in flux density
b. lines up with the field
c. is equal to 1
d. is low compared with free space
5. The magnetic properties of diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials
.......... those of free space.
a. are greater than b. are smaller than
c. differ slightly from d. differ greatly from
6. The abnormal magnetic properties of iron may be caused by ,.......... .
a. the magnetic moment resulting from an inner orbital spin of a
nonneutralized electron
b. the parallelism of the resultant spin of all neighboring atoms in the
domain
c. the domains oriented at random with their axes pointing in various
directions
d. both a and b
4
C. Answer the following questions orally.
1. What is called a magnetic moment?
2. What does the resultant magnetic moment of an atom depend on?
3. How do adjacent atoms affect the magnetic moment of each other?
4. How does the magnetic behavior of materials differ?
5. Why does platinum have the characteristic of paramagnetism?
6. What forms the domains in a ferromagnetic material?
7. What causes the alignment of the magnetic domains in iron?
8. What is called the curie point?
5
Dl From WwW.DezUni.IR
6
Dl From WwW.DezUni.IR
1 2 3 4 5
7
Dl From WwW.DezUni.IR
8
a nearby magnet and so demonstrated that a magnetic field is generated around an electric
current. Consequently, if we place an electric circuit in a magnetic field, the circuit is
subject to forces.
The fact that a magnetic field can be produced either by a magnet or by an electric
current may seem strange. But we must remember that in matter we have microscopic
circuits due to the movement of electrons, and these circuits are responsible for the
magnetic effects of ferromagnetic materials. However, the causes which underlie the
magnetic forces produced by electric circuits are not fully understood (just as there are
still problems in our understanding of the forces between electric charges and the
nature of the force of gravity), although we know the laws that govern their actions and
can therefore use them. We know that atoms consist of a heavy central positive nucleus
and a number of electrons, in either circular or elliptical orbits, around the nucleus.
Recently there has been added the concept that each electron itself is spinning about an
axis through its centre, this motion being known as electron spin. Here, it is impossible to
offer a complete explanation of this and we must limit ourselves lo saying that the
fundamental magnetic particles in ferromagnetic materials are the spinning electrons.
these elec - trons occupy definite shells in the atom, and some spin in one direction and
some in the other. Their magnetic effects tend to neutralize each other partially but not
wholly. The excess of those spinning in one direction over those spinning in the other
causes each atom as a whole to act as a small permanent magnet. Moreover, in
ferromagnetic materials there is the existence of some kinds of interatomic forces that
cause the alignment of all magnetic effects of large groups of atoms to give highly
magnetic domains. In an unmagnetized ferromagnetic substance these domains are
oriented at random with their magnetic axes pointing in various directions, so that the
resultant magnetic effect is zero. The application of an external field lines up the domain
axes, thereby giving rise to the magnetic effect of a ferromagnetic material.
In hard iron the domains do not easily return to their previous positions when the
external field is removed, while in soft iron this occurs fairly readily. Paramagnetic and
diamagnetic materials, on the other hand, are substances in which the arrangement of the
spinning electrons does not give appreciable magnetic properties. When the
temperature of a ferromagnetic material is raised beyond a certain value (known as
the Curie point), thermal agitation
9
destroys the alignment within the domains and the materials lose their
ferromagnetic properties. These properties return when the materials are
cooled. The Curie point for iron is of the order of 700°C. As in the case of an
electric field, a magnetic field at each point may be defined by its field
strength. This is represented by the vector H. The direction is that in which a
north pole subjected to this field tends to move. Because the magnetic field
may be produced by a current, the strength can be defined in terms of current.
In order to do this we consider a solenoid, i.e., a coil of wire wound uniformly
on a cylindrical former. If the solenoid is long compared with its radius, we
can consider that a uniform magnetic field is produced inside the coil, parallel
to its axis. If N is the number of turns, I the length of the solenoid and I the
current that flows in the coil, we have H=NI/I .The magnitude of H is
measured in amperes per metre, and the quantity NI is expressed in amperes.
Comprehension Exercises
A. Choose a, b, c, or d which best completes each item.
1.If we break a magnetic bar into two pieces, the two poles at the point
of breakage will ……. .
a. be two north poles
b. be a north pole and a south pole
c. pronounce greater attraction
d. pronounce smaller attraction
3. The factors bringing about the magnetic properties of materials are the
spinning ……. .
a. nuclei b. atoms
c. neutrons d. electrons
4. Paragraph ten mainly discusses ……. .
a. the magnetic field b. the electric field
c. the theory of magnetism d. the theory of gravity
5. When the temperature of cobalt is below the Curie point ….... .
a. all magnetism disappears
b. some magnetism disappears
10
c. the metal has appreciable magnetic properties
d. the alignment of the magnetic domains is destroyed
6. The vector H representing the field strength of a magnetic field may be
expressed as the product of ……. .
a. the number of turns in a coil and the current in amperes which
flows through it
b. the number of turns in a coil and the current in amperes which flows
through it per unit length
c. the current flowing through a coil and the length of the coil
d. the current flowing through a coil per unit length
7. In a bar magnet, the magnetic domains …….. .
a. neutralize each other b. repel each other
c. are at random d. are aligned
8. A magnet and an electric current in a circuit produce a magnetic field
by virtue of …….. .
a. the position of the magnetic domains
b. the orientation of the atomic nuclei
c. the movement of the electrons
d. the alignment of the interatomic forces
Magnetostatics
A mongst the oldest and easiest to observe scientific phenomena are those of
11
magnetism. The subject of bar magnets and magnetic poles is given the name
of magnetostatics by analogy with electrostatics. Magnetic phenomena,such as
poles and the fields they produce, can be explained in terms of fields due to
electric currents. Thinking on the atomic scale, the electrons which circulate
round the heavy central positive nucleus constitute a current. So each orbiting
electron produces a magnetic field. In general, the orbits of the electrons are
disposed in random planes in space and so the net magnetic field is zero.
Should a suitable stimulus be applied, the orbits can be aligned so that their
magnetic fields are in the same direction. In some materials the orbits, once
aligned, stay that way and these are the materials which produce permanent
magnets. In other materials the orbits return to their random dispositions
once the stimulus is removed-these are the materials used as electromagnets.
For a given stimulus, they produce a greater field than the materials used for
permanent magnets. 1t should be mentioned at this stage that ability to
produce a high field is not the only factor to be considered when deciding
upon a material to be used for an electromagnet; there are problems of energy
loss to be considered if the state of magnetization is to be changed frequently.
1.agitate …………….
2. alloy …………….
3. apparatus …………….
4.attract …………….
5. brush gear …………….
6. circuit …………….
7. commutator …………….
8. compass needle …………….
9. compose …………….
10. coupling device …………….
11. crystalline …………….
12. depict …………….
13. diamagnetic …………….
14. dispose …………….
15. domain …………….
16. electrostatic …………….
17. exert on …………….
18. ferromagnetic …………….
12
Dl From WwW.DezUni.IR
13